Vision of Ho Chi Minh India-Vietnam Relations

Edited by G. Jayachandra Reddy

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UGC Centre for Southeast Asian & Pacific Studies Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati Foreword When the editor of the present work asked me to write Foreword to this volume I reminisced about my teacher introducing me to the subject of Vietnam, during my post-graduation, when the great Vietnamese battle for national unity was raging. The Vietnamese war against the French and the Americans drew world attention with an astonishment of how this tiny nation fought against the forces several times mightier in fire power and resources. Through ages Vietnamese were known for their exemplary resilience and valour in their fight against foreign domination to safeguard their national identity. From time to time Vietnam produced great personalities who exhibited extraordinary courage and fortitude against foreign domination. Ho Chi Minh was one such captivating personality, endowed with indomitable courage and strategic mastery, influenced the Vision of Ho Chi Minh twentieth century political scene of Vietnam. India-Vietnam Relations Ho Chi Minh was born in 1890 and travelled abroad at twenty one ©Copy rights 2017 by the editor in search of national salvation against French colonial servitude. He became a trained communist and returned home during the Published by Second World War in the backdrop of fifteen years of UGC Centre for Southeast Asian & Pacific Studies revolutionary activity and intermittent captivity in China. Soon Sri Venkateswara University Tirupati-517502 he became a household name in the national struggle for Andhra Pradesh, India independence and unity of the country. He emerged as a legend Email: [email protected] in his own lifetime where Vietnamese mothers sang songs of his heroic qualities to cheer their infant children. He could All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a successfully ignite the spirit of rebellion for the national cause as retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, other contemporaries could not do it on that scale. This is the mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior reason why Vietnamese reposed faith in Ho Chi Minh in the written permission of the publisher. struggle for the liberation of the country. The defeat of the French at Dien Bien Phu epitomised his skillful strategy and planning of First Edition: 2017 the guerilla war. The division of the country at the Geneva ISBN: 978-81-926904-3-8 Conference of 1954, reminded him of his greater task to fight against much more powerful enemy, the United States, to unify Layout & Printed at: Divya Creations the country. Ho Chi Minh was sure that the struggle would be Nallakunta, Hyderabad - 500 044. harder and prolonged. He, therefore, prepared the Vietnamese to Ph No: +91 9440 726 907, 040 - 2764 3862. wage political and at the same time an armed struggle to unify the ii iii Foreword When the editor of the present work asked me to write Foreword to this volume I reminisced about my teacher introducing me to the subject of Vietnam, during my post-graduation, when the great Vietnamese battle for national unity was raging. The Vietnamese war against the French and the Americans drew world attention with an astonishment of how this tiny nation fought against the forces several times mightier in fire power and resources. Through ages Vietnamese were known for their exemplary resilience and valour in their fight against foreign domination to safeguard their national identity. From time to time Vietnam produced great personalities who exhibited extraordinary courage and fortitude against foreign domination. Ho Chi Minh was one such captivating personality, endowed with indomitable courage and strategic mastery, influenced the Vision of Ho Chi Minh twentieth century political scene of Vietnam. India-Vietnam Relations Ho Chi Minh was born in 1890 and travelled abroad at twenty one ©Copy rights 2017 by the editor in search of national salvation against French colonial servitude. He became a trained communist and returned home during the Published by Second World War in the backdrop of fifteen years of UGC Centre for Southeast Asian & Pacific Studies revolutionary activity and intermittent captivity in China. Soon Sri Venkateswara University Tirupati-517502 he became a household name in the national struggle for Andhra Pradesh, India independence and unity of the country. He emerged as a legend Email: [email protected] in his own lifetime where Vietnamese mothers sang songs of his heroic qualities to cheer their infant children. He could All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a successfully ignite the spirit of rebellion for the national cause as retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, other contemporaries could not do it on that scale. This is the mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior reason why Vietnamese reposed faith in Ho Chi Minh in the written permission of the publisher. struggle for the liberation of the country. The defeat of the French at Dien Bien Phu epitomised his skillful strategy and planning of First Edition: 2017 the guerilla war. The division of the country at the Geneva ISBN: 978-81-926904-3-8 Conference of 1954, reminded him of his greater task to fight against much more powerful enemy, the United States, to unify Layout & Printed at: Divya Creations the country. Ho Chi Minh was sure that the struggle would be Nallakunta, Hyderabad - 500 044. harder and prolonged. He, therefore, prepared the Vietnamese to Ph No: +91 9440 726 907, 040 - 2764 3862. wage political and at the same time an armed struggle to unify the ii iii Preface country. It was his astute political strategy that Vietnam impacted Ho Chi Minh, one of the great revolutionaries of the twentieth the American domestic and foreign policy matters for almost two century, excelled as a leader, a teacher, a journalist, a strategist, an decades. Ho Chi Minh was confident of victory, however, he internationalist, a unifier, a guerrilla fighter, a negotiator, a passed away on 3 September 1969, six years before his dream creative thinker, and a poet as well. He endured decades of exile came true. and then decades of war. As a guerrilla leader and then as the president of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam under assault I congratulate the Director and staff of the Centre for Southeast from French colonialism, he lived with his comrades in the most Asian and Pacific Studies for hosting an International Conference th basic possible conditions in the caves of Cao Bang, often having to commemorating 125 birth anniversary of Ho Chi Minh and also forage for food. Yet again his dedication to the causes of for taking great pains to bring the conference proceedings into Vietnamese independence, Vietnamese unification, and global book form. It is also scholarly thinking to add some articles on socialism never faltered. With relentless energy, profound India-Vietnam relations as it was the cherished dream of Ho Chi intelligence and undying passion, he led his people through every Minh and Jawaharlal Nehru to think of taking the India and up and down over the course of half a century. With very good Vietnam relations to a higher plane. I fondly hope that this reason, 'Uncle Ho' continues to be revered, loved and studied in volume, a compendium of scholarly contributions, will be of Vietnam, and his legacy remains a source of profound inspiration immense use for the academics as well as reading public. for anti-imperialists throughout the world. India-Vietnam relations have been exceptionally friendly and Prof. K. Raja Reddy cordial ever since their foundations were laid by the leaders of the Former Director two countries Vietnam President Ho Chi Minh and Indian Centre for Southeast Asian & Pacific Studies President Rajendra Prasad and Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal S.V. University, Tirupati Nehru. The traditionally close and cordial relations have their historical roots in the common struggle for liberation from the colonial rule and the national struggle for independence. Nehru was one of the first visitors to Vietnam after its victory against the French at Dien Bien Phu in 1954; and the visit was reciprocated by President Ho Chi Minh in February 1958. In recent times, political contacts have strengthened as reflected in several high-level visits by the leaders from both sides as well as in the upward trade and economic linkages. India's thrust under the 'Look East' policy combined with Vietnam's growing engagement within the region and with India has paid rich dividends and Vietnam is an important regional partner in Southeast Asia. India and Vietnam closely cooperate in various regional forums such as ASEAN, East Asia Summit, Mekong

iv v Preface country. It was his astute political strategy that Vietnam impacted Ho Chi Minh, one of the great revolutionaries of the twentieth the American domestic and foreign policy matters for almost two century, excelled as a leader, a teacher, a journalist, a strategist, an decades. Ho Chi Minh was confident of victory, however, he internationalist, a unifier, a guerrilla fighter, a negotiator, a passed away on 3 September 1969, six years before his dream creative thinker, and a poet as well. He endured decades of exile came true. and then decades of war. As a guerrilla leader and then as the president of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam under assault I congratulate the Director and staff of the Centre for Southeast from French colonialism, he lived with his comrades in the most Asian and Pacific Studies for hosting an International Conference th basic possible conditions in the caves of Cao Bang, often having to commemorating 125 birth anniversary of Ho Chi Minh and also forage for food. Yet again his dedication to the causes of for taking great pains to bring the conference proceedings into Vietnamese independence, Vietnamese unification, and global book form. It is also scholarly thinking to add some articles on socialism never faltered. With relentless energy, profound India-Vietnam relations as it was the cherished dream of Ho Chi intelligence and undying passion, he led his people through every Minh and Jawaharlal Nehru to think of taking the India and up and down over the course of half a century. With very good Vietnam relations to a higher plane. I fondly hope that this reason, 'Uncle Ho' continues to be revered, loved and studied in volume, a compendium of scholarly contributions, will be of Vietnam, and his legacy remains a source of profound inspiration immense use for the academics as well as reading public. for anti-imperialists throughout the world. India-Vietnam relations have been exceptionally friendly and Prof. K. Raja Reddy cordial ever since their foundations were laid by the leaders of the Former Director two countries Vietnam President Ho Chi Minh and Indian Centre for Southeast Asian & Pacific Studies President Rajendra Prasad and Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal S.V. University, Tirupati Nehru. The traditionally close and cordial relations have their historical roots in the common struggle for liberation from the colonial rule and the national struggle for independence. Nehru was one of the first visitors to Vietnam after its victory against the French at Dien Bien Phu in 1954; and the visit was reciprocated by President Ho Chi Minh in February 1958. In recent times, political contacts have strengthened as reflected in several high-level visits by the leaders from both sides as well as in the upward trade and economic linkages. India's thrust under the 'Look East' policy combined with Vietnam's growing engagement within the region and with India has paid rich dividends and Vietnam is an important regional partner in Southeast Asia. India and Vietnam closely cooperate in various regional forums such as ASEAN, East Asia Summit, Mekong

iv v Ganga Cooperation, Asia Europe Meeting (ASEM) besides UN abroad and India who participated in the conference and made and WTO. That India's relations with Vietnam are marked by their revised papers, without which this book could have not been growing economic and commercial engagement is vindicated by shaped into the present form. Mr. K. Dayanandam and India's ranking as one among the top ten trading partners of Mr. Ch. Dhamodhar, Divya Creations, Hyderabad, deserve appr- Vietnam and constant growth of bilateral trade between India eciation for taking pains in printing this book in an elegant and Vietnam over the past many years. During former Prime manner. Finally, I wish to thank my office staff who extended Minister Nguyen Tan Dung's visit to India in October 2014, the their support at ground level at various stages of this project. two sides decided to make economic cooperation a strategic thrust in the India-Vietnam Strategic Partnership. This book, Vision of Ho Chi Minh and India-Vietnam Relations, is an anthology of 18 articles presented by eminent scholars in their G. Jayachandra Reddy respective fields of specialization at the international conference organized by the UGC Centre for Southeast Asian and Pacific Studies, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati, on 11th May 2015, in commemoration of the 125 birth anniversary of President Ho Chi Minh. Directorship of the Centre for Southeast Asian and Pacific Studies entailed me to organize the International Conference on “India-Vietnam Relations in the Vision of Ho Chi Minh” in May 2015; as a logical corollary, I have this opportunity of bringing out this compendium forming a valuable source of information for the scholars on Ho Chi Minh and India-Vietnam relations. With all humility, I am deeply indebted, among others, to H.E. Mr. Tan Sinh Thanh, Ambassador, Embassy of Vietnam, New Delhi, Mr. Nguyen Tuan Anh, First Secretary, Vietnamese Embassy, New Delhi for guiding and extending their scholarly support in organizing the conference. I am equally grateful to my predecessors, the former directors of our Centre -- Prof. A. Lakshmana Chetty, Prof. Y. Yagama Reddy, Prof. K. Raja Reddy, Prof. C. Ravindrantha Reddy and Prof. P. Munirathnam Reddy for their scholarly guidance. I profusely thank my colleagues in the Centre -- Dr. M. Prayaga, Dr. G. Vijay Kumar Reddy, Dr. V. Ramesh Babu and Dr. M. Padmaja -- for their wide range of viewpoints on India-Vietnam relations at this movement of changing global order. I thank all the participants both from

vi vii Ganga Cooperation, Asia Europe Meeting (ASEM) besides UN abroad and India who participated in the conference and made and WTO. That India's relations with Vietnam are marked by their revised papers, without which this book could have not been growing economic and commercial engagement is vindicated by shaped into the present form. Mr. K. Dayanandam and India's ranking as one among the top ten trading partners of Mr. Ch. Dhamodhar, Divya Creations, Hyderabad, deserve appr- Vietnam and constant growth of bilateral trade between India eciation for taking pains in printing this book in an elegant and Vietnam over the past many years. During former Prime manner. Finally, I wish to thank my office staff who extended Minister Nguyen Tan Dung's visit to India in October 2014, the their support at ground level at various stages of this project. two sides decided to make economic cooperation a strategic thrust in the India-Vietnam Strategic Partnership. This book, Vision of Ho Chi Minh and India-Vietnam Relations, is an anthology of 18 articles presented by eminent scholars in their G. Jayachandra Reddy respective fields of specialization at the international conference organized by the UGC Centre for Southeast Asian and Pacific Studies, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati, on 11th May 2015, in commemoration of the 125 birth anniversary of President Ho Chi Minh. Directorship of the Centre for Southeast Asian and Pacific Studies entailed me to organize the International Conference on “India-Vietnam Relations in the Vision of Ho Chi Minh” in May 2015; as a logical corollary, I have this opportunity of bringing out this compendium forming a valuable source of information for the scholars on Ho Chi Minh and India-Vietnam relations. With all humility, I am deeply indebted, among others, to H.E. Mr. Tan Sinh Thanh, Ambassador, Embassy of Vietnam, New Delhi, Mr. Nguyen Tuan Anh, First Secretary, Vietnamese Embassy, New Delhi for guiding and extending their scholarly support in organizing the conference. I am equally grateful to my predecessors, the former directors of our Centre -- Prof. A. Lakshmana Chetty, Prof. Y. Yagama Reddy, Prof. K. Raja Reddy, Prof. C. Ravindrantha Reddy and Prof. P. Munirathnam Reddy for their scholarly guidance. I profusely thank my colleagues in the Centre -- Dr. M. Prayaga, Dr. G. Vijay Kumar Reddy, Dr. V. Ramesh Babu and Dr. M. Padmaja -- for their wide range of viewpoints on India-Vietnam relations at this movement of changing global order. I thank all the participants both from

vi vii List of Contributors Archana Arul : Research Scholar at the Department of Journalism and Mass Communication at SRM University, Chennai. Email: [email protected] Babu Rao I : Post Doctoral Fellow, UGC-Center for Southeast Asian and Pacific Studies S.V.U, Tirupati. Email: [email protected] Hiller Armstrong : Assistant Professor, Centre for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Madras. Email: [email protected] Huynh Thanh Loan : Deputy Head, Department of International Relations Studies, Vietnam Institute for Indian and Southwest Asian Studies. Email: [email protected] Jayachandra Reddy G : Professor and Director, Centre for Southeast Asian and Pacific Studies, S.V.U, Tirupati, Email: [email protected] Lakshmana Chetty A : Professor, Former Director, Centre for Southeast Asian and Pacific Studies, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati, Email: [email protected] Le Thi Hang Nga : Head, Department of Historical and Cultural Studies, Institute for Indian and Southwest Asian Studies, Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences, Email: [email protected] Manivasakan S : Professor and Director, Centre for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Madras, Chennai. Email: [email protected] Ngo Xuan Binh : Professor, Editor-in-chief and Former Director-General, The Institute for Indian and Southwest Asian Studies, Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences, Email: [email protected], [email protected] Padmaja M : Assistant Professor, UGC Centre for Southeast Asian & Pacific Studies, S.V.U, Tirupati- 517502, Email: [email protected]

viii ix List of Contributors Archana Arul : Research Scholar at the Department of Journalism and Mass Communication at SRM University, Chennai. Email: [email protected] Babu Rao I : Post Doctoral Fellow, UGC-Center for Southeast Asian and Pacific Studies S.V.U, Tirupati. Email: [email protected] Hiller Armstrong : Assistant Professor, Centre for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Madras. Email: [email protected] Huynh Thanh Loan : Deputy Head, Department of International Relations Studies, Vietnam Institute for Indian and Southwest Asian Studies. Email: [email protected] Jayachandra Reddy G : Professor and Director, Centre for Southeast Asian and Pacific Studies, S.V.U, Tirupati, Email: [email protected] Lakshmana Chetty A : Professor, Former Director, Centre for Southeast Asian and Pacific Studies, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati, Email: [email protected] Le Thi Hang Nga : Head, Department of Historical and Cultural Studies, Institute for Indian and Southwest Asian Studies, Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences, Email: [email protected] Manivasakan S : Professor and Director, Centre for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Madras, Chennai. Email: [email protected] Ngo Xuan Binh : Professor, Editor-in-chief and Former Director-General, The Institute for Indian and Southwest Asian Studies, Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences, Email: [email protected], [email protected] Padmaja M : Assistant Professor, UGC Centre for Southeast Asian & Pacific Studies, S.V.U, Tirupati- 517502, Email: [email protected]

viii ix Contents Prayaga M : Assistant Professor, Centre for Southeast Asian and Pacific Studies, S.V. University Foreword iii Tirupati, Email: [email protected] Preface v Raja Reddy K : Professor and Former Director, Centre for Southeast Asian & Pacific Studies, Sri List of Contributors ix Venkateswara University, Tirupati, Email: [email protected] Ho Chi Minh: An Architect of India-Vietnam Friendship 1 Rajendra Prasad TM : Lecturer in Civics, S.P.W. Jr. College, Tirupati- G. Jayachandra Reddy 517502, Email: [email protected] Ho Chi Minh: A Patriot Par Excellence 18 Ramesh Babu V : Assistant Professor, UGC-Centre for A. Lakshmana Chetty Southeast Asian & Pacific Studies, S.V.University, Tirupati, Ho Chi Minh: A Strategist and Visionary 37 Email: [email protected] K. Raja Reddy Rayeesunisa : Research Scholar (Faculty Development Programme), Centre for South and Southeast The Nationalist Communist: Understanding Ho Chi Minh as a 42 Asian Studies, University of Madras, Chennai Product of Anti-Colonialism Email: [email protected] Shankari Sundararaman Shankari Sundararaman : Professor, Centre for Indo-Pacific Studies, Ho Chi Minh Vietnam and the World Today: A Comment 58 Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, Email: [email protected] Sridhar Krishnaswami and Archana Arul Shastri Ramachandaran : Editor & Writer with leading newspapers in Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and his Revolutionary 65 India and abroad and an independent foreign Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification affairs commentator, M. Prayaga Email: [email protected] Sridhar Krishnaswami : Professor of Journalism and Mass Guerrilla War in Vietnam 90 Communication and International Relations S. Manivasakan at SRM University, Chennai. Email: [email protected] Vietnam Women in War during Ho Chi Minh Period 110 M. Padmaja Syed Ali Mujtaba : Principal National College of Design, Chennai and Senior Journalist, Chennai. India-Vietnam Relations: Closer Ties would Strengthen 128 Email: [email protected] Partnership Vijay Kumar Reddy G : Assistant Professor, UGC Centre for Southeast Shastri Ramachandaran Asian & Pacific Studies, SV Univerisity, Tirupati- 517502. India-Vietnam Relations Catalyst to Act East Policy 138 Email: [email protected] Syed Ali Mujtaba

x xi Contents Prayaga M : Assistant Professor, Centre for Southeast Asian and Pacific Studies, S.V. University Foreword iii Tirupati, Email: [email protected] Preface v Raja Reddy K : Professor and Former Director, Centre for Southeast Asian & Pacific Studies, Sri List of Contributors ix Venkateswara University, Tirupati, Email: [email protected] Ho Chi Minh: An Architect of India-Vietnam Friendship 1 Rajendra Prasad TM : Lecturer in Civics, S.P.W. Jr. College, Tirupati- G. Jayachandra Reddy 517502, Email: [email protected] Ho Chi Minh: A Patriot Par Excellence 18 Ramesh Babu V : Assistant Professor, UGC-Centre for A. Lakshmana Chetty Southeast Asian & Pacific Studies, S.V.University, Tirupati, Ho Chi Minh: A Strategist and Visionary 37 Email: [email protected] K. Raja Reddy Rayeesunisa : Research Scholar (Faculty Development Programme), Centre for South and Southeast The Nationalist Communist: Understanding Ho Chi Minh as a 42 Asian Studies, University of Madras, Chennai Product of Anti-Colonialism Email: [email protected] Shankari Sundararaman Shankari Sundararaman : Professor, Centre for Indo-Pacific Studies, Ho Chi Minh Vietnam and the World Today: A Comment 58 Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, Email: [email protected] Sridhar Krishnaswami and Archana Arul Shastri Ramachandaran : Editor & Writer with leading newspapers in Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and his Revolutionary 65 India and abroad and an independent foreign Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification affairs commentator, M. Prayaga Email: [email protected] Sridhar Krishnaswami : Professor of Journalism and Mass Guerrilla War in Vietnam 90 Communication and International Relations S. Manivasakan at SRM University, Chennai. Email: [email protected] Vietnam Women in War during Ho Chi Minh Period 110 M. Padmaja Syed Ali Mujtaba : Principal National College of Design, Chennai and Senior Journalist, Chennai. India-Vietnam Relations: Closer Ties would Strengthen 128 Email: [email protected] Partnership Vijay Kumar Reddy G : Assistant Professor, UGC Centre for Southeast Shastri Ramachandaran Asian & Pacific Studies, SV Univerisity, Tirupati- 517502. India-Vietnam Relations Catalyst to Act East Policy 138 Email: [email protected] Syed Ali Mujtaba

x xi Ho Chi Minh: An Architect of India's Look East Policy and Vietnam's Response 145 India-Vietnam Friendship Ngo Xuan Binh G. Jayachandra Reddy The East Sea Issue and its Impact on Vietnam-India Relations 159 Professor and Director, Centre for Southeast Asian and Pacific Studies Le Thi Hang Nga Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati Email: [email protected] India-Vietnam Defence Cooperation : An Analyses 175 G. Vijay Kumar Reddy

India-Vietnam Relations in the Post-Cold War Strategic and 187 Nguyen Ai Quoc - A Revolutionary Patriot and Leader Economic Engagement Nguyen Ai Quoc was born on 19 May 1890 in Hoang Tru in I. Babu Rao and T.M. Rajendra Prasad central Vietnam. Vietnam was then a French colony, known as Economic Opportunities in India-Vietnam Relations 209 French Indo-China, but under the nominal rule of an emperor. Quoc's father worked at the imperial court but was dismissed for V. Ramesh Babu criticising the French colonial power. In 1911, Quoc took a job on a Vietnam's Foreign Policy: Role of India in South China Sea 219 French ship and travelled widely. Huynh Thanh Loan Nguyen Ai Quoc travelled to Soviet from France in 1922 with a certain agenda work with the communist leaders and parties and India ASEAN Relationship: With Special Reference to Vietnam 237 paid special attention on anti colonial movement on par with S. Manivasakan and Rayeesunisa communist ideology and its activities. The Comintern ASEAN Regional Security: Political and Military Dimensions 258 (Communist International) established in 1915 to promote I. Hiller Armstrong communist ideology or making propaganda for communism across the countries of the world. Of course, Quoc was a committed comrade but his ambitions and goal was primarily to fight against colonial powers and establish communist governments in the independent countries. At the same time the political situation in Russia was not conducive. The Bolshevik government hastily mobilized manpower from among workers and peasants to buildup the Red Army. After the Civil War Lenin reluctantly introduced New Economic Policy (NEP) in soviet. Surprisingly it was a combination of capitalist and socialist techniques. During this period Nguyen Ai Quoc actively participated and learned many issues of socialism but he was not familiar among the communist cadres in Soviet. In fact, it was the first visit to Russia and he was not familiar among the communist leaders of Russia as he was

xii 1 Ho Chi Minh: An Architect of India's Look East Policy and Vietnam's Response 145 India-Vietnam Friendship Ngo Xuan Binh G. Jayachandra Reddy The East Sea Issue and its Impact on Vietnam-India Relations 159 Professor and Director, Centre for Southeast Asian and Pacific Studies Le Thi Hang Nga Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati Email: [email protected] India-Vietnam Defence Cooperation : An Analyses 175 G. Vijay Kumar Reddy

India-Vietnam Relations in the Post-Cold War Strategic and 187 Nguyen Ai Quoc - A Revolutionary Patriot and Leader Economic Engagement Nguyen Ai Quoc was born on 19 May 1890 in Hoang Tru in I. Babu Rao and T.M. Rajendra Prasad central Vietnam. Vietnam was then a French colony, known as Economic Opportunities in India-Vietnam Relations 209 French Indo-China, but under the nominal rule of an emperor. Quoc's father worked at the imperial court but was dismissed for V. Ramesh Babu criticising the French colonial power. In 1911, Quoc took a job on a Vietnam's Foreign Policy: Role of India in South China Sea 219 French ship and travelled widely. Huynh Thanh Loan Nguyen Ai Quoc travelled to Soviet from France in 1922 with a certain agenda work with the communist leaders and parties and India ASEAN Relationship: With Special Reference to Vietnam 237 paid special attention on anti colonial movement on par with S. Manivasakan and Rayeesunisa communist ideology and its activities. The Comintern ASEAN Regional Security: Political and Military Dimensions 258 (Communist International) established in 1915 to promote I. Hiller Armstrong communist ideology or making propaganda for communism across the countries of the world. Of course, Quoc was a committed comrade but his ambitions and goal was primarily to fight against colonial powers and establish communist governments in the independent countries. At the same time the political situation in Russia was not conducive. The Bolshevik government hastily mobilized manpower from among workers and peasants to buildup the Red Army. After the Civil War Lenin reluctantly introduced New Economic Policy (NEP) in soviet. Surprisingly it was a combination of capitalist and socialist techniques. During this period Nguyen Ai Quoc actively participated and learned many issues of socialism but he was not familiar among the communist cadres in Soviet. In fact, it was the first visit to Russia and he was not familiar among the communist leaders of Russia as he was

xii 1 G. Jayachandra Reddy Ho Chi Minh: An Architect of India-Vietnam Friendship familiar in France. Because of this reason who had faced many declarations of national congress in support of colonial people troubles during his early stages of political life in Russia. For and commented that “it is not reasonable to constantly repeat the instance: same thing while doing nothing”. This act of questioning the “After disembarking from the 'Karl Liebknecht' on the superiors/leaders at the highest platforms indicates his dock at Petrograd, he was interrogated by a commitment and dedication towards his vision and mission on suspicious young immigration officer. Lacking fighting for the freedom. official papers except for the visa in the name of the Moreover, Quoc was very clear with his ideas on how to promote fictitious Chinese merchant, which had been the revolutionary struggle in Indochina. He tried to establish a approved by the Soviet consulate in Berlin… he was revolutionary link between 'revolutionary patriots' and the held in detention for several weeks 'in an atmosphere communist party. Unfortunately, the ground reality was not of tension' until his identity was finally verified by a conducive, hardly two per cent of urban literates of the total representative of the French communist Party population available, still to be organized. A marginal population stationed in Moscow.”1 of middle class scattered only in the cities like Hanoi and Saigon and dominated by the overseas Chinese. Quoc found that the The Comintern decided to establish the Far East Bureau (FEB) peasants were very much suppressed, if organized properly this based on a proposal from Maring, a Dutch national in the later section might be the potential source of revolution. This entire stage who was an advisor to Chinese Communist Party. The process of observations indicates his analytical mindset and Comintern had already begun to engage in preliminary attitude which badly required having a successful plan of action operations East Asia. Agents were appointed to execute such 3 operations in Shanghai, Saigon and Singapore. Two Russians revolution. He was very much influenced by the Leninism and who arrived in Saigon were reportedly expelled on suspicion of was expressed in his writing like “Thesis on the National and 2 Colonial Questions.” But the political atmosphere in Moscow was such activities. Quoc was assigned to work in the Far Easter entirely different; the attention was not much on anti-colonial Bureau (Byuro Dalnego Vostoka, or Dalburo) at Camintern areas. As a result, the new idea of involving peasants in headquarters, located opposite the Remyantsev Museum (now it revolutionary activities from different societies has emerged and is Lenin Library). It was his first official appointment within the the same was intensively followed and promoted by Quoc with a Comintern. At this juncture, Quoc wasted no time in attracting strong belief. At the same time, an organization by name 'Green France Communist Party (FCP) Central Committee to create International' was established in Prague with an aim to encourage Colonial Study Commission. Shortly after his arrival in Moscow, peasants to join in political parties with modern programmes. he wrote a letter to the Centre Committee, criticizing his With the similar spirit, an international agricultural exhibition colleagues for ignoring the decisions of the Fourth Comintern was opened in Moscow in August 1922. Nguyen Ai Quoc had Congress to expand their activities on colonial issues. In response attended the exhibit and predictably he was selected as a delegate to his letter FCP, necessary action was initiated to create the representing Indochina to the International Peasant Conference Colonial Study Commission as well as a regular column on the on October 10, 1923. He made certain remarks on the role of the colonial question in the party journal L'Humanite. For unknown peasantry in his report to the Comintern Executive Committee reasons the column was canceled and because of his absence the stating that they had been so baldly exploited but they were 'very commission started declining in its activities. Quoc was so serious 4 about the negligence in the implementation of different patriotic'. Quoc was successful in convincing the delegates to

2 3 G. Jayachandra Reddy Ho Chi Minh: An Architect of India-Vietnam Friendship familiar in France. Because of this reason who had faced many declarations of national congress in support of colonial people troubles during his early stages of political life in Russia. For and commented that “it is not reasonable to constantly repeat the instance: same thing while doing nothing”. This act of questioning the “After disembarking from the 'Karl Liebknecht' on the superiors/leaders at the highest platforms indicates his dock at Petrograd, he was interrogated by a commitment and dedication towards his vision and mission on suspicious young immigration officer. Lacking fighting for the freedom. official papers except for the visa in the name of the Moreover, Quoc was very clear with his ideas on how to promote fictitious Chinese merchant, which had been the revolutionary struggle in Indochina. He tried to establish a approved by the Soviet consulate in Berlin… he was revolutionary link between 'revolutionary patriots' and the held in detention for several weeks 'in an atmosphere communist party. Unfortunately, the ground reality was not of tension' until his identity was finally verified by a conducive, hardly two per cent of urban literates of the total representative of the French communist Party population available, still to be organized. A marginal population stationed in Moscow.”1 of middle class scattered only in the cities like Hanoi and Saigon and dominated by the overseas Chinese. Quoc found that the The Comintern decided to establish the Far East Bureau (FEB) peasants were very much suppressed, if organized properly this based on a proposal from Maring, a Dutch national in the later section might be the potential source of revolution. This entire stage who was an advisor to Chinese Communist Party. The process of observations indicates his analytical mindset and Comintern had already begun to engage in preliminary attitude which badly required having a successful plan of action operations East Asia. Agents were appointed to execute such 3 operations in Shanghai, Saigon and Singapore. Two Russians revolution. He was very much influenced by the Leninism and who arrived in Saigon were reportedly expelled on suspicion of was expressed in his writing like “Thesis on the National and 2 Colonial Questions.” But the political atmosphere in Moscow was such activities. Quoc was assigned to work in the Far Easter entirely different; the attention was not much on anti-colonial Bureau (Byuro Dalnego Vostoka, or Dalburo) at Camintern areas. As a result, the new idea of involving peasants in headquarters, located opposite the Remyantsev Museum (now it revolutionary activities from different societies has emerged and is Lenin Library). It was his first official appointment within the the same was intensively followed and promoted by Quoc with a Comintern. At this juncture, Quoc wasted no time in attracting strong belief. At the same time, an organization by name 'Green France Communist Party (FCP) Central Committee to create International' was established in Prague with an aim to encourage Colonial Study Commission. Shortly after his arrival in Moscow, peasants to join in political parties with modern programmes. he wrote a letter to the Centre Committee, criticizing his With the similar spirit, an international agricultural exhibition colleagues for ignoring the decisions of the Fourth Comintern was opened in Moscow in August 1922. Nguyen Ai Quoc had Congress to expand their activities on colonial issues. In response attended the exhibit and predictably he was selected as a delegate to his letter FCP, necessary action was initiated to create the representing Indochina to the International Peasant Conference Colonial Study Commission as well as a regular column on the on October 10, 1923. He made certain remarks on the role of the colonial question in the party journal L'Humanite. For unknown peasantry in his report to the Comintern Executive Committee reasons the column was canceled and because of his absence the stating that they had been so baldly exploited but they were 'very commission started declining in its activities. Quoc was so serious 4 about the negligence in the implementation of different patriotic'. Quoc was successful in convincing the delegates to

2 3 G. Jayachandra Reddy Ho Chi Minh: An Architect of India-Vietnam Friendship create a new Peasant International at the end of the conference. Irrespective of revolutionary movements and ideological Major objectives were to establish and maintain ties with campaigns “by mid 1931 the tide was turning and the wave of cooperatives and economic and political organizations and to nationalism and social change that had swept through Indochina, coordinate peasant organizations. Eventually, an International particularly in the three countries of Vietnam (Tonkin, Annam Peasant Council was established and Quoc was one of the eleven and Cochinchina), had completely ebbed. There was a total members of its presidium.5 reversal of the situation, one that was detrimental to the 8 Through these myriad activities, Nguyen Ai Quoc gradually Indochinese Communists and to the Comintern in Asia.” emerged as a well-known fixture in Moscow, and became For many known and unknown reasons, Nguyen Ai Quoc was acquainted with key luminaries of the international communist trapped and arrested in Hong Kong on 6 July 1931 along with a movement. Quoc had an opportunity to meet his patron Dmitri lower rank, who played a crucial role as liaison agents. From the Manilsky during the meeting Quoc pointed out and proposed to moment of his arrest, Quoc became the subject of fierce take up the workers' movement in Indochina. Shortly, after these negotiations between the British and French authorities. As a proposals Quoc was appointed as member of the Far Eastern result the governor agreed to send Quoc to a French jail. He was so Secretariat of the Comintern Executive Committee. happy that he will be a prisoner in a politically liberal nation with Ultimately, the Comintern decided and issued a directive on 2 laws protecting the individual. Quoc was in hospital from June October 1929 to form a communist party in Indochina. Quoc 1931 to January 1933 for the treatment of tuberculosis and was responded: “I was exasperated, I summoned the representatives eventually cleared of his charges in September 1932. He was 6 stopped in Singapore for lack of sufficient documents and sent of the three movements to Hong Kong” The new party back to Hong Kong. As a result he has no option but to disappear elaborated a strategy and launched its appeal to the workers, once again with the continued help of Loseby (one of female farmers, soldiers, youth, students and the exploited. Due to some camreds). During the trails of Ho's case, there was no clarity ideological deviations, the Comintern did not allow the newly between Governor of Hong Kong and British police. At the same born Vietnamese party to carry on its double strategy, where the time Quoc got so much of public support, the case of 'Nguyen the priority was national liberlisation. At this juncture, the Central patriot' was on the front pages of the biggest Hong Kong Committee of the Vietnam Communist Party (VCP) held a newspapers. Meanwhile, Loseby and his daughter helped Quoc meeting in Hong Kong in October 1930, as always with the to escape from Hong Kong to Shanghai and finally reached presence of 'Vuong,' representative of the Comintern. However, Moscow in spring of 1934. Quoc was impressed by the the results of this meeting were contrary to what Quoc had achievements of Soviet regime and reinforced his belief that it written when he was in Moscow: would be the role model to follow. On the other side he “The class struggle is not the same as in the West… concentrated on research work entitled 'The Land Revolution in We are to stir up nationalism among the natives in the Southeast Asia' at the Institute for the Study of National and name of the International. These orders from Moscow Colonial Questions. He also translated Marx and Engels' The strike the bourgeois as an audacious paradox, but Communist Manifesto and significantly Lenin's Leftism: an Infantile what do they really mean? A policy that is Disorder. Meanwhile, the emergence of the Popular Front in marvelously realistic. At this point we cannot do France forced the government to moderate its colonial policies. It anything for the Annamites if we do not draw upon released political prisoners, increased freedom of the press and of the great potential of their national character,”7

4 5 G. Jayachandra Reddy Ho Chi Minh: An Architect of India-Vietnam Friendship create a new Peasant International at the end of the conference. Irrespective of revolutionary movements and ideological Major objectives were to establish and maintain ties with campaigns “by mid 1931 the tide was turning and the wave of cooperatives and economic and political organizations and to nationalism and social change that had swept through Indochina, coordinate peasant organizations. Eventually, an International particularly in the three countries of Vietnam (Tonkin, Annam Peasant Council was established and Quoc was one of the eleven and Cochinchina), had completely ebbed. There was a total members of its presidium.5 reversal of the situation, one that was detrimental to the 8 Through these myriad activities, Nguyen Ai Quoc gradually Indochinese Communists and to the Comintern in Asia.” emerged as a well-known fixture in Moscow, and became For many known and unknown reasons, Nguyen Ai Quoc was acquainted with key luminaries of the international communist trapped and arrested in Hong Kong on 6 July 1931 along with a movement. Quoc had an opportunity to meet his patron Dmitri lower rank, who played a crucial role as liaison agents. From the Manilsky during the meeting Quoc pointed out and proposed to moment of his arrest, Quoc became the subject of fierce take up the workers' movement in Indochina. Shortly, after these negotiations between the British and French authorities. As a proposals Quoc was appointed as member of the Far Eastern result the governor agreed to send Quoc to a French jail. He was so Secretariat of the Comintern Executive Committee. happy that he will be a prisoner in a politically liberal nation with Ultimately, the Comintern decided and issued a directive on 2 laws protecting the individual. Quoc was in hospital from June October 1929 to form a communist party in Indochina. Quoc 1931 to January 1933 for the treatment of tuberculosis and was responded: “I was exasperated, I summoned the representatives eventually cleared of his charges in September 1932. He was 6 stopped in Singapore for lack of sufficient documents and sent of the three movements to Hong Kong” The new party back to Hong Kong. As a result he has no option but to disappear elaborated a strategy and launched its appeal to the workers, once again with the continued help of Loseby (one of female farmers, soldiers, youth, students and the exploited. Due to some camreds). During the trails of Ho's case, there was no clarity ideological deviations, the Comintern did not allow the newly between Governor of Hong Kong and British police. At the same born Vietnamese party to carry on its double strategy, where the time Quoc got so much of public support, the case of 'Nguyen the priority was national liberlisation. At this juncture, the Central patriot' was on the front pages of the biggest Hong Kong Committee of the Vietnam Communist Party (VCP) held a newspapers. Meanwhile, Loseby and his daughter helped Quoc meeting in Hong Kong in October 1930, as always with the to escape from Hong Kong to Shanghai and finally reached presence of 'Vuong,' representative of the Comintern. However, Moscow in spring of 1934. Quoc was impressed by the the results of this meeting were contrary to what Quoc had achievements of Soviet regime and reinforced his belief that it written when he was in Moscow: would be the role model to follow. On the other side he “The class struggle is not the same as in the West… concentrated on research work entitled 'The Land Revolution in We are to stir up nationalism among the natives in the Southeast Asia' at the Institute for the Study of National and name of the International. These orders from Moscow Colonial Questions. He also translated Marx and Engels' The strike the bourgeois as an audacious paradox, but Communist Manifesto and significantly Lenin's Leftism: an Infantile what do they really mean? A policy that is Disorder. Meanwhile, the emergence of the Popular Front in marvelously realistic. At this point we cannot do France forced the government to moderate its colonial policies. It anything for the Annamites if we do not draw upon released political prisoners, increased freedom of the press and of the great potential of their national character,”7

4 5 G. Jayachandra Reddy Ho Chi Minh: An Architect of India-Vietnam Friendship assembly and broadened its tolerance of social movements. The Minh said to Zahng Fakui, “I am a communist but what is Indochina Communist Party (ICP) responded to this new turn of important to me now is the independence and the freedom of my events by organizing an Indochinese Democratic Front. Quoc country, not communism. I personally guarantte you that thought that it would be the right time to join them. He travelled communism will not become a reality in Vietnam for another fifty through Alma Ata (now Almaty) and Urumqi before reaching years.”11 This statement reflects the clarity of Ho Chi Minh in Lanzhou, in Gansu province, where he was received by the liaison understanding the political situation in Vietnam. With the same office of the Chinese Communist army in 1938. Quoc spent spirit Ho set up the base in the mountains and forests of the Cao sufficient time in China and he did not return definitely to his Bang-Bac Son-Vu Nhai region, with eighteen young militants country until April 1945. He assessed the situation in Vietnam whom he had trained in Liuzhou including a woman. At the same from Yunnan where Vietnamese nationals had established a time the French authorities were on high alert, as the Viet Minh sizable community of more than ten thousand people.9 continued to gain in strength with a now-legendary progression Finally, Quoc decided to establish 'red bases' as it was in China between 1942 and 43. Viet Minh, who named their bases after and strongly believed that these bases would function as a national heroes like Quang Trung and Hoang Hoa Tham, pushed foothold by incorporating armed forces trained in guerrilla tactics their positions southward toward the Red river delta. By the time among the local mostly rural people. Nguyen Ai Quoc's first Ho arrived at the area delimited by Cao Bang-Bac Son-Vu Nhai in 1944, the Viet Minh had acquired even more territory and initiative upon arriving at Pac Bo to convene an expanded Central 12 Committee to define a strategy that suited to the new situation. strengthened their influence. In 1945 the situation worsened for Eighth Central Committee was held in the cave of Coc Bo from 10 the French. In January, rebels were present in a number of to 19 February 1941. The members of the Committee then named communities and tracks were distrusted by the Viet Minh's armed Dang Xuan Khu, alias Truong Chinh, Secretary General of the propaganda wing and created Armed Propaganda Brigade of the Party. Quoc proposed the creation of a united national front Vietnamese Liberation Army (Doi Viet Nam Tuyen Giai Phon called the League for the Independence of Vietnam (Viet Nam Quan). They had a hodgepodge collection of weapons but in Doc Lap Dong Minh Hoi), popularly known as the Viet Minh. December 1944 they 'showed their claws' by attacking two Indochinese Guard posts in the province of Cao Bang and Quoc launched an appeal on 6 June, to the people of the nation 13 that French colonial domination was nearing its end and called expanding their armory. Evidently, Ho Chi Minh emerged as a everyone to unite to bring the liberation to the country. With this strategist of guerilla war. goal in mind, he published “The Ten Policies of the Viet Minh” Ho moved to Tan Trao village located less than eighty kilometers (Muoi chinh sach cua Viet Minh). On the other side, he wrote two from Hanoi on 4 May 1945. In this process Ho took material booklets, Guerrilla Tactics and The Instruction of Military Cadres, to support from the US and pressured to send liaison agents as well prepare for an eventual insurrection.10 as instructors for 'the one thousand guerrillas' that he claimed Nevertheless, it would not take much for Quoc, calling himself were present in the region of Cho Chu-Dinh Hoa. Ho left Tan Tan Ho Chi Minh, as he could see future for him and his country. He Trao for Hanoi and secretly entered the city via the old native left to China on 13 August 1942 and had a variety of experiences quarter known as the 'thirty-six streets,'. He then formed a from communist party cadres and villagers apart from meeting provisional government and wrote a declaration of Zhou Enali (the Communist representative of the Nationalist independence, which he read aloud on 2 September in Place government). Before taking leave from his 'Chinese hosts,' Ho Chi Puginier renamed Ba Dinh Square, a stronghold of anti-French

6 7 G. Jayachandra Reddy Ho Chi Minh: An Architect of India-Vietnam Friendship assembly and broadened its tolerance of social movements. The Minh said to Zahng Fakui, “I am a communist but what is Indochina Communist Party (ICP) responded to this new turn of important to me now is the independence and the freedom of my events by organizing an Indochinese Democratic Front. Quoc country, not communism. I personally guarantte you that thought that it would be the right time to join them. He travelled communism will not become a reality in Vietnam for another fifty through Alma Ata (now Almaty) and Urumqi before reaching years.”11 This statement reflects the clarity of Ho Chi Minh in Lanzhou, in Gansu province, where he was received by the liaison understanding the political situation in Vietnam. With the same office of the Chinese Communist army in 1938. Quoc spent spirit Ho set up the base in the mountains and forests of the Cao sufficient time in China and he did not return definitely to his Bang-Bac Son-Vu Nhai region, with eighteen young militants country until April 1945. He assessed the situation in Vietnam whom he had trained in Liuzhou including a woman. At the same from Yunnan where Vietnamese nationals had established a time the French authorities were on high alert, as the Viet Minh sizable community of more than ten thousand people.9 continued to gain in strength with a now-legendary progression Finally, Quoc decided to establish 'red bases' as it was in China between 1942 and 43. Viet Minh, who named their bases after and strongly believed that these bases would function as a national heroes like Quang Trung and Hoang Hoa Tham, pushed foothold by incorporating armed forces trained in guerrilla tactics their positions southward toward the Red river delta. By the time among the local mostly rural people. Nguyen Ai Quoc's first Ho arrived at the area delimited by Cao Bang-Bac Son-Vu Nhai in 1944, the Viet Minh had acquired even more territory and initiative upon arriving at Pac Bo to convene an expanded Central 12 Committee to define a strategy that suited to the new situation. strengthened their influence. In 1945 the situation worsened for Eighth Central Committee was held in the cave of Coc Bo from 10 the French. In January, rebels were present in a number of to 19 February 1941. The members of the Committee then named communities and tracks were distrusted by the Viet Minh's armed Dang Xuan Khu, alias Truong Chinh, Secretary General of the propaganda wing and created Armed Propaganda Brigade of the Party. Quoc proposed the creation of a united national front Vietnamese Liberation Army (Doi Viet Nam Tuyen Giai Phon called the League for the Independence of Vietnam (Viet Nam Quan). They had a hodgepodge collection of weapons but in Doc Lap Dong Minh Hoi), popularly known as the Viet Minh. December 1944 they 'showed their claws' by attacking two Indochinese Guard posts in the province of Cao Bang and Quoc launched an appeal on 6 June, to the people of the nation 13 that French colonial domination was nearing its end and called expanding their armory. Evidently, Ho Chi Minh emerged as a everyone to unite to bring the liberation to the country. With this strategist of guerilla war. goal in mind, he published “The Ten Policies of the Viet Minh” Ho moved to Tan Trao village located less than eighty kilometers (Muoi chinh sach cua Viet Minh). On the other side, he wrote two from Hanoi on 4 May 1945. In this process Ho took material booklets, Guerrilla Tactics and The Instruction of Military Cadres, to support from the US and pressured to send liaison agents as well prepare for an eventual insurrection.10 as instructors for 'the one thousand guerrillas' that he claimed Nevertheless, it would not take much for Quoc, calling himself were present in the region of Cho Chu-Dinh Hoa. Ho left Tan Tan Ho Chi Minh, as he could see future for him and his country. He Trao for Hanoi and secretly entered the city via the old native left to China on 13 August 1942 and had a variety of experiences quarter known as the 'thirty-six streets,'. He then formed a from communist party cadres and villagers apart from meeting provisional government and wrote a declaration of Zhou Enali (the Communist representative of the Nationalist independence, which he read aloud on 2 September in Place government). Before taking leave from his 'Chinese hosts,' Ho Chi Puginier renamed Ba Dinh Square, a stronghold of anti-French

6 7 G. Jayachandra Reddy Ho Chi Minh: An Architect of India-Vietnam Friendship resistance. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) was born India (March 1928); Workers' Movement in India (April 1928); Indian on that day before a crowd estimated at several tens of thousands. Peasants (April 1928); Peasant and Workers Movements in India (May Until then, Ho Chi Minh worked far from his homeland and often 1928)... Through events, with figures on the number of far from and outside of his party. However, he was its organizer movements, number of Indian workers and peasants and inspiration and had trained its first militants and leaders. Ho participating in the struggle against the atrocious oppression and referred to as "Uncle Ho" by his people, the first President of exploitation of British colonialists, the content of Nguyen Ai Vietnam died on 2 September 1969 at the age of seventy nine. Quoc's articles expressed sympathy and deep concern for the There is perhaps no greater hero to Vietnam than Ho Chi Minh. patriotic movement, the Freedom Struggle of the people of India. He is remembered for his lifelong battle against great odds to It was “A sign of the times,” 16 One of his poems to Nehru by that build an independent and unified Vietnam. Saigon, the former time they never meet each other, Ho Chi Minh still paid attention capital of South Vietnam, was renamed Ho Chi Minh City in his to tracking the patriotic struggle of the Indian. Knowing the memory after its capture by North Vietnamese forces in 1975. patriot Nehru was under arrest in British colonial jail, Ho Chi India-Vietnam Friendship Minh wrote a poem in Han, from prison in Guangxi, on Jawaharlal Nehru. "To Nehru" - a poem that Ho Chi Minh wrote Obviously, Nguyen Ai Quoc's warm feelings on Nehru in his "Prison Diary" in 1942-1943: towards Indian people were born from very early. That sentiment derived from the insight, empathy To Nehru and sharing with the fate of people who lost their I am struggling, you are active homeland; with life of slaves, who suffered pain and You are in Jail, I am in prison humiliation under the foreign rule. Simultaneously, Ten thousand miles apart, we have not met through his posts, we see lofty humanitarian ideals We communicate without words. of Ho Chi Minh in love for classes, love for people, Shared ideas link you and me and his resolute stance to support national liberation What we lack is personal encounter struggle of oppressed colonial people - for freedom I am jailed by a neighbouring friend 17 and happiness of the strata, for the sovereignty of You are chained and fettered by the enemy. every nation. They could be primary bricks that Ho A bondage and empathy that was established through this poem, Chi Minh founded, building up beautiful friendship 14 the first Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru accepted the between Vietnamese people and Indian people. invitation from President Ho Chi Minh, became the first national Many writings of Nguyen Ai Quoc in the beginning of his leader in the world to visit officially the Democratic Republic of political carrier on India and its people, traditions, and culture of Viet Nam, soon after peace was restored in the North Vietnam India - cradle of the Ganges civilization, a famous antique (October 1954). During the visit of Nehru, President Ho Chi Minh civilization was an evidence of his profound perceptions for the at a banquet for the Indian Prime Minister said that “Today, the country. He applauded and appreciated increasingly people and the Government of the Democratic Republic of indomitable patriotism, expressing the solidarity and Vietnam are happy to welcome Prime Minister Pandit Nehru, the determination to win national independence of Indian people.15 beloved leader of the great India, a soldier who commits to peace Further he wrote many articles on India such as English in Asia and the world, our Vietnamese' unshakeable good 18 'Colonization' (in La Vie Ouvriere, 9 November 1923); Letter from friend”. This meeting was created its own historical significance

8 9 G. Jayachandra Reddy Ho Chi Minh: An Architect of India-Vietnam Friendship resistance. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) was born India (March 1928); Workers' Movement in India (April 1928); Indian on that day before a crowd estimated at several tens of thousands. Peasants (April 1928); Peasant and Workers Movements in India (May Until then, Ho Chi Minh worked far from his homeland and often 1928)... Through events, with figures on the number of far from and outside of his party. However, he was its organizer movements, number of Indian workers and peasants and inspiration and had trained its first militants and leaders. Ho participating in the struggle against the atrocious oppression and referred to as "Uncle Ho" by his people, the first President of exploitation of British colonialists, the content of Nguyen Ai Vietnam died on 2 September 1969 at the age of seventy nine. Quoc's articles expressed sympathy and deep concern for the There is perhaps no greater hero to Vietnam than Ho Chi Minh. patriotic movement, the Freedom Struggle of the people of India. He is remembered for his lifelong battle against great odds to It was “A sign of the times,” 16 One of his poems to Nehru by that build an independent and unified Vietnam. Saigon, the former time they never meet each other, Ho Chi Minh still paid attention capital of South Vietnam, was renamed Ho Chi Minh City in his to tracking the patriotic struggle of the Indian. Knowing the memory after its capture by North Vietnamese forces in 1975. patriot Nehru was under arrest in British colonial jail, Ho Chi India-Vietnam Friendship Minh wrote a poem in Han, from prison in Guangxi, on Jawaharlal Nehru. "To Nehru" - a poem that Ho Chi Minh wrote Obviously, Nguyen Ai Quoc's warm feelings on Nehru in his "Prison Diary" in 1942-1943: towards Indian people were born from very early. That sentiment derived from the insight, empathy To Nehru and sharing with the fate of people who lost their I am struggling, you are active homeland; with life of slaves, who suffered pain and You are in Jail, I am in prison humiliation under the foreign rule. Simultaneously, Ten thousand miles apart, we have not met through his posts, we see lofty humanitarian ideals We communicate without words. of Ho Chi Minh in love for classes, love for people, Shared ideas link you and me and his resolute stance to support national liberation What we lack is personal encounter struggle of oppressed colonial people - for freedom I am jailed by a neighbouring friend 17 and happiness of the strata, for the sovereignty of You are chained and fettered by the enemy. every nation. They could be primary bricks that Ho A bondage and empathy that was established through this poem, Chi Minh founded, building up beautiful friendship 14 the first Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru accepted the between Vietnamese people and Indian people. invitation from President Ho Chi Minh, became the first national Many writings of Nguyen Ai Quoc in the beginning of his leader in the world to visit officially the Democratic Republic of political carrier on India and its people, traditions, and culture of Viet Nam, soon after peace was restored in the North Vietnam India - cradle of the Ganges civilization, a famous antique (October 1954). During the visit of Nehru, President Ho Chi Minh civilization was an evidence of his profound perceptions for the at a banquet for the Indian Prime Minister said that “Today, the country. He applauded and appreciated increasingly people and the Government of the Democratic Republic of indomitable patriotism, expressing the solidarity and Vietnam are happy to welcome Prime Minister Pandit Nehru, the determination to win national independence of Indian people.15 beloved leader of the great India, a soldier who commits to peace Further he wrote many articles on India such as English in Asia and the world, our Vietnamese' unshakeable good 18 'Colonization' (in La Vie Ouvriere, 9 November 1923); Letter from friend”. This meeting was created its own historical significance

8 9 G. Jayachandra Reddy Ho Chi Minh: An Architect of India-Vietnam Friendship of India-Vietnam relations. After four years of Nehru's visit to contributed to the consolidation of peace and for national Vietnam and at the critical juncture of Vietnam's critical political reunification in Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh thanked India and situation when the Southern revolution was being under expressed Vietnamese are always grateful for the sympathy and oppression and fierce persecution of US forces and Army of support of the government and people of India in protest against Republic of Vietnam. President Ho Chi Minh visited India and the war of aggression in Vietnam. Nehru and Ho Chi Minh laid a Burma in May 1958, met the sentiment of Indian Prime Minister strong foundation of bilateral relations and further strengthened and Indians at large. The state visit further strengthened these in different areas. For instance, the Resistance War against friendly relations and at the same time contributed to the America invasion, through the activities of Non-Aligned continuous solidarity among Asian and African countries, to the Movement, Afro-Asian People's Solidarity Organization with consolidation of peace in Asia and in the world.19 Nehru with Vietnam, the Indian government and people had always lent the warm welcome to Ho Chi Minh said that “We have had contact support to their resistance in the struggle for the reunification of with a person; he is a part of Asian history. In him we welcome a Vietnam. The proactive policies of both governments pushed great man, and we met a historical phase." 20 Ho Chi Minh further to establish diplomatic relations between India-Vietnam reciprocated that “We are very happy and deeply moved to come on 7 January 1972. 24 to great India, the cradle of one of the oldest civilizations in the Since the establishment of diplomatic relations the Indo-Vietnam world. We visited you with deep sympathy that attaches our two 21 political, strategic and economic relations have been on a positive nations.” At the end of his India's visit during the farewell Ho direction. Particularly, the defence and security cooperation has Chi Minh reiterated that “India is a very big country and Indian become multi-faceted and has acquired a momentum of its own. people are heroic. Previously, they were at the same colonial Following the unification of both the Vietnams, India supported oppression as we were; people of India and Burma won national Vietnam's Cambodian policy against China's backing of Khmer independence and now are on the building of their country. We Rouge regime. Such pro-Vietnam policies of India did not go are going to learn many valuable experiences through this visit. down well with some of the Southeast Asian countries. This When return, we will tell you fellows and comrades, to learn from 22 shows that India valued its ties with Vietnam more than our brotherly nations.” As Ho Chi Minh remarked, Vietnam- developing its relationships with the ASEAN countries. India friendship was formed and bound together thanks to Evidently, there have been geostrategic interests of India in view common ties in culture and history and further positively of expansion and growing influence of China in Southeast Asian anticipated that “the friendship between the Indian people and region. On the other side Vietnam also looking at India's proactive the people of Vietnam have been brotherly longstanding. For policy in ASEAN because of its own interests to be protected. In many centuries, Buddhist thought and Indian art have been fact, that consideration continues to propel India in expanding its expanding to Vietnam. Colonialism imposed its rule over our strategic relationship with Vietnam over last four and half lands and hindered our relation for some times. But traditional decades or so. 25 friendship always sticks our two nations.” 23 End of Cold-War and India's reforms in 1990 was another Friendship to Potential Partnership historical moment of its foreign policy, targeting for better India played a positive role as the Chairman of International relations with Southeast Asian countries with an enthusiastic Commission, which was aimed at the supervision and control of approach in the form of Look East Policy. Because of the the implementation of the Geneva Agreements in Vietnam, which transformation from geopolitical to geoeconomic scenario India

10 11 G. Jayachandra Reddy Ho Chi Minh: An Architect of India-Vietnam Friendship of India-Vietnam relations. After four years of Nehru's visit to contributed to the consolidation of peace and for national Vietnam and at the critical juncture of Vietnam's critical political reunification in Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh thanked India and situation when the Southern revolution was being under expressed Vietnamese are always grateful for the sympathy and oppression and fierce persecution of US forces and Army of support of the government and people of India in protest against Republic of Vietnam. President Ho Chi Minh visited India and the war of aggression in Vietnam. Nehru and Ho Chi Minh laid a Burma in May 1958, met the sentiment of Indian Prime Minister strong foundation of bilateral relations and further strengthened and Indians at large. The state visit further strengthened these in different areas. For instance, the Resistance War against friendly relations and at the same time contributed to the America invasion, through the activities of Non-Aligned continuous solidarity among Asian and African countries, to the Movement, Afro-Asian People's Solidarity Organization with consolidation of peace in Asia and in the world.19 Nehru with Vietnam, the Indian government and people had always lent the warm welcome to Ho Chi Minh said that “We have had contact support to their resistance in the struggle for the reunification of with a person; he is a part of Asian history. In him we welcome a Vietnam. The proactive policies of both governments pushed great man, and we met a historical phase." 20 Ho Chi Minh further to establish diplomatic relations between India-Vietnam reciprocated that “We are very happy and deeply moved to come on 7 January 1972. 24 to great India, the cradle of one of the oldest civilizations in the Since the establishment of diplomatic relations the Indo-Vietnam world. We visited you with deep sympathy that attaches our two 21 political, strategic and economic relations have been on a positive nations.” At the end of his India's visit during the farewell Ho direction. Particularly, the defence and security cooperation has Chi Minh reiterated that “India is a very big country and Indian become multi-faceted and has acquired a momentum of its own. people are heroic. Previously, they were at the same colonial Following the unification of both the Vietnams, India supported oppression as we were; people of India and Burma won national Vietnam's Cambodian policy against China's backing of Khmer independence and now are on the building of their country. We Rouge regime. Such pro-Vietnam policies of India did not go are going to learn many valuable experiences through this visit. down well with some of the Southeast Asian countries. This When return, we will tell you fellows and comrades, to learn from 22 shows that India valued its ties with Vietnam more than our brotherly nations.” As Ho Chi Minh remarked, Vietnam- developing its relationships with the ASEAN countries. India friendship was formed and bound together thanks to Evidently, there have been geostrategic interests of India in view common ties in culture and history and further positively of expansion and growing influence of China in Southeast Asian anticipated that “the friendship between the Indian people and region. On the other side Vietnam also looking at India's proactive the people of Vietnam have been brotherly longstanding. For policy in ASEAN because of its own interests to be protected. In many centuries, Buddhist thought and Indian art have been fact, that consideration continues to propel India in expanding its expanding to Vietnam. Colonialism imposed its rule over our strategic relationship with Vietnam over last four and half lands and hindered our relation for some times. But traditional decades or so. 25 friendship always sticks our two nations.” 23 End of Cold-War and India's reforms in 1990 was another Friendship to Potential Partnership historical moment of its foreign policy, targeting for better India played a positive role as the Chairman of International relations with Southeast Asian countries with an enthusiastic Commission, which was aimed at the supervision and control of approach in the form of Look East Policy. Because of the the implementation of the Geneva Agreements in Vietnam, which transformation from geopolitical to geoeconomic scenario India

10 11 G. Jayachandra Reddy Ho Chi Minh: An Architect of India-Vietnam Friendship too joined the ASEAN to expand its political, economic and to another block in the coastal waters. Any Chinese dominance of strategic engagement with the ASEAN countries. Despite the new the SCS would deny India the space to pursue Act East Policy strategic equations were being evolved in Southeast Asia the effectively. It must therefore be India's objective to ensure that the traditional relationship between India and Vietnam was further SCS remains 'maritime commons' and the new equilibrium that strengthened. Vietnam became an important counting in India's emerges in the region. In geo-strategic terms, India and Vietnam Look East Policy. Vietnam supported India's policy of deepening are highly dependent on sea for their economic vitality. Their geo- its relations with the ASEAN and joining ASEAN Regional graphical location bestows on them the responsibility to Forum and East Asian Summit. Vietnam also supported India's safeguard international shipping routes in the Indian Ocean and sub-regional connectivity efforts like the Mekong Ganga Pacific Ocean, including the South China Sea. India's Maritime Cooperation formed in 2000. Military Strategy of 2015 as also the earlier version of 2007 has India may have a geopolitical interest in the South China Sea described SCS as an area of strategic interest to India. New Delhi (SCS) area, but it is driven by an economic need. India must make is a stakeholder in evolving security developments in East its presence felt and pursue its engagements in the area. This in Sea/SCS and therefore the imperative for India and Vietnam to turn will involve a continued effort to cooperate and collaborate forge ties at the political and security levels. with the Southeast Asian nations. On the other side, rise of China Vietnam and India have cooperation across multiple areas from accompanied by its assertive and aggressive policies in the region education to technology and boast not just a relatively long have compelled the nations in the region to come together and history of diplomatic ties (45 years), but cultural ties going back respond to the arising challenges to their security. China's hundreds of years to the Cham Empire. During Modi's visit in unreasonable maritime claims in the South China Sea have 2016 Vietnam named India a comprehensive strategic partner, created an unstable security environment in the Southeast Asian elevating it to the highest echelon of cooperation. India and region. Despite the July 2016 ruling by the Permanent Court of Vietnam formally upgraded their relationship to 'Comprehensive Arbitration in the Hague China has not abandoned its muscular Strategic Partnership' which in fact paid enhanced attention to and assertive policies. Vietnam along with the other affected evolving bilateral defence and security ties. The upgraded counties have been engaging China both bilaterally and partnership is designed to provide a new direction, momentum multilaterally to find a way out of the impasse. India on its part and substance to the bilateral cooperation. The common efforts of has been supporting for freedom of navigation and over flight, both the countries are expected to contribute to stability, security and unimpeded commerce, based on the principles of and prosperity in this region. Both sides also underlined their international law, as reflected notably in the United Nations commitment to effectively implement the Joint Vision Statement Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). India has in India-Vietnam Defence Relations of May 2015. The pace of advocated that States should resolve disputes through peaceful India-Vietnam defence and strategic cooperation has acquired means without threat or use of force and exercise self-restraint in some traction over the years but the potential for the relationship the conduct of activities that could complicate or escalate disputes remains under exploited. This is especially so when India looks at affecting peace and stability. India shares similar views with the countries in its neighbourhood where China has been able to Vietnam on the SCS; even though China has objected to India's forge extensive relationships in the defence and security spheres. exploration of oil within in its maritime EEZ India has continued Recently, some of the Indian Defence Public Sector Undertakings with its exploration and in fact, the exploration is being extended have announced their intentions of defence exports. India is

12 13 G. Jayachandra Reddy Ho Chi Minh: An Architect of India-Vietnam Friendship too joined the ASEAN to expand its political, economic and to another block in the coastal waters. Any Chinese dominance of strategic engagement with the ASEAN countries. Despite the new the SCS would deny India the space to pursue Act East Policy strategic equations were being evolved in Southeast Asia the effectively. It must therefore be India's objective to ensure that the traditional relationship between India and Vietnam was further SCS remains 'maritime commons' and the new equilibrium that strengthened. Vietnam became an important counting in India's emerges in the region. In geo-strategic terms, India and Vietnam Look East Policy. Vietnam supported India's policy of deepening are highly dependent on sea for their economic vitality. Their geo- its relations with the ASEAN and joining ASEAN Regional graphical location bestows on them the responsibility to Forum and East Asian Summit. Vietnam also supported India's safeguard international shipping routes in the Indian Ocean and sub-regional connectivity efforts like the Mekong Ganga Pacific Ocean, including the South China Sea. India's Maritime Cooperation formed in 2000. Military Strategy of 2015 as also the earlier version of 2007 has India may have a geopolitical interest in the South China Sea described SCS as an area of strategic interest to India. New Delhi (SCS) area, but it is driven by an economic need. India must make is a stakeholder in evolving security developments in East its presence felt and pursue its engagements in the area. This in Sea/SCS and therefore the imperative for India and Vietnam to turn will involve a continued effort to cooperate and collaborate forge ties at the political and security levels. with the Southeast Asian nations. On the other side, rise of China Vietnam and India have cooperation across multiple areas from accompanied by its assertive and aggressive policies in the region education to technology and boast not just a relatively long have compelled the nations in the region to come together and history of diplomatic ties (45 years), but cultural ties going back respond to the arising challenges to their security. China's hundreds of years to the Cham Empire. During Modi's visit in unreasonable maritime claims in the South China Sea have 2016 Vietnam named India a comprehensive strategic partner, created an unstable security environment in the Southeast Asian elevating it to the highest echelon of cooperation. India and region. Despite the July 2016 ruling by the Permanent Court of Vietnam formally upgraded their relationship to 'Comprehensive Arbitration in the Hague China has not abandoned its muscular Strategic Partnership' which in fact paid enhanced attention to and assertive policies. Vietnam along with the other affected evolving bilateral defence and security ties. The upgraded counties have been engaging China both bilaterally and partnership is designed to provide a new direction, momentum multilaterally to find a way out of the impasse. India on its part and substance to the bilateral cooperation. The common efforts of has been supporting for freedom of navigation and over flight, both the countries are expected to contribute to stability, security and unimpeded commerce, based on the principles of and prosperity in this region. Both sides also underlined their international law, as reflected notably in the United Nations commitment to effectively implement the Joint Vision Statement Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). India has in India-Vietnam Defence Relations of May 2015. The pace of advocated that States should resolve disputes through peaceful India-Vietnam defence and strategic cooperation has acquired means without threat or use of force and exercise self-restraint in some traction over the years but the potential for the relationship the conduct of activities that could complicate or escalate disputes remains under exploited. This is especially so when India looks at affecting peace and stability. India shares similar views with the countries in its neighbourhood where China has been able to Vietnam on the SCS; even though China has objected to India's forge extensive relationships in the defence and security spheres. exploration of oil within in its maritime EEZ India has continued Recently, some of the Indian Defence Public Sector Undertakings with its exploration and in fact, the exploration is being extended have announced their intentions of defence exports. India is

12 13 G. Jayachandra Reddy Ho Chi Minh: An Architect of India-Vietnam Friendship poised to sell its sophisticated Akash missile defense system and coordination of both the efforts is inescapable. The overall the medium range surface-to-air missile, that can target aircraft, objective of India-Vietnam defence and strategic partnership helicopters and drones up to 25 kilometers away while China is would be to continue to contribute towards maintaining peace building up aerial defenses over fixtures it claims in the contested and stability in the region both at bilateral and multilateral level. maritime area. India has also offered to sell its Varunastra anti- The relations between India and Vietnam have been submarine torpedoes to Vietnam amid China. During the visit of exceptionally friendly, and virtually free of any dissonance or Vietnamese Prime Minister, Nguyen Tan Dung visit to India in friction. The ties go back to the ancient Cham civilization when 2014, Indian Prime Minister Modi said that “Our defense people from Orissa travelled to Vietnam and found a hospitable cooperation with Vietnam is among our most important ones. home there, mingling cultures, customs, language and beliefs. India remains committed to the modernization of Vietnam's 26 Built on robust foundations laid down by India's first Prime defense and security forces.” China obviously seriously looks Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Vietnam's iconic leader Ho Chi into Indo-Vietnamese defense cooperation. Minh, the ties have grown exponentially over the years. The sense A high-level comprehensive strategic partnership between India of the shared anti-colonial impulse and solidarity that shaped and Vietnam is equally important for the have the same worries bilateral ties in post-independence years has now morphed into a about increasing Chinese power. It regards naval activity by multi-pronged strategic partnership, with the focus on larger nations like India and the US in the area is a useful deterrent development cooperation, sharing experiences in nation- against China. It welcomes all concrete and rhetorical building, expanding trade and investment and enhancing commitments to freedom of navigation in the 'East Sea', as it terms defence ties. High-profile visits have become increasingly it, that could help dissuade China from any potential aggression, frequent, with almost all top-ranking leaders of Vietnam visiting expansion or another episode like China's 2014 violation of India and Indian leaders and ministers travelling to Vietnam over Vietnam's EEZ. While China has continued to expand its the years. The multifarious relations between India and Vietnam presence, maritime cooperation and supplies from major states are deepening by the day and are branching out in new directions. such as India (which increased its existing $US100 million line of In many ways, it's a perfect match between India's Look East defence credit to $US500 million last year), the US and Japan helps policy and Vietnam's Look West policy as the two countries aim Vietnam to at least maintain its position in SCS. 27 high to forge closer strategic, economic and energy ties in days to come. Eventually, the personal admirations of Nehru and Ho Chi Conclusion Minh turned out into potential partnership between India and A humble beginning of bilateral relation between India and Vietnam obviously reflects the great vision of two leaders way Vietnam was started in 1972 but notable achievements were taken back for more than half a century. place in the last decade and move forward to a strategic partnership, of course lot more yet to be realised. Given the fast changing and uncertain strategic dynamics in the region both References countries share common perceptions on the nature of both 1. Viin Mac-Lenin-Ho Chi Minh, 1992, Ho Chi Minh: bien nien tieu su, traditional and non-traditional threats and challenges to the Thong tin ly luun, Hanoi, quoted in William J. Ducker, 2000, Ho Chi security, therefore, cooperation between the two is an imperative. Minh: A Life, Hyperion, New York While economic development remains a priority for both the 2. Nguyen Thanh, Communist International, p.69, quoted in William J. development of defence capabilities is also a must and therefore Ducker, 2000, Ho Chi Minh: A Life, Hyperion, New York.

14 15 G. Jayachandra Reddy Ho Chi Minh: An Architect of India-Vietnam Friendship poised to sell its sophisticated Akash missile defense system and coordination of both the efforts is inescapable. The overall the medium range surface-to-air missile, that can target aircraft, objective of India-Vietnam defence and strategic partnership helicopters and drones up to 25 kilometers away while China is would be to continue to contribute towards maintaining peace building up aerial defenses over fixtures it claims in the contested and stability in the region both at bilateral and multilateral level. maritime area. India has also offered to sell its Varunastra anti- The relations between India and Vietnam have been submarine torpedoes to Vietnam amid China. During the visit of exceptionally friendly, and virtually free of any dissonance or Vietnamese Prime Minister, Nguyen Tan Dung visit to India in friction. The ties go back to the ancient Cham civilization when 2014, Indian Prime Minister Modi said that “Our defense people from Orissa travelled to Vietnam and found a hospitable cooperation with Vietnam is among our most important ones. home there, mingling cultures, customs, language and beliefs. India remains committed to the modernization of Vietnam's 26 Built on robust foundations laid down by India's first Prime defense and security forces.” China obviously seriously looks Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Vietnam's iconic leader Ho Chi into Indo-Vietnamese defense cooperation. Minh, the ties have grown exponentially over the years. The sense A high-level comprehensive strategic partnership between India of the shared anti-colonial impulse and solidarity that shaped and Vietnam is equally important for the have the same worries bilateral ties in post-independence years has now morphed into a about increasing Chinese power. It regards naval activity by multi-pronged strategic partnership, with the focus on larger nations like India and the US in the area is a useful deterrent development cooperation, sharing experiences in nation- against China. It welcomes all concrete and rhetorical building, expanding trade and investment and enhancing commitments to freedom of navigation in the 'East Sea', as it terms defence ties. High-profile visits have become increasingly it, that could help dissuade China from any potential aggression, frequent, with almost all top-ranking leaders of Vietnam visiting expansion or another episode like China's 2014 violation of India and Indian leaders and ministers travelling to Vietnam over Vietnam's EEZ. While China has continued to expand its the years. The multifarious relations between India and Vietnam presence, maritime cooperation and supplies from major states are deepening by the day and are branching out in new directions. such as India (which increased its existing $US100 million line of In many ways, it's a perfect match between India's Look East defence credit to $US500 million last year), the US and Japan helps policy and Vietnam's Look West policy as the two countries aim Vietnam to at least maintain its position in SCS. 27 high to forge closer strategic, economic and energy ties in days to come. Eventually, the personal admirations of Nehru and Ho Chi Conclusion Minh turned out into potential partnership between India and A humble beginning of bilateral relation between India and Vietnam obviously reflects the great vision of two leaders way Vietnam was started in 1972 but notable achievements were taken back for more than half a century. place in the last decade and move forward to a strategic partnership, of course lot more yet to be realised. Given the fast changing and uncertain strategic dynamics in the region both References countries share common perceptions on the nature of both 1. Viin Mac-Lenin-Ho Chi Minh, 1992, Ho Chi Minh: bien nien tieu su, traditional and non-traditional threats and challenges to the Thong tin ly luun, Hanoi, quoted in William J. Ducker, 2000, Ho Chi security, therefore, cooperation between the two is an imperative. Minh: A Life, Hyperion, New York While economic development remains a priority for both the 2. Nguyen Thanh, Communist International, p.69, quoted in William J. development of defence capabilities is also a must and therefore Ducker, 2000, Ho Chi Minh: A Life, Hyperion, New York.

14 15 G. Jayachandra Reddy Ho Chi Minh: An Architect of India-Vietnam Friendship

3. A Vietnamese-language version of this undated report, titled “Bao cao of Politics, http://cis.org.vn/article/738/ho-chi-minh-the-architect- hui Quoc te Cong San” (Report to the Comintern), is reproduced in of-viet-nam-india-friendship-part-1.html Toan Tap II, vol.I, pp.203-205. Notes by “Nguyen Ai Quoc” in 15. Ibid preparation for a meeting of the French delegation at the Dalburo on September 21, 1923, are located at the Ho Chi Minh Museum in Hanoi 16. The Complete Works of Ho Chi Minh (Ho Chi Minh Toan Tap), Vol.2, p. 366, and probably formed the basis of the document. The term 'national National Politics Publishing House, Ha Noi, 2011. revolutionary' was adopted by the Comintern as a compromise at the 17. The Complete Works of Ho Chi Minh (Ho Chi Minh Toan Tap), Vol.3, Pg. behest of the Indian Communist M.N. Roy, quoted in William J. 402, National Politics Publishing House in Ha Noi, 2011. Translated by Ducker, 2000, Ho Chi Minh: A Life, Hyperion, New York. Hoang Trung Thong. 4. Toan Tap II, vol.I, p.204; Hong Ha, Ho Shi Min v Strane Sovetov (Ho Chi 18. The Complete Works of Ho Chi Minh (Ho Chi Minh Toan Tap), Vol.7, Pg. Minh in the Land of the Soviets). This book is a Russian translation of 370, National Politics Publishing House in Ha Noi, 2011. the Vietnamese original, quoted in William J. Ducker, 2000, Ho Chi Minh: A Life, Hyperion, New York. 19. Institute of Marx - Lenin and Ho Chi Minh Ideology (1995), Ho Chi Minh Biography: the Chronicle, Vol.7, Pg. 32, National Politics Publishing 5. Note on Krestinter meeting of 1923, SLOTFOM, Series III, Carton 112, House in Ha Noi. CAOM, According to George D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant, p. 4, Smirnov later tried to revive a right opposition to Stalin in 1932 and 20. The Complete Works of Ho Chi Minh (Ho Chi Minh Toan Tap), 1996, Vol.9, was purged. Pg. 36, National Politics Publishing House in Ha Noi. 6. Lans T, Autobiographical Account, Vua di duong, vua ke chuyen 21. Ibid (Walking and Talking), Hanoi: Su that, 1976, pp.37-38, as quoted in 22. The Complete Works of Ho Chi Minh (Ho Chi Minh Toan Tap), Vol.9, Pg. 35, Pierre Brocheux, 2007, Ho Chi Minh: A Biography, Cambridge National Politics Publishing House in Ha Noi, 2011. University Press, New York. 23. The Complete Works of Ho Chi Minh (Ho Chi Minh Toan Tap), 1996, Vol.9, 7. From “Rapport sur le Tonkin, I'Annam, et la Cochinchine,”in Suscio, Pg. 39, National Politics Publishing House in Ha Noi. Ho Chi Minh, Textes, p.72, as quoted in as quoted in Pierre Brocheux, 24. Tran Minh Truong, Ho Chi Minh: The Architect of Viet Nam - India 2007, Ho Chi Minh: A Biography, Cambridge University Press, New Friendship, Centre for Indian Studies, Ho Chi Minh National Academy York. of Politics, http://cis.org.vn/article/739/ho-chi-minh-the-architect- 8. Pierre Brocheux, 2007, Ho Chi Minh: A Biography, Cambridge of-viet-nam-india-friendship-part-2.html University Press, New York. 25. Brig Vinod Anand, 2017, Achievements: India-Vietnam Defence and 9. Ibid Security Cooperation, Vivekananda International Foundation, 10. Ibid http://www.vifindia.org/article/2017/may/12/ achievements- india-vietnam-defence-and-security-cooperation 11. “Souveniers de Zhang Fakui,” Revue hebdomadaire l'Union (Hong Kong, 1962), cited in BNTS 2, p.205, as quoted in Pierre Brocheux, 2007, 26. Helen Clark, 2017, Why China Should Fear India's Arms Sales to Vietnam Ho Chi Minh: A Biography, Cambridge University Press, New York. (Think South China Sea), http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the- buzz/why-china-should-fear-indias-arms-sales-vietnam-think- 12. For more on the Man peoples and Bac Kan province, see annual reports south-19025 in CAOM, RST, 7017, as quoted in Pierre Brocheux, 2007, Ho Chi Minh: A Biography, Cambridge University Press, New York. 27. Helen Clark, 2017, Vietnam and India: Shared interests in the South China Sea, https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/vietnam-and- 13. Pierre Brocheux, n.8. india-s-shared-interests-south-china-sea 14. Tran Minh Truong, Ho Chi Minh: The Architect of Viet Nam - India Friendship, Centre for Indian Studies, Ho Chi Minh National Academy

16 17 G. Jayachandra Reddy Ho Chi Minh: An Architect of India-Vietnam Friendship

3. A Vietnamese-language version of this undated report, titled “Bao cao of Politics, http://cis.org.vn/article/738/ho-chi-minh-the-architect- hui Quoc te Cong San” (Report to the Comintern), is reproduced in of-viet-nam-india-friendship-part-1.html Toan Tap II, vol.I, pp.203-205. Notes by “Nguyen Ai Quoc” in 15. Ibid preparation for a meeting of the French delegation at the Dalburo on September 21, 1923, are located at the Ho Chi Minh Museum in Hanoi 16. The Complete Works of Ho Chi Minh (Ho Chi Minh Toan Tap), Vol.2, p. 366, and probably formed the basis of the document. The term 'national National Politics Publishing House, Ha Noi, 2011. revolutionary' was adopted by the Comintern as a compromise at the 17. The Complete Works of Ho Chi Minh (Ho Chi Minh Toan Tap), Vol.3, Pg. behest of the Indian Communist M.N. Roy, quoted in William J. 402, National Politics Publishing House in Ha Noi, 2011. Translated by Ducker, 2000, Ho Chi Minh: A Life, Hyperion, New York. Hoang Trung Thong. 4. Toan Tap II, vol.I, p.204; Hong Ha, Ho Shi Min v Strane Sovetov (Ho Chi 18. The Complete Works of Ho Chi Minh (Ho Chi Minh Toan Tap), Vol.7, Pg. Minh in the Land of the Soviets). This book is a Russian translation of 370, National Politics Publishing House in Ha Noi, 2011. the Vietnamese original, quoted in William J. Ducker, 2000, Ho Chi Minh: A Life, Hyperion, New York. 19. Institute of Marx - Lenin and Ho Chi Minh Ideology (1995), Ho Chi Minh Biography: the Chronicle, Vol.7, Pg. 32, National Politics Publishing 5. Note on Krestinter meeting of 1923, SLOTFOM, Series III, Carton 112, House in Ha Noi. CAOM, According to George D. Jackson, Comintern and Peasant, p. 4, Smirnov later tried to revive a right opposition to Stalin in 1932 and 20. The Complete Works of Ho Chi Minh (Ho Chi Minh Toan Tap), 1996, Vol.9, was purged. Pg. 36, National Politics Publishing House in Ha Noi. 6. Lans T, Autobiographical Account, Vua di duong, vua ke chuyen 21. Ibid (Walking and Talking), Hanoi: Su that, 1976, pp.37-38, as quoted in 22. The Complete Works of Ho Chi Minh (Ho Chi Minh Toan Tap), Vol.9, Pg. 35, Pierre Brocheux, 2007, Ho Chi Minh: A Biography, Cambridge National Politics Publishing House in Ha Noi, 2011. University Press, New York. 23. The Complete Works of Ho Chi Minh (Ho Chi Minh Toan Tap), 1996, Vol.9, 7. From “Rapport sur le Tonkin, I'Annam, et la Cochinchine,”in Suscio, Pg. 39, National Politics Publishing House in Ha Noi. Ho Chi Minh, Textes, p.72, as quoted in as quoted in Pierre Brocheux, 24. Tran Minh Truong, Ho Chi Minh: The Architect of Viet Nam - India 2007, Ho Chi Minh: A Biography, Cambridge University Press, New Friendship, Centre for Indian Studies, Ho Chi Minh National Academy York. of Politics, http://cis.org.vn/article/739/ho-chi-minh-the-architect- 8. Pierre Brocheux, 2007, Ho Chi Minh: A Biography, Cambridge of-viet-nam-india-friendship-part-2.html University Press, New York. 25. Brig Vinod Anand, 2017, Achievements: India-Vietnam Defence and 9. Ibid Security Cooperation, Vivekananda International Foundation, 10. Ibid http://www.vifindia.org/article/2017/may/12/ achievements- india-vietnam-defence-and-security-cooperation 11. “Souveniers de Zhang Fakui,” Revue hebdomadaire l'Union (Hong Kong, 1962), cited in BNTS 2, p.205, as quoted in Pierre Brocheux, 2007, 26. Helen Clark, 2017, Why China Should Fear India's Arms Sales to Vietnam Ho Chi Minh: A Biography, Cambridge University Press, New York. (Think South China Sea), http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the- buzz/why-china-should-fear-indias-arms-sales-vietnam-think- 12. For more on the Man peoples and Bac Kan province, see annual reports south-19025 in CAOM, RST, 7017, as quoted in Pierre Brocheux, 2007, Ho Chi Minh: A Biography, Cambridge University Press, New York. 27. Helen Clark, 2017, Vietnam and India: Shared interests in the South China Sea, https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/vietnam-and- 13. Pierre Brocheux, n.8. india-s-shared-interests-south-china-sea 14. Tran Minh Truong, Ho Chi Minh: The Architect of Viet Nam - India Friendship, Centre for Indian Studies, Ho Chi Minh National Academy

16 17 Ho Chi Minh: A Patriot Par Excellence Ho Chi Minh: A Patriot Par Excellence against the scourges of colonialism and imperialism. Ho's A. Lakshmana Chetty admirable qualities such as selflessness, sacrifice, dedication, Professor and Former Director, Centre for Southeast Asian and Pacific Studies hard work and love for children, young and old and men and Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati women, inspired his people to call him with all affection, respect Email: [email protected] and reverence as “Old Uncle” and “Uncle Ho”. Enumeration of virtues of an outstanding leader of the people like Just as no analysis of Cuban revolution could be given without Ho is by no means an easy task. Therefore, in this paper an discussing the role of Fidel Castro in the revolution, any attempt is made to study Ho as a man of simplicity, a man of discussion of the Vietnam revolution must begin with Ho Chi Minh, who is universally considered the founding architect of the integrity, a champion of the cause of Vietnamese women, the Vietnamese liberation struggle.1 father of the Vietnamese guerrilla force and a pragmatist. Ho Chi Minh: A Man of Simplicity The above words of Naomi Cohen, an American analyst, indicate the all pervasive role Ho Chi Minh played in the struggle for The crowning glory of Ho was the simplicity. He led a simple life independence and the reunification of Vietnam. It is appropriate whether in power or without power. In his perception, “people th with revolutionary virtues remain simple, modest and ready to that the world community is celebrating the 125 Birth 3 Anniversary of Ho Chi Minh who toiled all through his life for the face more hardships.” He emphasized that one should emancipation of his fellow-countrymen from the colonial rule. He concentrate on fulfilling his task without clamoring for “reward.” sacrificed everything in life for the sake of his Fatherland which He called for avoiding “boasting about past achievements and claiming special prerogatives, or indulging in bureaucratism, was craving to wrench itself free from oppressive colonialism. 4 Ho's unsound health did not deter him from treading the conceit and depravation Ho's greatness lies in the fact that he not revolutionary path which was replete with risks and difficulties. only preached simplicity but also practiced it. Ho “set the example in austerity and frugality,” which was in tune with the He played a variety of roles such as a cook, a crew, a journalist, a 5 writer of transcendent genius, a strategist, an organizer of economic situation of the nation. revolutionary movements and parties and an administrator with On September 2, 1945, Ho returned from the jungle to proclaim human touch, to mention a few, for the sole purpose of achieving the birth of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN). People “total victory and independence.” The impact of his inspiring were surprised to find him “simple and cordial, like a father with leadership was not confined to his own country but was felt in far his children.” 6 He wore a faded Khaki sun helmet and a pair of off lands. He proved his credentials as a nationalist as well as an automobile-type sandals. Therefore, a hasty shopping had to be internationalist when he gave a call to his compatriots “to make made to get a Khaki suit and a pair of manufactured rubber worthy contribution to the world national liberation movement” sandals. 7 Thus, the simple Khaki suit he had worn for reading the by wiping out two big imperialisms-the French and the Declaration of Independence on September 2, 1945, was used American. As a true nationalist he urged his people to remain subsequently only on occasions like travelling or receiving united by pointing out that the soul of resistance movement lies in guests. Otherwise he generally wore brown cotton clothes and unity. He thundered: “Unity, unity, great unity. Success, success, rubber sandals. 8 great success”. 2 Similarly, he made a passionate appeal to the After returning to Hanoi in 1954, Ho moved to the presidential oppressed people all over the world to put up a united front place which had been occupied by French Commissioner General

18 19 Ho Chi Minh: A Patriot Par Excellence Ho Chi Minh: A Patriot Par Excellence against the scourges of colonialism and imperialism. Ho's A. Lakshmana Chetty admirable qualities such as selflessness, sacrifice, dedication, Professor and Former Director, Centre for Southeast Asian and Pacific Studies hard work and love for children, young and old and men and Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati women, inspired his people to call him with all affection, respect Email: [email protected] and reverence as “Old Uncle” and “Uncle Ho”. Enumeration of virtues of an outstanding leader of the people like Just as no analysis of Cuban revolution could be given without Ho is by no means an easy task. Therefore, in this paper an discussing the role of Fidel Castro in the revolution, any attempt is made to study Ho as a man of simplicity, a man of discussion of the Vietnam revolution must begin with Ho Chi Minh, who is universally considered the founding architect of the integrity, a champion of the cause of Vietnamese women, the Vietnamese liberation struggle.1 father of the Vietnamese guerrilla force and a pragmatist. Ho Chi Minh: A Man of Simplicity The above words of Naomi Cohen, an American analyst, indicate the all pervasive role Ho Chi Minh played in the struggle for The crowning glory of Ho was the simplicity. He led a simple life independence and the reunification of Vietnam. It is appropriate whether in power or without power. In his perception, “people th with revolutionary virtues remain simple, modest and ready to that the world community is celebrating the 125 Birth 3 Anniversary of Ho Chi Minh who toiled all through his life for the face more hardships.” He emphasized that one should emancipation of his fellow-countrymen from the colonial rule. He concentrate on fulfilling his task without clamoring for “reward.” sacrificed everything in life for the sake of his Fatherland which He called for avoiding “boasting about past achievements and claiming special prerogatives, or indulging in bureaucratism, was craving to wrench itself free from oppressive colonialism. 4 Ho's unsound health did not deter him from treading the conceit and depravation Ho's greatness lies in the fact that he not revolutionary path which was replete with risks and difficulties. only preached simplicity but also practiced it. Ho “set the example in austerity and frugality,” which was in tune with the He played a variety of roles such as a cook, a crew, a journalist, a 5 writer of transcendent genius, a strategist, an organizer of economic situation of the nation. revolutionary movements and parties and an administrator with On September 2, 1945, Ho returned from the jungle to proclaim human touch, to mention a few, for the sole purpose of achieving the birth of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN). People “total victory and independence.” The impact of his inspiring were surprised to find him “simple and cordial, like a father with leadership was not confined to his own country but was felt in far his children.” 6 He wore a faded Khaki sun helmet and a pair of off lands. He proved his credentials as a nationalist as well as an automobile-type sandals. Therefore, a hasty shopping had to be internationalist when he gave a call to his compatriots “to make made to get a Khaki suit and a pair of manufactured rubber worthy contribution to the world national liberation movement” sandals. 7 Thus, the simple Khaki suit he had worn for reading the by wiping out two big imperialisms-the French and the Declaration of Independence on September 2, 1945, was used American. As a true nationalist he urged his people to remain subsequently only on occasions like travelling or receiving united by pointing out that the soul of resistance movement lies in guests. Otherwise he generally wore brown cotton clothes and unity. He thundered: “Unity, unity, great unity. Success, success, rubber sandals. 8 great success”. 2 Similarly, he made a passionate appeal to the After returning to Hanoi in 1954, Ho moved to the presidential oppressed people all over the world to put up a united front place which had been occupied by French Commissioner General

18 19 A. Lakshmana Chetty Ho Chi Minh: A Patriot Par Excellence

Paul Ely. But he did not stay in the huge mansion. He stayed in the Ho and the role of Vietnamese women in the National servants' quarters of the presidential palace. He used the palace struggle for formal meetings with foreign guests. Subsequently, in May One of the master strokes of Ho's leadership of the freedom 1958, Ho moved into a simple house made of fine wood. Of the movement in Vietnam was the strengthening of the nationalist two rooms in the upstairs, one was used as a bed room and movement and making it inclusive and broad based by securing another as a study room. He used the open-air first floor for the participation of Vietnamese women in growing numbers in 9 holding official meetings. Ho's simple life reinforced people's the independence movement. It was the considered view of Ho confidence in his and his impeccable leadership. It also inspired that women had as much a role as the men played in the people to follow in his footsteps and struggle gallantry for nationalist movement. Underscoring the significance of women, independence and reunification of their homeland. Ho said: “Women are half the people. If women are not free then 13 Ho: A Man of Integrity the people are not free.” Ho was very much aware of the great Ho was totally opposed to resorting to immoral and unethical role played in the history of Vietnam by the heroic women such as means to achieve one's own ends. He did not deviate from this Trung sisters in the first century and Trieu Trinh Nuong in the wise policy even when he was fighting his bitter foe. Ho insisted third century who inflicted defeats on the Chinese invaders. Ho on presenting a factual account of the U.S. losses in the American also knew that ever since the French rule was established in war. He believed that inflated figures of the losses of the would Vietnam, women played a significant role in the anti-French not only make the Vietnamese fighters complacent but also lead movements. For example, as far back as in 1883, Mme Nhu started to loss of public confidence. Ho, therefore, issued a personal patriotic organization called “Association of people Devoted to directive to his military cadres that the figures of American planes the just cause.” Ho, therefore was convinced of the need to shot down must be strictly accurate so as to retain the confidence exploit women's power for the benefit of the national liberation by of the people in his government. He further clarified that no promoting their all round development. It may be noted that in plane could be considered downed or included in the day's total, the Vietnamese society, woman obeyed first her father, her unless the wreckage had been located and “hands laid on it”. 10 husband and upon the death of her husband, her oldest son. This wise step of Ho reflected his pragmatic approach which Hence, the social status of woman was very low. Therefore, helped to win the confidence of his fellow-countrymen and also Indochinese Communist Party (ICP), since its inception in 1930, the global community. As Burchett had pointed out, it was true focused attention on women's emancipation. One of the stated objectives of the ICP was: “To realize equality between men and that the foreign community in Hanoi, diplomats and journalists in 14 particular, entirely did not concede that Hanoi's claims were women.” The Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN) completely correct, but they were unanimous that the figures constitution promulgated in 1946 categorically stated that women would enjoy “the same political, economic, cultural and social provided by Hanoi “were much closer to the truth than those put 15 out by the Americans”.11 Interestingly, the Vietnamese authorities and family rights as men.” The women were also given rights on in Hanoi, with whom Burchett had a discussion insisted that their land and voting rights. The DRVN Constitution drafted by Ho figures were minimal, and actual losses of the enemy were far also stated that “all people are created equal” (unlike the US higher than they claimed. 12 constitution which states “all men are created equal”) so as to treat the women on a par with the men. An American scholar thus commented. “This was in keeping with Ho Chi Minh's vision over

20 21 A. Lakshmana Chetty Ho Chi Minh: A Patriot Par Excellence

Paul Ely. But he did not stay in the huge mansion. He stayed in the Ho and the role of Vietnamese women in the National servants' quarters of the presidential palace. He used the palace struggle for formal meetings with foreign guests. Subsequently, in May One of the master strokes of Ho's leadership of the freedom 1958, Ho moved into a simple house made of fine wood. Of the movement in Vietnam was the strengthening of the nationalist two rooms in the upstairs, one was used as a bed room and movement and making it inclusive and broad based by securing another as a study room. He used the open-air first floor for the participation of Vietnamese women in growing numbers in 9 holding official meetings. Ho's simple life reinforced people's the independence movement. It was the considered view of Ho confidence in his and his impeccable leadership. It also inspired that women had as much a role as the men played in the people to follow in his footsteps and struggle gallantry for nationalist movement. Underscoring the significance of women, independence and reunification of their homeland. Ho said: “Women are half the people. If women are not free then 13 Ho: A Man of Integrity the people are not free.” Ho was very much aware of the great Ho was totally opposed to resorting to immoral and unethical role played in the history of Vietnam by the heroic women such as means to achieve one's own ends. He did not deviate from this Trung sisters in the first century and Trieu Trinh Nuong in the wise policy even when he was fighting his bitter foe. Ho insisted third century who inflicted defeats on the Chinese invaders. Ho on presenting a factual account of the U.S. losses in the American also knew that ever since the French rule was established in war. He believed that inflated figures of the losses of the would Vietnam, women played a significant role in the anti-French not only make the Vietnamese fighters complacent but also lead movements. For example, as far back as in 1883, Mme Nhu started to loss of public confidence. Ho, therefore, issued a personal patriotic organization called “Association of people Devoted to directive to his military cadres that the figures of American planes the just cause.” Ho, therefore was convinced of the need to shot down must be strictly accurate so as to retain the confidence exploit women's power for the benefit of the national liberation by of the people in his government. He further clarified that no promoting their all round development. It may be noted that in plane could be considered downed or included in the day's total, the Vietnamese society, woman obeyed first her father, her unless the wreckage had been located and “hands laid on it”. 10 husband and upon the death of her husband, her oldest son. This wise step of Ho reflected his pragmatic approach which Hence, the social status of woman was very low. Therefore, helped to win the confidence of his fellow-countrymen and also Indochinese Communist Party (ICP), since its inception in 1930, the global community. As Burchett had pointed out, it was true focused attention on women's emancipation. One of the stated objectives of the ICP was: “To realize equality between men and that the foreign community in Hanoi, diplomats and journalists in 14 particular, entirely did not concede that Hanoi's claims were women.” The Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN) completely correct, but they were unanimous that the figures constitution promulgated in 1946 categorically stated that women would enjoy “the same political, economic, cultural and social provided by Hanoi “were much closer to the truth than those put 15 out by the Americans”.11 Interestingly, the Vietnamese authorities and family rights as men.” The women were also given rights on in Hanoi, with whom Burchett had a discussion insisted that their land and voting rights. The DRVN Constitution drafted by Ho figures were minimal, and actual losses of the enemy were far also stated that “all people are created equal” (unlike the US higher than they claimed. 12 constitution which states “all men are created equal”) so as to treat the women on a par with the men. An American scholar thus commented. “This was in keeping with Ho Chi Minh's vision over

20 21 A. Lakshmana Chetty Ho Chi Minh: A Patriot Par Excellence many years to include both men and women as citizens of the new Ho's morale boosting exercises, besides encouraging the Vietnam”. 16 Further, as Ho read Vietnam's Declaration of Vietnamese women to dedicate themselves to the cause of their Independence on September 2, 1945, before a massive crowd in Fatherland, had the lasting impact on the fighting spirit of the Hanoi's Ba Dinh Square, two young women--one ethnic minority Vietnamese women. The Vietnamese women's heroic role helped highlander and one Vietnamese lowlander--raised the red to advance the cause of the country and also enhance and their national flag with its five-pointed gold stars. 17 More than all, Ho's status in the society. The Vietnamese women, who were earlier appeal, “nothing is more precious than independence and confined to the role of wives and mothers, began to enjoy a new freedom”, had mesmerized the women who responded status which facilitated them to be regarded as “more than overwhelmingly to his call. Many women came forward to join equals”, and the “real indispensables”. They were “as heroic in the guerrilla force risking their lives. In the war against the U.S. in combat as in production”. Suffice it to say that they remained “very feminine despite having assumed very masculine the South, about 250,000 women lost their lives, 40,000 were 22 disabled, and 36,000 were kept in concentration camps. 18 A responsibilities”. valiant and courageous southern woman thundered in front of Ho: The Father of guerrilla forces: 19 the enemy rifle: “Ho Chi Minh is in my heart.” Hailing the Douglas Pike, a respectable American scholar on Vietnam, significant role the women played in the war against the observed that while Nguyen Giap was the genius of violence, and American forces, Madam Binh, Deputy Chief of the Liberation Truong Chinh the erudite theoretician, Ho was a brilliant Army in the South who remained a source of “inspiration” to strategist endowed with exceptional organizational Vietnamese women, said: manoeuvering skills. Ho played a great role in the origin, growth Particularly in the course of the anti-U.S. struggle for and development of Vietnamese guerrilla forces, Ho had great national salvation that lasted more than 20 years, the regard and admiration for the guerrilla forces because of their revolutionary line of the people's war brought into full play singular contribution to the liberation and reunification of the our women's military capabilities. Cleverly combining Fatherland. It was his conviction that the guerrilla forces were in rudimentary weapons with modern ones, guerilla warfare no way inferior to the 'regulars' and regional forces. In fact, he with commando tactics, women from seventy to eleven year opined, guerrilla units alone should be pressed into action in old, could join battles, setting up a net work of a people's particular circumstances. To quote him; “When fighting in an war to decimate and annihilate the U.S. puppet troops. 20 enemy occupied area, we must use guerrilla tactics not to fight regular warfare as in the free zones.” 23 He advised the guerrillas Thanks to the inspiring leadership of Ho, Vietnamese women to give up over confidence as it would ruin the chances of victory: were firmly convinced that the Americans had no chance of “So if you guard against subjectivity and are careful not to 24 winning in Vietnam. Thu Huong, Radio Hanoi's broadcaster, told underrate the enemy, you will win.” Australian Columnist Wilfred Burchett thus: Guerrillas are preferred because they are trained to fight in Even if they (Americans) destroy Hanoi, we are prepared to rugged terrain and inhospitable conditions. They did not require continue the struggle until final victory. The Americans sophisticated weapons like the regular troops. The weapons used can never win because our people are absolutely unified and by them included flint-lock rifles, bows, scimitars and lances. well prepared morally and materially to continue the Detailing the aims and objectives of the Guerrilla warfare, Ho struggle in all circumstances. 21 said:

22 23 A. Lakshmana Chetty Ho Chi Minh: A Patriot Par Excellence many years to include both men and women as citizens of the new Ho's morale boosting exercises, besides encouraging the Vietnam”. 16 Further, as Ho read Vietnam's Declaration of Vietnamese women to dedicate themselves to the cause of their Independence on September 2, 1945, before a massive crowd in Fatherland, had the lasting impact on the fighting spirit of the Hanoi's Ba Dinh Square, two young women--one ethnic minority Vietnamese women. The Vietnamese women's heroic role helped highlander and one Vietnamese lowlander--raised the red to advance the cause of the country and also enhance and their national flag with its five-pointed gold stars. 17 More than all, Ho's status in the society. The Vietnamese women, who were earlier appeal, “nothing is more precious than independence and confined to the role of wives and mothers, began to enjoy a new freedom”, had mesmerized the women who responded status which facilitated them to be regarded as “more than overwhelmingly to his call. Many women came forward to join equals”, and the “real indispensables”. They were “as heroic in the guerrilla force risking their lives. In the war against the U.S. in combat as in production”. Suffice it to say that they remained “very feminine despite having assumed very masculine the South, about 250,000 women lost their lives, 40,000 were 22 disabled, and 36,000 were kept in concentration camps. 18 A responsibilities”. valiant and courageous southern woman thundered in front of Ho: The Father of guerrilla forces: 19 the enemy rifle: “Ho Chi Minh is in my heart.” Hailing the Douglas Pike, a respectable American scholar on Vietnam, significant role the women played in the war against the observed that while Nguyen Giap was the genius of violence, and American forces, Madam Binh, Deputy Chief of the Liberation Truong Chinh the erudite theoretician, Ho was a brilliant Army in the South who remained a source of “inspiration” to strategist endowed with exceptional organizational Vietnamese women, said: manoeuvering skills. Ho played a great role in the origin, growth Particularly in the course of the anti-U.S. struggle for and development of Vietnamese guerrilla forces, Ho had great national salvation that lasted more than 20 years, the regard and admiration for the guerrilla forces because of their revolutionary line of the people's war brought into full play singular contribution to the liberation and reunification of the our women's military capabilities. Cleverly combining Fatherland. It was his conviction that the guerrilla forces were in rudimentary weapons with modern ones, guerilla warfare no way inferior to the 'regulars' and regional forces. In fact, he with commando tactics, women from seventy to eleven year opined, guerrilla units alone should be pressed into action in old, could join battles, setting up a net work of a people's particular circumstances. To quote him; “When fighting in an war to decimate and annihilate the U.S. puppet troops. 20 enemy occupied area, we must use guerrilla tactics not to fight regular warfare as in the free zones.” 23 He advised the guerrillas Thanks to the inspiring leadership of Ho, Vietnamese women to give up over confidence as it would ruin the chances of victory: were firmly convinced that the Americans had no chance of “So if you guard against subjectivity and are careful not to 24 winning in Vietnam. Thu Huong, Radio Hanoi's broadcaster, told underrate the enemy, you will win.” Australian Columnist Wilfred Burchett thus: Guerrillas are preferred because they are trained to fight in Even if they (Americans) destroy Hanoi, we are prepared to rugged terrain and inhospitable conditions. They did not require continue the struggle until final victory. The Americans sophisticated weapons like the regular troops. The weapons used can never win because our people are absolutely unified and by them included flint-lock rifles, bows, scimitars and lances. well prepared morally and materially to continue the Detailing the aims and objectives of the Guerrilla warfare, Ho struggle in all circumstances. 21 said:

22 23 A. Lakshmana Chetty Ho Chi Minh: A Patriot Par Excellence

The aim of guerrilla warfare is not to wage large scale Only by carrying out land reform, giving land to the tillers, battles and win big victories, but to nibble at the enemy; liberating the productive forces in the countryside from the harass him in such a way that he can neither eat nor sleep in yoke of the feudal landlord class can we do away with peace, to give him no respite; to wear him out physically and poverty and backwardness and strongly mobilize the huge mentally; and finally to annihilate him. Wherever he goes forces of the peasants in order to develop production and he should be attacked by our guerillas, stumble on land push the war of resistance forward to complete victory.29 mines or be greeted by sniper fire. 25 In 1942, the Nationalist government of Chiang Kai Shek arrested In sum, the enemy eventually should be driven to frustration and and imprisoned Ho because of his connections with the officials of desperation. Ho quoted what the French soldiers said in their the Chinese Communist Party and released in 1944. While letters; “In Vietnam, death is lying in wait for us in every cave, returning to Vietnam in September 1944, Ho was accompanied by every bush, every pond.” 26 a guerrilla force of eighteen Vietnamese well trained and armed by the Chinese. Subsequently, more and more guerrilla groups The guerrilla force, like the National Defence Army and regional were established in Vietnam. The women were as much and militia units was mostly made up of peasants who accounted interested as the men to join the guerrilla force. More women, for 90 per of the population. Ho believed firmly that these particularly young women belonging to all ethnic groups, dedicated guerrilla forces drawn mostly from peasants would enthusiastically joined the guerrilla units. Inspired by Ho's ensure “complete victory” in the war of resistance and also in the appeal, “Nothing is more precious than independence,” many rebuilding of the country “successfully”. Ho paid glowing members of Vietnam Women Union's members volunteered to tributes to the peasants for their splendid role on the war front as undertake difficult jobs such as filling the bomb craters, well as the farm front. As a token of gratitude to the peasants, Ho reconditioning roads and bridges and carrying tons of provisions was determined to “liberate” them and avail their services better 30 to the national cause. In his “Report to the Third Session of the and ammunition to various battle fronts. They also maintained First National Assembly, on December 1, 1953, Ho stated:” “We liaison between the underground resistance bases and resistance must liberate them form the feudal yoke and foster their strength groups. They dug shelters for the benefit of the cadres. By 1952, in order fully to mobilize this huge force for the resistance and win there were about 840,000 women guerrillas in North Vietnam and 27 140,000 in South Vietnam. Some of the women guerrilla units victory”. In 1949, Ho, thus launched land reform programme by came in for appreciation for displaying great valour in protecting which land collected from the landlords was distributed among the liberated areas. The famous 'Hoang Ngan brigade' of women the peasants who “have no or not enough land”. These peasants guerrillas launched a movement to “push back enemy even with were also given “the right of ownership over the land thus 31 28 bamboo sticks”. distributed”. Ho exuded the confidence that his land reform programme would keep the peasants in a good stead to offer Japanese occupation of Vietnam offered ample opportunities to greater services to the nation. To quote Ho. the Vietminh guerrilla to exhibit their patriotism. In 1944, Ho wrote and published a book, Guerrilla Tactics, which recommended four essentials for guerrilla victory: 1) the correct political path 2) involvement of the masses 3) a stable and secret organization 4) a brilliant way of fighting. 32 On July 16, 1945, Vietminh guerrilla forces began their operations against the

24 25 A. Lakshmana Chetty Ho Chi Minh: A Patriot Par Excellence

The aim of guerrilla warfare is not to wage large scale Only by carrying out land reform, giving land to the tillers, battles and win big victories, but to nibble at the enemy; liberating the productive forces in the countryside from the harass him in such a way that he can neither eat nor sleep in yoke of the feudal landlord class can we do away with peace, to give him no respite; to wear him out physically and poverty and backwardness and strongly mobilize the huge mentally; and finally to annihilate him. Wherever he goes forces of the peasants in order to develop production and he should be attacked by our guerillas, stumble on land push the war of resistance forward to complete victory.29 mines or be greeted by sniper fire. 25 In 1942, the Nationalist government of Chiang Kai Shek arrested In sum, the enemy eventually should be driven to frustration and and imprisoned Ho because of his connections with the officials of desperation. Ho quoted what the French soldiers said in their the Chinese Communist Party and released in 1944. While letters; “In Vietnam, death is lying in wait for us in every cave, returning to Vietnam in September 1944, Ho was accompanied by every bush, every pond.” 26 a guerrilla force of eighteen Vietnamese well trained and armed by the Chinese. Subsequently, more and more guerrilla groups The guerrilla force, like the National Defence Army and regional were established in Vietnam. The women were as much and militia units was mostly made up of peasants who accounted interested as the men to join the guerrilla force. More women, for 90 per of the population. Ho believed firmly that these particularly young women belonging to all ethnic groups, dedicated guerrilla forces drawn mostly from peasants would enthusiastically joined the guerrilla units. Inspired by Ho's ensure “complete victory” in the war of resistance and also in the appeal, “Nothing is more precious than independence,” many rebuilding of the country “successfully”. Ho paid glowing members of Vietnam Women Union's members volunteered to tributes to the peasants for their splendid role on the war front as undertake difficult jobs such as filling the bomb craters, well as the farm front. As a token of gratitude to the peasants, Ho reconditioning roads and bridges and carrying tons of provisions was determined to “liberate” them and avail their services better 30 to the national cause. In his “Report to the Third Session of the and ammunition to various battle fronts. They also maintained First National Assembly, on December 1, 1953, Ho stated:” “We liaison between the underground resistance bases and resistance must liberate them form the feudal yoke and foster their strength groups. They dug shelters for the benefit of the cadres. By 1952, in order fully to mobilize this huge force for the resistance and win there were about 840,000 women guerrillas in North Vietnam and 27 140,000 in South Vietnam. Some of the women guerrilla units victory”. In 1949, Ho, thus launched land reform programme by came in for appreciation for displaying great valour in protecting which land collected from the landlords was distributed among the liberated areas. The famous 'Hoang Ngan brigade' of women the peasants who “have no or not enough land”. These peasants guerrillas launched a movement to “push back enemy even with were also given “the right of ownership over the land thus 31 28 bamboo sticks”. distributed”. Ho exuded the confidence that his land reform programme would keep the peasants in a good stead to offer Japanese occupation of Vietnam offered ample opportunities to greater services to the nation. To quote Ho. the Vietminh guerrilla to exhibit their patriotism. In 1944, Ho wrote and published a book, Guerrilla Tactics, which recommended four essentials for guerrilla victory: 1) the correct political path 2) involvement of the masses 3) a stable and secret organization 4) a brilliant way of fighting. 32 On July 16, 1945, Vietminh guerrilla forces began their operations against the

24 25 A. Lakshmana Chetty Ho Chi Minh: A Patriot Par Excellence

Japanese. 33 On August 19, 1945, Ho issued instructions, to launch under critical circumstances, were influenced by ground realities. full scale guerrilla warfare against the tottering Japanese Ho's extensive reading, wide travel, association with great occupiers. The Vietnam guerrilla units attacked important international personalities and organizations, and past strategic Japanese positions and blocked the traffic of the experiences helped to shape himself into a wise statesmen. He Japanese over “the Greater East Asia” road. 34 Ho created 10,000- had malice to none. As a patriotic national leader, he responded man guerrilla force called “Men in Black” to fight the Japanese. pragmatically to all crises of Vietnam both domestic and external. They battled the Japanese in the jungles with notable success. 35 Below mentioned are some of the crisis situations where in Ho They liberated certain areas which formed the revolutionary base displayed his pragmatism. area for the whole country which, in the words of Ho, presented (a) Go East Movement: 36 “the image of the New Vietnam to come”. Following the In the early years of the last century, Vietnamese nationalist Japanese surrender on August 25, 1945, Ho proclaimed the scholars longed to go to Japan (East) for studies, training and establishment of Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN) on monetary help from the Japanese government to drive out the September 2, 1945. The historic victory against the Japanese French. Phan Boi Chau, (1867-1940) an early nationalist represented the first ever victory of the Vietnamese guerrillas leader, invited Ho to join the “Go East” movement. Ho without shedding a drop of blood. refused to go to Japan but instead decided to go to the West, The French, who returned to Vietnam in the Post-World War II which was the home of colonial powers, to know how they period, were harassed, like the Japanese earlier, by the remained independent and strong so that he could enlighten Vietnamese guerrillas. For eight years Ho's guerrillas fought the and inspire people of his country to drive away the French French troops in the mountains and rice paddy fields and and gain independence. 38 This strategy paid good dividends eventually defeated the enemy at Dien Bien Phu. Commenting on as Ho was in an admirable position to lead resistance this “ignominious defeat,” an Australian scholar observed:” movement effectively and efficiently in his country. Trying both to stave off the constant guerrilla depredations and to (b) Franco-Vietnamese Agreements of 1946: confront the main thrust of the Vietminh divisions, the French Following the defeat of Japan, Ho proclaimed the met disaster”. 37 The historic victory at Dien Bien Phu in May 1954 establishment of Democratic. Republic of Vietnam (DRVN) marked the “triumph of guerrilla strategy”. After the exit of the on September 2, 1945. Close on the heels of the withdrawal of French, the U.S. got involved by supporting puppet regime in forces of Nationalist China and Britain which were entrusted South Vietnam. In 1959, when the conflict resumed in the South with the task of effecting the surrender of Japanese forces in The guerrillas of North Vietnam and South Vietnam successfully North Vietnam and South Vietnam respectively, Ho signed fought against the Americans and the US-promoted regime in the Preliminary Agreement on March 6, 1946, and Modus South. Thus, the Vietminh guerrillas and Vietcong guerrillas had Vivendi on September 14, 1946, with the French government every reason to feel proud of their splendid role in the victory which provided for. against the formidable foreign enemies which paved the way for the independence and reunification of Vietnam. o Vietnam to be recognized as an independent state with its own government, Parliament, finances and military. Ho Chi Minh: A Pragmatist Ho was sensible and realistic. His decisions and actions, which o Independent Vietnam to become a member of Indochinese shaped the destiny of the Vietnamese revolutionary movement Federation and the French Union. o The DRVN to allow a small French force to relieve the Chinese forces. 26 27 A. Lakshmana Chetty Ho Chi Minh: A Patriot Par Excellence

Japanese. 33 On August 19, 1945, Ho issued instructions, to launch under critical circumstances, were influenced by ground realities. full scale guerrilla warfare against the tottering Japanese Ho's extensive reading, wide travel, association with great occupiers. The Vietnam guerrilla units attacked important international personalities and organizations, and past strategic Japanese positions and blocked the traffic of the experiences helped to shape himself into a wise statesmen. He Japanese over “the Greater East Asia” road. 34 Ho created 10,000- had malice to none. As a patriotic national leader, he responded man guerrilla force called “Men in Black” to fight the Japanese. pragmatically to all crises of Vietnam both domestic and external. They battled the Japanese in the jungles with notable success. 35 Below mentioned are some of the crisis situations where in Ho They liberated certain areas which formed the revolutionary base displayed his pragmatism. area for the whole country which, in the words of Ho, presented (a) Go East Movement: 36 “the image of the New Vietnam to come”. Following the In the early years of the last century, Vietnamese nationalist Japanese surrender on August 25, 1945, Ho proclaimed the scholars longed to go to Japan (East) for studies, training and establishment of Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN) on monetary help from the Japanese government to drive out the September 2, 1945. The historic victory against the Japanese French. Phan Boi Chau, (1867-1940) an early nationalist represented the first ever victory of the Vietnamese guerrillas leader, invited Ho to join the “Go East” movement. Ho without shedding a drop of blood. refused to go to Japan but instead decided to go to the West, The French, who returned to Vietnam in the Post-World War II which was the home of colonial powers, to know how they period, were harassed, like the Japanese earlier, by the remained independent and strong so that he could enlighten Vietnamese guerrillas. For eight years Ho's guerrillas fought the and inspire people of his country to drive away the French French troops in the mountains and rice paddy fields and and gain independence. 38 This strategy paid good dividends eventually defeated the enemy at Dien Bien Phu. Commenting on as Ho was in an admirable position to lead resistance this “ignominious defeat,” an Australian scholar observed:” movement effectively and efficiently in his country. Trying both to stave off the constant guerrilla depredations and to (b) Franco-Vietnamese Agreements of 1946: confront the main thrust of the Vietminh divisions, the French Following the defeat of Japan, Ho proclaimed the met disaster”. 37 The historic victory at Dien Bien Phu in May 1954 establishment of Democratic. Republic of Vietnam (DRVN) marked the “triumph of guerrilla strategy”. After the exit of the on September 2, 1945. Close on the heels of the withdrawal of French, the U.S. got involved by supporting puppet regime in forces of Nationalist China and Britain which were entrusted South Vietnam. In 1959, when the conflict resumed in the South with the task of effecting the surrender of Japanese forces in The guerrillas of North Vietnam and South Vietnam successfully North Vietnam and South Vietnam respectively, Ho signed fought against the Americans and the US-promoted regime in the Preliminary Agreement on March 6, 1946, and Modus South. Thus, the Vietminh guerrillas and Vietcong guerrillas had Vivendi on September 14, 1946, with the French government every reason to feel proud of their splendid role in the victory which provided for. against the formidable foreign enemies which paved the way for the independence and reunification of Vietnam. o Vietnam to be recognized as an independent state with its own government, Parliament, finances and military. Ho Chi Minh: A Pragmatist Ho was sensible and realistic. His decisions and actions, which o Independent Vietnam to become a member of Indochinese shaped the destiny of the Vietnamese revolutionary movement Federation and the French Union. o The DRVN to allow a small French force to relieve the Chinese forces. 26 27 A. Lakshmana Chetty Ho Chi Minh: A Patriot Par Excellence o Holding a referendum to unify Tonkin, Annam and Cochin the entry of the French into Vietnam as the DRVN at that time China. 39 found itself internationally isolated. Even the Soviet Union, the only country on earth which supported and sympathized Ho was aware that the agreements he signed with the French with the Vietnamese struggle, was yet to accord official were more advantageous to France. Ho, therefore, was deeply recognition to the DRVN. Emphasizing the importance of concerned about the opposition likely to come from his wining time to fight militarily powerful enemy, Ho said: “we countrymen. In fact, Ho expressed his agony when he groaned in must win time. In military affairs, time is of prime anguish immediately after he signed the Modus Vivendi: “I have importance. Time ranges first among the three factors for signed my own death warrant”, “I am returning home with victory, before the terrain conditions and the peoples empty hands”. However, Ho was convinced that the accord with 42 France was not entirely bad and this was vindicated by the support”. Giap shared the sentiments of Ho when he said tumultuous welcome he was accorded upon his return home. that while “facing an enemy who temporarily had the upper Positive aspects of the accord by which Vietnam stood to gain in hand…time was needed to mobilize, organize and foster the many ways: forces of resistance, to wear out the enemy forces, turning our weaknesses into strength… eventually to triumph over the Nascent Republic of Vietnam was saved. enemy”. 43 The stage has been set for international recognition of Even though the Franco-Vietnam agreements were signed by Ho Vietnam. To Quote Ho: Our country has been truly with best intention and in the best interests of Vietnam and its independent since August 1945. However, until now, no people, the agreements were not acceptable to some Vietnamese, nation has recognized our independence. The accord with particularly Ho's bitter critics. They accused him of “selling the France will open the way for international recognition. This country'.44 They said that the slogan “independence and will guide us to an increasingly secure place in the unification within the French Union” implied a contradiction. 40 international community. That is a political victory.” They wanted to know why Vietnam agreed to remain part of the Much despised Chinese troops would leave North Vietnam French Union when it claimed to be independent. Some others without any delay pointed out that the slogan, “independence and unification within the French Union,” betrayed a wavering resistance and The DRVN would be able to address its pressing economic 45 hoped for peaceful negotiation with France. The people who problems-particularly the famine which killed two million poured scorn on the agreements constituted a microscopic people in North Vietnam. Ho regarded the famine “even minority. The subjective criticism of Ho did not have any impact more dangerous than war”. 41 on the nationalist movement since Ho was held in high esteem by Ho could pay attention to set right matters of the vast majority of his fellow-countrymen. More important, all revolutionary movement in South Vietnam which was decisions and actions of Ho were motivated by the concern for plagued by internal strife. taking forward the nationalist movement with the ultimate Ho gained much needed time for “building up and objective of freeing the Fatherland which was groaning under the consolidating” his forces so as to take on the French forces in yoke of French imperialism. However, to assuage his critics and case of their provocations leading to a full scale war. Further, assure the populace, Ho stated in a public speech on March 4, it was not an opportune time for the DRVN to fight and stall 1946: “For my entire life, I…..along with you compatriots have

28 29 A. Lakshmana Chetty Ho Chi Minh: A Patriot Par Excellence o Holding a referendum to unify Tonkin, Annam and Cochin the entry of the French into Vietnam as the DRVN at that time China. 39 found itself internationally isolated. Even the Soviet Union, the only country on earth which supported and sympathized Ho was aware that the agreements he signed with the French with the Vietnamese struggle, was yet to accord official were more advantageous to France. Ho, therefore, was deeply recognition to the DRVN. Emphasizing the importance of concerned about the opposition likely to come from his wining time to fight militarily powerful enemy, Ho said: “we countrymen. In fact, Ho expressed his agony when he groaned in must win time. In military affairs, time is of prime anguish immediately after he signed the Modus Vivendi: “I have importance. Time ranges first among the three factors for signed my own death warrant”, “I am returning home with victory, before the terrain conditions and the peoples empty hands”. However, Ho was convinced that the accord with 42 France was not entirely bad and this was vindicated by the support”. Giap shared the sentiments of Ho when he said tumultuous welcome he was accorded upon his return home. that while “facing an enemy who temporarily had the upper Positive aspects of the accord by which Vietnam stood to gain in hand…time was needed to mobilize, organize and foster the many ways: forces of resistance, to wear out the enemy forces, turning our weaknesses into strength… eventually to triumph over the Nascent Republic of Vietnam was saved. enemy”. 43 The stage has been set for international recognition of Even though the Franco-Vietnam agreements were signed by Ho Vietnam. To Quote Ho: Our country has been truly with best intention and in the best interests of Vietnam and its independent since August 1945. However, until now, no people, the agreements were not acceptable to some Vietnamese, nation has recognized our independence. The accord with particularly Ho's bitter critics. They accused him of “selling the France will open the way for international recognition. This country'.44 They said that the slogan “independence and will guide us to an increasingly secure place in the unification within the French Union” implied a contradiction. 40 international community. That is a political victory.” They wanted to know why Vietnam agreed to remain part of the Much despised Chinese troops would leave North Vietnam French Union when it claimed to be independent. Some others without any delay pointed out that the slogan, “independence and unification within the French Union,” betrayed a wavering resistance and The DRVN would be able to address its pressing economic 45 hoped for peaceful negotiation with France. The people who problems-particularly the famine which killed two million poured scorn on the agreements constituted a microscopic people in North Vietnam. Ho regarded the famine “even minority. The subjective criticism of Ho did not have any impact more dangerous than war”. 41 on the nationalist movement since Ho was held in high esteem by Ho could pay attention to set right matters of the vast majority of his fellow-countrymen. More important, all revolutionary movement in South Vietnam which was decisions and actions of Ho were motivated by the concern for plagued by internal strife. taking forward the nationalist movement with the ultimate Ho gained much needed time for “building up and objective of freeing the Fatherland which was groaning under the consolidating” his forces so as to take on the French forces in yoke of French imperialism. However, to assuage his critics and case of their provocations leading to a full scale war. Further, assure the populace, Ho stated in a public speech on March 4, it was not an opportune time for the DRVN to fight and stall 1946: “For my entire life, I…..along with you compatriots have

28 29 A. Lakshmana Chetty Ho Chi Minh: A Patriot Par Excellence struggled for national independence. I would rather die than sell Communist China has been and now is training, equipping our country. 46 and supporting the communist forces in Indochina. There is the risk that, as in Korea, Red China might send its own Geneva Agreements of 1954: army into Indochina. The communist Chinese should Following the comprehensive defeat handed down to France by realize that such a second aggression could not occur the forces of Ho at Dien Bien Phu on May 7, 1954, the armistice without grave consequences, which might not be confined agreements were signed at Geneva on July 21, 1954. The Geneva to Indochina. 48 Accord provided for: Again, on January 12, 1954, Dulles threatened the DRVN and the a case-fire agreed upon by the belligerents. 49 PRC with massive and instant retaliation. The Soviet Union was the grant of independence to Vietnam. gravely concerned that in the event of the US becoming infuriated the termination of French sovereignty over Vietnam. by the Chinese provocations, the PRC, would have “very excuse of invoking Sino-Soviet Treaty” which “might lead to a world The temporary partition of Vietnam at the 17th parallel and war”. 50 With the Soviet Union and the PRC backing out, Ho's the creation of two sovereign states-the DRVN in the North DRVN found itself in a helpless situation the issue of partition of headed by Ho Chi Minh, and the Saigon government in the Vietnam. South under the control of Bao Dai, the ex-emperor of Vietnam. Though let down by the international community, Ho found comfort in the fact that the division was temporary. Ho was the divided Vietnam to be eventually reunified after elections confident that, given his widespread popularity with his fellow in July 1956. countrymen, his nation would be reunited after general elections Of all the provisions of the Geneva Agreement, it was the in both sectors in 1956. Ho's pragmatism in finally agreeing to the provision relating to the temporary partition of Vietnam that temporary division of Vietnam with the hope of Vietnam being generated a lot of heat. Partition became an inescapable necessity reunified soon-was vindicated by the objective assessment of the as the West insisted on it. From the view point of the West it was a Vietnam's domestic political scenario made by eminent persons, face-saving device by which half of Vietnam was salvaged. As The including some of his bitter foes. Eisenhower, who was the Hindu commented, the French considered the agreement on President of the U.S. at the time of Geneva Agreements of 1954 partition as “honorable”. 47 were signed, wrote later that if elections were held, possibly eighty per cent of the population would have voted for the The Geneva decision on partition greatly saddened the DRVN communist Ho Chi Minh as their leader rather than Chief of State, leaders. The victor was denied of the fruits of the victory earned in 51 Bao Dai. Bernard B. Fall, who made an on the-spot study of the a hard way. Ho, in particular, was greatly disappointed because situation in Indochina in 1953, observed: “It is beyond doubt that his passionate desire of emergence of a unified independent the Ho Chi Minh Government commands the obedience….of the Vietnam following the exit of the French colonialists was not fully 52 majority of the Vietnamese”. Similar sentiments were given vent realized but only half realized. Ho was disappointed because of to by a respectable Australian reporter of US war: “It was his two chief supporters-the Soviet Union and the People's precisely the fear--that the results of the 1946 election (which Ho's Republic of China (the PRC)-gave in to the Western pressure. It Vietminh swept) would have been confirmed, perhaps even more may be recalled that in a warning issued on September 3, 1953, decisively, in 1956--that prompted Washington to avoid at any John Foster Dulles, the U.S. Secretary of State, declared:

30 31 A. Lakshmana Chetty Ho Chi Minh: A Patriot Par Excellence struggled for national independence. I would rather die than sell Communist China has been and now is training, equipping our country. 46 and supporting the communist forces in Indochina. There is the risk that, as in Korea, Red China might send its own Geneva Agreements of 1954: army into Indochina. The communist Chinese should Following the comprehensive defeat handed down to France by realize that such a second aggression could not occur the forces of Ho at Dien Bien Phu on May 7, 1954, the armistice without grave consequences, which might not be confined agreements were signed at Geneva on July 21, 1954. The Geneva to Indochina. 48 Accord provided for: Again, on January 12, 1954, Dulles threatened the DRVN and the a case-fire agreed upon by the belligerents. 49 PRC with massive and instant retaliation. The Soviet Union was the grant of independence to Vietnam. gravely concerned that in the event of the US becoming infuriated the termination of French sovereignty over Vietnam. by the Chinese provocations, the PRC, would have “very excuse of invoking Sino-Soviet Treaty” which “might lead to a world The temporary partition of Vietnam at the 17th parallel and war”. 50 With the Soviet Union and the PRC backing out, Ho's the creation of two sovereign states-the DRVN in the North DRVN found itself in a helpless situation the issue of partition of headed by Ho Chi Minh, and the Saigon government in the Vietnam. South under the control of Bao Dai, the ex-emperor of Vietnam. Though let down by the international community, Ho found comfort in the fact that the division was temporary. Ho was the divided Vietnam to be eventually reunified after elections confident that, given his widespread popularity with his fellow in July 1956. countrymen, his nation would be reunited after general elections Of all the provisions of the Geneva Agreement, it was the in both sectors in 1956. Ho's pragmatism in finally agreeing to the provision relating to the temporary partition of Vietnam that temporary division of Vietnam with the hope of Vietnam being generated a lot of heat. Partition became an inescapable necessity reunified soon-was vindicated by the objective assessment of the as the West insisted on it. From the view point of the West it was a Vietnam's domestic political scenario made by eminent persons, face-saving device by which half of Vietnam was salvaged. As The including some of his bitter foes. Eisenhower, who was the Hindu commented, the French considered the agreement on President of the U.S. at the time of Geneva Agreements of 1954 partition as “honorable”. 47 were signed, wrote later that if elections were held, possibly eighty per cent of the population would have voted for the The Geneva decision on partition greatly saddened the DRVN communist Ho Chi Minh as their leader rather than Chief of State, leaders. The victor was denied of the fruits of the victory earned in 51 Bao Dai. Bernard B. Fall, who made an on the-spot study of the a hard way. Ho, in particular, was greatly disappointed because situation in Indochina in 1953, observed: “It is beyond doubt that his passionate desire of emergence of a unified independent the Ho Chi Minh Government commands the obedience….of the Vietnam following the exit of the French colonialists was not fully 52 majority of the Vietnamese”. Similar sentiments were given vent realized but only half realized. Ho was disappointed because of to by a respectable Australian reporter of US war: “It was his two chief supporters-the Soviet Union and the People's precisely the fear--that the results of the 1946 election (which Ho's Republic of China (the PRC)-gave in to the Western pressure. It Vietminh swept) would have been confirmed, perhaps even more may be recalled that in a warning issued on September 3, 1953, decisively, in 1956--that prompted Washington to avoid at any John Foster Dulles, the U.S. Secretary of State, declared:

30 31 A. Lakshmana Chetty Ho Chi Minh: A Patriot Par Excellence cost the elections, which according to the Geneva Agreements, Vietnam after the war so as to send away the Chinese forces from should have taken place in July that year. In the eyes of the most the soil of Vietnam at the earliest and also to save the young observers, the decision not to hold those elections is the single Republic of Vietnam; third, to fight the French to protect and most fundamental reason for the present conflict”. 53 promote the newly won independence; fourth, to take on the Americans who intruded to prop up puppet regime in Saigon and Conclusion: prevent the reunification of Vietnam. He clearly identified the Vietnam suffered seventeen foreign invasions in its history. For a enemies before eliminating them. The critically important factor major part of the last century Vietnamese found themselves of Ho's war strategy was the guerrilla warfare. Ho, like Mao Tse fighting and making heroic sacrifices. Before attaining its Tung, was not at all “ashamed” of guerrilla character of the independence in 1945 Vietnam remained a colony of the French Vietnam National Army. On the other hand, Ho viewed that the for seven decades. Even after proclaiming its independence guerrilla character was the distinct feature of the Vietminh and Vietnam was subjected to foreign aggressions. Repulsing the the Viet-cong, their strong point and best means to defeat the enemy had been the tradition of the Vietnamese. Vietnamese have enemy. He equally believed that guerrilla warfare was the only been great patriots. Ho, the king of patriots, exploited this way to mobilizing and availing the entire strength of the people sentiment to the cause of national independence and unification. against the French and the American imperialists who enjoyed His simple way of living, which is universally acknowledged and superiority in military hardware as well as technique. appreciated and his inspiring speeches, writings and appeals, stirred the Vietnamese up to fight for the nation. Ho displayed his statesmanship and pragmatism to gain time for his government to stabilize and strengthen itself before taking the Ho realized that fighting the two big imperialist powers and offensive. Ho was the “soul” of Vietnamese revolution. He coming out in flying colours demanded the pursuit of an inclusive demonstrated extraordinary nationalist spirit in defence of his policy. As part of this grand strategy he mobilized Vietnamese heroic nation “All roads lead to Rome” as the saying goes. women to defeat the enemy. He won the confidence and respect Similarly, the goal of all efforts, endeavors, strategies and of the women proclaiming that they were equal to men. Further, sacrifices of Ho was to accomplish the sacred patriotic task of Ho firmly believed that mass support was an absolute necessity. libration, unification and reconstruction of Vietnam. It is sad Since the peasants constituted an overwhelming majority of the beyond measure that Ho left this world six years before his Vietnamese population, Ho considered their active “support and cherished ambition of Unification of Vietnam turned into a participation” in resistance becomes a prerequisite for victory. reality. Despite minor differences among the top leadership consisting of Truong Chinh, Vo Nguyen Giap, and Nguyen Van Linh, besides himself, Ho got on well with all the leaders because he held that unity among the leaders and among the people was essential for Notes: “annihilating the enemy”. 1. Workers.org.www.workers.org/articles/2013/01/29/Ho Chi Minh- Ho's inclusive policy, therefore, formed the sheet anchor of his and-the-Vietnamese -struggle-for-liberation. war strategy. Ho was a brilliant strategist. He was very clear 2. President Ho Chi Minh's Testament (Hanoi, 2008) p. 60. about the various phases of the war strategy he crafted deftly: 3. Ho Chi Minh, Selected Works, (Hanoi, 1977) p.198. first, to fight the Japanese; second, to allow the French to return to 4. Ibid.

32 33 A. Lakshmana Chetty Ho Chi Minh: A Patriot Par Excellence cost the elections, which according to the Geneva Agreements, Vietnam after the war so as to send away the Chinese forces from should have taken place in July that year. In the eyes of the most the soil of Vietnam at the earliest and also to save the young observers, the decision not to hold those elections is the single Republic of Vietnam; third, to fight the French to protect and most fundamental reason for the present conflict”. 53 promote the newly won independence; fourth, to take on the Americans who intruded to prop up puppet regime in Saigon and Conclusion: prevent the reunification of Vietnam. He clearly identified the Vietnam suffered seventeen foreign invasions in its history. For a enemies before eliminating them. The critically important factor major part of the last century Vietnamese found themselves of Ho's war strategy was the guerrilla warfare. Ho, like Mao Tse fighting and making heroic sacrifices. Before attaining its Tung, was not at all “ashamed” of guerrilla character of the independence in 1945 Vietnam remained a colony of the French Vietnam National Army. On the other hand, Ho viewed that the for seven decades. Even after proclaiming its independence guerrilla character was the distinct feature of the Vietminh and Vietnam was subjected to foreign aggressions. Repulsing the the Viet-cong, their strong point and best means to defeat the enemy had been the tradition of the Vietnamese. Vietnamese have enemy. He equally believed that guerrilla warfare was the only been great patriots. Ho, the king of patriots, exploited this way to mobilizing and availing the entire strength of the people sentiment to the cause of national independence and unification. against the French and the American imperialists who enjoyed His simple way of living, which is universally acknowledged and superiority in military hardware as well as technique. appreciated and his inspiring speeches, writings and appeals, stirred the Vietnamese up to fight for the nation. Ho displayed his statesmanship and pragmatism to gain time for his government to stabilize and strengthen itself before taking the Ho realized that fighting the two big imperialist powers and offensive. Ho was the “soul” of Vietnamese revolution. He coming out in flying colours demanded the pursuit of an inclusive demonstrated extraordinary nationalist spirit in defence of his policy. As part of this grand strategy he mobilized Vietnamese heroic nation “All roads lead to Rome” as the saying goes. women to defeat the enemy. He won the confidence and respect Similarly, the goal of all efforts, endeavors, strategies and of the women proclaiming that they were equal to men. Further, sacrifices of Ho was to accomplish the sacred patriotic task of Ho firmly believed that mass support was an absolute necessity. libration, unification and reconstruction of Vietnam. It is sad Since the peasants constituted an overwhelming majority of the beyond measure that Ho left this world six years before his Vietnamese population, Ho considered their active “support and cherished ambition of Unification of Vietnam turned into a participation” in resistance becomes a prerequisite for victory. reality. Despite minor differences among the top leadership consisting of Truong Chinh, Vo Nguyen Giap, and Nguyen Van Linh, besides himself, Ho got on well with all the leaders because he held that unity among the leaders and among the people was essential for Notes: “annihilating the enemy”. 1. Workers.org.www.workers.org/articles/2013/01/29/Ho Chi Minh- Ho's inclusive policy, therefore, formed the sheet anchor of his and-the-Vietnamese -struggle-for-liberation. war strategy. Ho was a brilliant strategist. He was very clear 2. President Ho Chi Minh's Testament (Hanoi, 2008) p. 60. about the various phases of the war strategy he crafted deftly: 3. Ho Chi Minh, Selected Works, (Hanoi, 1977) p.198. first, to fight the Japanese; second, to allow the French to return to 4. Ibid.

32 33 A. Lakshmana Chetty Ho Chi Minh: A Patriot Par Excellence

5. Wilfred Burchett, Vietnam North, (London, 1966) p. 148. 29. Ibid, pp. 164-65. 6. Tran Dan Tiem, “Ho Chi Minh: The Founder of Independent 30. Le Than Danh, “The Long-Haired Army,” Vietnamese Studies, (no. 8, Vietnam”, in Mai Luan, Dae Xuan & Tran Dan Tien, (eds), Ho Chi Minh: Hanoi 1964) pp. 61-62. from Childhood to President of Vietnam (Hanoi, 2005) p. 114. 31. Mai Thi Tu and Le Thi Nham Tuyet, Women in Vietnam, (Hanoi, 1978) 7. Burchett, n. 5, p.149. p.161. 8. Ho Chi Minh's Life and Cause, (Hanoi, 2009) p. 172. 32. Quoted from Borton, n. 9, p. 85. 9. Lady Borton, Ho Chi Minh: A Journey, (Hanoi, 2010) p. 114. 33. Mai Luan, Dac Xuan & Tran Dan Tien) (eds), Ho Chi Minh: From 10. Burchett, n. 5, p. 43. Childhood to President, (Hanoi, 2005) p. 107). 11. Ibid. 34. Truong Chinh, Selected Writings, (Hanoi 1951). 12. Ibid. 35. Alden Whitman, “Ho Chi Minh was noted for success in Blending N a t i o n a l i s m a n d C o m m u n i s m ” , 13. Marry Ann Tetreault, “Women and Revolution in Vietnam,” in http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthesday/bday/ Kathleen Berry, (ed), Vietnam's women in Transition, (London, 1996). 0519.html. p.34. 36. Ho Chi Minh, n. 1, p.104. 14. Ho Chi Minh, n. 3, p.41. 37. J.L.S. Girling, People's War, (London, 1969) p. 135. 15. For text of DRVN constitution, see “The 1946 (Constitution of Vietnam,” http//vietnamlawmagazinevn/news/the_constitution- 38. Borton, n.9, p. 21. of-vietnam/91655621-c192-4933-b6bbe298368.html. 39. For text of Franco-Vietnam Agreement of March 6, 1946 and Franco- 16. Lady Borton, n. 9, p. 97. Vietnam Modus Vivendi of September 14, 1946, see http://www.vietnamgear.com/ march6agreement.aspx, 17. Ibid, p. 99. http://www.vietnamgear.com/modusvivendi.aspx, respectively. 18. Le Tan Danh, “The Long haired Army” Vietnamese Studies, no. 8, 1941 40. For text of Ho's speech on March 7, 1946 about the 'Agreement on the (Hanoi), pp.61-62. Independence of Vietnam' see Borton, n.9, p. 106. 19. Commission for Research on the Party History, (ed), Ho Chi Minh's Life 41. Ho Chi Minh, n. l, pp. 62. and Cause, (GIOI Publishers, Hanoi, 2009) p.212. 42. Ho Chi Minh, Selected Works, vol. III, (Hanoi, 1961), p. 20. 20. “The Part played by South Vietnam's Women in the Revolutionary Power”, Vietnam, No.4, 1975, p.24. 43. Vo Nguyen Giap, People's War, People's Army, (Hanoi, 1961) p. 27. 21. Wilfred Burchett, n.5, p.99. 44. Borton, n.9, p. 107. 22. Ibid, p.89. 45. Truong Chinh, Selected Writings, (Hanoi, 1991) pp. 95-96. 23. Ho Chi Minh, n. 3, pp. 150-151. 46. Borton, n.9, p. 106. 24. Ibid. 47. The Hindu, July 23, 1954. 25. Ibid, p.151. 48. United States, Department of State, Department of State Bulletin, vol. 28, no. 722, April 27, 1953, p. 601 . 26. Ibid. 49. Ibid, vol. 30, no. 761, January 25, 1954, p. 108. 27. Ibid, p.163. 50. Anthony Eden, Full Circle, The Memoirs of Anthony Eden, (London, 1960) 28. Ibid, p.166. pp. 94- 97.

34 35 A. Lakshmana Chetty Ho Chi Minh: A Patriot Par Excellence

5. Wilfred Burchett, Vietnam North, (London, 1966) p. 148. 29. Ibid, pp. 164-65. 6. Tran Dan Tiem, “Ho Chi Minh: The Founder of Independent 30. Le Than Danh, “The Long-Haired Army,” Vietnamese Studies, (no. 8, Vietnam”, in Mai Luan, Dae Xuan & Tran Dan Tien, (eds), Ho Chi Minh: Hanoi 1964) pp. 61-62. from Childhood to President of Vietnam (Hanoi, 2005) p. 114. 31. Mai Thi Tu and Le Thi Nham Tuyet, Women in Vietnam, (Hanoi, 1978) 7. Burchett, n. 5, p.149. p.161. 8. Ho Chi Minh's Life and Cause, (Hanoi, 2009) p. 172. 32. Quoted from Borton, n. 9, p. 85. 9. Lady Borton, Ho Chi Minh: A Journey, (Hanoi, 2010) p. 114. 33. Mai Luan, Dac Xuan & Tran Dan Tien) (eds), Ho Chi Minh: From 10. Burchett, n. 5, p. 43. Childhood to President, (Hanoi, 2005) p. 107). 11. Ibid. 34. Truong Chinh, Selected Writings, (Hanoi 1951). 12. Ibid. 35. Alden Whitman, “Ho Chi Minh was noted for success in Blending N a t i o n a l i s m a n d C o m m u n i s m ” , 13. Marry Ann Tetreault, “Women and Revolution in Vietnam,” in http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthesday/bday/ Kathleen Berry, (ed), Vietnam's women in Transition, (London, 1996). 0519.html. p.34. 36. Ho Chi Minh, n. 1, p.104. 14. Ho Chi Minh, n. 3, p.41. 37. J.L.S. Girling, People's War, (London, 1969) p. 135. 15. For text of DRVN constitution, see “The 1946 (Constitution of Vietnam,” http//vietnamlawmagazinevn/news/the_constitution- 38. Borton, n.9, p. 21. of-vietnam/91655621-c192-4933-b6bbe298368.html. 39. For text of Franco-Vietnam Agreement of March 6, 1946 and Franco- 16. Lady Borton, n. 9, p. 97. Vietnam Modus Vivendi of September 14, 1946, see http://www.vietnamgear.com/ march6agreement.aspx, 17. Ibid, p. 99. http://www.vietnamgear.com/modusvivendi.aspx, respectively. 18. Le Tan Danh, “The Long haired Army” Vietnamese Studies, no. 8, 1941 40. For text of Ho's speech on March 7, 1946 about the 'Agreement on the (Hanoi), pp.61-62. Independence of Vietnam' see Borton, n.9, p. 106. 19. Commission for Research on the Party History, (ed), Ho Chi Minh's Life 41. Ho Chi Minh, n. l, pp. 62. and Cause, (GIOI Publishers, Hanoi, 2009) p.212. 42. Ho Chi Minh, Selected Works, vol. III, (Hanoi, 1961), p. 20. 20. “The Part played by South Vietnam's Women in the Revolutionary Power”, Vietnam, No.4, 1975, p.24. 43. Vo Nguyen Giap, People's War, People's Army, (Hanoi, 1961) p. 27. 21. Wilfred Burchett, n.5, p.99. 44. Borton, n.9, p. 107. 22. Ibid, p.89. 45. Truong Chinh, Selected Writings, (Hanoi, 1991) pp. 95-96. 23. Ho Chi Minh, n. 3, pp. 150-151. 46. Borton, n.9, p. 106. 24. Ibid. 47. The Hindu, July 23, 1954. 25. Ibid, p.151. 48. United States, Department of State, Department of State Bulletin, vol. 28, no. 722, April 27, 1953, p. 601 . 26. Ibid. 49. Ibid, vol. 30, no. 761, January 25, 1954, p. 108. 27. Ibid, p.163. 50. Anthony Eden, Full Circle, The Memoirs of Anthony Eden, (London, 1960) 28. Ibid, p.166. pp. 94- 97.

34 35 A. Lakshmana Chetty Ho Chi Minh: A Strategist and Visionary 51. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Mandate for Change, 1953-56, (New York, 1963), pp. 88. K. Raja Reddy 52. Bernard B. Fall, The Vietminh Regime, (New York, 1954) pp. 116-117. Professor and Former Director, Centre for Southeast Asian & Pacific Studies 53. Wilfred Burchett, n.5, p. 153. Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati Email: [email protected]

In the course of its long and eventful history, Vietnam gave birth to captivating personalities with an indomitable courage as if they were born to liberate their countrymen from political and social servitudes. Ho Chi Minh was one such personality born on 19 May 1890, at his mother's village Hoang Tru of Kim Lien commune located in Nghe An province. Nghe An and Ha Tinh areas in Central Vietnam were long been considered as the cradle of Vietnamese revolution. At birth Ho Cho Minh was named Nguyen Sinh Cung and he was called Nguyen Tat Thanh after he joined in the school. His father Nguyen Sinh Huy a Pho Bang (doctor of literature) scholar lived a simple life as a teacher and instilled love of labour and patriotic zeal among his three children, two boys and a girl of whom Ho Chi Minh was the youngest. He insisted his children to study and understand ethical values of the Vietnamese society. A strikingly thin figure to look Ho Chi Minh, at the age of twenty one, left the country in a French ship joined as a kitchen help, travelled to France with a burning urge to salvage the servitude of his people who were languishing under colonial bondage. In France, he called himself Nguyen Ai Quoc, petitioned to the victorious leaders of the First World War at the Versailles Conference held in the beginning of 1919 to redress the apathy of the Vietnamese under the French colonial rule. He urged victorious colonial powers to recognize the Vietnamese democratic freedoms and equality. Next year he joined in the newly created French Communist Party and found Marxism and Leninism as a suitable doctrine to better the life of his countrymen impoverished on account of colonial serfdom.

36 37 A. Lakshmana Chetty Ho Chi Minh: A Strategist and Visionary 51. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Mandate for Change, 1953-56, (New York, 1963), pp. 88. K. Raja Reddy 52. Bernard B. Fall, The Vietminh Regime, (New York, 1954) pp. 116-117. Professor and Former Director, Centre for Southeast Asian & Pacific Studies 53. Wilfred Burchett, n.5, p. 153. Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati Email: [email protected]

In the course of its long and eventful history, Vietnam gave birth to captivating personalities with an indomitable courage as if they were born to liberate their countrymen from political and social servitudes. Ho Chi Minh was one such personality born on 19 May 1890, at his mother's village Hoang Tru of Kim Lien commune located in Nghe An province. Nghe An and Ha Tinh areas in Central Vietnam were long been considered as the cradle of Vietnamese revolution. At birth Ho Cho Minh was named Nguyen Sinh Cung and he was called Nguyen Tat Thanh after he joined in the school. His father Nguyen Sinh Huy a Pho Bang (doctor of literature) scholar lived a simple life as a teacher and instilled love of labour and patriotic zeal among his three children, two boys and a girl of whom Ho Chi Minh was the youngest. He insisted his children to study and understand ethical values of the Vietnamese society. A strikingly thin figure to look Ho Chi Minh, at the age of twenty one, left the country in a French ship joined as a kitchen help, travelled to France with a burning urge to salvage the servitude of his people who were languishing under colonial bondage. In France, he called himself Nguyen Ai Quoc, petitioned to the victorious leaders of the First World War at the Versailles Conference held in the beginning of 1919 to redress the apathy of the Vietnamese under the French colonial rule. He urged victorious colonial powers to recognize the Vietnamese democratic freedoms and equality. Next year he joined in the newly created French Communist Party and found Marxism and Leninism as a suitable doctrine to better the life of his countrymen impoverished on account of colonial serfdom.

36 37 K. Raja Reddy Ho Chi Minh: A Strategist and Visionary

His deeper studies of Marxism and Leninism drew him more people from all walks of life and various nationalist parties closer to understand that Communist International was the real fighting for country's independence. Indochina Communist answer for preparing the revolutionary liberation movement in Party also got subsumed in Viet Minh. Vietnam. In June 1923 he went to Soviet Union to participate in Ho Chi Minh soon became a household name in Vietnam. He the Fifth Congress of the Communist International which was emerged as a legend in his own lifetime where Vietnamese postponed due to the ill health of Lenin who passed away on 21 mothers sang songs to cheer their infant children with the stories January 1924. When the Fifth Congress of the Communist of heroic qualities of their great leader. Ho Chi Minh also emerged International was ultimately held in July 1924 Ho Chi Minh as a master strategist. His ability to lead the masses and at the attended the Congress as advisory representative and read out same time handling the political situations at the national and his views on the colonial question. By the end of 1924 Ho Chi international level revealed his inherent leadership quality. The Minh moved from Soviet Union to China as a trained Comintern Vietnamese reposed their faith in Ho Chi Minh as he was looked agent and shouldered the responsibility of contacting with the upon as saviour of Vietnamese multitudes who were suffering in masses to organize and train them to fight for freedom and abject poverty. He could successfully ignite the spirit of rebellion independence of Vietnam in particular and Cambodia and Laos which others could not do it on that scale. He was inflexible in his in general which were also groaning under French domination. commitment to Vietnam's independence. This commitment Being an intense patriot, Ho believed in blending patriotism with retained him as the beloved leader of the Vietnamese masses communism not only to liberate the country but to rid the society whose image was far above others in the national struggle by the of feudal tyranny. He was well aware that the struggle for the time he proclaimed independence to his country on 2 September liberation of the country was a herculean task and the people 1945. should prepare for sacrifices. The first sacrifice that came from him was that he remained celibate and led an exemplary simple The volatile political situation in the country in the wake of the life. The decade of 1930s was a gruelling period in the history of reestablishment of French control after Second World War caused Vietnamese nationalist struggle. In the wake of oppressive French uncertainty, anxiety and confusion over the tenability of newly rule Ho Chi Minh prepared the communist cadres for creating a declared independence to the nation. It was during this period revolutionary tide in Nghe An and Ha Tinh areas and Ho Chi Minh further emerged as the most famous and a pivotal simultaneously established a political party called the Indochina figure whose name became synonymous with the country's name Communist Party in 1930. In a decade under the leadership of Ho Vietnam to the outside world. His fight against the Japanese and Chi Minh the Party not only withstood the serious French the French and the war time strategies proved his high quality repression but also enormously expanded its membership and calibre in conducting revolutionary struggles. The guerrilla popularity among the people of Vietnam. After years of intense warfare waged from the mountains, caves and thick jungle revolutionary activities, he crossed China and entered his valleys soon ignited rebellion which spread to the villages under homeland in 1941 to prepare the ground to launch a battle against the leadership of Ho Chi Minh. The victory at Dien Bien Phu, the French colonial rule. He emerged on the horizon as an sounded the death-knell of the century long French rule, was a enlightened person and assumed new name Ho Chi Minh (Ho the master strategy drawn by Ho Chi Minh and executed by Vo enlightened) finally shedding a number of aliases he used when Nguyen Giap. in abroad. He had established Vietnam Independence League Ho Chi Minh was not satisfied with the division of Vietnam popularly known as Viet Minh, a broader organization to include forced on the country in accordance with Geneva Agreements of

38 39 K. Raja Reddy Ho Chi Minh: A Strategist and Visionary

His deeper studies of Marxism and Leninism drew him more people from all walks of life and various nationalist parties closer to understand that Communist International was the real fighting for country's independence. Indochina Communist answer for preparing the revolutionary liberation movement in Party also got subsumed in Viet Minh. Vietnam. In June 1923 he went to Soviet Union to participate in Ho Chi Minh soon became a household name in Vietnam. He the Fifth Congress of the Communist International which was emerged as a legend in his own lifetime where Vietnamese postponed due to the ill health of Lenin who passed away on 21 mothers sang songs to cheer their infant children with the stories January 1924. When the Fifth Congress of the Communist of heroic qualities of their great leader. Ho Chi Minh also emerged International was ultimately held in July 1924 Ho Chi Minh as a master strategist. His ability to lead the masses and at the attended the Congress as advisory representative and read out same time handling the political situations at the national and his views on the colonial question. By the end of 1924 Ho Chi international level revealed his inherent leadership quality. The Minh moved from Soviet Union to China as a trained Comintern Vietnamese reposed their faith in Ho Chi Minh as he was looked agent and shouldered the responsibility of contacting with the upon as saviour of Vietnamese multitudes who were suffering in masses to organize and train them to fight for freedom and abject poverty. He could successfully ignite the spirit of rebellion independence of Vietnam in particular and Cambodia and Laos which others could not do it on that scale. He was inflexible in his in general which were also groaning under French domination. commitment to Vietnam's independence. This commitment Being an intense patriot, Ho believed in blending patriotism with retained him as the beloved leader of the Vietnamese masses communism not only to liberate the country but to rid the society whose image was far above others in the national struggle by the of feudal tyranny. He was well aware that the struggle for the time he proclaimed independence to his country on 2 September liberation of the country was a herculean task and the people 1945. should prepare for sacrifices. The first sacrifice that came from him was that he remained celibate and led an exemplary simple The volatile political situation in the country in the wake of the life. The decade of 1930s was a gruelling period in the history of reestablishment of French control after Second World War caused Vietnamese nationalist struggle. In the wake of oppressive French uncertainty, anxiety and confusion over the tenability of newly rule Ho Chi Minh prepared the communist cadres for creating a declared independence to the nation. It was during this period revolutionary tide in Nghe An and Ha Tinh areas and Ho Chi Minh further emerged as the most famous and a pivotal simultaneously established a political party called the Indochina figure whose name became synonymous with the country's name Communist Party in 1930. In a decade under the leadership of Ho Vietnam to the outside world. His fight against the Japanese and Chi Minh the Party not only withstood the serious French the French and the war time strategies proved his high quality repression but also enormously expanded its membership and calibre in conducting revolutionary struggles. The guerrilla popularity among the people of Vietnam. After years of intense warfare waged from the mountains, caves and thick jungle revolutionary activities, he crossed China and entered his valleys soon ignited rebellion which spread to the villages under homeland in 1941 to prepare the ground to launch a battle against the leadership of Ho Chi Minh. The victory at Dien Bien Phu, the French colonial rule. He emerged on the horizon as an sounded the death-knell of the century long French rule, was a enlightened person and assumed new name Ho Chi Minh (Ho the master strategy drawn by Ho Chi Minh and executed by Vo enlightened) finally shedding a number of aliases he used when Nguyen Giap. in abroad. He had established Vietnam Independence League Ho Chi Minh was not satisfied with the division of Vietnam popularly known as Viet Minh, a broader organization to include forced on the country in accordance with Geneva Agreements of

38 39 K. Raja Reddy Ho Chi Minh: A Strategist and Visionary

1954. He was determined to unify the country through peaceful Kobelev, Yevgeny, Ho Chi Minh, (Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1983) means if possible, if not, through struggle. He knew that the Lacouture, Jean, Ho Chi Minh: A Political Biography, (Random House, New struggle in the southern half of Vietnam got complicated in view York, 1968) of the country became a hot bed of Cold War rivalry. As the Ho Chi Minh Selected Writings, (Foreign Languages Publishing House, Hanoi, United States pushed itself into the vortex of this rivalry styling 1977) itself the saviour of democracies, Ho Chi Minh was sure that the Quinn-Judge, Sophie, Ho Chi Minh: The Missing Years, (Horizon Books, struggle would be harder and prolonged. He, therefore, Singapore, 2003) prepared the Vietnamese to wage a political and at the same time an armed struggle to unify the country forcefully. Well trained Uncle Ho, (Foreign Languages Publishing House, Hanoi, 1980). armed guerrilla units were clandestinely dispatched from north to the south with specific instructions to give the struggle a southern slant so that the fight in South Vietnam should be projected as the fight between the South Vietnamese and the US troops. It was Ho Chi Minh's astute planning to carry the war tales into the American households. Vietnam War became a nightmare to the United States of America and the American society was vertically divided on the propriety of continuing the war as American casualties were mounting. When this superpower was forced to sue for peace, Ho Chi Minh was sure that the Vietnamese would emerge victorious. Six years before his dream came true and his compatriots won a resounding victory and unified the country he passed away on 2 September 1969. Long queues of people waiting to see Ho Chi Minh's embalmed body kept in a Mausoleum at Ba Dinh Square in Hanoi is the reminder of how he is fondly remembered. To the Vietnamese he is affectionately known as 'Uncle Ho'.

References: Archer, Jules, Ho Chi Minh - Legend of Hanoi, (The Macmillian Company, New York, 1971) Buttinger, Joseph, Vietnam - A Dragon Embattled, (Frederick A. Praeger, New York, 1967) Duiker, William J., Ho Chi Minh: A Life, (1890-1969), (Hyperion Books, New York, 2001)

40 41 K. Raja Reddy Ho Chi Minh: A Strategist and Visionary

1954. He was determined to unify the country through peaceful Kobelev, Yevgeny, Ho Chi Minh, (Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1983) means if possible, if not, through struggle. He knew that the Lacouture, Jean, Ho Chi Minh: A Political Biography, (Random House, New struggle in the southern half of Vietnam got complicated in view York, 1968) of the country became a hot bed of Cold War rivalry. As the Ho Chi Minh Selected Writings, (Foreign Languages Publishing House, Hanoi, United States pushed itself into the vortex of this rivalry styling 1977) itself the saviour of democracies, Ho Chi Minh was sure that the Quinn-Judge, Sophie, Ho Chi Minh: The Missing Years, (Horizon Books, struggle would be harder and prolonged. He, therefore, Singapore, 2003) prepared the Vietnamese to wage a political and at the same time an armed struggle to unify the country forcefully. Well trained Uncle Ho, (Foreign Languages Publishing House, Hanoi, 1980). armed guerrilla units were clandestinely dispatched from north to the south with specific instructions to give the struggle a southern slant so that the fight in South Vietnam should be projected as the fight between the South Vietnamese and the US troops. It was Ho Chi Minh's astute planning to carry the war tales into the American households. Vietnam War became a nightmare to the United States of America and the American society was vertically divided on the propriety of continuing the war as American casualties were mounting. When this superpower was forced to sue for peace, Ho Chi Minh was sure that the Vietnamese would emerge victorious. Six years before his dream came true and his compatriots won a resounding victory and unified the country he passed away on 2 September 1969. Long queues of people waiting to see Ho Chi Minh's embalmed body kept in a Mausoleum at Ba Dinh Square in Hanoi is the reminder of how he is fondly remembered. To the Vietnamese he is affectionately known as 'Uncle Ho'.

References: Archer, Jules, Ho Chi Minh - Legend of Hanoi, (The Macmillian Company, New York, 1971) Buttinger, Joseph, Vietnam - A Dragon Embattled, (Frederick A. Praeger, New York, 1967) Duiker, William J., Ho Chi Minh: A Life, (1890-1969), (Hyperion Books, New York, 2001)

40 41 The Nationalist Communist: Understanding Ho Chi Minh as a Product of Anti-Colonialism The Nationalist Communist: Understanding Ho Chi Minh as a Product of Anti-Colonialism colonial legacy. While several interpretations of Ho Chi Minh life and work exist, the focus on his leadership during the nationalist Shankari Sundararaman struggle is a critical one that remains relevant even today. This is Professor, Centre for Indo-Pacific Studies, School of Internaional Studies due to the fact that countries in the wider Indo-Pacific region are Jawaharlal Nehru University, New delhi going through a process of change in adjusting to the emerging Email: [email protected] global order, issues relating to sovereignty and territorial integrity are becoming more critical and vital to nation-states. It is in this context of understanding the impact of a resurgence of Introduction nationalism that Ho Chi Minh's leadership and contributions On May 19, 2015, Vietnam will celebrate the 125th birth become indispensible even today. anniversary of Ho Chi Minh or Uncle Ho as he was known to most Birth and Early Influences: of his compatriots. As part of this august event the Centre for Ho Chi Minh was born in the province of Nghe An on 19 May Southeast Asian and Pacific Studies of the Sri Venkateshwara 1890. His name was given as Nguyen Sinh Cung. This was at the University at Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh organized a two day height of the French colonial administration in Indochina, where international conference to commemorate the event. The by the end of the 19th century, the French expansion in Indochina significance of this is international conference is to assess and was complete. It is interesting to note that the French presence in understand how this particular leader, a man of diminutive figure the region can be dated back to the 17th century when Jesuit and size, was able to envision an Asia free from colonial rule and Christian missionaries arrived in this region with the purpose of to apply this vision to the particular case of Vietnam. In contrast to spreading their faith. The earliest of these influences was visible his small build he towered among the nationalist leaders of that in the areas around the southern areas of the lower Mekong delta era and with systematic effort ended the colonial rule over th where the erstwhile kingdom of Champa had its origins and had Vietnam. As one of the most revolutionary leaders of the 20 ceased to exist around the 19th Century when the Vietnamese century, Unlce Ho, as he was fondly called, also fought against the emperor Minh Mang occupied it in 1832. This area defined as imperial powers which prevented Vietnamese unification during Cham was not a single unified entity, but it was a mosaic of the height of the cold war. several different territories, that covered the region of what is Even today, nearly fifty years after his passing, an understanding modern day southern Vietnam. The collapse of the erstwhile of the lessons from his life and contributions of remain relevant kingdoms occurred simultaneously as the European expansion even as the events shaping the global order are changing began in the region. tremendously, making way for a new global order that will Through the 19th century the French expansion covered almost emerge. In this context the conference is very significant, bringing all the territories of Indochina, which had been divided four together several threads that link the relevance of Ho Chi Minh. In regions the regions that comprise the modern day state of this paper the focus is on the role that Ho Chi Minh played in his Vietnam was divided into three areas Cochin China which is efforts to push forward the struggle against colonialism. While Southern Vietnam, Annam or Central Vietnam and Tongkin there are several interpretations about his life and times, it is which is Northern Vietnam.1 It also comprised the regions of important to understand that he was first and foremost a modern day Cambodia that was incorporated into the French nationalist leader whose main focus was to rid Vietnam of its Protectorate when King Ang Duong, offered his territory as a

42 43 The Nationalist Communist: Understanding Ho Chi Minh as a Product of Anti-Colonialism The Nationalist Communist: Understanding Ho Chi Minh as a Product of Anti-Colonialism colonial legacy. While several interpretations of Ho Chi Minh life and work exist, the focus on his leadership during the nationalist Shankari Sundararaman struggle is a critical one that remains relevant even today. This is Professor, Centre for Indo-Pacific Studies, School of Internaional Studies due to the fact that countries in the wider Indo-Pacific region are Jawaharlal Nehru University, New delhi going through a process of change in adjusting to the emerging Email: [email protected] global order, issues relating to sovereignty and territorial integrity are becoming more critical and vital to nation-states. It is in this context of understanding the impact of a resurgence of Introduction nationalism that Ho Chi Minh's leadership and contributions On May 19, 2015, Vietnam will celebrate the 125th birth become indispensible even today. anniversary of Ho Chi Minh or Uncle Ho as he was known to most Birth and Early Influences: of his compatriots. As part of this august event the Centre for Ho Chi Minh was born in the province of Nghe An on 19 May Southeast Asian and Pacific Studies of the Sri Venkateshwara 1890. His name was given as Nguyen Sinh Cung. This was at the University at Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh organized a two day height of the French colonial administration in Indochina, where international conference to commemorate the event. The by the end of the 19th century, the French expansion in Indochina significance of this is international conference is to assess and was complete. It is interesting to note that the French presence in understand how this particular leader, a man of diminutive figure the region can be dated back to the 17th century when Jesuit and size, was able to envision an Asia free from colonial rule and Christian missionaries arrived in this region with the purpose of to apply this vision to the particular case of Vietnam. In contrast to spreading their faith. The earliest of these influences was visible his small build he towered among the nationalist leaders of that in the areas around the southern areas of the lower Mekong delta era and with systematic effort ended the colonial rule over th where the erstwhile kingdom of Champa had its origins and had Vietnam. As one of the most revolutionary leaders of the 20 ceased to exist around the 19th Century when the Vietnamese century, Unlce Ho, as he was fondly called, also fought against the emperor Minh Mang occupied it in 1832. This area defined as imperial powers which prevented Vietnamese unification during Cham was not a single unified entity, but it was a mosaic of the height of the cold war. several different territories, that covered the region of what is Even today, nearly fifty years after his passing, an understanding modern day southern Vietnam. The collapse of the erstwhile of the lessons from his life and contributions of remain relevant kingdoms occurred simultaneously as the European expansion even as the events shaping the global order are changing began in the region. tremendously, making way for a new global order that will Through the 19th century the French expansion covered almost emerge. In this context the conference is very significant, bringing all the territories of Indochina, which had been divided four together several threads that link the relevance of Ho Chi Minh. In regions the regions that comprise the modern day state of this paper the focus is on the role that Ho Chi Minh played in his Vietnam was divided into three areas Cochin China which is efforts to push forward the struggle against colonialism. While Southern Vietnam, Annam or Central Vietnam and Tongkin there are several interpretations about his life and times, it is which is Northern Vietnam.1 It also comprised the regions of important to understand that he was first and foremost a modern day Cambodia that was incorporated into the French nationalist leader whose main focus was to rid Vietnam of its Protectorate when King Ang Duong, offered his territory as a

42 43 Shankari Sundararaman The Nationalist Communist: Understanding Ho Chi Minh as a Product of Anti-Colonialism

French Protectorate in 1863. This step by King Ang Duong was to traditional Vietnamese system and imparted Vietnamese prevent further inroads into the Angkor Territory by its education.7 It is interesting to note that as a part of the Mandarin neighbouring states of Siam (Thailand) and Vietnam.2 By 1887, the service that continued to administer the territories of the French, French too had incorporated these four regions into its political Ho Chi Minh's father was not part of anti-French protests, consolidation and in 1893 Laos too was brought under French however, he was eventually demoted by four ranks from the control.3 Of these territories only the region of Cochin China was Mandarin service for protecting a prisoner in his jurisdiction, directly controlled by the French while there was indirect control following which the family moved to Saigon.8 over the other regions using the pre-existing mandarin system of Among these early influences it is imperative to understand that administration. this period also witnessed several reforms that had begun The expansion of the French in Vietnam was a critical factor in the shaping the Vietnamese consciousness and the move towards the 19th century external influences, where the impact from both nationalist movement was beginning to take shape. Other than missionary activities and trade was combined to push further his father two prominent nationalist leaders of that period were control over Vietnam. Added to this the activities of the Phan Chu Trinh and Phan Boi Chau, who also influenced the missionaries were not always well received. One of the most early understandings of Ho Chi Minh. Phan Chu Trinh was a significant events was the French attack on the port of Tourane contemporary of Ho Chi Minh's father, but refused to serve under (Da Nang) which was a retaliatory attack to avenge the death of the mandarin system given that the system was a de facto control French catholic missionaries who had been executed by the of the French. He instead began to espouse ideals of western Nguyen dynasty that ruled Vietnam.4 This clearly brought to education. Like several leaders emerging from the colonial light the divisions and discord between the traditional culture of experience across Asia, he too believed that the path to liberating Vietnam and the efforts by the French to impose its western one's country lay in the furthering of western education.9 As one cultural influences which is an important theme to bear in mind of the earliest nationalist leader, Phan Chu Trinh was quite while focusing on the contributions of Ho Chi Minh. Given the revolutionary in his thinking. Two of his ideas were ahead of his dichotomy between the traditional Vietnamese culture and the times first, he actually espoused a democratic system of political influences of the French culture, the early childhood influences evolution for the Vietnamese state which was a departure from were impacted by this dichotomy. many of the nationalist leaders of that time. Similarly he was also 10 Ho Chi Minh's early childhood was influenced by teachings from very critical of a role for the Vietnamese monarchy. One of his his own father this was in keeping with the traditional society contentions was that the Vietnamese should emerge as a where the first step of knowledge is imparted from the parents. democratic republic like France. He was of the view that the His father was a high ranking Mandarin and by 1901 he was a existence of French colonies was antithetical to the views of high ranking Chinese teacher in the province of Hue.5 As part of liberty and freedom which the French espoused. He the Mandarin system, Ho Chi Minh's father continued to work for simultaneously laid emphasis on two areas where attention had the French colonial administration, which kept the overarching to be focused if Vietnam was to be independent from colonial rule Mandarin system as the administrative structure even during the first there had to be wide ranging social sector reforms especially 6 in the areas of education and judiciary. Second there had to be colonial period. Ho Chi Minh's initial education and training was economic reforms with a focus on the enhancement of the under his father but later was at the prestigious Lycee Quoc-Hoc 11 which was based in the city of Hue. The school was based on the agricultural and industrial sectors.

44 45 Shankari Sundararaman The Nationalist Communist: Understanding Ho Chi Minh as a Product of Anti-Colonialism

French Protectorate in 1863. This step by King Ang Duong was to traditional Vietnamese system and imparted Vietnamese prevent further inroads into the Angkor Territory by its education.7 It is interesting to note that as a part of the Mandarin neighbouring states of Siam (Thailand) and Vietnam.2 By 1887, the service that continued to administer the territories of the French, French too had incorporated these four regions into its political Ho Chi Minh's father was not part of anti-French protests, consolidation and in 1893 Laos too was brought under French however, he was eventually demoted by four ranks from the control.3 Of these territories only the region of Cochin China was Mandarin service for protecting a prisoner in his jurisdiction, directly controlled by the French while there was indirect control following which the family moved to Saigon.8 over the other regions using the pre-existing mandarin system of Among these early influences it is imperative to understand that administration. this period also witnessed several reforms that had begun The expansion of the French in Vietnam was a critical factor in the shaping the Vietnamese consciousness and the move towards the 19th century external influences, where the impact from both nationalist movement was beginning to take shape. Other than missionary activities and trade was combined to push further his father two prominent nationalist leaders of that period were control over Vietnam. Added to this the activities of the Phan Chu Trinh and Phan Boi Chau, who also influenced the missionaries were not always well received. One of the most early understandings of Ho Chi Minh. Phan Chu Trinh was a significant events was the French attack on the port of Tourane contemporary of Ho Chi Minh's father, but refused to serve under (Da Nang) which was a retaliatory attack to avenge the death of the mandarin system given that the system was a de facto control French catholic missionaries who had been executed by the of the French. He instead began to espouse ideals of western Nguyen dynasty that ruled Vietnam.4 This clearly brought to education. Like several leaders emerging from the colonial light the divisions and discord between the traditional culture of experience across Asia, he too believed that the path to liberating Vietnam and the efforts by the French to impose its western one's country lay in the furthering of western education.9 As one cultural influences which is an important theme to bear in mind of the earliest nationalist leader, Phan Chu Trinh was quite while focusing on the contributions of Ho Chi Minh. Given the revolutionary in his thinking. Two of his ideas were ahead of his dichotomy between the traditional Vietnamese culture and the times first, he actually espoused a democratic system of political influences of the French culture, the early childhood influences evolution for the Vietnamese state which was a departure from were impacted by this dichotomy. many of the nationalist leaders of that time. Similarly he was also 10 Ho Chi Minh's early childhood was influenced by teachings from very critical of a role for the Vietnamese monarchy. One of his his own father this was in keeping with the traditional society contentions was that the Vietnamese should emerge as a where the first step of knowledge is imparted from the parents. democratic republic like France. He was of the view that the His father was a high ranking Mandarin and by 1901 he was a existence of French colonies was antithetical to the views of high ranking Chinese teacher in the province of Hue.5 As part of liberty and freedom which the French espoused. He the Mandarin system, Ho Chi Minh's father continued to work for simultaneously laid emphasis on two areas where attention had the French colonial administration, which kept the overarching to be focused if Vietnam was to be independent from colonial rule Mandarin system as the administrative structure even during the first there had to be wide ranging social sector reforms especially 6 in the areas of education and judiciary. Second there had to be colonial period. Ho Chi Minh's initial education and training was economic reforms with a focus on the enhancement of the under his father but later was at the prestigious Lycee Quoc-Hoc 11 which was based in the city of Hue. The school was based on the agricultural and industrial sectors.

44 45 Shankari Sundararaman The Nationalist Communist: Understanding Ho Chi Minh as a Product of Anti-Colonialism

Another person whose influence during this phase is critical is First World War. It is believed that his first exposure to Marxist Phan Boi Chau. He began the Dong Du or `Visit the East', a ideas occurred during his stay in London when he worked in a movement that was started in 1906 which encouraged the restaurant. He returned to Paris by the end of World War I and Vietnamese youth to travel to Japan. Japan was seen by Phan Boi took on the name of Nguyen Ai Quoc which mean Nguyen the Chau as a nation which had been successful in its fight against Patriot.16 Taking on this name, Ho Chi Minh was known to have imperialism.12 One of the important events which highlighted the circulated petitions on the streets of France demanding the end of changed awareness of the Asian identity at this time was the colonial rule in Vietnam. He first achieved public prominence success of Japan in the Russo-Japanese war of 1905, which had a during the Paris Peace Settlement following World War I in 1919 profound impact on the thinking among the Asian leaders. The when the Treaty of Versailles was settled. It was during the fact that Japan was able to defeat Russia in the war undermined Versailles Peace Conference asking for Vietnams' right to both the view of European imperialism and supremacy. Japan's self-determination and freedom from colonial rule.17 However, victory over the Russian empire gave an impetus to the nationalist his efforts at the Versailles conference fell short and he could not movements across Southeast Asia, where Japan became an garner the attention that the Vietnamese cause needed. Vietnam's inspiration. Phan Boi Chau's emphasis on the `Eastern Movement' control still remained within the French and they exercised or `Easter Travel', emerged from this admiration of Japan and the coercive methods to continue the rule over the colony.18 willingness to emulate its systems of modern education and What is significant is that the issues raised by Ho Chi Minh were military achievements.13 critically shaping much of the Asian identity at this time. The It was within the influence of this social and political milleu, that contradictions of the Treaty of Versailles were highlighted by Ho Ho Chi Minh began to develop his sense of understanding of Chi Minh when he raised concerns on issues relating to anti- world affairs that were unfolding around him. After the family colonial sentiment. While the Versailles treaty addressed the moved to Saigon, in 1911, he moved to France to continue his question of colonial possessions of Germany which were in higher education. But even after facing tremendous hardship China, it did not make any assertions on the overall issue of anti- while working as a cook on board a ship, he was unable to get colonialism across Asia. This was clearly an effort to overlook the admission to the French academy where the children of the higher issues of colonial rule of other European powers while focusing officials from the colony were normally educated.14 This was on the German possessions. The dichotomy of this position in the actually a turning point in the life of Ho Chi Minh because from Treaty of Versailles was highlighted by the petition of Ho Chi this time forth he settled in Paris and was exposed the ideals of Minh. As a resonant effect of the treaty, which handed the “`liberty, fraternity and equality' which were absent in Vietnam but German possessions in China to Japan, China too raised huge were very much alive in Paris”.15 protests in May 1919 called the May 4th Movement, which also had a profound effect in shaping the Asian identity and giving an World War I and the Treaty of Versailles: Influence on 19 impetus to the existing nationalist movements in the region. Ho Chi Minh What is reflected as a result was that the notion of self- While most of the biographies of Ho Chi Minh by scholars such as determination was critical for European states while it could be William Duiker, Bernard Fall and Jean Lacoutre, remain denied to the Asian states by the colonial powers. This position somewhat ambiguous about his exact coordinates between 1913 led to a hardening of lines among the Asian nationalist leaders in to1916, most accounts seem to indicate that he visited both the general. In particular Ho Chi Minh, began to be more closely United Kingdom and the United States during the period of the

46 47 Shankari Sundararaman The Nationalist Communist: Understanding Ho Chi Minh as a Product of Anti-Colonialism

Another person whose influence during this phase is critical is First World War. It is believed that his first exposure to Marxist Phan Boi Chau. He began the Dong Du or `Visit the East', a ideas occurred during his stay in London when he worked in a movement that was started in 1906 which encouraged the restaurant. He returned to Paris by the end of World War I and Vietnamese youth to travel to Japan. Japan was seen by Phan Boi took on the name of Nguyen Ai Quoc which mean Nguyen the Chau as a nation which had been successful in its fight against Patriot.16 Taking on this name, Ho Chi Minh was known to have imperialism.12 One of the important events which highlighted the circulated petitions on the streets of France demanding the end of changed awareness of the Asian identity at this time was the colonial rule in Vietnam. He first achieved public prominence success of Japan in the Russo-Japanese war of 1905, which had a during the Paris Peace Settlement following World War I in 1919 profound impact on the thinking among the Asian leaders. The when the Treaty of Versailles was settled. It was during the fact that Japan was able to defeat Russia in the war undermined Versailles Peace Conference asking for Vietnams' right to both the view of European imperialism and supremacy. Japan's self-determination and freedom from colonial rule.17 However, victory over the Russian empire gave an impetus to the nationalist his efforts at the Versailles conference fell short and he could not movements across Southeast Asia, where Japan became an garner the attention that the Vietnamese cause needed. Vietnam's inspiration. Phan Boi Chau's emphasis on the `Eastern Movement' control still remained within the French and they exercised or `Easter Travel', emerged from this admiration of Japan and the coercive methods to continue the rule over the colony.18 willingness to emulate its systems of modern education and What is significant is that the issues raised by Ho Chi Minh were military achievements.13 critically shaping much of the Asian identity at this time. The It was within the influence of this social and political milleu, that contradictions of the Treaty of Versailles were highlighted by Ho Ho Chi Minh began to develop his sense of understanding of Chi Minh when he raised concerns on issues relating to anti- world affairs that were unfolding around him. After the family colonial sentiment. While the Versailles treaty addressed the moved to Saigon, in 1911, he moved to France to continue his question of colonial possessions of Germany which were in higher education. But even after facing tremendous hardship China, it did not make any assertions on the overall issue of anti- while working as a cook on board a ship, he was unable to get colonialism across Asia. This was clearly an effort to overlook the admission to the French academy where the children of the higher issues of colonial rule of other European powers while focusing officials from the colony were normally educated.14 This was on the German possessions. The dichotomy of this position in the actually a turning point in the life of Ho Chi Minh because from Treaty of Versailles was highlighted by the petition of Ho Chi this time forth he settled in Paris and was exposed the ideals of Minh. As a resonant effect of the treaty, which handed the “`liberty, fraternity and equality' which were absent in Vietnam but German possessions in China to Japan, China too raised huge were very much alive in Paris”.15 protests in May 1919 called the May 4th Movement, which also had a profound effect in shaping the Asian identity and giving an World War I and the Treaty of Versailles: Influence on 19 impetus to the existing nationalist movements in the region. Ho Chi Minh What is reflected as a result was that the notion of self- While most of the biographies of Ho Chi Minh by scholars such as determination was critical for European states while it could be William Duiker, Bernard Fall and Jean Lacoutre, remain denied to the Asian states by the colonial powers. This position somewhat ambiguous about his exact coordinates between 1913 led to a hardening of lines among the Asian nationalist leaders in to1916, most accounts seem to indicate that he visited both the general. In particular Ho Chi Minh, began to be more closely United Kingdom and the United States during the period of the

46 47 Shankari Sundararaman The Nationalist Communist: Understanding Ho Chi Minh as a Product of Anti-Colonialism associated with radical political groups from this point onwards. the newspaper was evident with the number of subscriptions that These groups were within the French political establishment and went up within a short span of time, with its strong stand on the in 1920 he was one of the founding members of the French issues relating to anti-colonialism, supporting the emergence of Communist party.20 While initially he had been focused on various nationalist movements across the globe and bringing ideology of socialist parties, Ho Chi Minh began to feel a sense of these to the attention of the public. The writings in Le Paria, dissatisfaction with the lack of focus on issues relating to anti- basically targeted the French Colonial Regime as a result of which colonialism. At this point the departure from the socialist parties there were considerable risks inherent in the position that the occurred and he moved fully into the communist movement, newspaper took. While the Intercolonial Union and the bring both his spirit of nationalism and combining with the editorship of Le Paria, became Ho Chi Minh's primary political communist ideology.21 base, there was constant concern over the responses of the French authorities who placed the Intercolonial Union and its members Shaping of the Nationalist Communist: 25 under scrutiny and surveillance. At this time Phan Chu Trinh Both the treaty of Versailles and the May Fourth Movement who also lived in Paris began to strongly advocate the return of clearly revealed the hypocrisy in European thinking particularly Ho Chi Minh to Vietnam regardless of the differences that had with regards to how the imperial powers viewed the rights of emerged between the two leaders. In a letter written to Ho Chi Europeans states and peoples versus that of the Asian and African Minh in February 1922, he urged Hi Chi Minh to return “to awaken states in general. While they endorsed the rights of their own the people, so that our compatriots will engage in combat against people to pursue nationalist interest as well as self-determination, occupiers, it is indispensible to be there.”26 the colonized states were not given that recognition and had to struggle for their independence. However, many of the political By June 1923 it is assumed that he moved to Moscow, where from groups within Europe that followed socialism had a different 1923 to 1941 he was officially a member of the Comintern. While approach where they were willing to endorse the struggle for he was at Moscow, his real intentions were to return to Southeast anti-colonialism and anti-imperialism. One of the clear influences Asia to support the ongoing efforts in the nationalist struggle. The on Hi Chi Minh's thinking came from the political views of Lenin core interest for him was his preoccupation with nationalism. on the negative impact of imperialism and its draining effects on During his stay in Moscow, he participated at the 5th Congress of economic assets.22 Added to this the theories of the Communist the Third International and emphasized that revolution against International (Comintern) or the Third International was colonial forces was critical `for communists in Asia and Africa' in critically appealing to several younger leaders of the nationalist order to achieve their nationalist struggles, by `concentrating 27 struggle across both Asia and Africa, given that the Comintern their efforts on the peasantry'. For Ho Chi Minh “the workers supported the anti-colonial struggles. In this context the and peasants constituted the most important of the revolutionary 28 formation of the Union Intercolonial brought together a grouping forces because they were the most oppressed.” The critical of several nationalities from Africa, the Caribbean, Malagasies aspect of understanding Ho Chi Minh is that his view of Marxism and Asians, propagated socialist values among a generation of and communism was deeply embedded in nationalist sentiment. nationalist leaders.23 As part of the Intercolonial Union Ho Chi As a result of this he was not caught in the shackles of dogmatic Minh started a newspaper call the Le Paria or The Outcast, of which Marxist philosophy but was more open to engaging Marxist 29 he was the editor and this newspaper strongly endorsed socialist views into the nationalist movement. The core of Ho Chi Minh's views on anti-colonialism and anti-imperialism. The success of philosophy was the product of a political ideology that emerged

48 49 Shankari Sundararaman The Nationalist Communist: Understanding Ho Chi Minh as a Product of Anti-Colonialism associated with radical political groups from this point onwards. the newspaper was evident with the number of subscriptions that These groups were within the French political establishment and went up within a short span of time, with its strong stand on the in 1920 he was one of the founding members of the French issues relating to anti-colonialism, supporting the emergence of Communist party.20 While initially he had been focused on various nationalist movements across the globe and bringing ideology of socialist parties, Ho Chi Minh began to feel a sense of these to the attention of the public. The writings in Le Paria, dissatisfaction with the lack of focus on issues relating to anti- basically targeted the French Colonial Regime as a result of which colonialism. At this point the departure from the socialist parties there were considerable risks inherent in the position that the occurred and he moved fully into the communist movement, newspaper took. While the Intercolonial Union and the bring both his spirit of nationalism and combining with the editorship of Le Paria, became Ho Chi Minh's primary political communist ideology.21 base, there was constant concern over the responses of the French authorities who placed the Intercolonial Union and its members Shaping of the Nationalist Communist: 25 under scrutiny and surveillance. At this time Phan Chu Trinh Both the treaty of Versailles and the May Fourth Movement who also lived in Paris began to strongly advocate the return of clearly revealed the hypocrisy in European thinking particularly Ho Chi Minh to Vietnam regardless of the differences that had with regards to how the imperial powers viewed the rights of emerged between the two leaders. In a letter written to Ho Chi Europeans states and peoples versus that of the Asian and African Minh in February 1922, he urged Hi Chi Minh to return “to awaken states in general. While they endorsed the rights of their own the people, so that our compatriots will engage in combat against people to pursue nationalist interest as well as self-determination, occupiers, it is indispensible to be there.”26 the colonized states were not given that recognition and had to struggle for their independence. However, many of the political By June 1923 it is assumed that he moved to Moscow, where from groups within Europe that followed socialism had a different 1923 to 1941 he was officially a member of the Comintern. While approach where they were willing to endorse the struggle for he was at Moscow, his real intentions were to return to Southeast anti-colonialism and anti-imperialism. One of the clear influences Asia to support the ongoing efforts in the nationalist struggle. The on Hi Chi Minh's thinking came from the political views of Lenin core interest for him was his preoccupation with nationalism. on the negative impact of imperialism and its draining effects on During his stay in Moscow, he participated at the 5th Congress of economic assets.22 Added to this the theories of the Communist the Third International and emphasized that revolution against International (Comintern) or the Third International was colonial forces was critical `for communists in Asia and Africa' in critically appealing to several younger leaders of the nationalist order to achieve their nationalist struggles, by `concentrating 27 struggle across both Asia and Africa, given that the Comintern their efforts on the peasantry'. For Ho Chi Minh “the workers supported the anti-colonial struggles. In this context the and peasants constituted the most important of the revolutionary 28 formation of the Union Intercolonial brought together a grouping forces because they were the most oppressed.” The critical of several nationalities from Africa, the Caribbean, Malagasies aspect of understanding Ho Chi Minh is that his view of Marxism and Asians, propagated socialist values among a generation of and communism was deeply embedded in nationalist sentiment. nationalist leaders.23 As part of the Intercolonial Union Ho Chi As a result of this he was not caught in the shackles of dogmatic Minh started a newspaper call the Le Paria or The Outcast, of which Marxist philosophy but was more open to engaging Marxist 29 he was the editor and this newspaper strongly endorsed socialist views into the nationalist movement. The core of Ho Chi Minh's views on anti-colonialism and anti-imperialism. The success of philosophy was the product of a political ideology that emerged

48 49 Shankari Sundararaman The Nationalist Communist: Understanding Ho Chi Minh as a Product of Anti-Colonialism from the anti-colonial struggle and led to the establishing of the common agenda emerged which identified the nationalist Vietnamese revolution.30 Within this context he reiterated the struggle and the anti-colonialism plank as the core priority of need for the Comintern to focus its attentions on ending the these groups and merged together into the Indochinese colonial rule across several countries with particular focus on Communist Party (ICP).34 As the Vietnamese revolution began to Vietnam and Southeast Asia. progress, the differences between Ho Chi Minh's approach to being a nationalist communist and the Comintern's view on the The Vietnamese Revolution: movement being a global one was a source of divergence between By October 1924 he moved to Canton where he was instrumental the two. In fact it was the Comintern that was keen on the name of in setting up training of young Vietnamese revolutionaries. At the ICP which was initially being called the VCP. By 1931 he was this time he was literally following the instructions requested in arrested by the British police on Hong Kong and following this for the letter by Phan Chu Trinh, where he began to `awaken the about seven years he seemed to be in phase of political isolation.35 people'.31 It was here that his political ideology was put into practice where he began to be associated with training camps for From 1940 onwards the pace of the nationalist movement began young Vietnamese. This early group of youth revolutionaries to grow stronger and the anti-colonial struggle in Vietnam took a became the core of the Youth Association or Thanh Nien, and more critical turn as a result of two factors. First, German forces members of this group were later formed the core of the Chinese moved into France in 1940 thereby weakening the hold which Communist Party.32 France had over its colonies. The outbreak of the Second World War and the Germany's occupation of France were critical in how As the war within China began to intensify, between the the Vietnamese revolution emerged. As the relations within nationalist and communist forces, Hi Chi Minh left Canton and Europe began to be under stress the role of the colonial powers moved back to Europe for a brief period in 1927-28. The forces of over their administrative units in the colonies was also under the nationalist leader Chiang Kai Shek, had made inroads into the stress leading to a spurt in the nationalist movements. Second, region of Canton making it necessary to wind down the operation this was aided by the Japanese invasion of Vietnam in 1940, where of the Thanh Nie, and after a short stat in Europe, Uncle Ho the Japanese were initially seen as a liberating force because with returned to Siam where he lived among Vietnamese settled in the 36 33 their invasion the French moved out of Vietnam. The Japanese northern parts of Siam. occupation of Southeast Asia during the II World War was The formative years of the Vietnamese/ Indochinese Communist initially seen a s appositive development with the slogan of “Asia Party (VCP/ICP) begin from this period onwards, from 1928-30, for the Asiatics' and the Japanese claims of establishing “Co- where several smaller groups of the nationalist movement were Prosperity Sphere”.37 The initial euphoria of the Japanese as a divided. While many of these groups espoused socialist ideology, liberating force gave way to greater political skepticism with Ho their unification was still not a reality. The Youth Association or Chi Minh distancing himself from both the French and the Thanh Nien, began to assert the need for a more consolidated Japanese. grouping, where divergences were overcome and a common In May 1941, he held a meeting of the Comintern congress within agenda for the nationalist struggle could be evolved to bring the Vietnam where he convinced both the communist and non- smaller groups into a composite one. This emerged in the communist groups to form a cohesive grouping under the banner aftermath of the Hong Kong conference of February 1930 where of the Viet Minh and this session clearly emphasized the priorities the divergent views of political groups were resolved and a set out to achieve the realization of the nationalist struggle.38 First,

50 51 Shankari Sundararaman The Nationalist Communist: Understanding Ho Chi Minh as a Product of Anti-Colonialism from the anti-colonial struggle and led to the establishing of the common agenda emerged which identified the nationalist Vietnamese revolution.30 Within this context he reiterated the struggle and the anti-colonialism plank as the core priority of need for the Comintern to focus its attentions on ending the these groups and merged together into the Indochinese colonial rule across several countries with particular focus on Communist Party (ICP).34 As the Vietnamese revolution began to Vietnam and Southeast Asia. progress, the differences between Ho Chi Minh's approach to being a nationalist communist and the Comintern's view on the The Vietnamese Revolution: movement being a global one was a source of divergence between By October 1924 he moved to Canton where he was instrumental the two. In fact it was the Comintern that was keen on the name of in setting up training of young Vietnamese revolutionaries. At the ICP which was initially being called the VCP. By 1931 he was this time he was literally following the instructions requested in arrested by the British police on Hong Kong and following this for the letter by Phan Chu Trinh, where he began to `awaken the about seven years he seemed to be in phase of political isolation.35 people'.31 It was here that his political ideology was put into practice where he began to be associated with training camps for From 1940 onwards the pace of the nationalist movement began young Vietnamese. This early group of youth revolutionaries to grow stronger and the anti-colonial struggle in Vietnam took a became the core of the Youth Association or Thanh Nien, and more critical turn as a result of two factors. First, German forces members of this group were later formed the core of the Chinese moved into France in 1940 thereby weakening the hold which Communist Party.32 France had over its colonies. The outbreak of the Second World War and the Germany's occupation of France were critical in how As the war within China began to intensify, between the the Vietnamese revolution emerged. As the relations within nationalist and communist forces, Hi Chi Minh left Canton and Europe began to be under stress the role of the colonial powers moved back to Europe for a brief period in 1927-28. The forces of over their administrative units in the colonies was also under the nationalist leader Chiang Kai Shek, had made inroads into the stress leading to a spurt in the nationalist movements. Second, region of Canton making it necessary to wind down the operation this was aided by the Japanese invasion of Vietnam in 1940, where of the Thanh Nie, and after a short stat in Europe, Uncle Ho the Japanese were initially seen as a liberating force because with returned to Siam where he lived among Vietnamese settled in the 36 33 their invasion the French moved out of Vietnam. The Japanese northern parts of Siam. occupation of Southeast Asia during the II World War was The formative years of the Vietnamese/ Indochinese Communist initially seen a s appositive development with the slogan of “Asia Party (VCP/ICP) begin from this period onwards, from 1928-30, for the Asiatics' and the Japanese claims of establishing “Co- where several smaller groups of the nationalist movement were Prosperity Sphere”.37 The initial euphoria of the Japanese as a divided. While many of these groups espoused socialist ideology, liberating force gave way to greater political skepticism with Ho their unification was still not a reality. The Youth Association or Chi Minh distancing himself from both the French and the Thanh Nien, began to assert the need for a more consolidated Japanese. grouping, where divergences were overcome and a common In May 1941, he held a meeting of the Comintern congress within agenda for the nationalist struggle could be evolved to bring the Vietnam where he convinced both the communist and non- smaller groups into a composite one. This emerged in the communist groups to form a cohesive grouping under the banner aftermath of the Hong Kong conference of February 1930 where of the Viet Minh and this session clearly emphasized the priorities the divergent views of political groups were resolved and a set out to achieve the realization of the nationalist struggle.38 First,

50 51 Shankari Sundararaman The Nationalist Communist: Understanding Ho Chi Minh as a Product of Anti-Colonialism all parties were to focus on national liberation. Second once address the request by Ho Chi Minh which reiterated the national liberation was achieved social revolution would follow commonality and convergence of the Asian revolutions against on its own. During this period, the astuteness of Ho Chi Minh's colonialism. In the letter Ho Chi Minh had reflected on his views political acumen in clearly visible, when he plays the Japanese to form a Free People's Federation of Southern Asia with support against the French. Simultaneously he also plays the Americans and solidarity of countries like India, Burma, Malaysia and against the Japanese, culminating in the United States supporting Indonesia to coordinate their efforts to achieve independence and Ho Chi Minh to form an alliance to assist the Viet Minh to freedom.42 However, Sjahrir apparently did not reply to this letter recapture Hanoi from the Japanese.39 on two accounts, first, that the Indonesian case was different since Hi Chi Minh's efforts to declare Vietnamese independence on 2 it was a battle against a different colonial power that is the Dutch. September 1945 went unrecognized particularly because of In the views of Sjahrir, the Dutch were definitely weaker than the uncoordinated efforts and lack of cohesion among various French and that Indonesia was more likely to achieve its freedom groups. At this time Ho Chi Minh even tried to reconcile his earlier than the Vietnamese. Second, Sjahrir also saw a divergent political differences with the Vietnamese Nationalist Party approach to the two countries and how they were fighting for (VNP), to agree to a power sharing arrangement to keep the their independence. The Indonesian struggle was viewed as a 40 nationalist one while the Vietnamese was seen as a communist French forces out at the end of the Second World War. However, 43 this did not go through because in the aftermath of the war the struggle. This divergence also did not allow for commonality French returned to Vietnam and recaptured South Vietnam. The and convergence of interest along the lines expected by Ho Chi forces of the Chinese nationalist troops and the Vietnamese Minh. communists were present in the North. Interestingly while he was Evidently while the entire Asian region was going through the keen to get the French out of Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh was more nationalist movement almost at the same time, there were concerned with the presence of the Chinese nationalists.41 In individual divergences between these states which did not allow March 1946 he negotiated with the French to move into regions of for a greater convergence of interests. Much of this had to do with North Vietnam, for which he was even called a traitor. But the the fact that individual experiences with differing political political acumen of Ho Chi minh was such that he realized that ideologies would have acted as a divisive factor in bringing unity driving out the French from Vietnam would be easier than of interests together. Indonesia's own experience with the Partai driving out the Chinese troops. So he used the French to ensure Kommunis Indonesia (PKI), would have prevented leaders like that the Chinese nationalist troops were removed from the Sjahrir who were from the nationalist party to understand that Northern regions and then began to focus on the removal of the areas of convergence existed. The control for leadership in the French. newly emerging countries was a deeply contested event which led to different stakeholders emerging in each individual country. During this phase of negotiations Ho Chi Minh also sought This detracted their understanding of Ho Chi Minh as a international cooperation from several other countries regionally. nationalist and placed him purely in the ideological position of In a review article by Hanna Papanek, the writings of Harold his communist leanings. Issacs have been studied, in which the author highlights a letter sent by Ho Chi Minh to Mohammad Hatta, the Indonesian By 1947, Ho Chi Minh appealed to the United States to help nationalist leader. This letter was apparently passed on to Sutan remove the French from Vietnam. However by this time the Sjahrir, with the focus to decide on how to move forward to hardening of lines along ideological bipolarity had begun to set in

52 53 Shankari Sundararaman The Nationalist Communist: Understanding Ho Chi Minh as a Product of Anti-Colonialism all parties were to focus on national liberation. Second once address the request by Ho Chi Minh which reiterated the national liberation was achieved social revolution would follow commonality and convergence of the Asian revolutions against on its own. During this period, the astuteness of Ho Chi Minh's colonialism. In the letter Ho Chi Minh had reflected on his views political acumen in clearly visible, when he plays the Japanese to form a Free People's Federation of Southern Asia with support against the French. Simultaneously he also plays the Americans and solidarity of countries like India, Burma, Malaysia and against the Japanese, culminating in the United States supporting Indonesia to coordinate their efforts to achieve independence and Ho Chi Minh to form an alliance to assist the Viet Minh to freedom.42 However, Sjahrir apparently did not reply to this letter recapture Hanoi from the Japanese.39 on two accounts, first, that the Indonesian case was different since Hi Chi Minh's efforts to declare Vietnamese independence on 2 it was a battle against a different colonial power that is the Dutch. September 1945 went unrecognized particularly because of In the views of Sjahrir, the Dutch were definitely weaker than the uncoordinated efforts and lack of cohesion among various French and that Indonesia was more likely to achieve its freedom groups. At this time Ho Chi Minh even tried to reconcile his earlier than the Vietnamese. Second, Sjahrir also saw a divergent political differences with the Vietnamese Nationalist Party approach to the two countries and how they were fighting for (VNP), to agree to a power sharing arrangement to keep the their independence. The Indonesian struggle was viewed as a 40 nationalist one while the Vietnamese was seen as a communist French forces out at the end of the Second World War. However, 43 this did not go through because in the aftermath of the war the struggle. This divergence also did not allow for commonality French returned to Vietnam and recaptured South Vietnam. The and convergence of interest along the lines expected by Ho Chi forces of the Chinese nationalist troops and the Vietnamese Minh. communists were present in the North. Interestingly while he was Evidently while the entire Asian region was going through the keen to get the French out of Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh was more nationalist movement almost at the same time, there were concerned with the presence of the Chinese nationalists.41 In individual divergences between these states which did not allow March 1946 he negotiated with the French to move into regions of for a greater convergence of interests. Much of this had to do with North Vietnam, for which he was even called a traitor. But the the fact that individual experiences with differing political political acumen of Ho Chi minh was such that he realized that ideologies would have acted as a divisive factor in bringing unity driving out the French from Vietnam would be easier than of interests together. Indonesia's own experience with the Partai driving out the Chinese troops. So he used the French to ensure Kommunis Indonesia (PKI), would have prevented leaders like that the Chinese nationalist troops were removed from the Sjahrir who were from the nationalist party to understand that Northern regions and then began to focus on the removal of the areas of convergence existed. The control for leadership in the French. newly emerging countries was a deeply contested event which led to different stakeholders emerging in each individual country. During this phase of negotiations Ho Chi Minh also sought This detracted their understanding of Ho Chi Minh as a international cooperation from several other countries regionally. nationalist and placed him purely in the ideological position of In a review article by Hanna Papanek, the writings of Harold his communist leanings. Issacs have been studied, in which the author highlights a letter sent by Ho Chi Minh to Mohammad Hatta, the Indonesian By 1947, Ho Chi Minh appealed to the United States to help nationalist leader. This letter was apparently passed on to Sutan remove the French from Vietnam. However by this time the Sjahrir, with the focus to decide on how to move forward to hardening of lines along ideological bipolarity had begun to set in

52 53 Shankari Sundararaman The Nationalist Communist: Understanding Ho Chi Minh as a Product of Anti-Colonialism leading to the United States giving support to the French http://www.jstor.org/stable/2049449 Accessed on 3-10-2017 44 presence. The US position post the Second World War turned to 3 For details on the French expansion in Indochina please see Martin Stuart one of containment of communism and the advocacy of the Fox, The French in Laos, Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 29, no. 1, 1995, CUP, domino theory. From 1945 54, the French continued its war in Cambridge, pp. 111-139 Vietnam and were finally defeated in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu. 4 For details see D. R. Sardesai, Southeast Asia: Past and Present, Boulder, Following this, the Geneva Conference of 1954 divided Vietnam Westview Press, 2013, p. 117 along the 17th Parallel , while both Cambodia and Laos were 5 Ho Chi Minh, Biography, The Gioi Publishers, 2016, Vietnam, p. 13. recognized as independent and neutral.45 This neutrality was to 6 Sophie Quinn Judge, Ho Chi Minh, http://assets.press.princeton. ensure that the two countries did not assert their support to the edu/chapters/pons/s4_9143.pdf Princeton University Press, Accessed on Vietnamese case was seen as being unique because of the cold 11 May, 2015, p. 386 war. From this point onwards the Vietnam war moved to focus on 7 Alden Whitman, Ho Chi Minh was Noted for Blending Nationalism and the reunification of Vietnam where the communist forces in the 46 Communism, The New York Times, 4 September, 1969, URL south received support from both the Viet Minh and Vietcong. http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0519.html By this time the Ho Chi Minh was not in control of the of the party Accessed on 28 April 2015. which had been under the leadership of Truong Chinh, with uncle 47 8 For details see, Sophie Quinn Judge, Ho Chi Minh, in Casey S. and Wright J. Ho remaining `the “soul” of the Vietnamese revolution'. By the (eds) Mental Maps in the Early Cold War Era, 1945-68, Palgrave Macmillan, early sixties the international backing which Ho chi Minh had London, 2011. been dependent on began to shift as a result of the Sino-Soviet 9 For details see Claire Sutherland, Soldered States: Nation0Building in split. This left Vietnam in a more difficult position given that Ho Germany and Vietnam, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2010, pp. Chi Minh had incorporated both these models into his own 75-78. revolutionary ideology.48 Sadly, `Uncle Ho' did not live to see the 10 Sophie Quinn Judge, Review of Phan Chu Trinh and His Political Writings reunification of Vietnam in 1975. While most of the works on him (ed&tr)., Vinh Sinh, Studies on Southeast Asia 49, Ithaca, New York, 2009, underscore his leanings towards communism, it is important to Journal of the Siam Society, vol. 99, 2011, URL http://www.siamese- understand that the ideology was a tool towards achieving his heritage.org/jsspdf/2011/JSS_099_0r_Reviews11.pdf Accessed on 12 May first passion which was a nationalist, independent Vietnam free 2015. from colonial and imperial forces. 11 D. R. Sardesai, n. 4, p. 12 Masaya Shiraishi, Phan Boi Chau and Japan, Southeast Asian Studies, vol. 12, no. 3, December 1975, https://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/ Endnotes and References: bitstream/2433/55819/1/KJ00000132980.pdf Accessed on 28 September, 2017, p. 426. 1 Anne-Valerie Schweyer. The Birth of Champa. Crossing borders in Southeast Asian Archaeology, September 2010, Berlin, Germany. P.1 , 2012, 13 Ibid., pp. 436-38. URL https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/file/index/docid/ 14 Madeline Fraser, "An Assessment of Ho Chi Minh's Strategies for Gaining 828812/filename/AVS_Birth_of_Champa_2012.pdf Accessed on 12 May Support in the Vietnamese Revolution", Young Historians Conference. 2015. Paper 2, April 29, 2014, p. 4. http://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu 2 Siam and France 1863-1870 Author(s): R. Stanley Thomson Source: The Far /younghistorians/2014/oralpres/2 Accessed on 28 September, 2017. Eastern Quarterly, Vol. 5, No. 1 (Nov., 1945), pp. 28-46 Published by: 15 Ibid., p. 5. A s s o c i a t i o n f o r A s i a n S t u d i e s S t a b l e U R L :

54 55 Shankari Sundararaman The Nationalist Communist: Understanding Ho Chi Minh as a Product of Anti-Colonialism leading to the United States giving support to the French http://www.jstor.org/stable/2049449 Accessed on 3-10-2017 44 presence. The US position post the Second World War turned to 3 For details on the French expansion in Indochina please see Martin Stuart one of containment of communism and the advocacy of the Fox, The French in Laos, Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 29, no. 1, 1995, CUP, domino theory. From 1945 54, the French continued its war in Cambridge, pp. 111-139 Vietnam and were finally defeated in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu. 4 For details see D. R. Sardesai, Southeast Asia: Past and Present, Boulder, Following this, the Geneva Conference of 1954 divided Vietnam Westview Press, 2013, p. 117 along the 17th Parallel , while both Cambodia and Laos were 5 Ho Chi Minh, Biography, The Gioi Publishers, 2016, Vietnam, p. 13. recognized as independent and neutral.45 This neutrality was to 6 Sophie Quinn Judge, Ho Chi Minh, http://assets.press.princeton. ensure that the two countries did not assert their support to the edu/chapters/pons/s4_9143.pdf Princeton University Press, Accessed on Vietnamese case was seen as being unique because of the cold 11 May, 2015, p. 386 war. From this point onwards the Vietnam war moved to focus on 7 Alden Whitman, Ho Chi Minh was Noted for Blending Nationalism and the reunification of Vietnam where the communist forces in the 46 Communism, The New York Times, 4 September, 1969, URL south received support from both the Viet Minh and Vietcong. http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0519.html By this time the Ho Chi Minh was not in control of the of the party Accessed on 28 April 2015. which had been under the leadership of Truong Chinh, with uncle 47 8 For details see, Sophie Quinn Judge, Ho Chi Minh, in Casey S. and Wright J. Ho remaining `the “soul” of the Vietnamese revolution'. By the (eds) Mental Maps in the Early Cold War Era, 1945-68, Palgrave Macmillan, early sixties the international backing which Ho chi Minh had London, 2011. been dependent on began to shift as a result of the Sino-Soviet 9 For details see Claire Sutherland, Soldered States: Nation0Building in split. This left Vietnam in a more difficult position given that Ho Germany and Vietnam, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2010, pp. Chi Minh had incorporated both these models into his own 75-78. revolutionary ideology.48 Sadly, `Uncle Ho' did not live to see the 10 Sophie Quinn Judge, Review of Phan Chu Trinh and His Political Writings reunification of Vietnam in 1975. While most of the works on him (ed&tr)., Vinh Sinh, Studies on Southeast Asia 49, Ithaca, New York, 2009, underscore his leanings towards communism, it is important to Journal of the Siam Society, vol. 99, 2011, URL http://www.siamese- understand that the ideology was a tool towards achieving his heritage.org/jsspdf/2011/JSS_099_0r_Reviews11.pdf Accessed on 12 May first passion which was a nationalist, independent Vietnam free 2015. from colonial and imperial forces. 11 D. R. Sardesai, n. 4, p. 12 Masaya Shiraishi, Phan Boi Chau and Japan, Southeast Asian Studies, vol. 12, no. 3, December 1975, https://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/ Endnotes and References: bitstream/2433/55819/1/KJ00000132980.pdf Accessed on 28 September, 2017, p. 426. 1 Anne-Valerie Schweyer. The Birth of Champa. Crossing borders in Southeast Asian Archaeology, September 2010, Berlin, Germany. P.1 , 2012, 13 Ibid., pp. 436-38. URL https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/file/index/docid/ 14 Madeline Fraser, "An Assessment of Ho Chi Minh's Strategies for Gaining 828812/filename/AVS_Birth_of_Champa_2012.pdf Accessed on 12 May Support in the Vietnamese Revolution", Young Historians Conference. 2015. Paper 2, April 29, 2014, p. 4. http://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu 2 Siam and France 1863-1870 Author(s): R. Stanley Thomson Source: The Far /younghistorians/2014/oralpres/2 Accessed on 28 September, 2017. Eastern Quarterly, Vol. 5, No. 1 (Nov., 1945), pp. 28-46 Published by: 15 Ibid., p. 5. A s s o c i a t i o n f o r A s i a n S t u d i e s S t a b l e U R L :

54 55 Shankari Sundararaman The Nationalist Communist: Understanding Ho Chi Minh as a Product of Anti-Colonialism

16 This title is symbolic of one of Ho Chi Minh's most famous quotations A Biography, (tr.), Claire Duiker, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge which is “it was patriotism, not communism that inspired me”. 2007, p. 29. 17 Dan Slater, Revolutions, Crackdown and Quiescence: Communal Elites 32 Sophie Quinn Judge, n. 24, pp. 90-100 and Democratic Mobilization in Southeast Asia, American Journal of 33 Ibid., pp. 126-130 Sociology, vol. 115, no. 1, July 2009, URL 34 Appeal Made on the Occasion of the Founding of the Indochinese https://edocs.uis.edu/Departments/LIS/Course_Pages/LIS411/readings Communist Party, Speech by Ho Chi Minh, Delivered at Hong Kong on /Slater_Revolutions_Crackdowns_Southeast_Asia.pdf Accessed on 2 Februayr 18, 1930, Selected Writings of Ho Chi Minh (1920-1969), URL October, 2016, p. 235-36. h t t p s : / / w w w . m a r x i s t s . o r g / r e f e r e n c e / a r c h i v e / h o - c h i - 18 Ibid., p. 236 minh/works/1930/02/18.htm Accessed on 5 October, 2017. 19 For a detailed understanding of the ambiguities of the Versailles treaty 35 Madeline Fraser, n. 14, p. 6-7 please see, Alan Sharp, The Paris Peace Conference and Its Consequences, 36 George C Herring, America and Vietnam: The Unending War, Foreign International Encyclopedia of the First World War, 1914-1918 Online, Affair, vol. 70, no. 5, Winter 1991, pp. 105-06. Version 1.0, Updated 8 October, 2014, p. 12 37 Madeline Fraser, n. 14, p. 8 https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/pdf/1914-1918-Online- the_paris_peace_conference_and_its_consequences-2014-10-08.pdf 38 Ibid., Accessed on 21 September, 2016. 39 Sophie Quinn Judge, n. 6, p. 388 See also, Alan Sharp, The Consequences of the Peace: The Versailles 40 Alden Whitman, n. 7. Settlement: Aftermath and Legacy 1919-2015, Haus Publications, 2010. 41 Ibid., 20 Madeline Fraser, n. 14, p. 5. 42 Hanna Papanek, Note on Soedjatmoko's Recollections of a Historical 21 Ibid., Moment: Sjahrir's Reaction to Ho Chi Minh's 1945 Call for a Free Peoples 22 Ibid., p. 2. Federation, Indonesia, No. 49, April 1990, pp. 141-144, Southeast Asia P r o g r a m P u b l i c a t i o n s a t C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y , U R L 23 For details see, Michael Geobel, “The Capital of the Men Without a http://www.jstor.org/stable/3351059 Accessed on 6 April, 2015. Country”: Migrants and Anti-Colonialism in Interwar Paris, The American Historical Review, vol. 121, no. 5, December 2016, pp. 1444-1467, 43 Ibid., https://doi.org/10.1093/ahr/121.5.1444 Accessed on 2 October 2017. 44 Sophie Quinn Judge, n. 6, p. 388 24 Sophie Quinn Judge, Ho Chi Minh: The Missing Years 1919-1941, 45 For details see, Chen Jian and Shen Zhihua, The Geneva Conference of University of California Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles, 2003, p. 35 1954: New Evidence from the Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of 25 Ibid., the People's Republic of China, in Christian F. Ostermann (ed)., Inside China's Cold War, Cold War International History Project Bulleting Issue 26 Cited in Ibid., p. 38. No. 16, p. 9, https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/CWIHP_ 27 W. E. Willmot, Thoughts on Ho Chi Minh, Review Article, Pacific Affairs, Bulletin_16.pdf Accessed on 25 April, 2015. vol. 44, no. 4, Winter 1971-72, p. 586. 46 Ibid., p. 275. 28 Ibid., 47 Sophie Quinn Judge, n. 6, p. 388. 29 Ibid., 48 Lorenz M. Luthi, Twenty-Four Soviet Bloc Documents on Vietnam and 30 Ibid., the Sino-Soviet Split, 1964-66, in Christian F. Ostermann (ed)., n. 45, p. 367. 31 Sophie Quinn Judge, n. 24, p. 38. See also Pierre Brocheux, Ho Chi Minh:

56 57 Shankari Sundararaman The Nationalist Communist: Understanding Ho Chi Minh as a Product of Anti-Colonialism

16 This title is symbolic of one of Ho Chi Minh's most famous quotations A Biography, (tr.), Claire Duiker, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge which is “it was patriotism, not communism that inspired me”. 2007, p. 29. 17 Dan Slater, Revolutions, Crackdown and Quiescence: Communal Elites 32 Sophie Quinn Judge, n. 24, pp. 90-100 and Democratic Mobilization in Southeast Asia, American Journal of 33 Ibid., pp. 126-130 Sociology, vol. 115, no. 1, July 2009, URL 34 Appeal Made on the Occasion of the Founding of the Indochinese https://edocs.uis.edu/Departments/LIS/Course_Pages/LIS411/readings Communist Party, Speech by Ho Chi Minh, Delivered at Hong Kong on /Slater_Revolutions_Crackdowns_Southeast_Asia.pdf Accessed on 2 Februayr 18, 1930, Selected Writings of Ho Chi Minh (1920-1969), URL October, 2016, p. 235-36. h t t p s : / / w w w . m a r x i s t s . o r g / r e f e r e n c e / a r c h i v e / h o - c h i - 18 Ibid., p. 236 minh/works/1930/02/18.htm Accessed on 5 October, 2017. 19 For a detailed understanding of the ambiguities of the Versailles treaty 35 Madeline Fraser, n. 14, p. 6-7 please see, Alan Sharp, The Paris Peace Conference and Its Consequences, 36 George C Herring, America and Vietnam: The Unending War, Foreign International Encyclopedia of the First World War, 1914-1918 Online, Affair, vol. 70, no. 5, Winter 1991, pp. 105-06. Version 1.0, Updated 8 October, 2014, p. 12 37 Madeline Fraser, n. 14, p. 8 https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/pdf/1914-1918-Online- the_paris_peace_conference_and_its_consequences-2014-10-08.pdf 38 Ibid., Accessed on 21 September, 2016. 39 Sophie Quinn Judge, n. 6, p. 388 See also, Alan Sharp, The Consequences of the Peace: The Versailles 40 Alden Whitman, n. 7. Settlement: Aftermath and Legacy 1919-2015, Haus Publications, 2010. 41 Ibid., 20 Madeline Fraser, n. 14, p. 5. 42 Hanna Papanek, Note on Soedjatmoko's Recollections of a Historical 21 Ibid., Moment: Sjahrir's Reaction to Ho Chi Minh's 1945 Call for a Free Peoples 22 Ibid., p. 2. Federation, Indonesia, No. 49, April 1990, pp. 141-144, Southeast Asia P r o g r a m P u b l i c a t i o n s a t C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y , U R L 23 For details see, Michael Geobel, “The Capital of the Men Without a http://www.jstor.org/stable/3351059 Accessed on 6 April, 2015. Country”: Migrants and Anti-Colonialism in Interwar Paris, The American Historical Review, vol. 121, no. 5, December 2016, pp. 1444-1467, 43 Ibid., https://doi.org/10.1093/ahr/121.5.1444 Accessed on 2 October 2017. 44 Sophie Quinn Judge, n. 6, p. 388 24 Sophie Quinn Judge, Ho Chi Minh: The Missing Years 1919-1941, 45 For details see, Chen Jian and Shen Zhihua, The Geneva Conference of University of California Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles, 2003, p. 35 1954: New Evidence from the Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of 25 Ibid., the People's Republic of China, in Christian F. Ostermann (ed)., Inside China's Cold War, Cold War International History Project Bulleting Issue 26 Cited in Ibid., p. 38. No. 16, p. 9, https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/CWIHP_ 27 W. E. Willmot, Thoughts on Ho Chi Minh, Review Article, Pacific Affairs, Bulletin_16.pdf Accessed on 25 April, 2015. vol. 44, no. 4, Winter 1971-72, p. 586. 46 Ibid., p. 275. 28 Ibid., 47 Sophie Quinn Judge, n. 6, p. 388. 29 Ibid., 48 Lorenz M. Luthi, Twenty-Four Soviet Bloc Documents on Vietnam and 30 Ibid., the Sino-Soviet Split, 1964-66, in Christian F. Ostermann (ed)., n. 45, p. 367. 31 Sophie Quinn Judge, n. 24, p. 38. See also Pierre Brocheux, Ho Chi Minh:

56 57 Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam and the World Today: A Comment Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam and the World Today A Comment The question that could be posed to day is what we have learnt from President Ho and the Vietnam War and if a difference has Sridhar Krishnaswami* and Archana Arul** been made in which successive administrations in Washington *Currently a Professor of Journalism and Mass Communication and have gone about the business of foreign policy. In 2003 President International Relations at SRM University, Chennai George W Bush started his war with Iraq based on the ficticious ** Archana Arul is a Research Scholar at the Department of Journalism and premise that President Saddam Hussein had weapons of mass Mass Communication at SRM University destruction and was turning Iraq into another epicenter of Corresponding author: [email protected] terrorism courtesy Osama bin Laden. More than ten years down the road the United States is paying a heavy price and so are the Iraqis who are seeing the country fractured and ripped apart At the outset let me congratulate the organizers of this along sectarian lines. Worse many today believe that America's international seminar of coming up with this theme and topic Iraq war of 2003 sowed the seeds of the dreaded ISISthe Islamic which synchronises with the 125th birth anniversary of the State of Iraq and Syriathat has now turned many parts of the legendary leader of Vietnam Ho Chi Minha - person who Middle East literally into a living hell. mattered not only to the Asia Pacific and South East Asia but one who left an imprint in the international system, principally in What is common link between the Vietnam War and the War in shaping the relationships between the then top powers. Iraq? The striking similarity is that both wars were based on lies and deceptions and with a difference. In the case of the Vietnam The legacy of President Ho Chi Minh is that his vision for Vietnam war along with lies and deception came illusions and delusions. remains what it was at the time he was fighting for the The Pentagon Papers have long ago revealed that as early as 1965 fundamental rights of his people. Times have changed and the Johnson administration had come to the conclusion that the Vietnam has changed but only for the better and in the fashion war in Vietnam cannot be won militarily. The domestic scenario President Ho had envisioned. But not without the people and the in the United States was that no American President could be seen governments in that country having to go through a lot of as having “lost” Vietnam, just as how somehow Truman and hardships and pain by way of economic sanctions and political Eisenhower “lost” Korea in the 1950s. But how could you lose isolation over the last few decades. something that you did not havefew dared to ask rational The timing of the conference has yet another significance forty questions and those who mustered courage to ask the right years ago on April 30, 1975, the Vietnam war formally ended with questions were sidelined or shunted out of the government. the fall of Saigon. Many think that the Vietnam War and the Washington persisted with the notion of winnability in Vietnam involvement of the United States began during the Presidency of because of foolishly pegging the loss in South Vietnam to a John F Kennedy and ended with that of the Presidency of Gerald domino like situation where the entire Asia Pacific would have to Ford. Not quite truethe roots of the Vietnam War started during be written off to the communists. “We must decide whether to the Presidency of Truman and intensified under President help these countries to the best of our ability or throw in the towel Johnson. But even if the war had ended in 1975 it was not for in the area and pull back our defences to San Fransisco and a another 20 years that Vietnam could see the beginnings of a 'Fortress America' concept”, Vice President Lyndon Johnson said relationship with the United States. It took President Bill Clinton in a report in May 1961 after a visit to Asia. in 1995 to put in motion a process that today is beneficial to both countries.

58 59 Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam and the World Today: A Comment Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam and the World Today A Comment The question that could be posed to day is what we have learnt from President Ho and the Vietnam War and if a difference has Sridhar Krishnaswami* and Archana Arul** been made in which successive administrations in Washington *Currently a Professor of Journalism and Mass Communication and have gone about the business of foreign policy. In 2003 President International Relations at SRM University, Chennai George W Bush started his war with Iraq based on the ficticious ** Archana Arul is a Research Scholar at the Department of Journalism and premise that President Saddam Hussein had weapons of mass Mass Communication at SRM University destruction and was turning Iraq into another epicenter of Corresponding author: [email protected] terrorism courtesy Osama bin Laden. More than ten years down the road the United States is paying a heavy price and so are the Iraqis who are seeing the country fractured and ripped apart At the outset let me congratulate the organizers of this along sectarian lines. Worse many today believe that America's international seminar of coming up with this theme and topic Iraq war of 2003 sowed the seeds of the dreaded ISISthe Islamic which synchronises with the 125th birth anniversary of the State of Iraq and Syriathat has now turned many parts of the legendary leader of Vietnam Ho Chi Minha - person who Middle East literally into a living hell. mattered not only to the Asia Pacific and South East Asia but one who left an imprint in the international system, principally in What is common link between the Vietnam War and the War in shaping the relationships between the then top powers. Iraq? The striking similarity is that both wars were based on lies and deceptions and with a difference. In the case of the Vietnam The legacy of President Ho Chi Minh is that his vision for Vietnam war along with lies and deception came illusions and delusions. remains what it was at the time he was fighting for the The Pentagon Papers have long ago revealed that as early as 1965 fundamental rights of his people. Times have changed and the Johnson administration had come to the conclusion that the Vietnam has changed but only for the better and in the fashion war in Vietnam cannot be won militarily. The domestic scenario President Ho had envisioned. But not without the people and the in the United States was that no American President could be seen governments in that country having to go through a lot of as having “lost” Vietnam, just as how somehow Truman and hardships and pain by way of economic sanctions and political Eisenhower “lost” Korea in the 1950s. But how could you lose isolation over the last few decades. something that you did not havefew dared to ask rational The timing of the conference has yet another significance forty questions and those who mustered courage to ask the right years ago on April 30, 1975, the Vietnam war formally ended with questions were sidelined or shunted out of the government. the fall of Saigon. Many think that the Vietnam War and the Washington persisted with the notion of winnability in Vietnam involvement of the United States began during the Presidency of because of foolishly pegging the loss in South Vietnam to a John F Kennedy and ended with that of the Presidency of Gerald domino like situation where the entire Asia Pacific would have to Ford. Not quite truethe roots of the Vietnam War started during be written off to the communists. “We must decide whether to the Presidency of Truman and intensified under President help these countries to the best of our ability or throw in the towel Johnson. But even if the war had ended in 1975 it was not for in the area and pull back our defences to San Fransisco and a another 20 years that Vietnam could see the beginnings of a 'Fortress America' concept”, Vice President Lyndon Johnson said relationship with the United States. It took President Bill Clinton in a report in May 1961 after a visit to Asia. in 1995 to put in motion a process that today is beneficial to both countries.

58 59 Sridhar Krishnaswami and Archana Arul Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam and the World Today: A Comment

The importance of the Pentagon Papers does not rest in looking and ineptness of the folks they were propping up in the South but how policy makers stumbled or fumbled into repeated pitfalls in in a painful realization that the alternative leaderships in the Vietnam; rather those multiple volumes throw light on how South were either unavailable or could be worse! civilian and military leadership in the United States could not The nationalistic drive in President Ho never waned throughout distinguish simple matters and of their inability to look at the struggle for what he was fighting for was not 'unification' but President Ho Chi Minh for what he really was. Washington's 're-unification'. He was against the division of the country. The inability to cut through issues of nationalism and communism Pentagon Papers show that between 1945 and 1949 President Ho was the starting point of all troubles. President Ho Chi Minh was had issued several appeals to the United States for recognition of first a nationalist and only then a communisthe first asked France Vietnam's independence which were duly passed on to for independence, later the Americans and was astounded as to Washington in diplomatic cables by Kenneth Landon in Hanoi. why the Americans could not understand where he was coming The usual suspicions of Ho Chi Minh's communist credentials from. aside, Washington was caught up in the rhetorics and politics of Writing the obituary piece in The New York Times on Sept. 4, 1969 the Cold War it wanted France's support in Europe. Alden Whitman recalled a meeting that President Ho had with President Ho Chi Minh could not care less for the taunting and Mr. Ashmore and Mr. Baggs, the Editor of Miami News in 1967, ranting of President Lyndon Johnson who has been seen by some the last of the Americans who had talked to the Vietnamese leader academics and historians as an egotistical bully with a profane at length. Telling the visitors that he had visited the United States vocabulary. At the start of the first American air strikes against once, President Ho quipped, “ I think I know the American people North Vietnam on August 5, 1964, President Johnson pompously and I don't understand how they can support their involvement said, “ I didn't just screw Ho Chi Minh. I cut his pecker off”. in this war. Is the Statue of Liberty standing on her head? The tongue-in-cheek comment was in effect questioning American The massive carpet bombings of North Vietnam, use of Agent stand and commitment to basic freedoms and democracy and yet Orange or napalm did not stop the North Vietnamese army over- denying this to the people of Vietnam. run South Vietnam because in all this was a determined causere- unification, not unification; and in 1975 it was all over as you all "We have been fighting for our independence for more than 25 know. When the game was going to up one of the biggest 'airlifts' years and of course we cherish peace, but we will never surrender beganliterally taking out hundreds of thousands of South our independence to purchase a peace with the United States or Vietnamese people, all allies of the United States, to America. any party…You must know of our resolution. Not even your Worldwide the movements of peoples have been recorded, but nuclear weapons would force us to surrender after so long and here was an example of a non-colonial power moving people violent a struggle for the independence of our country” Ho told thousands of people in spite of tough resistance to the idea from his American visitors. the American people. Fewer than 40 per cent of the American President Ho Chi Minh was not only admired for the way in people accepted the idea but Official Washington persisted with which he took on France and President Charles de Gaulle but also this well into the 1980s. in the firm fashion to took on the Americans knowing full well Today it is said that Vietnamese American are the fourth largest that the puppets in the South were going to fall of their own immigrant group in the United States after India, China and the making. And the worst part of America's involvement is not in the Philippines. But here is the supreme ironyif immigrant groups officials and military in Washington not knowing the corruptness

60 61 Sridhar Krishnaswami and Archana Arul Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam and the World Today: A Comment

The importance of the Pentagon Papers does not rest in looking and ineptness of the folks they were propping up in the South but how policy makers stumbled or fumbled into repeated pitfalls in in a painful realization that the alternative leaderships in the Vietnam; rather those multiple volumes throw light on how South were either unavailable or could be worse! civilian and military leadership in the United States could not The nationalistic drive in President Ho never waned throughout distinguish simple matters and of their inability to look at the struggle for what he was fighting for was not 'unification' but President Ho Chi Minh for what he really was. Washington's 're-unification'. He was against the division of the country. The inability to cut through issues of nationalism and communism Pentagon Papers show that between 1945 and 1949 President Ho was the starting point of all troubles. President Ho Chi Minh was had issued several appeals to the United States for recognition of first a nationalist and only then a communisthe first asked France Vietnam's independence which were duly passed on to for independence, later the Americans and was astounded as to Washington in diplomatic cables by Kenneth Landon in Hanoi. why the Americans could not understand where he was coming The usual suspicions of Ho Chi Minh's communist credentials from. aside, Washington was caught up in the rhetorics and politics of Writing the obituary piece in The New York Times on Sept. 4, 1969 the Cold War it wanted France's support in Europe. Alden Whitman recalled a meeting that President Ho had with President Ho Chi Minh could not care less for the taunting and Mr. Ashmore and Mr. Baggs, the Editor of Miami News in 1967, ranting of President Lyndon Johnson who has been seen by some the last of the Americans who had talked to the Vietnamese leader academics and historians as an egotistical bully with a profane at length. Telling the visitors that he had visited the United States vocabulary. At the start of the first American air strikes against once, President Ho quipped, “ I think I know the American people North Vietnam on August 5, 1964, President Johnson pompously and I don't understand how they can support their involvement said, “ I didn't just screw Ho Chi Minh. I cut his pecker off”. in this war. Is the Statue of Liberty standing on her head? The tongue-in-cheek comment was in effect questioning American The massive carpet bombings of North Vietnam, use of Agent stand and commitment to basic freedoms and democracy and yet Orange or napalm did not stop the North Vietnamese army over- denying this to the people of Vietnam. run South Vietnam because in all this was a determined causere- unification, not unification; and in 1975 it was all over as you all "We have been fighting for our independence for more than 25 know. When the game was going to up one of the biggest 'airlifts' years and of course we cherish peace, but we will never surrender beganliterally taking out hundreds of thousands of South our independence to purchase a peace with the United States or Vietnamese people, all allies of the United States, to America. any party…You must know of our resolution. Not even your Worldwide the movements of peoples have been recorded, but nuclear weapons would force us to surrender after so long and here was an example of a non-colonial power moving people violent a struggle for the independence of our country” Ho told thousands of people in spite of tough resistance to the idea from his American visitors. the American people. Fewer than 40 per cent of the American President Ho Chi Minh was not only admired for the way in people accepted the idea but Official Washington persisted with which he took on France and President Charles de Gaulle but also this well into the 1980s. in the firm fashion to took on the Americans knowing full well Today it is said that Vietnamese American are the fourth largest that the puppets in the South were going to fall of their own immigrant group in the United States after India, China and the making. And the worst part of America's involvement is not in the Philippines. But here is the supreme ironyif immigrant groups officials and military in Washington not knowing the corruptness

60 61 Sridhar Krishnaswami and Archana Arul Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam and the World Today: A Comment like the Indian Americans have pushed for stronger bilateral Vietnam. He was neither anti-French or anti-American; he was relations, the Vietnamese immigrant group in the United States pro-Vietnam. Western world leaders, especially the United was one of the biggest lobbying groups against Washington States, did not understand his nationalistic roots. And his biggest normalizing relations with Hanoi. And only for the only reason contribution to the government and people was the age old that this group was carved out artificially from the South of that adage in international relationsthat there are no permanent hapless South East Asian country. And it found like minded allies friends or permanent enemies, only permanent interests. in staunch anti-communist groups within the American Look around Vietnam's world since 1975their source of strength establishment and outside. And one of the groups that found at the time of the war of National Liberation, China, is now their common cause was that of the families of the Missing in Actionfor major adversary; and their major adversary at the time of the war quite some time it was all about some 2000 American soldiers, or of national liberation, the United States, is now looking for GIs, were unaccounted for and perceived to be held 'somewhere' strategic alliances with Hanoi to counter Beijing's aggressive in Vietnam and against their will. designs in the Asia Pacific. At the time of the war of re-unification Between 1991 and 1995 I had the good fortune of being The the Vietnamese sacrificed the Paracel Islands to China for literally Hindu's Special Correspondent for South East Asia based in a songfor nothing one could say. But today Hanoi along with Singapore where I have had the opportunity to visit Vietnam others in South and East Asia are digging in over the Spratlys. several timesboth Hanoi and Saigon or Ho Chi Minh City and And the Americans who were savaging Da Nang and Cam Ranh interact with the top leadership. Much of the conversations were Bay during the course of the Vietnam War are now looking at on the record but there were also occasions to exchange views and these as potential strategic parking spaces! ideas on a private level. It was a real high point to meet such first Just look at the fashion which Vietnam-United States relations rate senior officials who were quite adept in adjusting Vietnam's have reached since the time of 1995 when President Bill Clinton foreign policies to the changing times but also holding on to what had the foresight to normalize relations. Twenty years down the was uniquely Vietnamese. line in 2015, the two countries are marking the 20th anniversary of In one of those conversations I mustered courage to ask the top normalization of diplomatic relations. The fact sheet of the U.S. leadership in Hanoi as to why the issue of MIAs was standing in State Department in February of 2015 has this to say: “The new the way of a relationship even some decade and a half after the partnership advances key initiatives to bolster U.S.-Vietnam formal end of hostilities. The answers were always polite and relations and underscores the enduring U.S. commitment to the realistic: “You have a valid point to raise the issue of MIAs, some Asia-Pacific rebalance. The partnership provides a mechanism to 2000 of them. We have already told the United States that we are facilitate cooperation in areas including political and diplomatic ready to throw open our country for searches and we have. But relations, trade and economic ties, science and technology, can you look at the issue in a different way? In the course of the education and training, environment and health, war legacy war we have had hundreds of thousands killed and thousands issues, defense and security, protection and promotion of human missing in action. How do we answer our people?” A valid poser rights, and culture, sports, and tourism. with no answers! “Vietnam is a partner in nonproliferation regimes, including the President Ho Chi Minh was not alive to see his dream being Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism, and takes realized in 1975he passed away in 1969. But his legacy lives on advantage of expertise, equipment, and training available under and this is the biggest victory of the government and people of

62 63 Sridhar Krishnaswami and Archana Arul Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam and the World Today: A Comment like the Indian Americans have pushed for stronger bilateral Vietnam. He was neither anti-French or anti-American; he was relations, the Vietnamese immigrant group in the United States pro-Vietnam. Western world leaders, especially the United was one of the biggest lobbying groups against Washington States, did not understand his nationalistic roots. And his biggest normalizing relations with Hanoi. And only for the only reason contribution to the government and people was the age old that this group was carved out artificially from the South of that adage in international relationsthat there are no permanent hapless South East Asian country. And it found like minded allies friends or permanent enemies, only permanent interests. in staunch anti-communist groups within the American Look around Vietnam's world since 1975their source of strength establishment and outside. And one of the groups that found at the time of the war of National Liberation, China, is now their common cause was that of the families of the Missing in Actionfor major adversary; and their major adversary at the time of the war quite some time it was all about some 2000 American soldiers, or of national liberation, the United States, is now looking for GIs, were unaccounted for and perceived to be held 'somewhere' strategic alliances with Hanoi to counter Beijing's aggressive in Vietnam and against their will. designs in the Asia Pacific. At the time of the war of re-unification Between 1991 and 1995 I had the good fortune of being The the Vietnamese sacrificed the Paracel Islands to China for literally Hindu's Special Correspondent for South East Asia based in a songfor nothing one could say. But today Hanoi along with Singapore where I have had the opportunity to visit Vietnam others in South and East Asia are digging in over the Spratlys. several timesboth Hanoi and Saigon or Ho Chi Minh City and And the Americans who were savaging Da Nang and Cam Ranh interact with the top leadership. Much of the conversations were Bay during the course of the Vietnam War are now looking at on the record but there were also occasions to exchange views and these as potential strategic parking spaces! ideas on a private level. It was a real high point to meet such first Just look at the fashion which Vietnam-United States relations rate senior officials who were quite adept in adjusting Vietnam's have reached since the time of 1995 when President Bill Clinton foreign policies to the changing times but also holding on to what had the foresight to normalize relations. Twenty years down the was uniquely Vietnamese. line in 2015, the two countries are marking the 20th anniversary of In one of those conversations I mustered courage to ask the top normalization of diplomatic relations. The fact sheet of the U.S. leadership in Hanoi as to why the issue of MIAs was standing in State Department in February of 2015 has this to say: “The new the way of a relationship even some decade and a half after the partnership advances key initiatives to bolster U.S.-Vietnam formal end of hostilities. The answers were always polite and relations and underscores the enduring U.S. commitment to the realistic: “You have a valid point to raise the issue of MIAs, some Asia-Pacific rebalance. The partnership provides a mechanism to 2000 of them. We have already told the United States that we are facilitate cooperation in areas including political and diplomatic ready to throw open our country for searches and we have. But relations, trade and economic ties, science and technology, can you look at the issue in a different way? In the course of the education and training, environment and health, war legacy war we have had hundreds of thousands killed and thousands issues, defense and security, protection and promotion of human missing in action. How do we answer our people?” A valid poser rights, and culture, sports, and tourism. with no answers! “Vietnam is a partner in nonproliferation regimes, including the President Ho Chi Minh was not alive to see his dream being Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism, and takes realized in 1975he passed away in 1969. But his legacy lives on advantage of expertise, equipment, and training available under and this is the biggest victory of the government and people of

62 63 Sridhar Krishnaswami and Archana Arul Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary the Export Control and Related Border Security program. With Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification the support of the U.S. Department of Energy's Megaports Initiative, Vietnam is installing radiation detection equipment to M. Prayaga help it detect and identify weapons of mass destruction and their Assistant Professor, Centre for Southeast Asian and Pacific Studies components at the commercial port of Cai Mep-Vung Tau. The S.V. University, Tirupati Email: [email protected] United States and Vietnam have signed an agreement on counternarcotics. The United States and Vietnam hold a regular dialogue on human rights”. Would you believe all this? Beginning of the Twentieth century is a history of intense The stunning transformation has been in the realm of struggles that spurred anti colonialism and nationalist economicsfrom one of the most sanctioned countries to a movements in major parts of the world. National movements blossoming partnership. As the Fact sheet puts it: “U.S.-Vietnam emerged in response to loss of freedoms, dignity and economic bilateral trade has grown from $451 million in 1995 to nearly $35 hardships of colonial rule spread across Asia and Africa, billion in 2014. U.S. exports to Vietnam were worth $5.5 billion in succeeded in bringing freedom and independence to different 2014, and U.S. imports in 2013 were worth $29.7 billion. A key countries. Vietnam, which fought against the French for a priority in 2015 to build on our economic progress is to conclude prolonged period has produced the most vibrant nationalists the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) trade agreement. This high- during the colonial rule and also in the course of struggle for standard trade agreement would provide the United States, unification of the country. Vietnam, and ten other member states a level playing field to The emerging new nations in the previous century had witnessed compete in markets that together account for almost 40 percent of quite a few illuminating political statesmen of whom Ho Chi global GDP”. Minh stands out. He remained a prime force of Vietnamese If President Ho Chi Minh were alive today he would be 125 liberation and reunification of the county. It was his cherished years… we wish he were alive at this age for we all would all have ambition to see Vietnam independent. He had changed the course been the beneficiary of his wisdom and thinking, not just for of history by securing freedom from the French and laid firm Vietnam but for the world at large. To many he was a strategist foundations for the struggle against the US for uniting the nation for the re-unification of a country and someone who would go to that was temporarily divided at the Geneva Conference in 1954. any lengths to achieve it. But for many others he was not just a He inspired and motivated many young leaders and general thinker and strategist but also a dreamera person who never gave public to join the national struggle. In the sacred cause of up on his dream of fighting for the rights of his people. The world liberation, large number of Vietnamese began career in their teen today is not short of brilliant strategists, but we have fallen way age. Ho Chi Minh actively involved them in the anticolonial behind in “dreamers”statesmen who could look beyond their protests and resistance movements. Many leaders together narrow vision and chart a course for the betterment of the world. joined him and extended enthusiastic support for national We do not have, for example the Ho Chi Minhs, the Martin Luther liberation. This gave them a unique opportunity to be trained Kings and the Nelson Mandelas. And nations are paying the under the unassailable leadership of Ho Chi Minh and emerge as price for placing a premium on short term goals over longer term future leaders of the nation. gains. In the struggle for national cause, Ho Chi Minh was wholeheartedly supported by large number of distinguished

64 65 Sridhar Krishnaswami and Archana Arul Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary the Export Control and Related Border Security program. With Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification the support of the U.S. Department of Energy's Megaports Initiative, Vietnam is installing radiation detection equipment to M. Prayaga help it detect and identify weapons of mass destruction and their Assistant Professor, Centre for Southeast Asian and Pacific Studies components at the commercial port of Cai Mep-Vung Tau. The S.V. University, Tirupati Email: [email protected] United States and Vietnam have signed an agreement on counternarcotics. The United States and Vietnam hold a regular dialogue on human rights”. Would you believe all this? Beginning of the Twentieth century is a history of intense The stunning transformation has been in the realm of struggles that spurred anti colonialism and nationalist economicsfrom one of the most sanctioned countries to a movements in major parts of the world. National movements blossoming partnership. As the Fact sheet puts it: “U.S.-Vietnam emerged in response to loss of freedoms, dignity and economic bilateral trade has grown from $451 million in 1995 to nearly $35 hardships of colonial rule spread across Asia and Africa, billion in 2014. U.S. exports to Vietnam were worth $5.5 billion in succeeded in bringing freedom and independence to different 2014, and U.S. imports in 2013 were worth $29.7 billion. A key countries. Vietnam, which fought against the French for a priority in 2015 to build on our economic progress is to conclude prolonged period has produced the most vibrant nationalists the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) trade agreement. This high- during the colonial rule and also in the course of struggle for standard trade agreement would provide the United States, unification of the country. Vietnam, and ten other member states a level playing field to The emerging new nations in the previous century had witnessed compete in markets that together account for almost 40 percent of quite a few illuminating political statesmen of whom Ho Chi global GDP”. Minh stands out. He remained a prime force of Vietnamese If President Ho Chi Minh were alive today he would be 125 liberation and reunification of the county. It was his cherished years… we wish he were alive at this age for we all would all have ambition to see Vietnam independent. He had changed the course been the beneficiary of his wisdom and thinking, not just for of history by securing freedom from the French and laid firm Vietnam but for the world at large. To many he was a strategist foundations for the struggle against the US for uniting the nation for the re-unification of a country and someone who would go to that was temporarily divided at the Geneva Conference in 1954. any lengths to achieve it. But for many others he was not just a He inspired and motivated many young leaders and general thinker and strategist but also a dreamera person who never gave public to join the national struggle. In the sacred cause of up on his dream of fighting for the rights of his people. The world liberation, large number of Vietnamese began career in their teen today is not short of brilliant strategists, but we have fallen way age. Ho Chi Minh actively involved them in the anticolonial behind in “dreamers”statesmen who could look beyond their protests and resistance movements. Many leaders together narrow vision and chart a course for the betterment of the world. joined him and extended enthusiastic support for national We do not have, for example the Ho Chi Minhs, the Martin Luther liberation. This gave them a unique opportunity to be trained Kings and the Nelson Mandelas. And nations are paying the under the unassailable leadership of Ho Chi Minh and emerge as price for placing a premium on short term goals over longer term future leaders of the nation. gains. In the struggle for national cause, Ho Chi Minh was wholeheartedly supported by large number of distinguished

64 65 M. Prayaga Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification people of whom General Vo Nguyen Giap, Le Duan and Pham was a scholar and teacher, implanted patriotism in his children. Van Dong were the crème de la crème (the best person or thing). He always defied the French colonial hold on Vietnam. Ho, third Each one of them had his own ideas, policies and philosophy for child of the family, got education in Vietnamese, French and winning liberation, but all the leaders venerably obliged the Chinese. Like his father, Ho also was involved in the anti-colonial directions of Ho for the national interests. Ho provided the filler at struggle against the French occupation of Vietnam. His strong the top and the rest joined him to fight for the cause of freedom urge to liberate the country from the French made him to quit the and independence. All the party men under the brilliant graduation in the midst. Ho was convinced that the only way to leadership of Ho Chi Minh showed great tenacity in winning the achieve Vietnam's independence was by leaving the country and hearts of cross section of the country. This paper focuses on the fighting from foreign territories. In 1911, Ho Chi Minh joined as singular contribution made by Ho Chi Minh and his confidents cabin boy in a French ship and left Vietnam to travel widely, Vo Nguyen Giap, Le Duan and Pham Van Dong to free and unite particularly to observe the French colonial subjects in Africa and the fatherland from the shackles of Western colonialism and Middle East, which had a great impact on his thoughts and imperialism. understanding the miserable life of the people under colonialism. Ever since the French colonial administration took roots in During 1912-13, he also visited the United States (US) and stayed Vietnam, it had aimed at exploiting the economic resources of in Harlem, New York, Hoboken and New Jersey by doing pretty Vietnam. The exploitative activities of the French squeezed the jobs for his livelihood. Ho was emotionally moved with the social Vietnamese self-sufficient economy. What is more, the French division and racial discrimination in the US and noted down in went to the extent of consolidation of their authority over all the part: “It is well known that the spread of capitalism and the Indochina states. The repressive measures of the French ignited discovery of the New World had as an immediate result the rebirth of slavery, which was for centuries a scourge for the the centuries-long latent historical character of the Vietnamese 1 i.e., fighting for national unity and independence. In the early Negroes and a bitter disgrace for humanity.” It clearly reflects phase, there were nationalist movements engineered, some of that Ho was a humanist first to respond to the conditions of which were almost simultaneously carried out right from the oppressed classes in the world. Certainly, it had great impact on days of French entry into Vietnam. Though failed due to lack of his career. effective and unified leadership, those movements, however, left At the outbreak of the First World War, Ho went to England with an indelible impression of xenophobia in almost every a keen interest to know political resistance movements outside Vietnamese which helped to keep the movement alive. From Vietnam. He joined 'Overseas Workers', a clandestine among the leaders emerged on the national struggle Ho Chi Minh organization of Asian expatriates in London. Soon, he moved to was a great patriot who continued to kindle the flames of national France to join fellow Vietnamese to advocate freedom for his liberation movement against foreign servitude. country. He was also involved in the establishment of French Early career of Ho Chi Minh Socialist Party and took the new name Nguyen Ai Quoc (Nguyen the Patriot) for himself. Ho founded a journal 'La Paria' (The Ho Chi Minh was born on 19 May 1890 in Kim Lien village in the Outcast) to support the colonial people's movements all over the present day Nghe Tinh province of Vietnam, which was the 2 world. Besides, Ho desired to take the issue of Vietnam freedom cradle for uprisings against foreign domination. Ho's childhood to the international meeting. After the First World War, when the name was Nguyen Sinh Cung which was later changed to victors assembled at Versailles in 1919, to sketch the post-war Nguyen Tat Thanh at school. Ho's father, Nguyen Sinh Huy, who

66 67 M. Prayaga Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification people of whom General Vo Nguyen Giap, Le Duan and Pham was a scholar and teacher, implanted patriotism in his children. Van Dong were the crème de la crème (the best person or thing). He always defied the French colonial hold on Vietnam. Ho, third Each one of them had his own ideas, policies and philosophy for child of the family, got education in Vietnamese, French and winning liberation, but all the leaders venerably obliged the Chinese. Like his father, Ho also was involved in the anti-colonial directions of Ho for the national interests. Ho provided the filler at struggle against the French occupation of Vietnam. His strong the top and the rest joined him to fight for the cause of freedom urge to liberate the country from the French made him to quit the and independence. All the party men under the brilliant graduation in the midst. Ho was convinced that the only way to leadership of Ho Chi Minh showed great tenacity in winning the achieve Vietnam's independence was by leaving the country and hearts of cross section of the country. This paper focuses on the fighting from foreign territories. In 1911, Ho Chi Minh joined as singular contribution made by Ho Chi Minh and his confidents cabin boy in a French ship and left Vietnam to travel widely, Vo Nguyen Giap, Le Duan and Pham Van Dong to free and unite particularly to observe the French colonial subjects in Africa and the fatherland from the shackles of Western colonialism and Middle East, which had a great impact on his thoughts and imperialism. understanding the miserable life of the people under colonialism. Ever since the French colonial administration took roots in During 1912-13, he also visited the United States (US) and stayed Vietnam, it had aimed at exploiting the economic resources of in Harlem, New York, Hoboken and New Jersey by doing pretty Vietnam. The exploitative activities of the French squeezed the jobs for his livelihood. Ho was emotionally moved with the social Vietnamese self-sufficient economy. What is more, the French division and racial discrimination in the US and noted down in went to the extent of consolidation of their authority over all the part: “It is well known that the spread of capitalism and the Indochina states. The repressive measures of the French ignited discovery of the New World had as an immediate result the rebirth of slavery, which was for centuries a scourge for the the centuries-long latent historical character of the Vietnamese 1 i.e., fighting for national unity and independence. In the early Negroes and a bitter disgrace for humanity.” It clearly reflects phase, there were nationalist movements engineered, some of that Ho was a humanist first to respond to the conditions of which were almost simultaneously carried out right from the oppressed classes in the world. Certainly, it had great impact on days of French entry into Vietnam. Though failed due to lack of his career. effective and unified leadership, those movements, however, left At the outbreak of the First World War, Ho went to England with an indelible impression of xenophobia in almost every a keen interest to know political resistance movements outside Vietnamese which helped to keep the movement alive. From Vietnam. He joined 'Overseas Workers', a clandestine among the leaders emerged on the national struggle Ho Chi Minh organization of Asian expatriates in London. Soon, he moved to was a great patriot who continued to kindle the flames of national France to join fellow Vietnamese to advocate freedom for his liberation movement against foreign servitude. country. He was also involved in the establishment of French Early career of Ho Chi Minh Socialist Party and took the new name Nguyen Ai Quoc (Nguyen the Patriot) for himself. Ho founded a journal 'La Paria' (The Ho Chi Minh was born on 19 May 1890 in Kim Lien village in the Outcast) to support the colonial people's movements all over the present day Nghe Tinh province of Vietnam, which was the 2 world. Besides, Ho desired to take the issue of Vietnam freedom cradle for uprisings against foreign domination. Ho's childhood to the international meeting. After the First World War, when the name was Nguyen Sinh Cung which was later changed to victors assembled at Versailles in 1919, to sketch the post-war Nguyen Tat Thanh at school. Ho's father, Nguyen Sinh Huy, who

66 67 M. Prayaga Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification peace initiatives, Ho Chi Minh made a vain bid to draw the Revolutionary Youth League to educate and train Indochinese attention of American President Woodrow Wilson to the self- students in the national resistance movements5 in Vietnam as well determination of Vietnam.3 as in Cambodia and Laos. In the course of national struggle Ho In the meantime the successful emergence of communist regime Chi Minh asserted: “People with revolutionary virtues should in Russia by overthrowing Czarist government under the remain simple.” His simple way of life reinforced people's leadership of Lenin had given new hope and direction for many confidence in him and inspired people to follow his footsteps. nationalists to fight for national liberations. This historical event Ho Chi Minh in National Struggle triggered powerful influence on largely political movements Ho Chi Minh, who was away from the country since 1911, firmly throughout the world. Many people in Europe and in Asia drew believed that Marxist-Leninist form of government goes well inspiration and moved to study and learn the ideology of with Vietnam for its liberation as well as for economic growth. In communism. Lenin's insistence on the “right of oppressed nations 1930, Ho founded the Vietnamese Communist Party (Viet Nam to self-determination” had attracted Ho Chi Minh's interest. Like Cong San Dang) which subsequently led to the germination and national leaders of many colonised states, who were fighting for facilitation of the percolation of the Marxist-Leninist and other liberation and independence, Ho also tended towards revolutionary ideas through the nationalist groups. It was at this communism for salvation of his county from French colonialism time the other two constituents of Indochina: Cambodia and Laos, through revolutionary methods. His participation in the which were also reeling under French colonialism, joined Communist Third International and Lenin's work entitled, Vietnam to form a broad-based party to be known as Indochina 'Theses on the National and Colonial Questions', inspired him to Communist Party (Dong Duong Cong San Dang) in October 1930.6 dedicate his life for his country's national struggle. There was The communist party attracted workers, peasants, intellectuals, clear answer as to why Ho selected the path: it was for a political and ethnic minorities. Right from the beginning, the Indochina independence. On the work of Lenin, Ho Chi Minh expressed in Communist Party (ICP) faced severe repression from the French his own words that: and many of its members were imprisoned at Poulo Condore. There were political terms difficult to understand in this French police had intensified their efforts to arrest Ho Chi Minh. thesis. But by dint of reading it again and again, finally I In the course of national struggle Ho was arrested several times, could grasp the main part of it. What emotion, even Chiang Kai-Shek government in China arrested and enthusiasm, clear-sightedness and confidence it instilled imprisoned him for two years. The onus fell on Ho Chi Minh, as into me! I was overjoyed to tears.4 one of the stakeholders of the liberation movement he began to take part in Vietnamese struggle for independence from outside His penchant for communism led him to become founding of the country. member of the French Communist Party and continued to exhort solidarity between the French colonial subjects and working class Under the Vietnamese revolutionary organizations, individuals of France. In 1924 Ho Chi Minh moved to the Soviet Union to and ICP leaders assembled at Pac Bo in Cao Bang province during participate in the Fifth Congress of the Communist International. 10-19 May 1941. Ho Chi Minh who had attended the meeting after After becoming a member of Comintern (The Communist a decade of obscurity, launched the Vietnam Independence 7 International), Ho went to China with Michael Borodin League (Viet Nam Doc Lap Dong Minh Hoi), popularly known as (prominent member of Comintern), and he formed Vietnam Viet Minh along with Vo Nguyen Giap, Le Duan, Pham Van Dong

68 69 M. Prayaga Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification peace initiatives, Ho Chi Minh made a vain bid to draw the Revolutionary Youth League to educate and train Indochinese attention of American President Woodrow Wilson to the self- students in the national resistance movements5 in Vietnam as well determination of Vietnam.3 as in Cambodia and Laos. In the course of national struggle Ho In the meantime the successful emergence of communist regime Chi Minh asserted: “People with revolutionary virtues should in Russia by overthrowing Czarist government under the remain simple.” His simple way of life reinforced people's leadership of Lenin had given new hope and direction for many confidence in him and inspired people to follow his footsteps. nationalists to fight for national liberations. This historical event Ho Chi Minh in National Struggle triggered powerful influence on largely political movements Ho Chi Minh, who was away from the country since 1911, firmly throughout the world. Many people in Europe and in Asia drew believed that Marxist-Leninist form of government goes well inspiration and moved to study and learn the ideology of with Vietnam for its liberation as well as for economic growth. In communism. Lenin's insistence on the “right of oppressed nations 1930, Ho founded the Vietnamese Communist Party (Viet Nam to self-determination” had attracted Ho Chi Minh's interest. Like Cong San Dang) which subsequently led to the germination and national leaders of many colonised states, who were fighting for facilitation of the percolation of the Marxist-Leninist and other liberation and independence, Ho also tended towards revolutionary ideas through the nationalist groups. It was at this communism for salvation of his county from French colonialism time the other two constituents of Indochina: Cambodia and Laos, through revolutionary methods. His participation in the which were also reeling under French colonialism, joined Communist Third International and Lenin's work entitled, Vietnam to form a broad-based party to be known as Indochina 'Theses on the National and Colonial Questions', inspired him to Communist Party (Dong Duong Cong San Dang) in October 1930.6 dedicate his life for his country's national struggle. There was The communist party attracted workers, peasants, intellectuals, clear answer as to why Ho selected the path: it was for a political and ethnic minorities. Right from the beginning, the Indochina independence. On the work of Lenin, Ho Chi Minh expressed in Communist Party (ICP) faced severe repression from the French his own words that: and many of its members were imprisoned at Poulo Condore. There were political terms difficult to understand in this French police had intensified their efforts to arrest Ho Chi Minh. thesis. But by dint of reading it again and again, finally I In the course of national struggle Ho was arrested several times, could grasp the main part of it. What emotion, even Chiang Kai-Shek government in China arrested and enthusiasm, clear-sightedness and confidence it instilled imprisoned him for two years. The onus fell on Ho Chi Minh, as into me! I was overjoyed to tears.4 one of the stakeholders of the liberation movement he began to take part in Vietnamese struggle for independence from outside His penchant for communism led him to become founding of the country. member of the French Communist Party and continued to exhort solidarity between the French colonial subjects and working class Under the Vietnamese revolutionary organizations, individuals of France. In 1924 Ho Chi Minh moved to the Soviet Union to and ICP leaders assembled at Pac Bo in Cao Bang province during participate in the Fifth Congress of the Communist International. 10-19 May 1941. Ho Chi Minh who had attended the meeting after After becoming a member of Comintern (The Communist a decade of obscurity, launched the Vietnam Independence 7 International), Ho went to China with Michael Borodin League (Viet Nam Doc Lap Dong Minh Hoi), popularly known as (prominent member of Comintern), and he formed Vietnam Viet Minh along with Vo Nguyen Giap, Le Duan, Pham Van Dong

68 69 M. Prayaga Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification and other revolutionaries. When the Viet Minh was established, fifty-nine provinces were completely liberated, resulting in an it had two goals, first to liberate the country from Franco-Japanese abrupt termination of almost a century of colonial domination authority and second, to get hold of the power to administer the and hundreds of years of monarchic rule.9 Pulsing the peoples' country. In order to make it a popular organization, Viet Minh long cherished desire for independence, Emperor Bao Dai followed two pronged strategy: on the political front it mobilized abdicated his position on 25 August 1945 in favour of Ho Chi the people who were pitted against the foreign rule and on the Minh's Provisional Republican Government. On these rapid military side, it offered training to the members to enable them to political developments Girling, a historian, observed: The rise to the occasion in the event of an open struggle to seize power. 'August Revolution' as it was called, is a model for the rapid and Vietnamese patriots, communists, non-communists alike, effective take-over of a country, virtually without bloodshed -- including bourgeois and landowners, joined the Viet Minh. the result (was) more of political than military action.10 On 2 Despite colonialists' repressive measures, the Viet Minh under September 1945, at Ba Dinh square, President Ho Chi Minh read the leadership of Ho gradually grew in strength to fulfill the the Declaration of Independence and notified the birth of the aspirations of the Vietnamese. Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN). 11 Three years later Ho Chi Minh set up a powerful military organ of Since its inception, the DRVN had encountered tremendous Viet Minh called the “Armed Propaganda Brigade for the difficulties. The arrangements made at the Potsdam in 1945 when Liberation” of Vietnam on 22 December 1944 in Cao Bang under the Second World War was in progress, empowered the Chinese the command of Vo Nguyen Giap, the Vietnamese war strategist. to reoccupy Vietnam from the north and the British forces from During the Great War years the Viet Minh fought against Japan, the south. Subsequently, the French with the help of the British, which occupied Indochina during Second World War, while took control of the South, and reached an agreement with the continuing struggle against the French. Interestingly, Ho Chinese. The situation was not favourable for the new republic to specially emphasized the importance of women in the movement. sustain for long and therefore the Viet Minh embraced as many While underscoring the importance of women's participation, he organizations as possible in the country to fight against the described “Women are half the people. If women are not free French re-entry. But the French, fortified with the American arms, then people are not free.” Thousands of women joined the started reoccupying Vietnam which led to the “First Indochina freedom movement and helped to shape the ideas of the War.” The Vietnamese resistance turned into a full scale war nationalists. Ho thus succeeded in attracting different sections of between the French and the Vietnamese supporting the DRVN. the society in huge numbers for the national struggle. The Vietnamese People Army, headed by the epic hero Vo Following the end of Second World War and the Japanese Nguyen Giap, launched a major offensive at Dien Bian Phu on 7 surrender on 13 August 1945, a political vacuum prevailed in May 1954. The Viet Minh strategy proved superior, and recorded Vietnam. Taking advantage of the fluid situation, the National a rare feat of defeating the French. Finally, France withdrew from Liberation Committee of Vietnam, headed by Ho Chi Minh, gave Indochina in accordance with the Geneva Agreements of July a call for a general insurrection.8 Peoples' organizations and 1954, which also provided for temporary division of the country guerrilla units plunged into action while Viet Minh took every into North Vietnam and South Vietnam. Ngo Dinh Diem, South care to gain control of the situation. Ngo Vinh Long, a Vietnamese Vietnam's Prime Minister, a puppet in the hands of America, critic, said, the victory of the Viet Minh was swift and bloodless. refused to hold the elections fearing that Ho Chi Minh would Within a period of only twelve days from 14 August to 25 August, prevail. Ho Chi Minh knew that agreement was not really the

70 71 M. Prayaga Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification and other revolutionaries. When the Viet Minh was established, fifty-nine provinces were completely liberated, resulting in an it had two goals, first to liberate the country from Franco-Japanese abrupt termination of almost a century of colonial domination authority and second, to get hold of the power to administer the and hundreds of years of monarchic rule.9 Pulsing the peoples' country. In order to make it a popular organization, Viet Minh long cherished desire for independence, Emperor Bao Dai followed two pronged strategy: on the political front it mobilized abdicated his position on 25 August 1945 in favour of Ho Chi the people who were pitted against the foreign rule and on the Minh's Provisional Republican Government. On these rapid military side, it offered training to the members to enable them to political developments Girling, a historian, observed: The rise to the occasion in the event of an open struggle to seize power. 'August Revolution' as it was called, is a model for the rapid and Vietnamese patriots, communists, non-communists alike, effective take-over of a country, virtually without bloodshed -- including bourgeois and landowners, joined the Viet Minh. the result (was) more of political than military action.10 On 2 Despite colonialists' repressive measures, the Viet Minh under September 1945, at Ba Dinh square, President Ho Chi Minh read the leadership of Ho gradually grew in strength to fulfill the the Declaration of Independence and notified the birth of the aspirations of the Vietnamese. Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN). 11 Three years later Ho Chi Minh set up a powerful military organ of Since its inception, the DRVN had encountered tremendous Viet Minh called the “Armed Propaganda Brigade for the difficulties. The arrangements made at the Potsdam in 1945 when Liberation” of Vietnam on 22 December 1944 in Cao Bang under the Second World War was in progress, empowered the Chinese the command of Vo Nguyen Giap, the Vietnamese war strategist. to reoccupy Vietnam from the north and the British forces from During the Great War years the Viet Minh fought against Japan, the south. Subsequently, the French with the help of the British, which occupied Indochina during Second World War, while took control of the South, and reached an agreement with the continuing struggle against the French. Interestingly, Ho Chinese. The situation was not favourable for the new republic to specially emphasized the importance of women in the movement. sustain for long and therefore the Viet Minh embraced as many While underscoring the importance of women's participation, he organizations as possible in the country to fight against the described “Women are half the people. If women are not free French re-entry. But the French, fortified with the American arms, then people are not free.” Thousands of women joined the started reoccupying Vietnam which led to the “First Indochina freedom movement and helped to shape the ideas of the War.” The Vietnamese resistance turned into a full scale war nationalists. Ho thus succeeded in attracting different sections of between the French and the Vietnamese supporting the DRVN. the society in huge numbers for the national struggle. The Vietnamese People Army, headed by the epic hero Vo Following the end of Second World War and the Japanese Nguyen Giap, launched a major offensive at Dien Bian Phu on 7 surrender on 13 August 1945, a political vacuum prevailed in May 1954. The Viet Minh strategy proved superior, and recorded Vietnam. Taking advantage of the fluid situation, the National a rare feat of defeating the French. Finally, France withdrew from Liberation Committee of Vietnam, headed by Ho Chi Minh, gave Indochina in accordance with the Geneva Agreements of July a call for a general insurrection.8 Peoples' organizations and 1954, which also provided for temporary division of the country guerrilla units plunged into action while Viet Minh took every into North Vietnam and South Vietnam. Ngo Dinh Diem, South care to gain control of the situation. Ngo Vinh Long, a Vietnamese Vietnam's Prime Minister, a puppet in the hands of America, critic, said, the victory of the Viet Minh was swift and bloodless. refused to hold the elections fearing that Ho Chi Minh would Within a period of only twelve days from 14 August to 25 August, prevail. Ho Chi Minh knew that agreement was not really the

70 71 M. Prayaga Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification end of the struggle, but the beginning of further war. Following the US condemned the intervention by organizing anti- the partition, Vietnam had become experimental ground for the government processions throughout out the country. The Tet Cold War politics. The US, being worried about the spread of Offensive in Southern Vietnam on the US military installations communism, entrenched in South Vietnam as a bulwark and lent halted the American bombing and led to the peace negotiations. strong support to it through the supply of arms, equipment, At this juncture, the sad demise of Ho Chi Minh in September military aid and advisors to fight against the communists. 1969 left his fellow nationalists with a righteous objective of Gradually, the US deepened its military involvement year by reunification of the country. But by then Ho had done enough to year. Suffice it to say, the US forces which were training and put Vietnam on course for the victory. guiding the South Vietnamese soldiers, entered in a big way in the Ho Chi Minh was very simple down to earth by nature. It was 1960s to fight alongside the forces of South Vietnam. It has under his leadership that active movements were started for become a major challenge for Ho Chi Minh and his men to meet freeing his country from the yoke of colonial domination. Ho the onslaught of military might of the US. However, the legacy of sacrificed his whole life for the country. He was a great strategist history infused great courage and resilience into Vietnamese. of political movements, poet, linguist and a noble person loved North Vietnam established a political organization called the even by his adversaries. Ho was a dedicated person, who had National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (NLF), which blend of patience and perseverance in his life. In the entire period includes communist and non-communist parties, in 1960 to of national struggle for freedom and unification, Vietnam combat the US hegemony over the South Vietnam. Communist Party (VCP) comrades were invariably loyal to Ho Ho Chi Minh, the intrinsic leader of Vietnamese with huge Chi Minh. Thus, some of the most brilliant scholars in Vietnamese experience and expose to communist movements around the studies seem subscribed to the view that “the Vietnamese world, turned into an intelligent strategist of guerrilla war in communist leadership is a model of unity, since it has been Vietnam. The Vietnamese revolutionaries who resisted France, proven as an example of stability and continuity.”14 The nation Japan and China successfully, fought against the United States could take pride in the splendid role played by Ho and his party involvement in Vietnam with determination. Almost entire men in winning the liberation and fighting against the French, country stood behind Ho Chi Minh in the noble cause of national Japanese and the United States for the noble cause of unification reunification. Ho became a household name in the country. 12 On of his country. their fight against the US he said, “The Americans are much Ho Chi Minh dedicated his entire life for national liberation and stronger than the French, though they know us less well. So it reunification by leading a simple life with high spirits. The perhaps may take 10 years to do it, but our heroic compatriots in 13 remarkable role he played was hailed thus: “Ho, the Prince of the South will defeat them in the end.” Patriots, will go down in the annals of his heroic nation as an During the critical time of war, Ho Chi Minh skillfully sought indefatigable genius.” Deeply impressed by the Ho Chi Minh's equal support from the USSR and China when the two splendid contribution David G. Marr, a historian, in a review communist states were at loggerheads. It was an example of Ho expressed that, “Ho Chi Minh stands behind only V.I. Lenin and Chi Minh's diplomacy that kept Ho on friendly terms with both. Mao Zedong among revolutionary leaders of the twentieth While fighting the US, Ho also made a tactical move of publicizing century. … Ho led a clandestine existence for thirty years, longer the US war carnage, on a poor and small country, nationally and than any of the others…”. 15 Jean Sainteny, a French diplomat, who internationally which paid rich dividends. Many civil societies in had close acquaintance with Ho Chi Minh, in his memoir

72 73 M. Prayaga Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification end of the struggle, but the beginning of further war. Following the US condemned the intervention by organizing anti- the partition, Vietnam had become experimental ground for the government processions throughout out the country. The Tet Cold War politics. The US, being worried about the spread of Offensive in Southern Vietnam on the US military installations communism, entrenched in South Vietnam as a bulwark and lent halted the American bombing and led to the peace negotiations. strong support to it through the supply of arms, equipment, At this juncture, the sad demise of Ho Chi Minh in September military aid and advisors to fight against the communists. 1969 left his fellow nationalists with a righteous objective of Gradually, the US deepened its military involvement year by reunification of the country. But by then Ho had done enough to year. Suffice it to say, the US forces which were training and put Vietnam on course for the victory. guiding the South Vietnamese soldiers, entered in a big way in the Ho Chi Minh was very simple down to earth by nature. It was 1960s to fight alongside the forces of South Vietnam. It has under his leadership that active movements were started for become a major challenge for Ho Chi Minh and his men to meet freeing his country from the yoke of colonial domination. Ho the onslaught of military might of the US. However, the legacy of sacrificed his whole life for the country. He was a great strategist history infused great courage and resilience into Vietnamese. of political movements, poet, linguist and a noble person loved North Vietnam established a political organization called the even by his adversaries. Ho was a dedicated person, who had National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (NLF), which blend of patience and perseverance in his life. In the entire period includes communist and non-communist parties, in 1960 to of national struggle for freedom and unification, Vietnam combat the US hegemony over the South Vietnam. Communist Party (VCP) comrades were invariably loyal to Ho Ho Chi Minh, the intrinsic leader of Vietnamese with huge Chi Minh. Thus, some of the most brilliant scholars in Vietnamese experience and expose to communist movements around the studies seem subscribed to the view that “the Vietnamese world, turned into an intelligent strategist of guerrilla war in communist leadership is a model of unity, since it has been Vietnam. The Vietnamese revolutionaries who resisted France, proven as an example of stability and continuity.”14 The nation Japan and China successfully, fought against the United States could take pride in the splendid role played by Ho and his party involvement in Vietnam with determination. Almost entire men in winning the liberation and fighting against the French, country stood behind Ho Chi Minh in the noble cause of national Japanese and the United States for the noble cause of unification reunification. Ho became a household name in the country. 12 On of his country. their fight against the US he said, “The Americans are much Ho Chi Minh dedicated his entire life for national liberation and stronger than the French, though they know us less well. So it reunification by leading a simple life with high spirits. The perhaps may take 10 years to do it, but our heroic compatriots in 13 remarkable role he played was hailed thus: “Ho, the Prince of the South will defeat them in the end.” Patriots, will go down in the annals of his heroic nation as an During the critical time of war, Ho Chi Minh skillfully sought indefatigable genius.” Deeply impressed by the Ho Chi Minh's equal support from the USSR and China when the two splendid contribution David G. Marr, a historian, in a review communist states were at loggerheads. It was an example of Ho expressed that, “Ho Chi Minh stands behind only V.I. Lenin and Chi Minh's diplomacy that kept Ho on friendly terms with both. Mao Zedong among revolutionary leaders of the twentieth While fighting the US, Ho also made a tactical move of publicizing century. … Ho led a clandestine existence for thirty years, longer the US war carnage, on a poor and small country, nationally and than any of the others…”. 15 Jean Sainteny, a French diplomat, who internationally which paid rich dividends. Many civil societies in had close acquaintance with Ho Chi Minh, in his memoir

72 73 M. Prayaga Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification portrayed that, “I acquired the conviction that Ho Chi Minh was a Vietnam.17 Giap's determination to fight for national cause made personality of the first class. Ho in fact symbolized the awakening him a member of Indochina Communist Party (ICP) founded by of Vietnam and the Vietnamese national determination to become Ho Chi Minh. In order to sustain the revolutionary activities in the free and independent.” 16 Thus, Ho won laurels for rendering country, Giap jointly formed Indochinese Democratic Front along great contributions to the nation. Ho Chi Minh the icon of with another revolutionary, Pham Van Dong. In order to get national struggle in Vietnam was honoured by renaming the away from the police repression Giap along with Pham Van Dong Saigon (former capital of South Vietnam) after its capture by fled to Kunming in China in 1940 to continue the struggle against North Vietnamese forces in 1975 as Ho Chi Minh City, while the the French colonial rule. Meanwhile, Giap became engrossed in post of Chairman, which was held by Ho was never filled. He will the study of Ho Chi Minh's revolutionary policies of struggle for go down in the world history for his “trailblazing and independence which, by exerting the utmost influence on Giap, revolutionary impact on masses and freedom struggled inspired him to take prominent part in the movements against the countries.” exploitative policies of the French and Japan. On 22 December 1944, Viet Minh started its military organ called the “Armed Vo Nguyen Giap: The People's General Propaganda Brigade for the Liberation,” that came into being Vo Nguyen Giap's military genius was acclaimed especially after under the command of Vo Nguyen Giap. Besides, imparting his victories against the vastly superior forces of the French and indispensable training to an army of revolutionary peasant the United States. He became a war hero in Vietnamese minds to soldiers on guerilla tactics. Further, guerillas had been severely the extent of becoming almost a household name, evidently next trained to launch a staunch attack on the enemy. Steadily, to Ho Chi Minh as the Vietnamese legendary. Having inspired hundreds of men and women had zealously joined the Viet Minh the liberation movement, Ho Chi Minh took it to fruitful heights army.18 in Vietnam and encouraged Giap to assume the reins of the military task in fulfillment of the long-cherished national goals. After Ho Chi Minh proclaimed the founding of the DRVN Giap As the most trusted lieutenant of Ho Chi Minh, Giap discharged became the Minister of the Interior as well as the Commander-in- all duties entrusted to him with utmost devotion and dedication. Chief of the Vietnam People's Army (VPA). But the international A born revolutionary, Giap was a master architect of guerrilla scenario after the end of Second World War created a political war. In the course of serving his nation with splendid distinction imbroglio in the country. The French started reoccupying and tremendous success, he registered memorable victories. Vietnam. The resistance turned into a full scale war between the French and the Vietnamese. Giap was born on 25 August 1911 in a peasant family in An Xa, a village in Quang Binh province. Initially, he had acquired good When Ho Chi Minh and Pham Van Dong had left for grounding in the heroic Vietnamese history. After meritorious Fontainebleau in France to resume the peace negotiations in 1946, schooling, Giap joined the Quoc Hoc or Lycee Nation in Hue. Giap was given full powers to organize guerrilla units by Some of the notable Vietnamese leaders such as Ho Chi Minh, mobilizing thousands of rural men and shaped VPA as a potent Pham Van Dong and Ngo Dinh Diem who had eventually fighting force. His guerrilla force sustained the resistance by emerged as prominent figures in the Vietnamese national history launching a 'hit-and-run campaign' against the French military had their education in Lycee Nation. In his prime, he joined Tan during 1946-1949 following the failure of peace negations with Viet, one of the secret societies fighting for the independence of the French.

74 75 M. Prayaga Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification portrayed that, “I acquired the conviction that Ho Chi Minh was a Vietnam.17 Giap's determination to fight for national cause made personality of the first class. Ho in fact symbolized the awakening him a member of Indochina Communist Party (ICP) founded by of Vietnam and the Vietnamese national determination to become Ho Chi Minh. In order to sustain the revolutionary activities in the free and independent.” 16 Thus, Ho won laurels for rendering country, Giap jointly formed Indochinese Democratic Front along great contributions to the nation. Ho Chi Minh the icon of with another revolutionary, Pham Van Dong. In order to get national struggle in Vietnam was honoured by renaming the away from the police repression Giap along with Pham Van Dong Saigon (former capital of South Vietnam) after its capture by fled to Kunming in China in 1940 to continue the struggle against North Vietnamese forces in 1975 as Ho Chi Minh City, while the the French colonial rule. Meanwhile, Giap became engrossed in post of Chairman, which was held by Ho was never filled. He will the study of Ho Chi Minh's revolutionary policies of struggle for go down in the world history for his “trailblazing and independence which, by exerting the utmost influence on Giap, revolutionary impact on masses and freedom struggled inspired him to take prominent part in the movements against the countries.” exploitative policies of the French and Japan. On 22 December 1944, Viet Minh started its military organ called the “Armed Vo Nguyen Giap: The People's General Propaganda Brigade for the Liberation,” that came into being Vo Nguyen Giap's military genius was acclaimed especially after under the command of Vo Nguyen Giap. Besides, imparting his victories against the vastly superior forces of the French and indispensable training to an army of revolutionary peasant the United States. He became a war hero in Vietnamese minds to soldiers on guerilla tactics. Further, guerillas had been severely the extent of becoming almost a household name, evidently next trained to launch a staunch attack on the enemy. Steadily, to Ho Chi Minh as the Vietnamese legendary. Having inspired hundreds of men and women had zealously joined the Viet Minh the liberation movement, Ho Chi Minh took it to fruitful heights army.18 in Vietnam and encouraged Giap to assume the reins of the military task in fulfillment of the long-cherished national goals. After Ho Chi Minh proclaimed the founding of the DRVN Giap As the most trusted lieutenant of Ho Chi Minh, Giap discharged became the Minister of the Interior as well as the Commander-in- all duties entrusted to him with utmost devotion and dedication. Chief of the Vietnam People's Army (VPA). But the international A born revolutionary, Giap was a master architect of guerrilla scenario after the end of Second World War created a political war. In the course of serving his nation with splendid distinction imbroglio in the country. The French started reoccupying and tremendous success, he registered memorable victories. Vietnam. The resistance turned into a full scale war between the French and the Vietnamese. Giap was born on 25 August 1911 in a peasant family in An Xa, a village in Quang Binh province. Initially, he had acquired good When Ho Chi Minh and Pham Van Dong had left for grounding in the heroic Vietnamese history. After meritorious Fontainebleau in France to resume the peace negotiations in 1946, schooling, Giap joined the Quoc Hoc or Lycee Nation in Hue. Giap was given full powers to organize guerrilla units by Some of the notable Vietnamese leaders such as Ho Chi Minh, mobilizing thousands of rural men and shaped VPA as a potent Pham Van Dong and Ngo Dinh Diem who had eventually fighting force. His guerrilla force sustained the resistance by emerged as prominent figures in the Vietnamese national history launching a 'hit-and-run campaign' against the French military had their education in Lycee Nation. In his prime, he joined Tan during 1946-1949 following the failure of peace negations with Viet, one of the secret societies fighting for the independence of the French.

74 75 M. Prayaga Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification

Battle of Dien Bien Phu An able general, he was able to achieve a paradoxical combination As the fight got escalated, French generals and commanders tried of military prowess and political sagacity. by various tactics to eradicate Vietnamese forces but all in vain. The Geneva Agreements of 1954, signed after the Dien Bien Phu, To come out of the dire situation, the French sought the US provided for the division of Vietnam into two. After the division, support besides doing everything to furnish additional strength Ho Chi Minh in North pursued the ideological policy of 'socialist to their fortifications. The French General Henri Navarre transformation' and carried out 'land reform programme', established a major military base in 1953 near the small town of according to which, land was compulsorily confiscated and Dien Bien Phu, few miles away from the northwest border of redistributed among the landless peasants. However, the land Vietnam. Gen. Navarre was under a fallacious notion that the reform programme had turned out to be a fiasco because in the French fire power significantly overweighs the Vietminh's process, nearly15,000 innocent people had lost their lives as a 19 artillery and firepower. Against the powerful fortifications and result of 'misclassification' and unwarranted use of misleading the French General's presumption, Giap displayed remarkable and misinterpreted labels such as 'landlords' and 'rich peasants'. 22 ingenuity in the course of the eight-week long battle waged The programme did much damage in threatening to tarnish the during March-May 1954, at Dien Bien Phu. At the beginning of image of the party. Both Ho Chi Minh and Giap, having 1954, having mobilized around 50,000 troops Giap deployed outrightly condemned the excesses indulged in by those at the them to the hilltops around Dien Bien Phu. Giap's forces made helm of affairs of the party, set out to make amends for the tunnels or dug kilometers of trenches at required places. The unforeseen lapses. Giap in pursuance of the Communist Party's VPA, headed by the epic hero Vo Nguyen Giap, launched a major 'rectification of errors campaign' took every care to arrange the offensive at Dien Bien Phu on 13 March 1954 and occupied two of restoring of land to all those who had lost their lands unjustly and the hilltop positions in a week. On the whole, the furious battle unjustifiably. Thus, having been impressed by the extraordinary lasted for 55 days and Giap's strategy proved supreme. As the skill displayed by Giap in tackling the grave issue, Ho Chi Minh Vietnamese won an unassailable victory on 7 May 1954 by chose Giap to go around the country and campaign in order to get overrunning the last outposts of the French, the “world watched a the agitated situation alleviated before bringing it under perfect 20 colonial power defeated on the field of battle.” Bernard B. Fall, a control and to execute other things badly needed.23 war correspondent and historian, described the incident as 'one of th At the same time, the US, in support of South Vietnam, got the truly decisive battles of the 20 Century.' involved militarily and launched an air campaign against the Giap planned the crushing defeat of the elite of French Army. North and outrageously ravaged infrastructure facilities like Giap's extraordinary logistical buildup and scrupulous use of his bridges, airfields, railway yards and oil storage sites in urban able fighting force brought victory and reputation of historical areas. Besides, the US destroyed rice fields, villages and houses in significance at Dien Bien Phu in May 1954. The successful battle rural areas to flush out and to kill the communist guerrillas. history of Dien Bien Phu was narrated by Giap himself thus: Tet Offensive Dien Bien Phu is the greatest victory by our people and The Minister of Defense and Commander-in-chief of the VPA, our army during the long war of resistance against the Giap was prompted by the growing hostilities with the US. Ho French Expeditionary Forces… It means that this Chi Minh's men were joined by Viet Cong, which was fighting victory has a historical significance for our country. But against the US in South Vietnam, evidently for achieving the it also has an international impact. 21

76 77 M. Prayaga Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification

Battle of Dien Bien Phu An able general, he was able to achieve a paradoxical combination As the fight got escalated, French generals and commanders tried of military prowess and political sagacity. by various tactics to eradicate Vietnamese forces but all in vain. The Geneva Agreements of 1954, signed after the Dien Bien Phu, To come out of the dire situation, the French sought the US provided for the division of Vietnam into two. After the division, support besides doing everything to furnish additional strength Ho Chi Minh in North pursued the ideological policy of 'socialist to their fortifications. The French General Henri Navarre transformation' and carried out 'land reform programme', established a major military base in 1953 near the small town of according to which, land was compulsorily confiscated and Dien Bien Phu, few miles away from the northwest border of redistributed among the landless peasants. However, the land Vietnam. Gen. Navarre was under a fallacious notion that the reform programme had turned out to be a fiasco because in the French fire power significantly overweighs the Vietminh's process, nearly15,000 innocent people had lost their lives as a 19 artillery and firepower. Against the powerful fortifications and result of 'misclassification' and unwarranted use of misleading the French General's presumption, Giap displayed remarkable and misinterpreted labels such as 'landlords' and 'rich peasants'. 22 ingenuity in the course of the eight-week long battle waged The programme did much damage in threatening to tarnish the during March-May 1954, at Dien Bien Phu. At the beginning of image of the party. Both Ho Chi Minh and Giap, having 1954, having mobilized around 50,000 troops Giap deployed outrightly condemned the excesses indulged in by those at the them to the hilltops around Dien Bien Phu. Giap's forces made helm of affairs of the party, set out to make amends for the tunnels or dug kilometers of trenches at required places. The unforeseen lapses. Giap in pursuance of the Communist Party's VPA, headed by the epic hero Vo Nguyen Giap, launched a major 'rectification of errors campaign' took every care to arrange the offensive at Dien Bien Phu on 13 March 1954 and occupied two of restoring of land to all those who had lost their lands unjustly and the hilltop positions in a week. On the whole, the furious battle unjustifiably. Thus, having been impressed by the extraordinary lasted for 55 days and Giap's strategy proved supreme. As the skill displayed by Giap in tackling the grave issue, Ho Chi Minh Vietnamese won an unassailable victory on 7 May 1954 by chose Giap to go around the country and campaign in order to get overrunning the last outposts of the French, the “world watched a the agitated situation alleviated before bringing it under perfect 20 colonial power defeated on the field of battle.” Bernard B. Fall, a control and to execute other things badly needed.23 war correspondent and historian, described the incident as 'one of th At the same time, the US, in support of South Vietnam, got the truly decisive battles of the 20 Century.' involved militarily and launched an air campaign against the Giap planned the crushing defeat of the elite of French Army. North and outrageously ravaged infrastructure facilities like Giap's extraordinary logistical buildup and scrupulous use of his bridges, airfields, railway yards and oil storage sites in urban able fighting force brought victory and reputation of historical areas. Besides, the US destroyed rice fields, villages and houses in significance at Dien Bien Phu in May 1954. The successful battle rural areas to flush out and to kill the communist guerrillas. history of Dien Bien Phu was narrated by Giap himself thus: Tet Offensive Dien Bien Phu is the greatest victory by our people and The Minister of Defense and Commander-in-chief of the VPA, our army during the long war of resistance against the Giap was prompted by the growing hostilities with the US. Ho French Expeditionary Forces… It means that this Chi Minh's men were joined by Viet Cong, which was fighting victory has a historical significance for our country. But against the US in South Vietnam, evidently for achieving the it also has an international impact. 21

76 77 M. Prayaga Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification national unification. On the certainty of waging a war with the The national leader, Le Duan was born on 7 April 1908 in Quang US, Giap recalled Ho Chi Minh's words : “We will fight until final Tri province in central Vietnam in a middle class family. He had victory against the American aggressors, to safeguard the his early education in French schools. After his schooling he independence of our country, to realize the profound aspirations joined in Vietnam Railway Company as a clerk. There he came of our people for liberty and reunification.”24 Under the guidance across national patriots, who were fighting for liberation of the of the party, Giap commanded another strategic campaign country from French colonial rule. He enthusiastically known as Tet offensive in 1968. Ho's militia struck the devastating participated in demonstrations quite often against the foreign and surprise attacks in number of places in early 1968, in South domination. Like Ho Chi Minh, he also adopted a new name Le Vietnam during Tet, (Lunar New Year). They raided many Duan, when he began revolutionary career. While the French military bases and airfields and the US Embassy and the government had increased repressive measures on the Presidential Palace in Saigon. The Tet Offensive was politically a revolutionaries, Le Duan fled to China and met fellow strategic success for North Vietnam. The Tet offensive was a Vietnamese fighting for national liberation through major decisive event in the history of the reunification of Vietnam. revolutionary means. In China, Le Duan spent some time at the Tet episode contributed to a significant shift in American famous Whampoa Military Academy, which was run by the perception of the conflict. The Tet offensive also had widespread Chinese Nationalists to train revolutionaries in the strategy and political, strategic, economic, social and cultural ramifications. tactics of revolutionary warfare.25 Deeply influenced by the ideas The American public organized numerous demonstrations of Marxism Le Duan became a zealous communist. In 1928 he against the prolongation of the war. Following the Tet onslaught, joined Revolutionary Youth League led by Ho Chi Minh. His President Lyndon B. Johnson decided not to contest in the next extraordinary activities in the anti-French nationalist movements Presidential elections. Ho Chi Minh's tactics ultimately led to in the country drew the attention of Ho Chi Minh and Le Duan peace talks and the eventual US withdrawal. Though Ho Chi became one of the founding members of Indochina Communist Minh passed away the fighting in South Vietnam continued. Party in 1930. Giap, who remained the commander of the North Vietnamese Le Duan returned to Vietnam in 1931 and continued political forces, carried on the armed struggle and ultimately liberated actions until he was arrested and imprisoned for twenty years for Saigon on 30 April 1975. Thus, Giap realised his mentor Ho Chi vigorously contending French activities. However, with the Minh's cherished desire for complete independence and formation of Popular Front Government in France, Le Duan along unification of Vietnam. with other nationalists in prisons was freed in 1936. Le Duan took advantage of prevailing conditions and carried on revolutionary Le Duan : The Astute Communist activities in the southern part of Vietnam that helped him become Le Duan was one of the principal architects of the Communist central committee member of the Communist Party. During the Party of Vietnam. The extremely brilliant Le Duan had a seamless Second World War, Le Duan was again imprisoned in 1940 by the transition from ideologist to become one of the distinguished French and was sent to Poulo Condore, a French prison on an communists of Vietnam. His absolute knowledge on communist island in the South China Sea, which was also a centre for philosophy helped him to rise to the rank of General Secretary of exchange of views and also to design strategies for liberation.26 the Party and remained for nearly three decades in that position Fruitful interactions with fellow revolutionaries in the prison until his death in 1986. Within the communist party he became helped to shape him into a true communist. successor to Ho Chi Minh.

78 79 M. Prayaga Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification national unification. On the certainty of waging a war with the The national leader, Le Duan was born on 7 April 1908 in Quang US, Giap recalled Ho Chi Minh's words : “We will fight until final Tri province in central Vietnam in a middle class family. He had victory against the American aggressors, to safeguard the his early education in French schools. After his schooling he independence of our country, to realize the profound aspirations joined in Vietnam Railway Company as a clerk. There he came of our people for liberty and reunification.”24 Under the guidance across national patriots, who were fighting for liberation of the of the party, Giap commanded another strategic campaign country from French colonial rule. He enthusiastically known as Tet offensive in 1968. Ho's militia struck the devastating participated in demonstrations quite often against the foreign and surprise attacks in number of places in early 1968, in South domination. Like Ho Chi Minh, he also adopted a new name Le Vietnam during Tet, (Lunar New Year). They raided many Duan, when he began revolutionary career. While the French military bases and airfields and the US Embassy and the government had increased repressive measures on the Presidential Palace in Saigon. The Tet Offensive was politically a revolutionaries, Le Duan fled to China and met fellow strategic success for North Vietnam. The Tet offensive was a Vietnamese fighting for national liberation through major decisive event in the history of the reunification of Vietnam. revolutionary means. In China, Le Duan spent some time at the Tet episode contributed to a significant shift in American famous Whampoa Military Academy, which was run by the perception of the conflict. The Tet offensive also had widespread Chinese Nationalists to train revolutionaries in the strategy and political, strategic, economic, social and cultural ramifications. tactics of revolutionary warfare.25 Deeply influenced by the ideas The American public organized numerous demonstrations of Marxism Le Duan became a zealous communist. In 1928 he against the prolongation of the war. Following the Tet onslaught, joined Revolutionary Youth League led by Ho Chi Minh. His President Lyndon B. Johnson decided not to contest in the next extraordinary activities in the anti-French nationalist movements Presidential elections. Ho Chi Minh's tactics ultimately led to in the country drew the attention of Ho Chi Minh and Le Duan peace talks and the eventual US withdrawal. Though Ho Chi became one of the founding members of Indochina Communist Minh passed away the fighting in South Vietnam continued. Party in 1930. Giap, who remained the commander of the North Vietnamese Le Duan returned to Vietnam in 1931 and continued political forces, carried on the armed struggle and ultimately liberated actions until he was arrested and imprisoned for twenty years for Saigon on 30 April 1975. Thus, Giap realised his mentor Ho Chi vigorously contending French activities. However, with the Minh's cherished desire for complete independence and formation of Popular Front Government in France, Le Duan along unification of Vietnam. with other nationalists in prisons was freed in 1936. Le Duan took advantage of prevailing conditions and carried on revolutionary Le Duan : The Astute Communist activities in the southern part of Vietnam that helped him become Le Duan was one of the principal architects of the Communist central committee member of the Communist Party. During the Party of Vietnam. The extremely brilliant Le Duan had a seamless Second World War, Le Duan was again imprisoned in 1940 by the transition from ideologist to become one of the distinguished French and was sent to Poulo Condore, a French prison on an communists of Vietnam. His absolute knowledge on communist island in the South China Sea, which was also a centre for philosophy helped him to rise to the rank of General Secretary of exchange of views and also to design strategies for liberation.26 the Party and remained for nearly three decades in that position Fruitful interactions with fellow revolutionaries in the prison until his death in 1986. Within the communist party he became helped to shape him into a true communist. successor to Ho Chi Minh.

78 79 M. Prayaga Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification

At the outbreak of Second World War, the French were unable to peasants and strengthened the party's image in the North. Truong protect its colonies in Indochina. This allowed Japan to occupy Chinh, who was the brain behind the introduction of Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh and the fellow nationalists under the Viet collectivization was expelled briefly from the party. Le Duan Minh viewed the Japanese occupation as an opportunity to fight replaced Truong Chinh and became the Secretary of the for liberation against both the aggressors. Soon after the war, Ho Communist Party with Ho Chi Minh as party Chairman, at the Chi Minh declared the birth of the DRVN on 2nd September 1945. Third Party Congress in 1960. Nonetheless, France resolved to reestablish its authority over Le Duan, who was absolutely loyal to the Communist Party and Vietnam. Le Duan, who was released from prison in 1945, reached fought for the revolutionary cause of the nation, and was gifted Hanoi and joined Ho Chi Minh in the protection of new republic. with theoretical views and creative thinking, affirmed that the He was deputed to southern region of the country to build Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) is the sole force to lead the communist cadre for the party. Le Duan did not play any armed forces against Diem-US clique. During the resistance war significant role in the first Indochina war fought against the for national salvation, Le Duan gave a call to the cadre to be French, but he built a strong political following in the south, “determined to finalize the cause of liberating the South, which became important later. protecting the North, unifying the Homeland, successfully The Geneva Agreements of 1954, which ended the First Indochina building socialism, making our country a wealthy and civilized War, formally divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel. The US with one.” 28 To achieve this goal, Duan tried to persuade the party an aim to stop the spread of communism in South Vietnam leadership for belligerent policy. Even though the move was vociferously supported Ngo Dinh Diem government. Le Duan, initially felt 'premature', the party accepted the proposal on the directions of Ho, remained in South Vietnam after the eventually. This was hailed as Le Duan's first major victory within peace agreement was signed, organized opposition to the Diem the party for armed struggle. 29 government among his political followers. Le Duan believed that Consequent to the intensification of guerrilla war in the South, Le the Communist Party should take an active role in reuniting the Duan was entrusted with the task of supervising the formation of two parts of Vietnam. He argued that North Vietnam should use a coalition called the NLF to fight against the US. Besides, Le Duan, combination of political and military strategies to overcome a theorist, had an outstanding war strategy to win the war. resistance in the South. Le Duan had explained his combative Presenting his views on the war he said that: views to be followed in the south as : Constantly carrying out small-to-large scale offensive Armed struggle is a fundamental form of struggle strategy, gaining partial victories, advancing towards which directly and decisively contributes to the complete victory; promoting combined strength, annihilation of the enemy's military forces and combining military struggle with political struggle; consequently to thwarting all his military and political staging partial uprisings, developing uprising into schemes.27 revolutionary war, combining uprising with offensive Besides, Le Duan had campaigned to shift to a militant policy. and vice versa to clinch victory. 30 During the peasant revolt in the north Ho Chi Minh initiated a He also expressed, “Attack, even with a soldier or a team.” His programme called “rectification of errors”. On the advice of Ho views were designed to win the war. After assuming the charge of Chi Minh, Le Duan took measures to manage the unrest among General Secretary, within a few years Le Duan became the most

80 81 M. Prayaga Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification

At the outbreak of Second World War, the French were unable to peasants and strengthened the party's image in the North. Truong protect its colonies in Indochina. This allowed Japan to occupy Chinh, who was the brain behind the introduction of Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh and the fellow nationalists under the Viet collectivization was expelled briefly from the party. Le Duan Minh viewed the Japanese occupation as an opportunity to fight replaced Truong Chinh and became the Secretary of the for liberation against both the aggressors. Soon after the war, Ho Communist Party with Ho Chi Minh as party Chairman, at the Chi Minh declared the birth of the DRVN on 2nd September 1945. Third Party Congress in 1960. Nonetheless, France resolved to reestablish its authority over Le Duan, who was absolutely loyal to the Communist Party and Vietnam. Le Duan, who was released from prison in 1945, reached fought for the revolutionary cause of the nation, and was gifted Hanoi and joined Ho Chi Minh in the protection of new republic. with theoretical views and creative thinking, affirmed that the He was deputed to southern region of the country to build Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) is the sole force to lead the communist cadre for the party. Le Duan did not play any armed forces against Diem-US clique. During the resistance war significant role in the first Indochina war fought against the for national salvation, Le Duan gave a call to the cadre to be French, but he built a strong political following in the south, “determined to finalize the cause of liberating the South, which became important later. protecting the North, unifying the Homeland, successfully The Geneva Agreements of 1954, which ended the First Indochina building socialism, making our country a wealthy and civilized War, formally divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel. The US with one.” 28 To achieve this goal, Duan tried to persuade the party an aim to stop the spread of communism in South Vietnam leadership for belligerent policy. Even though the move was vociferously supported Ngo Dinh Diem government. Le Duan, initially felt 'premature', the party accepted the proposal on the directions of Ho, remained in South Vietnam after the eventually. This was hailed as Le Duan's first major victory within peace agreement was signed, organized opposition to the Diem the party for armed struggle. 29 government among his political followers. Le Duan believed that Consequent to the intensification of guerrilla war in the South, Le the Communist Party should take an active role in reuniting the Duan was entrusted with the task of supervising the formation of two parts of Vietnam. He argued that North Vietnam should use a coalition called the NLF to fight against the US. Besides, Le Duan, combination of political and military strategies to overcome a theorist, had an outstanding war strategy to win the war. resistance in the South. Le Duan had explained his combative Presenting his views on the war he said that: views to be followed in the south as : Constantly carrying out small-to-large scale offensive Armed struggle is a fundamental form of struggle strategy, gaining partial victories, advancing towards which directly and decisively contributes to the complete victory; promoting combined strength, annihilation of the enemy's military forces and combining military struggle with political struggle; consequently to thwarting all his military and political staging partial uprisings, developing uprising into schemes.27 revolutionary war, combining uprising with offensive Besides, Le Duan had campaigned to shift to a militant policy. and vice versa to clinch victory. 30 During the peasant revolt in the north Ho Chi Minh initiated a He also expressed, “Attack, even with a soldier or a team.” His programme called “rectification of errors”. On the advice of Ho views were designed to win the war. After assuming the charge of Chi Minh, Le Duan took measures to manage the unrest among General Secretary, within a few years Le Duan became the most

80 81 M. Prayaga Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification popular figure in the Communist Party and drew support from Vietnam. His father was an official in Hue court and worked as many allies. Among Politburo members of the party he had Secretary to the deposed Emperor Duy Tan. He inherited a strong significant influence and was more than simply primus inter sense of nationalism which forged anti colonial attitude from pares (first among equals). 31 Le Duan, who was close to the young age. After his early education in the French Lycee at Hue, venerated leader, read Ho's “political will”. Later, Le Duan he moved to the University of Hanoi for higher studies. Dong's became successor of Ho Chi Minh as head of the VCP and led political career had begun when he organized a rally during the Vietnam to victory. On the successful role of Le Duan, Stephen funeral of Phan Chu Trinh, the national hero of Vietnam. It invited Johnson, an American expert on Vietnam noted: “His main the wrath of the French and led to his expulsion from the country achievement was that he completed the defeat of the South and only to join the well-known Chinese Whampoa Military unification.” On the active role of Duan in the national cause, Academy. An important phase in Dong's life had begun when he western media reported that in 1960s Ho Chi Minh's role was first met legendary Ho Chi Minh in the Academy and gradually largely ceremonial, with him increasingly delegating authority to became close to him. On the instructions of Ho Chi Minh, Dong his senior colleagues in the party and the government. Though Le came back to Vietnam to organize the Thanh Nien youth Duan held powerful position in the party for a long time, eminent movement. 33 In 1929, Dong was arrested and imprisoned by the scholar like Douglas Pike opined that “Mr. Duan could not match colonial authorities for sedition and sent to Poulo Condore. After the avuncular image of “Uncle Ho” as a national symbol.”32 Even spending seven long years in the prison, Dong was released in after the unification of Vietnam, Le Duan shared power and 1936 by the new government in France. worked collectively with Prime Minister Pham Van Dong and In 1941, Pham Van Dong joined Ho Chi Minh and other leaders in State Council Chairman, Truong Chinh for the cause of national founding the Viet Minh, whose task was to unify different development. Duan had also contributed more than 100 articles liberation groups, to fight against the French and the Japanese for the Vietnamese Communist Party's theoretical journal, Tap Chi forces. In August 1945, when Ho Chi Minh declared the Cong San. He also published On the Socialist Revolution (3 volumes) independence and formed the DRVN in the North, Pham Van and his Selected Writings. Dong became finance minister in the Ho's cabinet. Soon, Dong Pham Van Dong : The Loyal Lieutenant accompanied Ho Chi Minh as chief aide at the Fontainebleau talks Pham Van Dong a Vietnamese statesman, credited as the longest in 1946, which meant to negotiate the issue of national 34 served prime minister of 20th century was steadfast lieutenant of independence with colonial power. France reentered Hanoi Ho Chi Minh. Pham Van Dong governed Vietnam for more than with an ambition to regain control over entire Vietnam, which 32 years since the attainment of independence from France. Dong culminated in the outbreak of nine-year war or First Indochina was a Vietnamese freedom fighter and revolutionary thinker par war. Vietnamese resorted to guerrilla war against the aggressor. excellence. He was one of the most prominent leaders of the Dong took the task of leading the guerilla movement in his home Vietnamese revolutionary movement against the French and the province. In 1951, he became vice-premier and, before the French US. Through his many interviews during his tenure Dong surrender in 1954, he was made foreign minister. expressed Vietnam's determination to defeat its more powerful Pham Van Dong, who was then little known to the world, drew adversary, the US, to reunify the nation. the public eye when he headed Vietnamese delegation to the Pham Van Dong was born in an affluent mandarin family on 1 Geneva peace talks in 1954. The peace treaty concluded after March 1906 in Duc Tan village in Quang Ngai province in central intense negotiations, which provided for the termination of the

82 83 M. Prayaga Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification popular figure in the Communist Party and drew support from Vietnam. His father was an official in Hue court and worked as many allies. Among Politburo members of the party he had Secretary to the deposed Emperor Duy Tan. He inherited a strong significant influence and was more than simply primus inter sense of nationalism which forged anti colonial attitude from pares (first among equals). 31 Le Duan, who was close to the young age. After his early education in the French Lycee at Hue, venerated leader, read Ho's “political will”. Later, Le Duan he moved to the University of Hanoi for higher studies. Dong's became successor of Ho Chi Minh as head of the VCP and led political career had begun when he organized a rally during the Vietnam to victory. On the successful role of Le Duan, Stephen funeral of Phan Chu Trinh, the national hero of Vietnam. It invited Johnson, an American expert on Vietnam noted: “His main the wrath of the French and led to his expulsion from the country achievement was that he completed the defeat of the South and only to join the well-known Chinese Whampoa Military unification.” On the active role of Duan in the national cause, Academy. An important phase in Dong's life had begun when he western media reported that in 1960s Ho Chi Minh's role was first met legendary Ho Chi Minh in the Academy and gradually largely ceremonial, with him increasingly delegating authority to became close to him. On the instructions of Ho Chi Minh, Dong his senior colleagues in the party and the government. Though Le came back to Vietnam to organize the Thanh Nien youth Duan held powerful position in the party for a long time, eminent movement. 33 In 1929, Dong was arrested and imprisoned by the scholar like Douglas Pike opined that “Mr. Duan could not match colonial authorities for sedition and sent to Poulo Condore. After the avuncular image of “Uncle Ho” as a national symbol.”32 Even spending seven long years in the prison, Dong was released in after the unification of Vietnam, Le Duan shared power and 1936 by the new government in France. worked collectively with Prime Minister Pham Van Dong and In 1941, Pham Van Dong joined Ho Chi Minh and other leaders in State Council Chairman, Truong Chinh for the cause of national founding the Viet Minh, whose task was to unify different development. Duan had also contributed more than 100 articles liberation groups, to fight against the French and the Japanese for the Vietnamese Communist Party's theoretical journal, Tap Chi forces. In August 1945, when Ho Chi Minh declared the Cong San. He also published On the Socialist Revolution (3 volumes) independence and formed the DRVN in the North, Pham Van and his Selected Writings. Dong became finance minister in the Ho's cabinet. Soon, Dong Pham Van Dong : The Loyal Lieutenant accompanied Ho Chi Minh as chief aide at the Fontainebleau talks Pham Van Dong a Vietnamese statesman, credited as the longest in 1946, which meant to negotiate the issue of national 34 served prime minister of 20th century was steadfast lieutenant of independence with colonial power. France reentered Hanoi Ho Chi Minh. Pham Van Dong governed Vietnam for more than with an ambition to regain control over entire Vietnam, which 32 years since the attainment of independence from France. Dong culminated in the outbreak of nine-year war or First Indochina was a Vietnamese freedom fighter and revolutionary thinker par war. Vietnamese resorted to guerrilla war against the aggressor. excellence. He was one of the most prominent leaders of the Dong took the task of leading the guerilla movement in his home Vietnamese revolutionary movement against the French and the province. In 1951, he became vice-premier and, before the French US. Through his many interviews during his tenure Dong surrender in 1954, he was made foreign minister. expressed Vietnam's determination to defeat its more powerful Pham Van Dong, who was then little known to the world, drew adversary, the US, to reunify the nation. the public eye when he headed Vietnamese delegation to the Pham Van Dong was born in an affluent mandarin family on 1 Geneva peace talks in 1954. The peace treaty concluded after March 1906 in Duc Tan village in Quang Ngai province in central intense negotiations, which provided for the termination of the

82 83 M. Prayaga Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification

French colonial rule in entire Indochina. It also divided the althrough the peace talks and relied on his diplomatic skills to country and led to another two decades of severe conflict. ending the war. He helped the fellow communists such as Giap, Thereafter, the members of the CPV raised the standard of Le Duan and Truong Chinh to achieve reunification in 1975. After revolutionary struggle. Dong's unstinted work and performance heading reunified Vietnam for more than a decade as Prime at national and international levels were duly rewarded when he Minister he stepped down in 1986 and paved way for the was elevated to the post of Prime Minister (Chairman of the renovation in the country. Council of Ministers) in 1955. He held this post incessantly until Commenting on Dong's dedicated contributions to the party and 1986. the nation, his longtime associate Gen. Giap, noted : “In my As the war in Vietnam peaked, Dong along with Ho and Le Duan opinion, talking about Pham Van Dong means talking about his sustained the revolutionary movement in the country. Even the ethics: simplicity, honesty, righteousness and love for his role of Dong was further enhanced in the party when Ho Chi associates and people.”37 Minh fell ill in 1960s. He undertook the task of addressing the Following his retirement from public life, Dong remained a public and travelling frequently to the communist countries for special adviser to the Communist Party's central committee until securing solidarity and much needed material help. Number of December 1997. As a senior member of the party he also criticized interviews he had given to the Western press, where he the rising inequalities and corruption that accompanied reforms. pronounced that “North Vietnam would endure US He wrote a hagiography of Ho Chi Minh in 1960 and authored bombardments, and would ultimately prevail.” Some French 'Vietnam: A History”. Besides, his speeches and numerous articles nationals were impressed with his speeches interspersed with were printed in the communist news papers, magazines and were French quotes. Marc Ribaud, French photographer and journalist, also published in the form of selected writings. complemented Dong when he observed that “Intelligence and enthusiasm, lucidity and culture are rarely combined to the same Conclusion degree in the same man.” Due to his proximity and loyalty to Ho Under the charismatic leadership of Ho Chi Minh, the Chi Minh, the latter fondly referred him as “my other self” and Communist Party of Vietnam was strengthened to register “my favourite nephew”. Dong won the confidence of Ho, because incredible victories over the French and the US in the course of “others made policy, while Dong was there to ensure it was national salvation. Ho's vision and nationalistic ideas made him carried out.”35 Pham Van Dong, while paying rich tributes to the inspirer of the freedom struggle within the country and heroic deeds of the Vietnamese, proudly declared : internationally an influential personality. During the struggle … it is only in our era, the Ho Chi Minh era, when our Ho's task was to lead, unite, assist and help the fellow Party is leading the sacred fight of our nation, that our countrymen in their efforts to win political freedom. In his efforts strength, courage, intelligence our fine qualities and to build and strengthen the party cadre and the party, Ho Chi noble traditions can be developed to the utmost. 36 Minh inculcated fighting spirit among men, women, workers and farmers, who responded enthusiastically to his militant approach Pham Van Dong, who was the foremost advocate of communism, to the reunification of the country. He emphatically stated that he inherited and enriched Ho Chi Minh's ideology in the country. In was fighting for freedom not only for the Vietnamese but also for his public speeches Dong never remained untouched with the the oppressed people in the entire world. Under his inspiring inspirational words of Ho. Dong stayed as an important figure leadership the VCP completely transformed the Vietnamese

84 85 M. Prayaga Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification

French colonial rule in entire Indochina. It also divided the althrough the peace talks and relied on his diplomatic skills to country and led to another two decades of severe conflict. ending the war. He helped the fellow communists such as Giap, Thereafter, the members of the CPV raised the standard of Le Duan and Truong Chinh to achieve reunification in 1975. After revolutionary struggle. Dong's unstinted work and performance heading reunified Vietnam for more than a decade as Prime at national and international levels were duly rewarded when he Minister he stepped down in 1986 and paved way for the was elevated to the post of Prime Minister (Chairman of the renovation in the country. Council of Ministers) in 1955. He held this post incessantly until Commenting on Dong's dedicated contributions to the party and 1986. the nation, his longtime associate Gen. Giap, noted : “In my As the war in Vietnam peaked, Dong along with Ho and Le Duan opinion, talking about Pham Van Dong means talking about his sustained the revolutionary movement in the country. Even the ethics: simplicity, honesty, righteousness and love for his role of Dong was further enhanced in the party when Ho Chi associates and people.”37 Minh fell ill in 1960s. He undertook the task of addressing the Following his retirement from public life, Dong remained a public and travelling frequently to the communist countries for special adviser to the Communist Party's central committee until securing solidarity and much needed material help. Number of December 1997. As a senior member of the party he also criticized interviews he had given to the Western press, where he the rising inequalities and corruption that accompanied reforms. pronounced that “North Vietnam would endure US He wrote a hagiography of Ho Chi Minh in 1960 and authored bombardments, and would ultimately prevail.” Some French 'Vietnam: A History”. Besides, his speeches and numerous articles nationals were impressed with his speeches interspersed with were printed in the communist news papers, magazines and were French quotes. Marc Ribaud, French photographer and journalist, also published in the form of selected writings. complemented Dong when he observed that “Intelligence and enthusiasm, lucidity and culture are rarely combined to the same Conclusion degree in the same man.” Due to his proximity and loyalty to Ho Under the charismatic leadership of Ho Chi Minh, the Chi Minh, the latter fondly referred him as “my other self” and Communist Party of Vietnam was strengthened to register “my favourite nephew”. Dong won the confidence of Ho, because incredible victories over the French and the US in the course of “others made policy, while Dong was there to ensure it was national salvation. Ho's vision and nationalistic ideas made him carried out.”35 Pham Van Dong, while paying rich tributes to the inspirer of the freedom struggle within the country and heroic deeds of the Vietnamese, proudly declared : internationally an influential personality. During the struggle … it is only in our era, the Ho Chi Minh era, when our Ho's task was to lead, unite, assist and help the fellow Party is leading the sacred fight of our nation, that our countrymen in their efforts to win political freedom. In his efforts strength, courage, intelligence our fine qualities and to build and strengthen the party cadre and the party, Ho Chi noble traditions can be developed to the utmost. 36 Minh inculcated fighting spirit among men, women, workers and farmers, who responded enthusiastically to his militant approach Pham Van Dong, who was the foremost advocate of communism, to the reunification of the country. He emphatically stated that he inherited and enriched Ho Chi Minh's ideology in the country. In was fighting for freedom not only for the Vietnamese but also for his public speeches Dong never remained untouched with the the oppressed people in the entire world. Under his inspiring inspirational words of Ho. Dong stayed as an important figure leadership the VCP completely transformed the Vietnamese

84 85 M. Prayaga Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification society and brought several enduring political and social changes war through peace talks and strove to achieve reunification. Dong during the war and later. Thus, Ho was acclaimed as a nationalist, distinguished himself by his long innings as an able revolutionary and humanist in the international circles. Because administrator. of his bold actions, grand stature, intellectual prowess and affable The Vietnamese leadership at the helm made huge sacrifices for nature Ho was affectionately called as 'Uncle Ho' by the the cause of freedom and for the advancement of their nation. Vietnamese. Despite ceaseless repression, long war, meager resources, family Another interesting point was that the national cause was obligations and poor health they played an immensely important espoused by many leaders in the country. Vo Nguyen Giap, who role in the freedom struggle and unification. was drawn into the vortex of freedom movement, started his career humbly before he became a Vietnamese military General. Giap the natural strategist combined the guerrilla tactics in armed warfare against France during the First Indochina War and registered an emphatic win over the French forces at Dien Bien Notes: Phu in 1954. Giap's military genius was acclaimed especially 1. “Ho Chi Minh and the Vietnamese Struggle for Liberation,” after the victories against the vastly superior forces of France and https://www.workers.org/ 2013/01/29/ho-chi-minh-and-the- the United States and his name became uppermost in the vietnamese-struggle-for-liberation/ Vietnamese peoples' mind. His unparalleled successes, earned 2. Pierre Brocheux, Ho Chi Minh : A Biography, (Cambridge University Press, him the name 'Red Napoleon' and placed him in the galaxy of Cambridge, 2007), p.18. military generals of par excellence of Twentieth century. 3. William J. Duiker, Ho Chi Minh, (Hyperion, New York, 2000), pp.38-39. Le Duan, who was inspired by the communist ideology, joined 4. “Ho Chi Minh and the Vietnamese Struggle for Liberation,” n.1. the national struggle for independence. For the noble cause of unification, he postulated the idea of uniting militant groups for 5. Charles E. Kirkpatrick, “Ho Chi Minh: North Vietnam Leader,” the revolutionary movement and took the task of combining ( p u b l i s h e d i n V i e t n a m M a g a z i n e , F e b r u a r y 1 9 9 0 ) , http://www.historynet.com/ho-chi-minh-north-vietnam-leader.htm political and military strategies to resist the US in the South Vietnam. Following the demise of Ho Chi Minh, he became 6. 50 Years of Activities of the Communist Party of Viet Nam, (Hanoi, 1980), powerful political figure in the Communist Party and pp.31-34. Also, see Thomas Hodgkin, Vietnam: The Revolutionary Path, (London, 1981), pp.227-243. successfully led the country to victory. After the unification, Le Duan maintained the political stability in the country and 7. An Outline History of Viet Nam Workers' Party, 1930-1975, (Hanoi, 1976), profoundly involved himself in the nation building efforts. Pham p.31. Van Dong, yet another great leader, who was inspired by the 8. 50 Years of Activities of the Communist Party of Vietnam, n.5, pp.77-81. spirit of Ho Chi Minh, joined the national movement and 9. Ngo Vinh Long, "Vietnam: The Real Enemy," Bulletin of Concerned Asian promoted cooperation in the struggle and contributed greatly to Scholars, Vol.21, No.2-4, April-December 1989, p.14. For details of Viet the country with his audacious diplomatic skills at the Geneva Minh's role, see William J. Duiker, The Communist Road to Power in Viet Conference in 1954. During the American War he also took the Nam, (Colorado, 1981), pp.95-99. task of sustaining the revolutionary movement by frequently 10. J.L.S. Girling, People's War: The Conditions and the Consequences in China addressing press and public. He genuinely worked for end of the and in Southeast Asia, (London, 1969), p.121.

86 87 M. Prayaga Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification society and brought several enduring political and social changes war through peace talks and strove to achieve reunification. Dong during the war and later. Thus, Ho was acclaimed as a nationalist, distinguished himself by his long innings as an able revolutionary and humanist in the international circles. Because administrator. of his bold actions, grand stature, intellectual prowess and affable The Vietnamese leadership at the helm made huge sacrifices for nature Ho was affectionately called as 'Uncle Ho' by the the cause of freedom and for the advancement of their nation. Vietnamese. Despite ceaseless repression, long war, meager resources, family Another interesting point was that the national cause was obligations and poor health they played an immensely important espoused by many leaders in the country. Vo Nguyen Giap, who role in the freedom struggle and unification. was drawn into the vortex of freedom movement, started his career humbly before he became a Vietnamese military General. Giap the natural strategist combined the guerrilla tactics in armed warfare against France during the First Indochina War and registered an emphatic win over the French forces at Dien Bien Notes: Phu in 1954. Giap's military genius was acclaimed especially 1. “Ho Chi Minh and the Vietnamese Struggle for Liberation,” after the victories against the vastly superior forces of France and https://www.workers.org/ 2013/01/29/ho-chi-minh-and-the- the United States and his name became uppermost in the vietnamese-struggle-for-liberation/ Vietnamese peoples' mind. His unparalleled successes, earned 2. Pierre Brocheux, Ho Chi Minh : A Biography, (Cambridge University Press, him the name 'Red Napoleon' and placed him in the galaxy of Cambridge, 2007), p.18. military generals of par excellence of Twentieth century. 3. William J. Duiker, Ho Chi Minh, (Hyperion, New York, 2000), pp.38-39. Le Duan, who was inspired by the communist ideology, joined 4. “Ho Chi Minh and the Vietnamese Struggle for Liberation,” n.1. the national struggle for independence. For the noble cause of unification, he postulated the idea of uniting militant groups for 5. Charles E. Kirkpatrick, “Ho Chi Minh: North Vietnam Leader,” the revolutionary movement and took the task of combining ( p u b l i s h e d i n V i e t n a m M a g a z i n e , F e b r u a r y 1 9 9 0 ) , http://www.historynet.com/ho-chi-minh-north-vietnam-leader.htm political and military strategies to resist the US in the South Vietnam. Following the demise of Ho Chi Minh, he became 6. 50 Years of Activities of the Communist Party of Viet Nam, (Hanoi, 1980), powerful political figure in the Communist Party and pp.31-34. Also, see Thomas Hodgkin, Vietnam: The Revolutionary Path, (London, 1981), pp.227-243. successfully led the country to victory. After the unification, Le Duan maintained the political stability in the country and 7. An Outline History of Viet Nam Workers' Party, 1930-1975, (Hanoi, 1976), profoundly involved himself in the nation building efforts. Pham p.31. Van Dong, yet another great leader, who was inspired by the 8. 50 Years of Activities of the Communist Party of Vietnam, n.5, pp.77-81. spirit of Ho Chi Minh, joined the national movement and 9. Ngo Vinh Long, "Vietnam: The Real Enemy," Bulletin of Concerned Asian promoted cooperation in the struggle and contributed greatly to Scholars, Vol.21, No.2-4, April-December 1989, p.14. For details of Viet the country with his audacious diplomatic skills at the Geneva Minh's role, see William J. Duiker, The Communist Road to Power in Viet Conference in 1954. During the American War he also took the Nam, (Colorado, 1981), pp.95-99. task of sustaining the revolutionary movement by frequently 10. J.L.S. Girling, People's War: The Conditions and the Consequences in China addressing press and public. He genuinely worked for end of the and in Southeast Asia, (London, 1969), p.121.

86 87 M. Prayaga Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification

11. An Outline History of the Vietnam Worker's Party, n.7, p.38. 27. Le Duan, Selected Writings, (Hanoi, 1977), p.210. 12. K. Raja Reddy, “A Tribute to Ho Chi Minh,” Area Studies: A Journal of 28. “Le Duan's theoretical thinking on the Party leadership over the people's International Studies and Analyses, Vol.4, No.1, Jan-June 2010, pp.130-131. armed forces,” National Defence Journal, 26 April 2017, http://tapchiqptd.vn/en/theory-and-practice/le-duans-theoretical- 13. Dorothy Fall, Bernard Fall: Memories of a Soldier-Scholar, (Potomac Books, thinking-on-the-party-leadership-over-the-peoples-armed- Washington, D.C. 2006), p.176. forces/10061.html. 14. Thai Quang Trung, Collective Leadership and Factionalism : An Essay on Ho 29. Quynh Le, “Vietnam ambivalent on Le Duan's legacy,” Chi Minh's Legacy, (ISEAS, Singapore, 1985), p.1. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/5180354.stm. 15. David G. Marr, in a book review on Sophie Quinn-Judge, Ho Chi Minh: 30. Le Duan's theoretical thinking…, n.28. The Missing Years 1919-1941, in American Historical Review, Vol.109, No.2, (April 2004), p.499. 31. Le Duan facts, n.25. 16. Jean Sainteny, Ho Chi Minh and his Vietnam : a personal memoir 32. Charles Mohr, “Le Duan, Vietnamese Communist Chief, Dies at 78,” (Chicago : Cowles Book Company, 1972. Refereed in Journal of Peace http://www.nytimes.com/1986/07/11/obituaries/le-duan- Research, Vol.10, No.4, (1973), p.406. vietnamese-communist-chief-dies-at-78.html?mcubz=3 17. Cecil B. Currey, Victory at Any Cost: The Genius of Vietnam's General Vo 33. Robert Templer, “Pham Van Dong,” https://www.theguardian.com/ Nguyen Giap, Brassey's, New York, 1996. news/2000/may/03/guardianobituaries. 18. Jack A. Smith, “General Vo Nguyen Giap: Defeated French Imperialism, 34. “Pham Van Dong,” https://alchetron.com/Pham-Van-Dong-1346902-W Drove the U.S. out of Vietnam,” Global Research, 15 October 2013, 35. Robert Templer, n.33. http://www.globalresearch.ca/ general-vo-nguyen-giap-defeated- french-imperialism-drove-the-u-s-out-of-vietnam/5354326) 36. Pham Van Dong, Selected Writings, (Hanoi, 1977), p.307. 19. David Pennington, “Dien Bien Phu: A Battle Assessment,” 37. “Pham Van Dong - An Outstanding Follower of President Ho Chi Minh,” http://www.militaryistoryonline.comietnam/articles/dienbienphu.as http://sggpnews.org.vn/national/pham-van-dong-an-outstanding- px# follower-of-president-ho-chi-minh-10824.html 20. Roy Jumper and Marjorie Weiner Normand, “Vietnam,” in George McTurnan Kahin (ed.), Government and Politics of Southeast Asia, Cornell University, New York, 1964, p.397. 21. http://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/vietnam-b1661a-interview-with- vo-nguyen-giap. 22. D.R. Sardesai, Southeast Asia: Past and Present, New Delhi, 1981, p.403. 23. “General Vo Nguyen Giap (1911-2013): Military hero, revolutionary intellectual, environmentalist,” http://links.org.au/node/3565 24. Wilfred G. Burchett, Vietnam North: First-Hand Report, (London, 1966), p.125. 25. “Le Duan Facts,” http://biography.yourdictionary.com/le-duan. 26. “Le Duan”, http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/uhic/ReferenceDetails Page/Reference DetailsWindow?

88 89 M. Prayaga Contributions of Ho Chi Minh and His Revolutionary Compatriots to Vietnam's Independence and Unification

11. An Outline History of the Vietnam Worker's Party, n.7, p.38. 27. Le Duan, Selected Writings, (Hanoi, 1977), p.210. 12. K. Raja Reddy, “A Tribute to Ho Chi Minh,” Area Studies: A Journal of 28. “Le Duan's theoretical thinking on the Party leadership over the people's International Studies and Analyses, Vol.4, No.1, Jan-June 2010, pp.130-131. armed forces,” National Defence Journal, 26 April 2017, http://tapchiqptd.vn/en/theory-and-practice/le-duans-theoretical- 13. Dorothy Fall, Bernard Fall: Memories of a Soldier-Scholar, (Potomac Books, thinking-on-the-party-leadership-over-the-peoples-armed- Washington, D.C. 2006), p.176. forces/10061.html. 14. Thai Quang Trung, Collective Leadership and Factionalism : An Essay on Ho 29. Quynh Le, “Vietnam ambivalent on Le Duan's legacy,” Chi Minh's Legacy, (ISEAS, Singapore, 1985), p.1. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/5180354.stm. 15. David G. Marr, in a book review on Sophie Quinn-Judge, Ho Chi Minh: 30. Le Duan's theoretical thinking…, n.28. The Missing Years 1919-1941, in American Historical Review, Vol.109, No.2, (April 2004), p.499. 31. Le Duan facts, n.25. 16. Jean Sainteny, Ho Chi Minh and his Vietnam : a personal memoir 32. Charles Mohr, “Le Duan, Vietnamese Communist Chief, Dies at 78,” (Chicago : Cowles Book Company, 1972. Refereed in Journal of Peace http://www.nytimes.com/1986/07/11/obituaries/le-duan- Research, Vol.10, No.4, (1973), p.406. vietnamese-communist-chief-dies-at-78.html?mcubz=3 17. Cecil B. Currey, Victory at Any Cost: The Genius of Vietnam's General Vo 33. Robert Templer, “Pham Van Dong,” https://www.theguardian.com/ Nguyen Giap, Brassey's, New York, 1996. news/2000/may/03/guardianobituaries. 18. Jack A. Smith, “General Vo Nguyen Giap: Defeated French Imperialism, 34. “Pham Van Dong,” https://alchetron.com/Pham-Van-Dong-1346902-W Drove the U.S. out of Vietnam,” Global Research, 15 October 2013, 35. Robert Templer, n.33. http://www.globalresearch.ca/ general-vo-nguyen-giap-defeated- french-imperialism-drove-the-u-s-out-of-vietnam/5354326) 36. Pham Van Dong, Selected Writings, (Hanoi, 1977), p.307. 19. David Pennington, “Dien Bien Phu: A Battle Assessment,” 37. “Pham Van Dong - An Outstanding Follower of President Ho Chi Minh,” http://www.militaryistoryonline.comietnam/articles/dienbienphu.as http://sggpnews.org.vn/national/pham-van-dong-an-outstanding- px# follower-of-president-ho-chi-minh-10824.html 20. Roy Jumper and Marjorie Weiner Normand, “Vietnam,” in George McTurnan Kahin (ed.), Government and Politics of Southeast Asia, Cornell University, New York, 1964, p.397. 21. http://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/vietnam-b1661a-interview-with- vo-nguyen-giap. 22. D.R. Sardesai, Southeast Asia: Past and Present, New Delhi, 1981, p.403. 23. “General Vo Nguyen Giap (1911-2013): Military hero, revolutionary intellectual, environmentalist,” http://links.org.au/node/3565 24. Wilfred G. Burchett, Vietnam North: First-Hand Report, (London, 1966), p.125. 25. “Le Duan Facts,” http://biography.yourdictionary.com/le-duan. 26. “Le Duan”, http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/uhic/ReferenceDetails Page/Reference DetailsWindow?

88 89 Guerrilla War in Vietnam Guerrilla War in Vietnam technological inventions and the fifth and present stage, with the S. Manivasakan advancement in nuclear space, science and technology). Types of Director, Centre for South and Southeast Asian Studies war may reflect the nature of the participants, nature of goals, the University of Madras, Chennai efforts they make to achieve those goals, and the resources they Email: [email protected] employ. Four types of war are seen as particularly relevant to world politics today. These four types of wars are total war, general war, limited war and revolutionary war.2 War as a phenomenon is deep rooted in the history of man. Hunting and pastoral stages of human development are still Guerrilla Warfare: Definition of the Term remembered as martial activities. Even in ancient Indian Guerrilla warfare is a revolutionary war. It is clearly a form of mythology the conflict between Pandavas and Kauravas set warfare by which the strategically weaker side assumes the during the period of early settlement of Aryans involved an tactical offensive in selected form times and places. The word, 3 element of state power in dispute and consequently there was a “guerrilla”, literally means 'small war.' The term was first used to war around control of a state called “Hasthinapura”. War has a refer the Spanish resistance against the Napoleonic occupations definite meaning in contemporary civilisation. However, all of 1808-1814. Revolutionary war is the struggle between a human conflicts cannot be termed as war. War, simply refers to a politically motivated non-governmental group and a fight between two sovereign nations and the causes for the government in which the latter attempts to destroy the former by initiation of a war may be many and varied. War was also one of some or all the means at its command; the non-governmental the oldest human activities. Modern warfare may be referred to as group attempts by all means at its command to replace the 4 the happenings in the last three decades. Physical, technological government in some or all of its territory. It is the war of and social causes are responsible for the occurrence of irregulars against the regular army. It is the war of the weak wars. As such, the study of warfare requires an interdisciplinary against the strong army. Since it is the war of the people and approach. Thus there may be a need to look into modern warfare irregulars, it is even older than regular warfare that required more 5 from physical, economic and social angles, their technological organisational network and sophistication. Guerrilla war is an and scientific impacts, and the availability and proliferation of intimate affair, fought not merely with weapons but with modern weapons and armed forces of a nation. changed minds. It is war by the people and for the people. The guerrillas depend upon the people for food, information, War is an activity of human progress and destruction in the reinforcement and funds and hence may always keep the people evaluation of civilisation. According to Quincy Wright, it existed informed of the developments. Mao describes the association of even in the pre-historic, late Miocene or early Pliocene periods. the guerrilla with people as that of a fish with water.6 The history of war can be arbitrarily divided into distinguishable periods with a frame of the differentiating advancement in Guerrilla warfare is a type of warfare, as stated earlier, science and technology.1 (1) Animal stage (2) Primitive stage (3) characterised by irregular forces fighting small-scale, limited Historic stage (4) Modern Technological stage and (5) actions, generally in conjunction with a larger political military Contemporary Nuclear Space age. The first stage is associated strategy against orthodox military forces. Guerrillas are usually with the psychological sense; the second stage with the non-descript in dress, unconventional in weapons and sociological sense; the third stage, with a legal-political sense; equipment, lack formal supply lines, and employ highly fourth stage with industrial revolution, scientific and unorthodox tactics. In addition to extremely mobile and

90 91 Guerrilla War in Vietnam Guerrilla War in Vietnam technological inventions and the fifth and present stage, with the S. Manivasakan advancement in nuclear space, science and technology). Types of Director, Centre for South and Southeast Asian Studies war may reflect the nature of the participants, nature of goals, the University of Madras, Chennai efforts they make to achieve those goals, and the resources they Email: [email protected] employ. Four types of war are seen as particularly relevant to world politics today. These four types of wars are total war, general war, limited war and revolutionary war.2 War as a phenomenon is deep rooted in the history of man. Hunting and pastoral stages of human development are still Guerrilla Warfare: Definition of the Term remembered as martial activities. Even in ancient Indian Guerrilla warfare is a revolutionary war. It is clearly a form of mythology the conflict between Pandavas and Kauravas set warfare by which the strategically weaker side assumes the during the period of early settlement of Aryans involved an tactical offensive in selected form times and places. The word, 3 element of state power in dispute and consequently there was a “guerrilla”, literally means 'small war.' The term was first used to war around control of a state called “Hasthinapura”. War has a refer the Spanish resistance against the Napoleonic occupations definite meaning in contemporary civilisation. However, all of 1808-1814. Revolutionary war is the struggle between a human conflicts cannot be termed as war. War, simply refers to a politically motivated non-governmental group and a fight between two sovereign nations and the causes for the government in which the latter attempts to destroy the former by initiation of a war may be many and varied. War was also one of some or all the means at its command; the non-governmental the oldest human activities. Modern warfare may be referred to as group attempts by all means at its command to replace the 4 the happenings in the last three decades. Physical, technological government in some or all of its territory. It is the war of and social causes are responsible for the occurrence of irregulars against the regular army. It is the war of the weak wars. As such, the study of warfare requires an interdisciplinary against the strong army. Since it is the war of the people and approach. Thus there may be a need to look into modern warfare irregulars, it is even older than regular warfare that required more 5 from physical, economic and social angles, their technological organisational network and sophistication. Guerrilla war is an and scientific impacts, and the availability and proliferation of intimate affair, fought not merely with weapons but with modern weapons and armed forces of a nation. changed minds. It is war by the people and for the people. The guerrillas depend upon the people for food, information, War is an activity of human progress and destruction in the reinforcement and funds and hence may always keep the people evaluation of civilisation. According to Quincy Wright, it existed informed of the developments. Mao describes the association of even in the pre-historic, late Miocene or early Pliocene periods. the guerrilla with people as that of a fish with water.6 The history of war can be arbitrarily divided into distinguishable periods with a frame of the differentiating advancement in Guerrilla warfare is a type of warfare, as stated earlier, science and technology.1 (1) Animal stage (2) Primitive stage (3) characterised by irregular forces fighting small-scale, limited Historic stage (4) Modern Technological stage and (5) actions, generally in conjunction with a larger political military Contemporary Nuclear Space age. The first stage is associated strategy against orthodox military forces. Guerrillas are usually with the psychological sense; the second stage with the non-descript in dress, unconventional in weapons and sociological sense; the third stage, with a legal-political sense; equipment, lack formal supply lines, and employ highly fourth stage with industrial revolution, scientific and unorthodox tactics. In addition to extremely mobile and

90 91 S. Manivasakan Guerrilla War in Vietnam aggressive operations, its tactics include all aspects of any conflicting group or nationality. Hatred and mutual mistrust psychological warfare also.7 Their aim is twofold; while aiming at lead to the eruption of violence in any corner of the globe. In the the destruction of the enemy, they should protect their own absence of valid political views, the religious, ethnic, linguistic, existence too. economic and geographic factors provide the necessary platform for the division of the people of the same nation. Discrimination Clausewitz enumerated five general conditions for the successful 8 and the denial of due opportunities to the minorities by the pursuit of guerrilla operation. majorities it leads to political prejudice and the affected groups Guerrilla activity must be carried out in the interior of the politicise the issues among their members and mobilise them for country. political violence. The sentiments of religion, language, race The activity covers a considerable area. ethnicity are well utilized to influence the people. In such a divided soc/iety, economic and political imbalances necessarily Guerrilla warfare cannot hinge on a single battle. occur and the affected group adopts political violence, The National character must support the war. revolutionary ideology guerrilla warfare against the stronger group to safeguard its interests. At this juncture, the geographical The terrain must be irregular and inaccessible. factors such as terrain and climate provide required theatre and In guerrilla warfare an invaded and over run country has been coverage for the efficient operation political violence and able to keep alive the spark of national feeling by the actions of a guerrilla warfare. few brave men usually operating in mountainous or forestland, far away from the capital or heartland. These small bands of brave Historical Sketch soldiers compensate with their very good knowledge of men and Unconventional wars have been fought since the dawn of history landscape. The word “guerrilla” may be defined as an irregular Tsi Yao fought emperor Huang in 360 BC; the old testament force, partisan bandits, terrorists, resistance groups and Special describes the guerrilla campaign of the Maccabees against the Forces. Guerrilla activities have many dimensions. Syrian am Fabius maximus fought Hannibal; Shivaji fought against Auranga the Spanish against Napoleon's armies [1807- Types of Guerrilla Warfare 13]; Francis Mari the swamp Fox [in 1760] in South Carolina There are two types of guerrilla warfare. One takes arms against against the British; the Russian cassocks and the peasants in the an alien army like Gen. Giap did in Vietnam against the United face of Napoleon's Armee'.10 Military manuals define Guerrillas States. The other fights his own compatriots like the Chinese as an armed rebellion by a section of population against the 9 Communists against Chiang-Kai-shek. In spite of being an legally constituted government' the support or sympathy of the ageless concept, the doctrine of Guerrilla warfare has not been bulk of the local population, obtained voluntarily or by coercion. given the serious attention of military drinkers and planners. Insurgent warfare is not new. There were references to insurgent Until very recently, there was a widespread popular faith and warfare in the Sun Tzu's writings, “The Art of war”, some 2500 belief that guerrilla warfare was of recent origin invented by years ago. It has developed for several reasons. It is often assumed communists but in fact, it is older than organized warfare. that guerrilla warfare is a product of China. During World War-I, Basic Causes for Guerrilla Warfare Arabs revolted against Turkish domination. The British properly Guerrilla warfare is basically a political conflict. Guerrilla warfare exploited this national feeling of the Arabs. As part of it, there was is a resort to attain political supremacy and independence with war effort against Turkey. Col. T.E. Lawrence organised the

92 93 S. Manivasakan Guerrilla War in Vietnam aggressive operations, its tactics include all aspects of any conflicting group or nationality. Hatred and mutual mistrust psychological warfare also.7 Their aim is twofold; while aiming at lead to the eruption of violence in any corner of the globe. In the the destruction of the enemy, they should protect their own absence of valid political views, the religious, ethnic, linguistic, existence too. economic and geographic factors provide the necessary platform for the division of the people of the same nation. Discrimination Clausewitz enumerated five general conditions for the successful 8 and the denial of due opportunities to the minorities by the pursuit of guerrilla operation. majorities it leads to political prejudice and the affected groups Guerrilla activity must be carried out in the interior of the politicise the issues among their members and mobilise them for country. political violence. The sentiments of religion, language, race The activity covers a considerable area. ethnicity are well utilized to influence the people. In such a divided soc/iety, economic and political imbalances necessarily Guerrilla warfare cannot hinge on a single battle. occur and the affected group adopts political violence, The National character must support the war. revolutionary ideology guerrilla warfare against the stronger group to safeguard its interests. At this juncture, the geographical The terrain must be irregular and inaccessible. factors such as terrain and climate provide required theatre and In guerrilla warfare an invaded and over run country has been coverage for the efficient operation political violence and able to keep alive the spark of national feeling by the actions of a guerrilla warfare. few brave men usually operating in mountainous or forestland, far away from the capital or heartland. These small bands of brave Historical Sketch soldiers compensate with their very good knowledge of men and Unconventional wars have been fought since the dawn of history landscape. The word “guerrilla” may be defined as an irregular Tsi Yao fought emperor Huang in 360 BC; the old testament force, partisan bandits, terrorists, resistance groups and Special describes the guerrilla campaign of the Maccabees against the Forces. Guerrilla activities have many dimensions. Syrian am Fabius maximus fought Hannibal; Shivaji fought against Auranga the Spanish against Napoleon's armies [1807- Types of Guerrilla Warfare 13]; Francis Mari the swamp Fox [in 1760] in South Carolina There are two types of guerrilla warfare. One takes arms against against the British; the Russian cassocks and the peasants in the an alien army like Gen. Giap did in Vietnam against the United face of Napoleon's Armee'.10 Military manuals define Guerrillas States. The other fights his own compatriots like the Chinese as an armed rebellion by a section of population against the 9 Communists against Chiang-Kai-shek. In spite of being an legally constituted government' the support or sympathy of the ageless concept, the doctrine of Guerrilla warfare has not been bulk of the local population, obtained voluntarily or by coercion. given the serious attention of military drinkers and planners. Insurgent warfare is not new. There were references to insurgent Until very recently, there was a widespread popular faith and warfare in the Sun Tzu's writings, “The Art of war”, some 2500 belief that guerrilla warfare was of recent origin invented by years ago. It has developed for several reasons. It is often assumed communists but in fact, it is older than organized warfare. that guerrilla warfare is a product of China. During World War-I, Basic Causes for Guerrilla Warfare Arabs revolted against Turkish domination. The British properly Guerrilla warfare is basically a political conflict. Guerrilla warfare exploited this national feeling of the Arabs. As part of it, there was is a resort to attain political supremacy and independence with war effort against Turkey. Col. T.E. Lawrence organised the

92 93 S. Manivasakan Guerrilla War in Vietnam

Arabs for guerrilla warfare and disrupted the Turkish lines of communists asked the Emperor to abdicate and he did so on communication so effectively that Turkey was compelled to tie August 25, 1945. He also declared that he would not permit down a sizeable force to deal with the Arabs which otherwise anybody to utilize his name to deceive his countrymen. Ho Chi could have been deployed against Allen. Contribution of Col. T.E. Minh declared September 2, 1945 as the Independence Day for Lawrence and his guerrilla warfare in defeat of Turkey was Vietnam. indeed great. The British troops entered Saigon on September 13, 1945 and the During World War - II, guerrilla warfare became almost a British determined to restore French administration in Vietnam.13 universal phenomenon. Guerrilla warfare had been waged With the arrival of Chinese troops in Hanoi on September 9, 1946 successfully by the communists in China, Vietnam, Laos, and the new phase of the August Revolution began. The Chinese Malaya and even in far-flung countries like Cyprus, Algeria and troops ill-treated the Vietnamese, Japanese and even the French Cuba. It may well be said that it may erupt in several other soldiers. The Chinese civil war made the Chinese Government to countries. send more forces to Vietnam. They also blocked French colonial Guerrilla Warfare in Vietnam authority. This tiny nation with a long history got liberated from China in The French were decisively defeated in the battle of Dien Bien Phu 939 A.D and lost its identity with the advent of the French to Indo - in 1954. But before the fall of the French fortress, Ho Chi Minh had China in 1864. The Japanese occupation of Indo-China (1940) agreed for a peace conference. Upon the departure of Ho Chi drove the French master from Vietnam On the instigation of the Minh to France for taked in May, 1946, Vo Nguyen Giap became 14 Japanese, the Vietnam Emperor Bao Dai issued a declaration from the most potent leader. He established training schools in Tong his royal capital at Hue and abrogated the French treaty of and Auang Ngai with Japanese instructors. In the Geneva protection of 1884, and declared the independence of Annan conference France, succeeded in having a cease-fire line and at Vietnam.11 Tran Trong Kim, a non-communist formed a 17th parallel for the repatriation of French prisoners Ngo Dinh Vietnamese government on April 17 , 1945. The communist party Diem was installed in Saigon as Prime Minister. Eight hundred of Vietnam, founded in January, 1930,12 by the time of Japanese thousand Vietnamese moved from North Vietnam to settle in the occupation had eight hundred effective cadres, seven hundred South, and they were most Catholics. well-indoctrinated members and about thousand persons in The Americans started their civil and military aid to South associated groups. Vietnam in 1954. Hanoi expressed its dislike for the Geneva Japanese occupation weakened Vietnamese nationalism and accord in 1956. By 1957 Diem had an army of one lakh thirty five intensified parochialism and regionalism. But all through the thousand men trained by three hundred American advisers. The days the communists known as Vietminh went on increasing United State began its direct assistance to South Vietnam on their strength. On the morning of August 19, 1945 about one January 1, 1955. Though the Geneva agreement had authorised thousand armed men of the Vietminh entered Hanoi and America to send only 685 advisers by 1962 there were five assumed control over the city. The thirty thousand Japanese thousand American military personnel and in 1963 it increased to 15 troops stationed near the city did not prevent them because they twelve thousand. The American administration also sent a large knew that they had lost all their imperialist dreams with the number of civilian experts on rural development, education, vanishing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In August 1945 the health, and agriculture and road construction. For waging a

94 95 S. Manivasakan Guerrilla War in Vietnam

Arabs for guerrilla warfare and disrupted the Turkish lines of communists asked the Emperor to abdicate and he did so on communication so effectively that Turkey was compelled to tie August 25, 1945. He also declared that he would not permit down a sizeable force to deal with the Arabs which otherwise anybody to utilize his name to deceive his countrymen. Ho Chi could have been deployed against Allen. Contribution of Col. T.E. Minh declared September 2, 1945 as the Independence Day for Lawrence and his guerrilla warfare in defeat of Turkey was Vietnam. indeed great. The British troops entered Saigon on September 13, 1945 and the During World War - II, guerrilla warfare became almost a British determined to restore French administration in Vietnam.13 universal phenomenon. Guerrilla warfare had been waged With the arrival of Chinese troops in Hanoi on September 9, 1946 successfully by the communists in China, Vietnam, Laos, and the new phase of the August Revolution began. The Chinese Malaya and even in far-flung countries like Cyprus, Algeria and troops ill-treated the Vietnamese, Japanese and even the French Cuba. It may well be said that it may erupt in several other soldiers. The Chinese civil war made the Chinese Government to countries. send more forces to Vietnam. They also blocked French colonial Guerrilla Warfare in Vietnam authority. This tiny nation with a long history got liberated from China in The French were decisively defeated in the battle of Dien Bien Phu 939 A.D and lost its identity with the advent of the French to Indo - in 1954. But before the fall of the French fortress, Ho Chi Minh had China in 1864. The Japanese occupation of Indo-China (1940) agreed for a peace conference. Upon the departure of Ho Chi drove the French master from Vietnam On the instigation of the Minh to France for taked in May, 1946, Vo Nguyen Giap became 14 Japanese, the Vietnam Emperor Bao Dai issued a declaration from the most potent leader. He established training schools in Tong his royal capital at Hue and abrogated the French treaty of and Auang Ngai with Japanese instructors. In the Geneva protection of 1884, and declared the independence of Annan conference France, succeeded in having a cease-fire line and at Vietnam.11 Tran Trong Kim, a non-communist formed a 17th parallel for the repatriation of French prisoners Ngo Dinh Vietnamese government on April 17 , 1945. The communist party Diem was installed in Saigon as Prime Minister. Eight hundred of Vietnam, founded in January, 1930,12 by the time of Japanese thousand Vietnamese moved from North Vietnam to settle in the occupation had eight hundred effective cadres, seven hundred South, and they were most Catholics. well-indoctrinated members and about thousand persons in The Americans started their civil and military aid to South associated groups. Vietnam in 1954. Hanoi expressed its dislike for the Geneva Japanese occupation weakened Vietnamese nationalism and accord in 1956. By 1957 Diem had an army of one lakh thirty five intensified parochialism and regionalism. But all through the thousand men trained by three hundred American advisers. The days the communists known as Vietminh went on increasing United State began its direct assistance to South Vietnam on their strength. On the morning of August 19, 1945 about one January 1, 1955. Though the Geneva agreement had authorised thousand armed men of the Vietminh entered Hanoi and America to send only 685 advisers by 1962 there were five assumed control over the city. The thirty thousand Japanese thousand American military personnel and in 1963 it increased to 15 troops stationed near the city did not prevent them because they twelve thousand. The American administration also sent a large knew that they had lost all their imperialist dreams with the number of civilian experts on rural development, education, vanishing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In August 1945 the health, and agriculture and road construction. For waging a

94 95 S. Manivasakan Guerrilla War in Vietnam psychological warfare, a joint United States Public Affairs communists earlier were taken back by the Diem government and Operation (JUSPAO) was sent. They also sent a Political Action handed back to the original owners.18 Team, to train the Vietnamese youth against the communist The individual terrorist activities of the Vietcong in the South guerrillas. United States operation Mission (USOM) was sent to played a more important role than in any other Asian guerrilla deal with; economic and social aid to that country. Military wars. The locals did not bother about systematic assassinations of Advisory Command of Vietnam (NACV) was to deal with the 16 village leaders, local teachers and other dangerous elements martial affairs. The large-scale induction of Americans into during 1949- 1954. They viewed it as minor nuisances and not a Vietnam irritated the local people Such increased US aid helped 19 military danger. By 1963, the policies of Diem's government Diem to become a more oppressive and despotic dictator. such as the constant manipulation of army commands, the blind The first terrorist attack on an American corps was made in eye turned to communist infiltration in the delta region, the October 1957. In May 1959 Ho Chi Minh endorsed a plan for the frenzied pace of the strategic hamlet programme, and the armed overthrow of the government in the South. In July 1959, US senseless attack on the Buddhists indicated that it was leading for advisors at Bien Hoa were ambushed and in January 1960, the a disaster. South Vietnamese 32nd regiment suffered a heavy defeat while While Diem depended on American assistance and the old confronting guerrilla forces at Trang Sup, north east of Saigon. Chinese traditions, the Vietcong promised a 'social revolution'. The US mission in Saigon was ordered in 1960 to draw up a While Diem pursued a course, which alienated ever-wider areas counter insurgency plan, which would reverse the seemingly of South Vietnamese society, the communists enjoyed the inexorable advance of the guerrilla movement. This order broadest possible base of popular support. In December 1960 they intensified the war. The 'Strategic Hamlets' programme established the National Liberation Front (NLF) as the political introduced by the Saigon CIA chief also proved a failure since it wing of the guerrilla movement. It included the non-communist failed to create any sense of security into the minds of the local 20 opponents of Diem. In the battle of APBAC near Saigon, two people. Rather they were treated as detenues and the hamlets hundred Vietcong defeated two thousand and five hundred they administered as like concentration camps, and this practice 21 South Vietnamese soldiers. But for the American assistance further alienated the Americans from the natives. Diem's government should have collapsed in 1963 itself. General Giap felt that in the face of an enemy as powerful as he Intensive Operation was cruel, victory was possible only by uniting the whole people within a firm and wide national united front. The Vietminh Infiltration on a massive scale from the North via the Ho Chi Min movement was based on villages, and it relied upon the rural trail began only in 1960. In 1960, three thousand five hundred men peasants. The lightly armed and poorly trained Vietnamese caine, ten thousand in 1961 and it reached fifty thousand in 1965. troops had no chance of winning a frontal assault against the In addition there were about one-lakh twenty five thousand mighty Americans. Hence their strategy was based on what was guerrillas operating on a regional basis with some forty five possible. They relied on the countryside to build their bases, to thousand political instructors and administrators. In 1967 the North Vietnamese army personnel's strength reached seventy launch guerrilla warfare in order to encircle the enemy in the 22 towns. More than ninety percent of soldiers in the National thousand. In July 1964 there were two lakhs Americans in Defence Army, local guards, military men and guerrillas were of Vietnam. Their eventual strength was six lakh with seventy peasant stock. 17 As all the lands distributed to the tenants by the thousand men of the Seventh Fleet and thirty thousand

96 97 S. Manivasakan Guerrilla War in Vietnam psychological warfare, a joint United States Public Affairs communists earlier were taken back by the Diem government and Operation (JUSPAO) was sent. They also sent a Political Action handed back to the original owners.18 Team, to train the Vietnamese youth against the communist The individual terrorist activities of the Vietcong in the South guerrillas. United States operation Mission (USOM) was sent to played a more important role than in any other Asian guerrilla deal with; economic and social aid to that country. Military wars. The locals did not bother about systematic assassinations of Advisory Command of Vietnam (NACV) was to deal with the 16 village leaders, local teachers and other dangerous elements martial affairs. The large-scale induction of Americans into during 1949- 1954. They viewed it as minor nuisances and not a Vietnam irritated the local people Such increased US aid helped 19 military danger. By 1963, the policies of Diem's government Diem to become a more oppressive and despotic dictator. such as the constant manipulation of army commands, the blind The first terrorist attack on an American corps was made in eye turned to communist infiltration in the delta region, the October 1957. In May 1959 Ho Chi Minh endorsed a plan for the frenzied pace of the strategic hamlet programme, and the armed overthrow of the government in the South. In July 1959, US senseless attack on the Buddhists indicated that it was leading for advisors at Bien Hoa were ambushed and in January 1960, the a disaster. South Vietnamese 32nd regiment suffered a heavy defeat while While Diem depended on American assistance and the old confronting guerrilla forces at Trang Sup, north east of Saigon. Chinese traditions, the Vietcong promised a 'social revolution'. The US mission in Saigon was ordered in 1960 to draw up a While Diem pursued a course, which alienated ever-wider areas counter insurgency plan, which would reverse the seemingly of South Vietnamese society, the communists enjoyed the inexorable advance of the guerrilla movement. This order broadest possible base of popular support. In December 1960 they intensified the war. The 'Strategic Hamlets' programme established the National Liberation Front (NLF) as the political introduced by the Saigon CIA chief also proved a failure since it wing of the guerrilla movement. It included the non-communist failed to create any sense of security into the minds of the local 20 opponents of Diem. In the battle of APBAC near Saigon, two people. Rather they were treated as detenues and the hamlets hundred Vietcong defeated two thousand and five hundred they administered as like concentration camps, and this practice 21 South Vietnamese soldiers. But for the American assistance further alienated the Americans from the natives. Diem's government should have collapsed in 1963 itself. General Giap felt that in the face of an enemy as powerful as he Intensive Operation was cruel, victory was possible only by uniting the whole people within a firm and wide national united front. The Vietminh Infiltration on a massive scale from the North via the Ho Chi Min movement was based on villages, and it relied upon the rural trail began only in 1960. In 1960, three thousand five hundred men peasants. The lightly armed and poorly trained Vietnamese caine, ten thousand in 1961 and it reached fifty thousand in 1965. troops had no chance of winning a frontal assault against the In addition there were about one-lakh twenty five thousand mighty Americans. Hence their strategy was based on what was guerrillas operating on a regional basis with some forty five possible. They relied on the countryside to build their bases, to thousand political instructors and administrators. In 1967 the North Vietnamese army personnel's strength reached seventy launch guerrilla warfare in order to encircle the enemy in the 22 towns. More than ninety percent of soldiers in the National thousand. In July 1964 there were two lakhs Americans in Defence Army, local guards, military men and guerrillas were of Vietnam. Their eventual strength was six lakh with seventy peasant stock. 17 As all the lands distributed to the tenants by the thousand men of the Seventh Fleet and thirty thousand

96 97 S. Manivasakan Guerrilla War in Vietnam maintaining the American forces in Vietnam.23 By 1963 Diem had to accept the losses. The Americans did blind bombardments. But, become a virtual recluse, suspicious of every one and unreceptive they could do nothing more than fighting a war of attrition. At the to advice from any quarter. On Nov 1, 1963, Diem and his brother same time, the communists intended to apply hard and long Nhu were arrested and shot by an American planned coup. resistance as they knew that it was impossible for them to defeat the mighty Americans swiftly. It was with this spirit that they In May 1964, Me Namara and Gen Taylor visited South Vietnam retreated on many occasions. As such retreats were essential for and recommended more economic and military assistance to them to maintain their bases and preserve their forces. The long South Vietnam, which further intensified the war. The Americans term revolutionary war included stage of contention, stage of increased their involvement in Vietnam by stages. The “Rolling equilibrium and stage of counter-offensive. Thunder” BOMBING CAMPAIGN which began on 2nd March 1965, marked the beginning of intensified limited war. Americans On January 21, 1968, two North Vietnam army divisions laid siege brought their entire mighty weaponry to Vietnam except the to the heavily defended US firebase at Khe Sanh. For the first time nuclear bomb. it demoralised the US by remembering the French defeat atDien Bien Phu. The major offensive began on 31, January, 1968. During Under Westmoreland's vigorous leadership, the Americans that night simultaneous attacks were made over 100 cities and sought to wrest the initiative from the communist forces in South towns throughout South Vietnam by the Vietcong's with the Vietnam. It was planned to find, fix and destroy the communist assistance of the North Vietnam army. The emphasis was on main force units. The battle of la Drang Valley of November 1965, killing rather than holding territory. The simple goal of killing operation Cedar Falls of Jan 1967 and operation Junction City of was reached with ease. February-May 1967 were a few of the American Victories. The South Vietnam army was to protect the civilians. But it was In Saigon, the American embassy, the Tan San Nhut Airbase the suffering from desertion. The rate of desertion in 1966 was twenty Presidential palace and the South Vietnamese Joint General Staff one percent. 24 Head Quarters were the main targets. The scope, intensity and strength of the Vietcong attack caused extreme surprise and The guerrilla intelligence was good. They were experts in shock throughout the United States. The US administration was concealment and movement under cover, and they usually shaken by the Tet Offensive.26 operated flexibly in small units. Their base areas were well- organised defence, with extensive networks of tunnels, booby- The communists however were severely defeated at Hue and the trapping and prepared firing positions. US infantry advancing on siege of the Khe Sanh was finally lifted. The long siege of Kha such a base could expect to suffer heavy casualties and to find that Sanh, the costly fighting of Hue and the raid on the US Embassy in their enemy had disappeared by the time the position was finally Saigon demoralised the American army and population. During overrun. The communists thoroughly earned their nickname, the battle of Hue, General Westmoreland requested 2,00,000 “ghosts”. 25 troops With Tet Offensive the Vietnam War transformed into a regular war from its guerrilla form. General Westmoreland had to The American attitude towards such high casualities ware maintain ratio against the guerrillas. But Taylor said that a ratio of negative. They could not tolerate that. The US losses in 1965 were 25: 1 would be necessary to defeat the Vietcong. one thousand, three hundred and sixty five, five thousand and eight in 1966 and nine thousand three hundred and seventy eight The Vietcong was composed entirely of Southerners organised in 1967. But the communists never showed any sign of reluctance from village level to large military formations. They were

98 99 S. Manivasakan Guerrilla War in Vietnam maintaining the American forces in Vietnam.23 By 1963 Diem had to accept the losses. The Americans did blind bombardments. But, become a virtual recluse, suspicious of every one and unreceptive they could do nothing more than fighting a war of attrition. At the to advice from any quarter. On Nov 1, 1963, Diem and his brother same time, the communists intended to apply hard and long Nhu were arrested and shot by an American planned coup. resistance as they knew that it was impossible for them to defeat the mighty Americans swiftly. It was with this spirit that they In May 1964, Me Namara and Gen Taylor visited South Vietnam retreated on many occasions. As such retreats were essential for and recommended more economic and military assistance to them to maintain their bases and preserve their forces. The long South Vietnam, which further intensified the war. The Americans term revolutionary war included stage of contention, stage of increased their involvement in Vietnam by stages. The “Rolling equilibrium and stage of counter-offensive. Thunder” BOMBING CAMPAIGN which began on 2nd March 1965, marked the beginning of intensified limited war. Americans On January 21, 1968, two North Vietnam army divisions laid siege brought their entire mighty weaponry to Vietnam except the to the heavily defended US firebase at Khe Sanh. For the first time nuclear bomb. it demoralised the US by remembering the French defeat atDien Bien Phu. The major offensive began on 31, January, 1968. During Under Westmoreland's vigorous leadership, the Americans that night simultaneous attacks were made over 100 cities and sought to wrest the initiative from the communist forces in South towns throughout South Vietnam by the Vietcong's with the Vietnam. It was planned to find, fix and destroy the communist assistance of the North Vietnam army. The emphasis was on main force units. The battle of la Drang Valley of November 1965, killing rather than holding territory. The simple goal of killing operation Cedar Falls of Jan 1967 and operation Junction City of was reached with ease. February-May 1967 were a few of the American Victories. The South Vietnam army was to protect the civilians. But it was In Saigon, the American embassy, the Tan San Nhut Airbase the suffering from desertion. The rate of desertion in 1966 was twenty Presidential palace and the South Vietnamese Joint General Staff one percent. 24 Head Quarters were the main targets. The scope, intensity and strength of the Vietcong attack caused extreme surprise and The guerrilla intelligence was good. They were experts in shock throughout the United States. The US administration was concealment and movement under cover, and they usually shaken by the Tet Offensive.26 operated flexibly in small units. Their base areas were well- organised defence, with extensive networks of tunnels, booby- The communists however were severely defeated at Hue and the trapping and prepared firing positions. US infantry advancing on siege of the Khe Sanh was finally lifted. The long siege of Kha such a base could expect to suffer heavy casualties and to find that Sanh, the costly fighting of Hue and the raid on the US Embassy in their enemy had disappeared by the time the position was finally Saigon demoralised the American army and population. During overrun. The communists thoroughly earned their nickname, the battle of Hue, General Westmoreland requested 2,00,000 “ghosts”. 25 troops With Tet Offensive the Vietnam War transformed into a regular war from its guerrilla form. General Westmoreland had to The American attitude towards such high casualities ware maintain ratio against the guerrillas. But Taylor said that a ratio of negative. They could not tolerate that. The US losses in 1965 were 25: 1 would be necessary to defeat the Vietcong. one thousand, three hundred and sixty five, five thousand and eight in 1966 and nine thousand three hundred and seventy eight The Vietcong was composed entirely of Southerners organised in 1967. But the communists never showed any sign of reluctance from village level to large military formations. They were

98 99 S. Manivasakan Guerrilla War in Vietnam classified into part- time and full-time guerrillas. The part-timers in rebuilding the village society of South Vietnam as a part of pro- remained in their villages and gained a living in the traditional government influence. Though William Colby claimed of having peasant way and they played the role of an effective civil militia. killed twenty thousand guerrillas; critics of the campaign claimed They made life very uncomfortable for their enemies when they that most of those killed or arrested were probably non- came into the vicinity of their villages for patrols. They were good communists. night operators and were a valuable source of intelligence and In May 1969, the Americans suffered heavy casualties in a battle could provide useful labour and gave the essential demographic fought at Ashau Valley, which compelled to withdraw its troops coverage. The full-time guerrillas were recruited from the from Vietnam. Nixon made an all out effort to disrupt the Ho Chi younger men in the villages. They were given military training at Minh trail by aerial attack, but it was outwitted by the Communist the base areas located in the mountains of the Central Highlands. counter attacks. Even the intensive bombardments over Hanoi They were transformed into highly motivated and disciplined and Haiphong could not demoralise the communists and the soldiers. Americans had to yield by withdrawing their troops. The words Causes of Communist Success of Henry Kissinger show the determination of the communists. While the Americans were not sure what they were fighting for, We fought a military war; our opponents fought a political one. the Vietcong were sure about the aim of the war. The Vietnamese We sought physical attrition; our opponents aimed for our could withstand the American aggressive attack because they psychological exhaustion. In the process we lost sight of one of the viewed it as national defence of the people by the people cardinal maxims of guerrilla warfare. “THE GUERRILLA WINS themselves. They educated the masses for insurrection IF HE DOES NOT LOSE. THE CONVENTIONAL ARMY LOSES throughout the war and organised the entire nation for IF IT DOES NOT-WIN”. insurrection. They maintained solidarity and unity with the By applying guerrilla tactics and indoctrinating the people, the people and they constantly stepped up violent action, carried out communists not only survived but also won the long war of armed revolution and resolutely crushed the enemy. Only by this resistance against the Americans in 1975. The Vietnam War strategy they could endure the firepower of the Americans for occupies a unique place in the history of guerrilla warfare. While such a long period and emerged victorious in 1975. Mao Tse - Tung fought simultaneously against the oppressive Besides the adoption of guerrilla principles such as “the enemy nationalist regime and ambitious Japan, the Vietnamese were advances, we retreat the enemy tires we attack” the Vietcong fighting with limited resources against powerful and resourceful enjoyed Chinese and Soviet support to keep their morale high. country for quite a long time with many ups and downs. The Nearly forty thousand Vietminh soldiers received training in downs never shattered their morale and the prolonging of the war 27 China during 1954. never deterred them from making new assaults. While Mao converted his irregulars into a regular army, General Giap of After the Tet Offensive, the Americans planned for an intensive Vietnam utilised his regular forces for a protracted battle. The counter insurgency programme known as the Phoenix outcome of the Vietnamese war was a triumphant justification of Programme. Civil Operations and Revolutionary Development the communist's use of the guerrilla strategy that they had learned Support (CORDS) were set up in Saigon in 1967 - Robert Komer, from the Chinese. General Vo Nguyen Giap, defence minister of its founder and William Volby, the CIA Director believed that the Vietnam was the man behind that spectacular event. He only chance of success for the Americans against the Vietcong lay described the war as “the work of their entire people.” However

100 101 S. Manivasakan Guerrilla War in Vietnam classified into part- time and full-time guerrillas. The part-timers in rebuilding the village society of South Vietnam as a part of pro- remained in their villages and gained a living in the traditional government influence. Though William Colby claimed of having peasant way and they played the role of an effective civil militia. killed twenty thousand guerrillas; critics of the campaign claimed They made life very uncomfortable for their enemies when they that most of those killed or arrested were probably non- came into the vicinity of their villages for patrols. They were good communists. night operators and were a valuable source of intelligence and In May 1969, the Americans suffered heavy casualties in a battle could provide useful labour and gave the essential demographic fought at Ashau Valley, which compelled to withdraw its troops coverage. The full-time guerrillas were recruited from the from Vietnam. Nixon made an all out effort to disrupt the Ho Chi younger men in the villages. They were given military training at Minh trail by aerial attack, but it was outwitted by the Communist the base areas located in the mountains of the Central Highlands. counter attacks. Even the intensive bombardments over Hanoi They were transformed into highly motivated and disciplined and Haiphong could not demoralise the communists and the soldiers. Americans had to yield by withdrawing their troops. The words Causes of Communist Success of Henry Kissinger show the determination of the communists. While the Americans were not sure what they were fighting for, We fought a military war; our opponents fought a political one. the Vietcong were sure about the aim of the war. The Vietnamese We sought physical attrition; our opponents aimed for our could withstand the American aggressive attack because they psychological exhaustion. In the process we lost sight of one of the viewed it as national defence of the people by the people cardinal maxims of guerrilla warfare. “THE GUERRILLA WINS themselves. They educated the masses for insurrection IF HE DOES NOT LOSE. THE CONVENTIONAL ARMY LOSES throughout the war and organised the entire nation for IF IT DOES NOT-WIN”. insurrection. They maintained solidarity and unity with the By applying guerrilla tactics and indoctrinating the people, the people and they constantly stepped up violent action, carried out communists not only survived but also won the long war of armed revolution and resolutely crushed the enemy. Only by this resistance against the Americans in 1975. The Vietnam War strategy they could endure the firepower of the Americans for occupies a unique place in the history of guerrilla warfare. While such a long period and emerged victorious in 1975. Mao Tse - Tung fought simultaneously against the oppressive Besides the adoption of guerrilla principles such as “the enemy nationalist regime and ambitious Japan, the Vietnamese were advances, we retreat the enemy tires we attack” the Vietcong fighting with limited resources against powerful and resourceful enjoyed Chinese and Soviet support to keep their morale high. country for quite a long time with many ups and downs. The Nearly forty thousand Vietminh soldiers received training in downs never shattered their morale and the prolonging of the war 27 China during 1954. never deterred them from making new assaults. While Mao converted his irregulars into a regular army, General Giap of After the Tet Offensive, the Americans planned for an intensive Vietnam utilised his regular forces for a protracted battle. The counter insurgency programme known as the Phoenix outcome of the Vietnamese war was a triumphant justification of Programme. Civil Operations and Revolutionary Development the communist's use of the guerrilla strategy that they had learned Support (CORDS) were set up in Saigon in 1967 - Robert Komer, from the Chinese. General Vo Nguyen Giap, defence minister of its founder and William Volby, the CIA Director believed that the Vietnam was the man behind that spectacular event. He only chance of success for the Americans against the Vietcong lay described the war as “the work of their entire people.” However

100 101 S. Manivasakan Guerrilla War in Vietnam

Giap's not contribute any theory. It is to be remembered that prevent the spreading of communism in Asia, accepted their guerrilla war in Vietnam was the longest and costliest. The defeat in 1975. Vietnamese had to substitute more manpower in the place of Role of Vo Nguyen Giap materials. General Giap was of the opinion that in a backward colonial The success of communism in China under the leadership of Mao country like Vietnam, where peasants make up the majority of through guerrilla strategy encouraged many other nations to population, a people's war is essentially a peasant's war under the adopt guerrilla warfare against their enemies. In the case of leadership of the working class.29 Thus, it has been a source of Vietnam, the war was of poor masses against a powerfully manpower for military purposes and for the industrial, economic equipped and well- trained army of aggression. Vietnamese and social structure behind the war effort, but even with general required small victories to exhaust the enemy little by little. In the mobilization in force there has nearly always been a sharp Vietnam War, the guerrilla activities spread to all the regions delineation between servicemen and civilians, based partly at temporarily occupied by the enemy. Each inhabitant was a least, on humanitarian grounds. soldier, each village a fortress, each a party cell, and each village administrative committee a staff According to Mao, it was the According to Giap the communist party continued to do its party that commands the guns and gun will never be allowed to utmost to step up propaganda and agitation among the people, to command the party. So also, the people of Vietnam as a whole gather all patriotic forces into Vietnam, to build guerrilla bases, set up revolutionary armed forces and make preparations for took part in the armed struggle, fighting according to the 30 principles of guerrilla warfare, in small pockets, but always in armed insurrection. The Instruction on the preparations for the insurrection issued by the Vietminh central committee in May pursuance of one and the same line, and the same instructions 31 given by the central committee of the party and the government. 1944 pointed out the movement of the people should rise up. After three thousand days of fighting, difficulties and sacrifices, The enemy's ranks at that movement are divided and the Vietnamese defeated the French imperialists and American dismayed to the extreme; interventionists. General Vo Nguyen Giap was the moving spirit The organizations for national salvation and the behind the success of this small nation against the most powerful revolutionaries are resolved to; nations in the world. Broad masses wholeheartedly support the uprising and The imperatives of the peoples' war in Vietnam required the determinedly help the vanguard. adoption of appropriate strategy and tactics on the basis of the enemy's characteristics and of their own, of the concrete The party led the people to seize power immediately after the conditions of the battle fields and balance of forces taking each Japanese capitulation and before the allied forces arrived in Indo- other.28 The Vietnamese knew pretty well that they could not win China. Giap explained that they have negotiated to protect and against the Americans and so they decided to make the war very reinforce their political, military and economic position. He costly for the Americans and they also succeeded in it. further added that they have the power and the time to organise over internal administration to strengthen their military means Thus, this long term of guerrilla warfare demoralised the and to develop their economy and raise the standard of living of American soldiers, statesmen and population as a whole and the people. Giap was of the opinion that Vietnam's survival developed into a mobile warfare that eventually compelled the depended on four vital factors-national unity, the moral courage, Americans to abandon Vietnam. Americans, who wanted to

102 103 S. Manivasakan Guerrilla War in Vietnam

Giap's not contribute any theory. It is to be remembered that prevent the spreading of communism in Asia, accepted their guerrilla war in Vietnam was the longest and costliest. The defeat in 1975. Vietnamese had to substitute more manpower in the place of Role of Vo Nguyen Giap materials. General Giap was of the opinion that in a backward colonial The success of communism in China under the leadership of Mao country like Vietnam, where peasants make up the majority of through guerrilla strategy encouraged many other nations to population, a people's war is essentially a peasant's war under the adopt guerrilla warfare against their enemies. In the case of leadership of the working class.29 Thus, it has been a source of Vietnam, the war was of poor masses against a powerfully manpower for military purposes and for the industrial, economic equipped and well- trained army of aggression. Vietnamese and social structure behind the war effort, but even with general required small victories to exhaust the enemy little by little. In the mobilization in force there has nearly always been a sharp Vietnam War, the guerrilla activities spread to all the regions delineation between servicemen and civilians, based partly at temporarily occupied by the enemy. Each inhabitant was a least, on humanitarian grounds. soldier, each village a fortress, each a party cell, and each village administrative committee a staff According to Mao, it was the According to Giap the communist party continued to do its party that commands the guns and gun will never be allowed to utmost to step up propaganda and agitation among the people, to command the party. So also, the people of Vietnam as a whole gather all patriotic forces into Vietnam, to build guerrilla bases, set up revolutionary armed forces and make preparations for took part in the armed struggle, fighting according to the 30 principles of guerrilla warfare, in small pockets, but always in armed insurrection. The Instruction on the preparations for the insurrection issued by the Vietminh central committee in May pursuance of one and the same line, and the same instructions 31 given by the central committee of the party and the government. 1944 pointed out the movement of the people should rise up. After three thousand days of fighting, difficulties and sacrifices, The enemy's ranks at that movement are divided and the Vietnamese defeated the French imperialists and American dismayed to the extreme; interventionists. General Vo Nguyen Giap was the moving spirit The organizations for national salvation and the behind the success of this small nation against the most powerful revolutionaries are resolved to; nations in the world. Broad masses wholeheartedly support the uprising and The imperatives of the peoples' war in Vietnam required the determinedly help the vanguard. adoption of appropriate strategy and tactics on the basis of the enemy's characteristics and of their own, of the concrete The party led the people to seize power immediately after the conditions of the battle fields and balance of forces taking each Japanese capitulation and before the allied forces arrived in Indo- other.28 The Vietnamese knew pretty well that they could not win China. Giap explained that they have negotiated to protect and against the Americans and so they decided to make the war very reinforce their political, military and economic position. He costly for the Americans and they also succeeded in it. further added that they have the power and the time to organise over internal administration to strengthen their military means Thus, this long term of guerrilla warfare demoralised the and to develop their economy and raise the standard of living of American soldiers, statesmen and population as a whole and the people. Giap was of the opinion that Vietnam's survival developed into a mobile warfare that eventually compelled the depended on four vital factors-national unity, the moral courage, Americans to abandon Vietnam. Americans, who wanted to

102 103 S. Manivasakan Guerrilla War in Vietnam material factors and organization of resistance bases.32 He felt that Giap's works are not a major theoretical contribution to military the quality of armed forces results from many factors: man and thought. His main achievement was not to commit many armaments; military, political and logistical factors; ideology. mistakes. He was no great strategist even though he did show Giap worked a mode of conducting war and he formulated mastery of the strategic situation in practice. 33 important principles for conducting war. Conclusion a. To wage a war that is fought by the entire people in all fields; Guerrilla warfare is an age-old phenomenon. It has helped and to combine armed with political forces armed with political enabled many suppressed groups and enslaved nationalities, to struggle, armed uprising with revolutionary war. gain a fair deal socially, economically and politically. A guerrilla b. to set up firm positions in the rural areas to wage people's war is not only imposing a battle on the enemy on an unfavourable in both rural and urban regions, develop and closely combine terrain in a situation when he / she is not inclined for a war, but offensive thrust against the enemy in appropriate forms and also refusing to accept a battle when the enemy is large in number. n all three strategic zones: mountain, plains and towns. He fights relentlessly, but at his convenience. The strength of the guerrilla force lies in grouping for an offensive action and c. To be inspired by an offensive strategic thought in both disappearing at times of damage. The French emperor Napoleon armed uprising and revolutionary war. who could defeat the kings and emperors of Europe could not d. To apply the strategy of a protracted war and at the same time withstand the guerrilla tactics of the Spanish people, as it was to strive to bring about a propitious moment and steal a waged as a war of common people with a sincere involvement. march on the enemy so as to win ever-bigger victories. Mao could fight with the corrupt Chiang Kai-Shek government and the imperialist Japanese army simultaneously only through e. To couple the destruction of army troops with winning and Guerrilla tactics. maintaining control for the people, to actively annihilate hostile forces by fostering and strengthening our own, so as to The mighty Americans, who are interested to contain the spread grow stronger as we fight. of communists in Asia-Pacific region failed miserably in Vietnam in taming the communists. Vietnamese guerrilla communists f. To rely essentially on our forces while striving to secure chose the right approach of indoctrinating the people and waging international help. a people's war against the Americans for a long period, and to 34 Giap formulated the main objective of war as: frustrate them. The tactics paid due dividend. The puppet regime The entire people of a war fight military. fell down and the American withdraws. It is the art offensive of armed forces. The leftists, revolutionary leaders and communists adopted guerrilla tactics for realising their political aims at the times of Defeating a big force with a small one. crisis. Lenin advocated the use of armed insurrection against the To try by every means to annihilate the enemy. government. But Trotsky refused to apply guerrilla tactics against the white army, since he thought that a powerful army need not Fighting with dynamic and initiative determination and resort to guerrilla tactics. Mao was very keen that only by flexibility, resourcefulness and creativeness making the best politicising the people and making them to fight he could get the use of secrecy and surprise. necessary demographic coverage and wage a decisive war

104 105 S. Manivasakan Guerrilla War in Vietnam material factors and organization of resistance bases.32 He felt that Giap's works are not a major theoretical contribution to military the quality of armed forces results from many factors: man and thought. His main achievement was not to commit many armaments; military, political and logistical factors; ideology. mistakes. He was no great strategist even though he did show Giap worked a mode of conducting war and he formulated mastery of the strategic situation in practice. 33 important principles for conducting war. Conclusion a. To wage a war that is fought by the entire people in all fields; Guerrilla warfare is an age-old phenomenon. It has helped and to combine armed with political forces armed with political enabled many suppressed groups and enslaved nationalities, to struggle, armed uprising with revolutionary war. gain a fair deal socially, economically and politically. A guerrilla b. to set up firm positions in the rural areas to wage people's war is not only imposing a battle on the enemy on an unfavourable in both rural and urban regions, develop and closely combine terrain in a situation when he / she is not inclined for a war, but offensive thrust against the enemy in appropriate forms and also refusing to accept a battle when the enemy is large in number. n all three strategic zones: mountain, plains and towns. He fights relentlessly, but at his convenience. The strength of the guerrilla force lies in grouping for an offensive action and c. To be inspired by an offensive strategic thought in both disappearing at times of damage. The French emperor Napoleon armed uprising and revolutionary war. who could defeat the kings and emperors of Europe could not d. To apply the strategy of a protracted war and at the same time withstand the guerrilla tactics of the Spanish people, as it was to strive to bring about a propitious moment and steal a waged as a war of common people with a sincere involvement. march on the enemy so as to win ever-bigger victories. Mao could fight with the corrupt Chiang Kai-Shek government and the imperialist Japanese army simultaneously only through e. To couple the destruction of army troops with winning and Guerrilla tactics. maintaining control for the people, to actively annihilate hostile forces by fostering and strengthening our own, so as to The mighty Americans, who are interested to contain the spread grow stronger as we fight. of communists in Asia-Pacific region failed miserably in Vietnam in taming the communists. Vietnamese guerrilla communists f. To rely essentially on our forces while striving to secure chose the right approach of indoctrinating the people and waging international help. a people's war against the Americans for a long period, and to 34 Giap formulated the main objective of war as: frustrate them. The tactics paid due dividend. The puppet regime The entire people of a war fight military. fell down and the American withdraws. It is the art offensive of armed forces. The leftists, revolutionary leaders and communists adopted guerrilla tactics for realising their political aims at the times of Defeating a big force with a small one. crisis. Lenin advocated the use of armed insurrection against the To try by every means to annihilate the enemy. government. But Trotsky refused to apply guerrilla tactics against the white army, since he thought that a powerful army need not Fighting with dynamic and initiative determination and resort to guerrilla tactics. Mao was very keen that only by flexibility, resourcefulness and creativeness making the best politicising the people and making them to fight he could get the use of secrecy and surprise. necessary demographic coverage and wage a decisive war

104 105 S. Manivasakan Guerrilla War in Vietnam against government. Castro and Che Guevara of Cuba identified between various groups and categories of people varies are in themselves with the poor urban mill workers and rural cane- each country depending upon such variables as its historicity, cutters and with their moral support they overthrew the political process and the many socio-economic configurations in government in Cuba in 1959. it. The relationship ranges from a relatively harmonious form to Whatever be the reason for the conflict, the role of geographic one of antagonism and open hostility of conflictual type. Thus, the factors played a pivotal role in deciding the course and outcome status enjoyed by different groups and social categories with of the wars. The central highlands of Vietnam served as a good respect to their various social, political, economic and training ground. The Ho Chi Minh trail went through the demographic rights are in different countries varies widely. So, its neighbouring countries and helped the Vietcong to maintain their problems too assume different colour and pitches in their political logistics. The indoctrination of the people and the close overtones accordingly. association of the Vietcong' with the people disproved the Power and authority play a critical role in the process of social American schemes such as 'phoenix programme' and 'strategic change in the Third World. The inter-ethnic group cleavage being hamlets.' More over the supplies from China' and Soviet Union basically political, the ethnic conflict is mainly the competition for kept their morale high all through the war. Eventually even after power sharing and its management. The emergence of the killing five lakhs of Vietnamese Americans had to leave Vietnam. problem may be due to the continued neglect or mishandling of So Guerrilla Warfare is relevant and useful even in this atomic the initial demands for linguistic accommodation and regional age. autonomy and inequitable treatment in educational or The guerrilla movements will emerges wherever the suppressed employment avenues turns the autonomists into secessionists. group crosses the limit of tolerance and a leader emerge to capitalise the frustrated souls of suppressed group, and to organise them into a committed group to achieve the target of References: liberation. In many of the developing countries of the Third 1. Quincy Wright (1968), "The Study of War," Sills, L. David. (Ed.), World, ethnic conflicts / guerrilla war in the violent and International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Vol. 15, p. 455. protracted dimensions, has seriously undermined the unity and integrity of the state. Most of these internal conflicts in their racial, 2. Collier's Encyclopedia, Vol. 23, pp.231-232. social religious and cultural dimensions have seen the growth of 3. Ney, Virgil (1962), "Guerrilla Warfare and Modem Strategy," in Modern separatist movements in extreme conditions. Guerrilla Warfare, Osanka, Franklin Mark, (Ed.,), (New York: The Free Press), p.25. Ethnic issues have come to be regarded as one of the most 4. Ibid., p.xix. pressing problems facing many countries of the world in modern times. They concern basically the question of the relationship 5. Nasution, Abdul Harris (1970), Fundamental of Guerrilla Warfare, (New between diverse groups of people often characterised by distinct Delhi: Sagar Publications), p.13. races, culture and religions living within the political boundaries 6. Palsokar, P.D. (1964), "Fighting the Guerrilla-2," Journal of United Services, of a state. The notion of distinction, apart from being evident in Institution of India, Vol.95, p.258. some of the objective and tangible facts, are strongly present in the 7. Lawerence, T.E. (1974), "Guerrilla Warfare," The New Encyclopedia perception of the groups about themselves, or in the opinion of Britannica, Vol.8, p.458. others who hold them to be different. The state of relationship

106 107 S. Manivasakan Guerrilla War in Vietnam against government. Castro and Che Guevara of Cuba identified between various groups and categories of people varies are in themselves with the poor urban mill workers and rural cane- each country depending upon such variables as its historicity, cutters and with their moral support they overthrew the political process and the many socio-economic configurations in government in Cuba in 1959. it. The relationship ranges from a relatively harmonious form to Whatever be the reason for the conflict, the role of geographic one of antagonism and open hostility of conflictual type. Thus, the factors played a pivotal role in deciding the course and outcome status enjoyed by different groups and social categories with of the wars. The central highlands of Vietnam served as a good respect to their various social, political, economic and training ground. The Ho Chi Minh trail went through the demographic rights are in different countries varies widely. So, its neighbouring countries and helped the Vietcong to maintain their problems too assume different colour and pitches in their political logistics. The indoctrination of the people and the close overtones accordingly. association of the Vietcong' with the people disproved the Power and authority play a critical role in the process of social American schemes such as 'phoenix programme' and 'strategic change in the Third World. The inter-ethnic group cleavage being hamlets.' More over the supplies from China' and Soviet Union basically political, the ethnic conflict is mainly the competition for kept their morale high all through the war. Eventually even after power sharing and its management. The emergence of the killing five lakhs of Vietnamese Americans had to leave Vietnam. problem may be due to the continued neglect or mishandling of So Guerrilla Warfare is relevant and useful even in this atomic the initial demands for linguistic accommodation and regional age. autonomy and inequitable treatment in educational or The guerrilla movements will emerges wherever the suppressed employment avenues turns the autonomists into secessionists. group crosses the limit of tolerance and a leader emerge to capitalise the frustrated souls of suppressed group, and to organise them into a committed group to achieve the target of References: liberation. In many of the developing countries of the Third 1. Quincy Wright (1968), "The Study of War," Sills, L. David. (Ed.), World, ethnic conflicts / guerrilla war in the violent and International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Vol. 15, p. 455. protracted dimensions, has seriously undermined the unity and integrity of the state. Most of these internal conflicts in their racial, 2. Collier's Encyclopedia, Vol. 23, pp.231-232. social religious and cultural dimensions have seen the growth of 3. Ney, Virgil (1962), "Guerrilla Warfare and Modem Strategy," in Modern separatist movements in extreme conditions. Guerrilla Warfare, Osanka, Franklin Mark, (Ed.,), (New York: The Free Press), p.25. Ethnic issues have come to be regarded as one of the most 4. Ibid., p.xix. pressing problems facing many countries of the world in modern times. They concern basically the question of the relationship 5. Nasution, Abdul Harris (1970), Fundamental of Guerrilla Warfare, (New between diverse groups of people often characterised by distinct Delhi: Sagar Publications), p.13. races, culture and religions living within the political boundaries 6. Palsokar, P.D. (1964), "Fighting the Guerrilla-2," Journal of United Services, of a state. The notion of distinction, apart from being evident in Institution of India, Vol.95, p.258. some of the objective and tangible facts, are strongly present in the 7. Lawerence, T.E. (1974), "Guerrilla Warfare," The New Encyclopedia perception of the groups about themselves, or in the opinion of Britannica, Vol.8, p.458. others who hold them to be different. The state of relationship

106 107 S. Manivasakan Guerrilla War in Vietnam

8. Palit, O.K. (1968), "The Essential of Military Knowledge," (Dehra Dun. 29. Giap, Vo Nguyen. (1961), People's war People's Army, (Hanoi: Foreign EBD Publishing and Distributing Co.), p. 11.113. Languages Publishing House), p.27. 9. Palsokar, R.D. (1961), "Fighting the Guerrilla," Journal of the United 30. Ibid, p.71. Services, Institution of India, Vol.91, p.265. 31. Ibid, pp. 82-83. 10. Sirohi, B.S. (1974), "Insurgency and Counter - insurgency," Ibid, Vol.104, 32. Truong Chinh (1960), The Resistance Will Win (Hanoi: Foreign language pp.62-63. publishing House), p.35. 11. Mc Alister, John, T. (1966), Vietnam: The origins of Revolutions, (London: 33. Lenin VI (1978), Collected works, Vo1.27, (Moscow: Progress publishers), The Penguin Press), p.166. p.44. 12. Ibid., p.136. 34. Giap, Vo Nguyen (1977), National Liberation war in Vietnam General Line- 13. Ibid., p.199. strategy-tactics, (New Delhi: Communist Party of India), p.27. 14. Ibid., p.303. 15. Chauan, R.S (1987), Vietnam: Trial and Triumph, (New Delhi: Patriot Publishers), p.l 06 16. Corbelt Robin (1986), Guerrilla Warfare from 1936 to the Present day, (London: Orbis), p.97. 17. Girling, J.L.S. (1967), People's War, (London: George Allen and Uncoin Ltd.) p.132. 18. Ibid., p.141. 19. Laqueur, Walter (1976), Guerrilla: A Historical and Critical Study, (Boston: Little Brown Company), p.127. 20. Corbelt, n.16, p.98. 21. Girling, n.17, p.142. 22. Larqueur, n.19, p.274. 23. Thien, That Ton (1966), "The War in Vietnam," in Sibnarayan Ray (Ed.), Vietnam: Seen from East and West, (Bombay: Manaktles), p.63. 24. Corbelt, n.16, p.106. 25. Ibid., p.108. 26. Chauan, n.15, p.121. 27. Douglas, Pike (1966), Vietcong, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press),p.8. 28. Giap, Vo Nguyen (1973), On Guerrilla Warfare and the People in Vietnam. Springer, Philip, B and Marcello Truzzi, in Revolutionary of Revolution, (California: Good Year Publishing Co. Inc.), pp.80-87.

108 109 S. Manivasakan Guerrilla War in Vietnam

8. Palit, O.K. (1968), "The Essential of Military Knowledge," (Dehra Dun. 29. Giap, Vo Nguyen. (1961), People's war People's Army, (Hanoi: Foreign EBD Publishing and Distributing Co.), p. 11.113. Languages Publishing House), p.27. 9. Palsokar, R.D. (1961), "Fighting the Guerrilla," Journal of the United 30. Ibid, p.71. Services, Institution of India, Vol.91, p.265. 31. Ibid, pp. 82-83. 10. Sirohi, B.S. (1974), "Insurgency and Counter - insurgency," Ibid, Vol.104, 32. Truong Chinh (1960), The Resistance Will Win (Hanoi: Foreign language pp.62-63. publishing House), p.35. 11. Mc Alister, John, T. (1966), Vietnam: The origins of Revolutions, (London: 33. Lenin VI (1978), Collected works, Vo1.27, (Moscow: Progress publishers), The Penguin Press), p.166. p.44. 12. Ibid., p.136. 34. Giap, Vo Nguyen (1977), National Liberation war in Vietnam General Line- 13. Ibid., p.199. strategy-tactics, (New Delhi: Communist Party of India), p.27. 14. Ibid., p.303. 15. Chauan, R.S (1987), Vietnam: Trial and Triumph, (New Delhi: Patriot Publishers), p.l 06 16. Corbelt Robin (1986), Guerrilla Warfare from 1936 to the Present day, (London: Orbis), p.97. 17. Girling, J.L.S. (1967), People's War, (London: George Allen and Uncoin Ltd.) p.132. 18. Ibid., p.141. 19. Laqueur, Walter (1976), Guerrilla: A Historical and Critical Study, (Boston: Little Brown Company), p.127. 20. Corbelt, n.16, p.98. 21. Girling, n.17, p.142. 22. Larqueur, n.19, p.274. 23. Thien, That Ton (1966), "The War in Vietnam," in Sibnarayan Ray (Ed.), Vietnam: Seen from East and West, (Bombay: Manaktles), p.63. 24. Corbelt, n.16, p.106. 25. Ibid., p.108. 26. Chauan, n.15, p.121. 27. Douglas, Pike (1966), Vietcong, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press),p.8. 28. Giap, Vo Nguyen (1973), On Guerrilla Warfare and the People in Vietnam. Springer, Philip, B and Marcello Truzzi, in Revolutionary of Revolution, (California: Good Year Publishing Co. Inc.), pp.80-87.

108 109 Vietnam Women in War during Ho chi Minh Period Vietnam Women in War during Ho chi Minh Period (now Thailand), where he worked as a representative of the M. Padmaja Communist International organization. Assistant Professor, UGC Centre for Southeast Asian & Pacific Studies The Declaration of Independence was the outcome of much SV University, Tirupati Email: [email protected] bloodshed and many sacrifices of lives by Viet Nam's brave sons and daughters in the prisons and concentration camps, in remote detention islands, on the guillotine and on the battlefields. The Declaration of Independence was the out-come of long years of Ho Chi Minh the hope, endeavour and faith of over 20 million Vietnamese. The Ho chi Minh was the hero and father of Vietnam nation. Under his Declaration of Independence was a glorious page in Viet Nam's dynamic leadership women played a major and active role during history. It put an end to the autocratic monarchist regime and Vietnam War period. Ho Chi Minh was born (Nguyen Sinh Cung) oppressive colonial rule. It opened the new phase of democratic on May 19, 1890, in a village in central Vietnam (then part of republic (Mai Luan Dac Xuan and Tran Dan Tien, 2005, P.110). French Indochina). Ho Chi Minh's father, Nguyen Sinh Sac, was The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural orphaned while quite young and adopted by a local scholar, Organization has recognized President Ho Chi Minh as a national Hoang Duong. Nguyen Sinh Sac eventually married his mentor's liberation hero and a cultural celebrity. So, there is an integral daughter, Hoang Thi Loan. The couple's second son and third unique combination of the politician and Cultural specialist in Ho child, Nguyen Singh Cung, was born in 1890 in Hoang Tru Chi Minh in his great contributions to the advancement of Village, Kim Lien Commune, Nam Dan District, Nghe an humankind. He was a multi area celebrity (Pham Xanh, 2008, Province. During his life, Nguyen Sinh Cung would use at least P.189). 174 aliases and pseudonyms. However, the world would know him best as “Ho Chi Minh” - “Ho with the Enlightened Mind” The Status of Women in early Vietnamese Society (Lady Borton, 2009, p.7). a “milk name' at birth. When they reach The status of women in early Vietnamese society was equal to adolescence, a new name is assigned to reflect the parents' men. Their social responsibility was even extended to the aspiration for their child (William J. Duiker, 2000, Pp. 17-18) economic avenues of the society. Vietnamese legends depict that women were the early discoverers of rice cultivation in Vietnam. In 1911, Ho Chi Minh found work as a cook on a French steamer Sao Chi, Vietnamese women, one day found grass with white and spent the next several years at sea, traveling to Africa, the grains. She collected the grains and transplanted the same on the United States and Britain, among other locations. By 1919, he was mud resulting more grains from it. Temples were erected in living in France, where he organized a group of Vietnamese memory of warrior's coverers of other crops such as Soya, immigrants and petitioned delegates at the Versailles Peace Mulberry and Ben (Mai Thi Tu and Le Thi Nham Tugyet) Vietnam Conference to demand that the French colonial government in is inhabited by 54 ethnic groups. The people dwelling in the plains Indochina grant the same rights to its subjects as it did to its rulers. are the Viets (kinh), the Ghams; the Khmers and the Chinese. The Ho joined the new French Communist Party in 1920 and traveled Viets being predominant and constitute 87 percent of the total to Moscow three years later. He soon began recruiting members population are remarkably homogeneous people. The rural of a Vietnamese nationalist movement that would form the basis Vietnamese are generally intense rice cultivators. The rice of the Indochinese Communist Party (founded in Hong Kong in cultivation and the Confucian ethics favored the growth of a 1930) and traveled the world, including Brussels, Paris and Siam collective society among the Viets (Doulas Pike, 1996, p. 178).

110 111 Vietnam Women in War during Ho chi Minh Period Vietnam Women in War during Ho chi Minh Period (now Thailand), where he worked as a representative of the M. Padmaja Communist International organization. Assistant Professor, UGC Centre for Southeast Asian & Pacific Studies The Declaration of Independence was the outcome of much SV University, Tirupati Email: [email protected] bloodshed and many sacrifices of lives by Viet Nam's brave sons and daughters in the prisons and concentration camps, in remote detention islands, on the guillotine and on the battlefields. The Declaration of Independence was the out-come of long years of Ho Chi Minh the hope, endeavour and faith of over 20 million Vietnamese. The Ho chi Minh was the hero and father of Vietnam nation. Under his Declaration of Independence was a glorious page in Viet Nam's dynamic leadership women played a major and active role during history. It put an end to the autocratic monarchist regime and Vietnam War period. Ho Chi Minh was born (Nguyen Sinh Cung) oppressive colonial rule. It opened the new phase of democratic on May 19, 1890, in a village in central Vietnam (then part of republic (Mai Luan Dac Xuan and Tran Dan Tien, 2005, P.110). French Indochina). Ho Chi Minh's father, Nguyen Sinh Sac, was The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural orphaned while quite young and adopted by a local scholar, Organization has recognized President Ho Chi Minh as a national Hoang Duong. Nguyen Sinh Sac eventually married his mentor's liberation hero and a cultural celebrity. So, there is an integral daughter, Hoang Thi Loan. The couple's second son and third unique combination of the politician and Cultural specialist in Ho child, Nguyen Singh Cung, was born in 1890 in Hoang Tru Chi Minh in his great contributions to the advancement of Village, Kim Lien Commune, Nam Dan District, Nghe an humankind. He was a multi area celebrity (Pham Xanh, 2008, Province. During his life, Nguyen Sinh Cung would use at least P.189). 174 aliases and pseudonyms. However, the world would know him best as “Ho Chi Minh” - “Ho with the Enlightened Mind” The Status of Women in early Vietnamese Society (Lady Borton, 2009, p.7). a “milk name' at birth. When they reach The status of women in early Vietnamese society was equal to adolescence, a new name is assigned to reflect the parents' men. Their social responsibility was even extended to the aspiration for their child (William J. Duiker, 2000, Pp. 17-18) economic avenues of the society. Vietnamese legends depict that women were the early discoverers of rice cultivation in Vietnam. In 1911, Ho Chi Minh found work as a cook on a French steamer Sao Chi, Vietnamese women, one day found grass with white and spent the next several years at sea, traveling to Africa, the grains. She collected the grains and transplanted the same on the United States and Britain, among other locations. By 1919, he was mud resulting more grains from it. Temples were erected in living in France, where he organized a group of Vietnamese memory of warrior's coverers of other crops such as Soya, immigrants and petitioned delegates at the Versailles Peace Mulberry and Ben (Mai Thi Tu and Le Thi Nham Tugyet) Vietnam Conference to demand that the French colonial government in is inhabited by 54 ethnic groups. The people dwelling in the plains Indochina grant the same rights to its subjects as it did to its rulers. are the Viets (kinh), the Ghams; the Khmers and the Chinese. The Ho joined the new French Communist Party in 1920 and traveled Viets being predominant and constitute 87 percent of the total to Moscow three years later. He soon began recruiting members population are remarkably homogeneous people. The rural of a Vietnamese nationalist movement that would form the basis Vietnamese are generally intense rice cultivators. The rice of the Indochinese Communist Party (founded in Hong Kong in cultivation and the Confucian ethics favored the growth of a 1930) and traveled the world, including Brussels, Paris and Siam collective society among the Viets (Doulas Pike, 1996, p. 178).

110 111 M. Padmaja Vietnam Women in War during Ho chi Minh Period

Historically, this character and spirit of Vietnamese women were behavior. They described her as fighting with her great breasts first exemplified by the conduct of the Trung sisters (Vietnamese flying around her body, an image as frightening as it was military leaders, Their names were Trưng Trắc and Trưng Nhị, the improbable given her two-handed fighting style. They claimed “first historical figures” in the history of Vietnam. This trait is also this runaway servant was so afraid of the sight of dirt that she fled epitomized in the old Vietnamese adage: “When war comes, even the scene of battle. They also asserted that she was finally defeated women have to fight”, (Taylor, Sandra C) and when the enemy is because her male opponents exposed their genitals. The same was at the gate, the woman goes out fighting. (Nguy en, Van Ky). The said of how the Trưng sisters met defeat. This behavior would following case studies of Lady Trieo, Lady Y Lan, Bui Thi Xcian, have been odd for these veteran warriors of ancient battlefields Borton illustrate the braveness and intelligence of Vietnam littered with dismembered body parts and organs. Such revulsion women in past and present. was, however, quite to be expected from the crazed but beautiful women (one, a virgin) as constructed in the minds of male Trung Sisters historians drawn from an elite struggling with the ambiguities In Vietnam there lived two sisters namely, Trung Trac and Tung inherent in championing both patriarchy and patriotism among a Nhi, daughters of a military governor. Trung Trac and her people who may have long accepted that women could play an husband Thi Sach were preparing an uprising but the conspiracy active role in society and on the battlefield (Marc Jason Gilbert). was discovered and Thi Sach was killed by To Dinh Fired by their “ desire to pay their debt to the country and to avenge their family, Lady Trieu in February of the year 40 Trung Trac and her younger sister In 248 Viet Nam came under the yoke of the Wu. At Nong Cong, a Trung Nhi called on the people to drive the Han out of the land. district in the Nui Nua (Bamboo Mountain) area in Thanh Hoa Their appeal reflected the aspirations of all social classes. The Lac providence, there lived a young woman called Trieu Thi Trinh, Hau and Lac Toung in other provinces joined their ranks. With who was then in the prime of her youth. When people advised her talented generals like Lady Le Chan, the two sisters led the to get married, she replied “I would rather ride strong winds, insurrection, which rapidly spread to the whole country. Waves tread mighty waves, and drive out the Wu invaders to reconquer of uprisings broke out against To Dinh's oppressive rule. our land, recover our independence and break the yoke of slavery, than bend and be a maid-servant of man!” When the Chinese defeated Triệu Thị Trinh's forces in 247 CE, she, like the Trung sisters, is believed to have committed suicide, At the age of 19 she settled in the Nua mountains with her either by having herself trampled by elephants or by jumping into younger brother Tieu Quoc Dat where she gathered patriots and a river. Like the Trung Sisters, her life is honored by celebrations, trained them to fight. She made an appeal to the entire including that at her principal shrine at Na Triệu Temple in Thanh population, denouncing the crimes of the Wu, exhorting the Hoa Province. Like them, her soldiering has been the subject of people to rise up against the aggressors and save the country. much revisionist writing at the hands of those historians of early Later her brother died in a battle. She took over the leadership of modern Vietnam who had adopted Chinese social norms. They the uprising alone, won numerous-victories and liberated almost referred to her alleged virginity not as a function of the poverty of all of Cuu Chan. Lady Trieu went to battle clad in a golden robe, her marriage prospects as an orphaned servant in her brother's holding a sword, and settling in a golden howdah carried by an house nor even the result of a lack of beauty. Her unmarried state elephant. was instead attributed to her unfeminine, beastly, and aberrant

112 113 M. Padmaja Vietnam Women in War during Ho chi Minh Period

Historically, this character and spirit of Vietnamese women were behavior. They described her as fighting with her great breasts first exemplified by the conduct of the Trung sisters (Vietnamese flying around her body, an image as frightening as it was military leaders, Their names were Trưng Trắc and Trưng Nhị, the improbable given her two-handed fighting style. They claimed “first historical figures” in the history of Vietnam. This trait is also this runaway servant was so afraid of the sight of dirt that she fled epitomized in the old Vietnamese adage: “When war comes, even the scene of battle. They also asserted that she was finally defeated women have to fight”, (Taylor, Sandra C) and when the enemy is because her male opponents exposed their genitals. The same was at the gate, the woman goes out fighting. (Nguy en, Van Ky). The said of how the Trưng sisters met defeat. This behavior would following case studies of Lady Trieo, Lady Y Lan, Bui Thi Xcian, have been odd for these veteran warriors of ancient battlefields Borton illustrate the braveness and intelligence of Vietnam littered with dismembered body parts and organs. Such revulsion women in past and present. was, however, quite to be expected from the crazed but beautiful women (one, a virgin) as constructed in the minds of male Trung Sisters historians drawn from an elite struggling with the ambiguities In Vietnam there lived two sisters namely, Trung Trac and Tung inherent in championing both patriarchy and patriotism among a Nhi, daughters of a military governor. Trung Trac and her people who may have long accepted that women could play an husband Thi Sach were preparing an uprising but the conspiracy active role in society and on the battlefield (Marc Jason Gilbert). was discovered and Thi Sach was killed by To Dinh Fired by their “ desire to pay their debt to the country and to avenge their family, Lady Trieu in February of the year 40 Trung Trac and her younger sister In 248 Viet Nam came under the yoke of the Wu. At Nong Cong, a Trung Nhi called on the people to drive the Han out of the land. district in the Nui Nua (Bamboo Mountain) area in Thanh Hoa Their appeal reflected the aspirations of all social classes. The Lac providence, there lived a young woman called Trieu Thi Trinh, Hau and Lac Toung in other provinces joined their ranks. With who was then in the prime of her youth. When people advised her talented generals like Lady Le Chan, the two sisters led the to get married, she replied “I would rather ride strong winds, insurrection, which rapidly spread to the whole country. Waves tread mighty waves, and drive out the Wu invaders to reconquer of uprisings broke out against To Dinh's oppressive rule. our land, recover our independence and break the yoke of slavery, than bend and be a maid-servant of man!” When the Chinese defeated Triệu Thị Trinh's forces in 247 CE, she, like the Trung sisters, is believed to have committed suicide, At the age of 19 she settled in the Nua mountains with her either by having herself trampled by elephants or by jumping into younger brother Tieu Quoc Dat where she gathered patriots and a river. Like the Trung Sisters, her life is honored by celebrations, trained them to fight. She made an appeal to the entire including that at her principal shrine at Na Triệu Temple in Thanh population, denouncing the crimes of the Wu, exhorting the Hoa Province. Like them, her soldiering has been the subject of people to rise up against the aggressors and save the country. much revisionist writing at the hands of those historians of early Later her brother died in a battle. She took over the leadership of modern Vietnam who had adopted Chinese social norms. They the uprising alone, won numerous-victories and liberated almost referred to her alleged virginity not as a function of the poverty of all of Cuu Chan. Lady Trieu went to battle clad in a golden robe, her marriage prospects as an orphaned servant in her brother's holding a sword, and settling in a golden howdah carried by an house nor even the result of a lack of beauty. Her unmarried state elephant. was instead attributed to her unfeminine, beastly, and aberrant

112 113 M. Padmaja Vietnam Women in War during Ho chi Minh Period

Lady Y Lan Dieu, she won brilliant victories over the reactionary Nguyen Lady Y Lan was born and grew up in Kinh Bac an area covered by feudalists (18th century). Women in Vietnam were known to fight vast Mulberry fields. According to the annals, her trade was “to with sticks and bare hands. This indicates how powerful Vietnam pick mulberry leaves and raise silk worms”. One day when she were. was working in the field, the king's herald shouted from the Role of brave women during war Period highway “ The King is going to pass by here!” It was King Ly The role of women in Vietnam was subject to many changes Thanh Ton (1054-1072) on his yearly outing. All the inhabitants, throughout the history of Vietnam. The women were very all the labourers ran to the roadside to have a look at the king. But beautiful with their long hair and at the same time they could hold Y Lan did not join the on-lookers but stood at a distance, alone, a weapon in their hands as the symbol of their bravery. They have leaning against the trunk of a magnolia. The King ordered her to taken on varying roles in society, including warriors, nurses, be brought up to his palanquin where he asked her several mothers and wives. There have been many advances in women's questions. This young girl of King Bac was not only pretty but rights in Vietnam, such as an increase in women representation in showed herself to be intelligent, calm and quick-witted as well. government, as well as the creation of the Vietnam Women's The next day a Royal order reached her village, summoning her to Union in 1930. the king's palace. She was intelligent and cultured and she soon became an adviser who had the King's ears in State affairs. In 1069, During the Second World War Vietnam came under the Japanese Ly Thanh Ton conducted the expedition against the Kingdom of control but the French remained in the country. For the Champa in the South. Vietnamese it was a double exploitation and the Vietnamese living conditions got worsened. Meanwhile, in 1941, Ho Chi Minh King Ly Thanh Ton died in 1072. His only son Crown Prince Can established a broader organization called, Viet Nam Doc Lap Due, aged seven succeeded him. Y Lan was promoted Queen Dong Minh Hoi, in short, Viet Minh, to attract all sections of the Mother, and was Regent throughout the King's minority. She society to fight against the French rule. In this connection the paid great attention to agricultural production and the protection Women's League for National Salvation was also founded with of draught animals in particular, as theft and slaughter of an intention to draw the patriotic women to fight the French and buffaloes and other cattle was impeding production and the Japanese. Many young women from all nationalities joined hindering the development of farming. She was the first to try to the guerrilla forces and valiantly fought for the country's liberate women, by organizing a relief office to help poor women liberation (K. Raja Reddy and M. Prayaga, 1999, P. 8). who had been sold as slaves to rich families for example. She spent money from the royal treasury on paying ransom for them On 2 September 1945 Ho Chi Minh declared the birth of the and helping them to start families. This was a bold and very Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN), the first communist progressive undertaking at that time. The people honored Y Lan state in Southeast Asia. Nguyen Khoa Dieu Hong, a female Viet like a saint. The official annals conferred on her the title Linh Minh leader, 'appealed for national salvation' before the Nhan Thai Phi (The Holy and Happy Queen Mother). enthusiastic public. The DRVN mobilized and encouraged women to participate actively in the social and economic Bui Thi Xuian activities just as men in the reconstruction of the country. The Bui Thi Xuan figures in the national history of Viet Nam as DRVN's new constitution promulgated in 1946 advocated the an/indomitable woman general and as a celebrated strategist of status of women in the country. Article 23 of the constitution said: the Xay Son dynasty. With her husband, General Tran Quang

114 115 M. Padmaja Vietnam Women in War during Ho chi Minh Period

Lady Y Lan Dieu, she won brilliant victories over the reactionary Nguyen Lady Y Lan was born and grew up in Kinh Bac an area covered by feudalists (18th century). Women in Vietnam were known to fight vast Mulberry fields. According to the annals, her trade was “to with sticks and bare hands. This indicates how powerful Vietnam pick mulberry leaves and raise silk worms”. One day when she were. was working in the field, the king's herald shouted from the Role of brave women during war Period highway “ The King is going to pass by here!” It was King Ly The role of women in Vietnam was subject to many changes Thanh Ton (1054-1072) on his yearly outing. All the inhabitants, throughout the history of Vietnam. The women were very all the labourers ran to the roadside to have a look at the king. But beautiful with their long hair and at the same time they could hold Y Lan did not join the on-lookers but stood at a distance, alone, a weapon in their hands as the symbol of their bravery. They have leaning against the trunk of a magnolia. The King ordered her to taken on varying roles in society, including warriors, nurses, be brought up to his palanquin where he asked her several mothers and wives. There have been many advances in women's questions. This young girl of King Bac was not only pretty but rights in Vietnam, such as an increase in women representation in showed herself to be intelligent, calm and quick-witted as well. government, as well as the creation of the Vietnam Women's The next day a Royal order reached her village, summoning her to Union in 1930. the king's palace. She was intelligent and cultured and she soon became an adviser who had the King's ears in State affairs. In 1069, During the Second World War Vietnam came under the Japanese Ly Thanh Ton conducted the expedition against the Kingdom of control but the French remained in the country. For the Champa in the South. Vietnamese it was a double exploitation and the Vietnamese living conditions got worsened. Meanwhile, in 1941, Ho Chi Minh King Ly Thanh Ton died in 1072. His only son Crown Prince Can established a broader organization called, Viet Nam Doc Lap Due, aged seven succeeded him. Y Lan was promoted Queen Dong Minh Hoi, in short, Viet Minh, to attract all sections of the Mother, and was Regent throughout the King's minority. She society to fight against the French rule. In this connection the paid great attention to agricultural production and the protection Women's League for National Salvation was also founded with of draught animals in particular, as theft and slaughter of an intention to draw the patriotic women to fight the French and buffaloes and other cattle was impeding production and the Japanese. Many young women from all nationalities joined hindering the development of farming. She was the first to try to the guerrilla forces and valiantly fought for the country's liberate women, by organizing a relief office to help poor women liberation (K. Raja Reddy and M. Prayaga, 1999, P. 8). who had been sold as slaves to rich families for example. She spent money from the royal treasury on paying ransom for them On 2 September 1945 Ho Chi Minh declared the birth of the and helping them to start families. This was a bold and very Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN), the first communist progressive undertaking at that time. The people honored Y Lan state in Southeast Asia. Nguyen Khoa Dieu Hong, a female Viet like a saint. The official annals conferred on her the title Linh Minh leader, 'appealed for national salvation' before the Nhan Thai Phi (The Holy and Happy Queen Mother). enthusiastic public. The DRVN mobilized and encouraged women to participate actively in the social and economic Bui Thi Xuian activities just as men in the reconstruction of the country. The Bui Thi Xuan figures in the national history of Viet Nam as DRVN's new constitution promulgated in 1946 advocated the an/indomitable woman general and as a celebrated strategist of status of women in the country. Article 23 of the constitution said: the Xay Son dynasty. With her husband, General Tran Quang

114 115 M. Padmaja Vietnam Women in War during Ho chi Minh Period

“Citizens of the DRVN, regardless of nationality, race, sex, social In the South the NLF depended on the support of women. To background, religion, or belief have the right to vote from the age emancipate women the NLF formed the Women's Liberation of 21”. Article 24 emphasized: “In the DRVN, women have the Association of South Vietnam on March 8, 1961 with a limited same political, economic, cultural, social and family rights as membership initially. It rose to 1.2 million by 1965. Under the men”. (K. Raja Reddy and M. Prayaga, 1999, Pp. 8-9). guidance of NLF: During the war against the French forces women played an The Vietnamese women grew the vegetables, raised the important role in the political propaganda to gain sympathy as chickens, and poled the sampans to deliver food to guerrilla well as by extending all round support to the Vietnamese forces at bands; she ran the market struggle movement, unmasked the the battle front. Vietnam Women's Union was further spies, and led the village indoctrination sessions; she made the strengthened in April 1950 as its membership was enlarged and spiked foot fraps, carried the ammunition, and dug the many of these members joined the guerrilla activities. Women crosshatch roadblocks. The woman was in truth the water guerrillas maintained liaison between the underground buffalo of the revolution” (Douglas Pike, 1966, P. 178) resistance bases and resistance groups and also dug shelters for The Association played an active role in all phases of the NLF the cadres. By 1952, there were about 840,00 women guerrillas in armed struggle under the leadership of Nguyen Thi Dinh. Mme North Vietnam and 140,000 in South Vietnam. Some of the Dinh became General of the People's Liberation Armed Forces women guerrilla units became popular in the protection of (PLAF) based on her credentials as a co-founder of the NLF (K. liberated areas. The famous Hoang Ngan brigade of women Raja Reddy and M. Prayaga, 1999, P.15) guerrillas started a movement to “push back enemy even with When Germany defeated France in 1940, during World War II, Ho bamboo sticks” (K. Raja Reddy and M. Prayaga, 1999, P.10). saw it as an opportunity for the Vietnamese nationalist cause. The story of women's life in the southern part was different. While Around this time, he began to use the name Ho Chi Minh (roughly the southern society was a plural society the influence of the translated as “Bringer of Light”). With his lieutenants Vo Nguyen complex nature of the political, social and economic conditions Giap and Pham Van Dong, Ho returned to Vietnam in January had its impact on women's life. In addition, the foreign troop 1941 and organized the Viet Minh, or League for the presence, political freedom, social attractions and economic Independence of Vietnam. Ho was imprisoned for 18 months by necessities forced some women mainly in the urban areas of the Chiang Kai-Shek's anti-Communist government. During the First south to adopt western ways of living. But, by and large, Indochina War, the French returned Bao Dai to power and set up traditional Vietnamese women were unconcerned with all those the state of Vietnam (South Vietnam) in July 1949, with Saigon as happening and this section later participated in the struggle for its capital. Armed conflict between the two states continued until unity spearheaded by the communists both in the north and a decisive battle at Dien Bien Phu ended in French defeat by the south. The failure of successive governments and the foreign Viet Minh forces. The subsequent treaty negotiations at Geneva troop involvement in the south was viewed as an obstacle for the (at which Ho was represented by his associate Pham Van Dong) promised country's unity. Both men and women were up in arms partitioned Indochina and called for elections for reunification in to defend their country. Women's participation in the struggle 1956. increased with the establishment of National Liberation Front Though relatively little official data exists about female Vietnam (NLF) of South Vietnam in 1960 (K. Raja Reddy and M. Prayaga, War veterans, the Vietnam Women's Memorial Foundation 1999, P.11). estimates that approximately 11,000 military women were

116 117 M. Padmaja Vietnam Women in War during Ho chi Minh Period

“Citizens of the DRVN, regardless of nationality, race, sex, social In the South the NLF depended on the support of women. To background, religion, or belief have the right to vote from the age emancipate women the NLF formed the Women's Liberation of 21”. Article 24 emphasized: “In the DRVN, women have the Association of South Vietnam on March 8, 1961 with a limited same political, economic, cultural, social and family rights as membership initially. It rose to 1.2 million by 1965. Under the men”. (K. Raja Reddy and M. Prayaga, 1999, Pp. 8-9). guidance of NLF: During the war against the French forces women played an The Vietnamese women grew the vegetables, raised the important role in the political propaganda to gain sympathy as chickens, and poled the sampans to deliver food to guerrilla well as by extending all round support to the Vietnamese forces at bands; she ran the market struggle movement, unmasked the the battle front. Vietnam Women's Union was further spies, and led the village indoctrination sessions; she made the strengthened in April 1950 as its membership was enlarged and spiked foot fraps, carried the ammunition, and dug the many of these members joined the guerrilla activities. Women crosshatch roadblocks. The woman was in truth the water guerrillas maintained liaison between the underground buffalo of the revolution” (Douglas Pike, 1966, P. 178) resistance bases and resistance groups and also dug shelters for The Association played an active role in all phases of the NLF the cadres. By 1952, there were about 840,00 women guerrillas in armed struggle under the leadership of Nguyen Thi Dinh. Mme North Vietnam and 140,000 in South Vietnam. Some of the Dinh became General of the People's Liberation Armed Forces women guerrilla units became popular in the protection of (PLAF) based on her credentials as a co-founder of the NLF (K. liberated areas. The famous Hoang Ngan brigade of women Raja Reddy and M. Prayaga, 1999, P.15) guerrillas started a movement to “push back enemy even with When Germany defeated France in 1940, during World War II, Ho bamboo sticks” (K. Raja Reddy and M. Prayaga, 1999, P.10). saw it as an opportunity for the Vietnamese nationalist cause. The story of women's life in the southern part was different. While Around this time, he began to use the name Ho Chi Minh (roughly the southern society was a plural society the influence of the translated as “Bringer of Light”). With his lieutenants Vo Nguyen complex nature of the political, social and economic conditions Giap and Pham Van Dong, Ho returned to Vietnam in January had its impact on women's life. In addition, the foreign troop 1941 and organized the Viet Minh, or League for the presence, political freedom, social attractions and economic Independence of Vietnam. Ho was imprisoned for 18 months by necessities forced some women mainly in the urban areas of the Chiang Kai-Shek's anti-Communist government. During the First south to adopt western ways of living. But, by and large, Indochina War, the French returned Bao Dai to power and set up traditional Vietnamese women were unconcerned with all those the state of Vietnam (South Vietnam) in July 1949, with Saigon as happening and this section later participated in the struggle for its capital. Armed conflict between the two states continued until unity spearheaded by the communists both in the north and a decisive battle at Dien Bien Phu ended in French defeat by the south. The failure of successive governments and the foreign Viet Minh forces. The subsequent treaty negotiations at Geneva troop involvement in the south was viewed as an obstacle for the (at which Ho was represented by his associate Pham Van Dong) promised country's unity. Both men and women were up in arms partitioned Indochina and called for elections for reunification in to defend their country. Women's participation in the struggle 1956. increased with the establishment of National Liberation Front Though relatively little official data exists about female Vietnam (NLF) of South Vietnam in 1960 (K. Raja Reddy and M. Prayaga, War veterans, the Vietnam Women's Memorial Foundation 1999, P.11). estimates that approximately 11,000 military women were

116 117 M. Padmaja Vietnam Women in War during Ho chi Minh Period stationed in Vietnam during the conflict. Nearly all of them were many areas so as to freely allow the latter to engage in the war, in volunteers, and 90 percent served as military nurses, though the fields, women held plough or hammer at one hand, rifle in the women also worked as physicians, air traffic controllers, other to position themselves against enemy attacks. Ha Thi Que, a intelligence officers, clerks and other positions in the U.S. former President of the Women's union, said, “the years from Women's Army Corps, U.S. Navy, Air Force and Marines and the 1965 to 1967 saw a real leap forward in the numbers and quality of Army Medical Specialist Corps. In addition to women in the women cadres. Many outstanding courageous and intelligent armed forces, an unknown number of civilian women served in women developed their ability to organize and lead the people”. Vietnam on behalf of the Red Cross, United Service Organizations (Mai Thi Tu, 1966, P. 149) (USO), Catholic Relief Services and other humanitarian Women in Vietnam played a significant role in defending organizations, or as foreign correspondents for various news Vietnam during the Vietnam War from 1945 to 1975. They served Women in the Vietnam War, 2011 organizations ( ) such as village patrol guards, intelligence agents, propagandists, The role of women in warfare and outside the home continued to and military recruiters. By becoming “active participants” in the increase throughout the 20th century, especially during the struggle to liberate their country form foreign occupation, Indochina War. During and after the Vietnam War, the ruling Vietnamese women were able to free themselves from “centuries Communist Party of Vietnam made efforts to increase women's of Confucian influence that had made them second-class citizens. rights, equity, and representation in government. This included Women had seen work in WWII as nurses, communications the creation of job quotas during the 1960s, which required that operators, and even service pilots in the Vietnam War era. Stories women occupy a certain percentage of jobs in different sectors of women's bravery were rich in the Vietnam War's history. (Jayne Werner, 1981). Nurses stayed on board Navy ships to care for the wounded who One of the first female members of the Indochina Communist were flown in from the battle front. They served for ninety Party, Nguyen Thi Minh Khai came to the attention of Ho Chi consecutive days on these ships receiving a leave. The odd thing Minh while serving as his assistant in Hong Kong in 1930. Plans about that fact is that ships were only serving for thirty days then for their marriage were apparently underway when she was a new one was brought in. the ships were then pulled back off the arrested by the British police. She later married one of Ho's coast, reloaded, and refueled out at sea. The nurses would joke colleagues and was executed by the French in 1941. In early June and say “I can give more service time than this ship”. The women 1931, Hong Kong news papers reported the arrest by British of the WACs (Women's Army Corps) were probably given the police of a man suspected of being the dangerous Vietnamese hardest job out of all of the divisions. These women were close to agitator Nguyen Ai Quoc. The suspect, who had been the battle sites in Vietnam and saw the worst of the worst injuries. apprehended in an apartment on Kowloon peninsula, was These women also served for a whole year without any leave described as the “supreme leader” of the Annamite revolutionary time. movement (William J. Duiker, 2000, pp. 234). Case Studies Women were very brave in Vietnam, everywhere, in the jungle 1.Borton guerrilla warfare, in city demonstrations, in factories, in manning The name “Lady Borton” is familiar to foreigners who pay the coastal defence guns and defusing bombs. In response to the attention to foreigners who pay attention to Viet Nam. The war in Three Responsibilities' programme, women replaced men in Viet Nam was an important turning point in a Lady Borton' life, as she herself has described in Sensing the Enemy: An American

118 119 M. Padmaja Vietnam Women in War during Ho chi Minh Period stationed in Vietnam during the conflict. Nearly all of them were many areas so as to freely allow the latter to engage in the war, in volunteers, and 90 percent served as military nurses, though the fields, women held plough or hammer at one hand, rifle in the women also worked as physicians, air traffic controllers, other to position themselves against enemy attacks. Ha Thi Que, a intelligence officers, clerks and other positions in the U.S. former President of the Women's union, said, “the years from Women's Army Corps, U.S. Navy, Air Force and Marines and the 1965 to 1967 saw a real leap forward in the numbers and quality of Army Medical Specialist Corps. In addition to women in the women cadres. Many outstanding courageous and intelligent armed forces, an unknown number of civilian women served in women developed their ability to organize and lead the people”. Vietnam on behalf of the Red Cross, United Service Organizations (Mai Thi Tu, 1966, P. 149) (USO), Catholic Relief Services and other humanitarian Women in Vietnam played a significant role in defending organizations, or as foreign correspondents for various news Vietnam during the Vietnam War from 1945 to 1975. They served Women in the Vietnam War, 2011 organizations ( ) such as village patrol guards, intelligence agents, propagandists, The role of women in warfare and outside the home continued to and military recruiters. By becoming “active participants” in the increase throughout the 20th century, especially during the struggle to liberate their country form foreign occupation, Indochina War. During and after the Vietnam War, the ruling Vietnamese women were able to free themselves from “centuries Communist Party of Vietnam made efforts to increase women's of Confucian influence that had made them second-class citizens. rights, equity, and representation in government. This included Women had seen work in WWII as nurses, communications the creation of job quotas during the 1960s, which required that operators, and even service pilots in the Vietnam War era. Stories women occupy a certain percentage of jobs in different sectors of women's bravery were rich in the Vietnam War's history. (Jayne Werner, 1981). Nurses stayed on board Navy ships to care for the wounded who One of the first female members of the Indochina Communist were flown in from the battle front. They served for ninety Party, Nguyen Thi Minh Khai came to the attention of Ho Chi consecutive days on these ships receiving a leave. The odd thing Minh while serving as his assistant in Hong Kong in 1930. Plans about that fact is that ships were only serving for thirty days then for their marriage were apparently underway when she was a new one was brought in. the ships were then pulled back off the arrested by the British police. She later married one of Ho's coast, reloaded, and refueled out at sea. The nurses would joke colleagues and was executed by the French in 1941. In early June and say “I can give more service time than this ship”. The women 1931, Hong Kong news papers reported the arrest by British of the WACs (Women's Army Corps) were probably given the police of a man suspected of being the dangerous Vietnamese hardest job out of all of the divisions. These women were close to agitator Nguyen Ai Quoc. The suspect, who had been the battle sites in Vietnam and saw the worst of the worst injuries. apprehended in an apartment on Kowloon peninsula, was These women also served for a whole year without any leave described as the “supreme leader” of the Annamite revolutionary time. movement (William J. Duiker, 2000, pp. 234). Case Studies Women were very brave in Vietnam, everywhere, in the jungle 1.Borton guerrilla warfare, in city demonstrations, in factories, in manning The name “Lady Borton” is familiar to foreigners who pay the coastal defence guns and defusing bombs. In response to the attention to foreigners who pay attention to Viet Nam. The war in Three Responsibilities' programme, women replaced men in Viet Nam was an important turning point in a Lady Borton' life, as she herself has described in Sensing the Enemy: An American

118 119 M. Padmaja Vietnam Women in War during Ho chi Minh Period

Among the Boat People of Viet Nam and in After Sorrow: An American Usually these types of photos were taken for propaganda Among the Vietnamese. purposes. North Vietnamese women were deeply involved at all Lady Borton speaks and reads Vietnamese. For nearly forty years, levels of the military campaign throughout the war, especially at she has moved like a shuttle back and forth between Viet Nam, the business end, fighting against the American-led forces in the Asia, North America, and Europe. In recent years, this has given jungle. North Vietnamese women were enlisted and fought in the her the chance to gather materials about Ho Chi Minh never combat zone as well as provided manual labor to keep the Ho Chi before published in a single volume. She has had opportunities to Minh trail open, cook for the troops, and some served as “comfort interview people who knew President Ho personally, and she has women” for male communist fighters. They also worked in the translated some of Ho Chi Minh's writings never before rice fields in North Vietnam and Viet Cong-held farming areas in published in English (Lady Borton, 2009, p. 1) South Vietnam's Mekong Delta region to provide food for their families and the war effort. Women were enlisted in both the Bich Hai-Vietnam Review Paid glory tribute to lady Bortan when North Vietnamese Army and the Viet Cong guerrilla insurgent its staff reporter noted: force in South Vietnam (Female Viet Cong warrior, 1972). There is an American woman working in Vietnam who always Less than four months after the establishment of the PRG leaves a special impression on any one meeting her, even for the (Provisional Revolutionary Government), Vietnam as a whole first time. She is Lady Borton, an American teacher, writer and lost its most popular and the most celebrated leader, Ho Chi journalist, and representative of Quaker service Vietnam. She Minh. On 3 September 1969, at the age of seventy-nine, he died of began to learn Vietnamese, with the first words serving her daily heart attack. Though he was ailing for quite some time the news of work. In 1990, Quaker Service Vietnam established an office in his death came as a rude shock to his countrymen. For majority of Hanoi and Borton had more work to do. With her Vietnamese and Vietnamese he was a patriot and a great revolutionary, who American colleagues, she went to poor and remote areas in Son La devoted his life to achieve independence and unity for his in the North West and Thanh Hoa in the Center to promote country. Unification was still a distant goal at the time of his projects on irrigation, rural clean water, family planning, and death, but he laid solid foundation for still a distant goal at the credits for poor people. Borton has been awarded the Friendship time of his death. When he was honoured with the highest Order by the Vietnamese State for her work in Vietnam. Even award, the Gold Star, by the DRV National Assembly he desired though she was so busy with her work in Vietnam, Borton still to receive it from an ordinary soldier from South Vietnam after arranged time to go home now and then, to take care of her three the country achieved its unity. In his Testament he wrote: adopted daughters. When I asked if she had done a lot of work for Vietnam Borton said, smiling: I've done for Vietnam, Which I've My ultimate wish is that our entire party and people, closely considered my second Home land, and now I wish to live in joining their efforts, will build a peaceful, reunified, Independent, Vietnam longer. democratic and prosperous Vietnam and make worthy contribution to the world revolution (K. Raja Reddy, 1999, pp. 2. Lam Thi Dep 115-116). Lam Thi Dep (Dep means beautiful in Vietnamese), the photo (see 3.Gen. Vo Nguyen Giap inset) of whom was taken in 1972 at Soc Trang Province by Vietnamese journalist Minh Truong, was 18 at the time and she's Heroines and striking female figures are not new in Vietnam they wielding an M-16, the standard issue American soldier's rifle. have played an integral role in Vietnamese history for

120 121 M. Padmaja Vietnam Women in War during Ho chi Minh Period

Among the Boat People of Viet Nam and in After Sorrow: An American Usually these types of photos were taken for propaganda Among the Vietnamese. purposes. North Vietnamese women were deeply involved at all Lady Borton speaks and reads Vietnamese. For nearly forty years, levels of the military campaign throughout the war, especially at she has moved like a shuttle back and forth between Viet Nam, the business end, fighting against the American-led forces in the Asia, North America, and Europe. In recent years, this has given jungle. North Vietnamese women were enlisted and fought in the her the chance to gather materials about Ho Chi Minh never combat zone as well as provided manual labor to keep the Ho Chi before published in a single volume. She has had opportunities to Minh trail open, cook for the troops, and some served as “comfort interview people who knew President Ho personally, and she has women” for male communist fighters. They also worked in the translated some of Ho Chi Minh's writings never before rice fields in North Vietnam and Viet Cong-held farming areas in published in English (Lady Borton, 2009, p. 1) South Vietnam's Mekong Delta region to provide food for their families and the war effort. Women were enlisted in both the Bich Hai-Vietnam Review Paid glory tribute to lady Bortan when North Vietnamese Army and the Viet Cong guerrilla insurgent its staff reporter noted: force in South Vietnam (Female Viet Cong warrior, 1972). There is an American woman working in Vietnam who always Less than four months after the establishment of the PRG leaves a special impression on any one meeting her, even for the (Provisional Revolutionary Government), Vietnam as a whole first time. She is Lady Borton, an American teacher, writer and lost its most popular and the most celebrated leader, Ho Chi journalist, and representative of Quaker service Vietnam. She Minh. On 3 September 1969, at the age of seventy-nine, he died of began to learn Vietnamese, with the first words serving her daily heart attack. Though he was ailing for quite some time the news of work. In 1990, Quaker Service Vietnam established an office in his death came as a rude shock to his countrymen. For majority of Hanoi and Borton had more work to do. With her Vietnamese and Vietnamese he was a patriot and a great revolutionary, who American colleagues, she went to poor and remote areas in Son La devoted his life to achieve independence and unity for his in the North West and Thanh Hoa in the Center to promote country. Unification was still a distant goal at the time of his projects on irrigation, rural clean water, family planning, and death, but he laid solid foundation for still a distant goal at the credits for poor people. Borton has been awarded the Friendship time of his death. When he was honoured with the highest Order by the Vietnamese State for her work in Vietnam. Even award, the Gold Star, by the DRV National Assembly he desired though she was so busy with her work in Vietnam, Borton still to receive it from an ordinary soldier from South Vietnam after arranged time to go home now and then, to take care of her three the country achieved its unity. In his Testament he wrote: adopted daughters. When I asked if she had done a lot of work for Vietnam Borton said, smiling: I've done for Vietnam, Which I've My ultimate wish is that our entire party and people, closely considered my second Home land, and now I wish to live in joining their efforts, will build a peaceful, reunified, Independent, Vietnam longer. democratic and prosperous Vietnam and make worthy contribution to the world revolution (K. Raja Reddy, 1999, pp. 2. Lam Thi Dep 115-116). Lam Thi Dep (Dep means beautiful in Vietnamese), the photo (see 3.Gen. Vo Nguyen Giap inset) of whom was taken in 1972 at Soc Trang Province by Vietnamese journalist Minh Truong, was 18 at the time and she's Heroines and striking female figures are not new in Vietnam they wielding an M-16, the standard issue American soldier's rifle. have played an integral role in Vietnamese history for

120 121 M. Padmaja Vietnam Women in War during Ho chi Minh Period millenniums. As mentioned in the 1st century A.D., the Trung 4.Nguyen Thi Hoa sisters, often called Vietnam's earliest national patriots, led a The war was tough - especially because of how cruel the three-year rebellion against the Chinese Han dynasty, which American soldiers were. For example, once they visit to the ruled their country. The female legacy persists in the modern era; village and saw a pregnant woman who they thought was in all of Vietnam's recent conflicts, women have been crucial. somehow having a relationship with a Vietnamese Communist. They fought alongside men and carried heavy loads down the Ho So they poured detergent and hot chili water into her mouth, and Chi Minh Trail. stood on her belly until they forced the baby out. Yet as the historian Karen G. Turner notes in her book Even the At the time of the war, she was only 15. She knew that the war had Women Must Fight, “Women warriors, so essential to Vietnam's nothing to do with that woman and her baby. When she heard the long history and so important in the most photographed war in stories and witnessed the cruelty of the American soldiers, she history, have remained invisible.” developed great hatred toward the enemy. One woman's Following are some of the stories of women who were all soldiers sacrifice is nothing only like a grain of sand. But many women, for the North Vietnamese Army in the war against the United many grains, can contribute a lot, and those contributions can States. Most were young when they joined teenagers, barely out help the country. According to traditional Vietnamese culture, of school or too poor to attend in the first place. Some had seen the woman is dependent on three things. First, she is dependent war already, yet still had no idea what they would find this time on her father. Then when she gets married, she is dependent on around. For a few, motherhood came before they fought, while her husband's family. Whatever they say, she has to follow, even for others, it was not until after they returned home. though sometimes she gets mistreated and is beaten. If her husband dies, then she has to follow her sons. As a woman, she is 3.Le Thi My Le totally dependent on others. The war did change the position of She was born in 1946, about 150 kilometers from Hue by the Nhat women in society. After the war ended in 1975, the country tried Le River. That's why she was named as Le. It means “Beautiful.” to set a new standard for women and the women became In July 1965, she heard the appeal from the government, saying liberated more. that because the war was so fierce they needed volunteers to help. Ngo Thi Thuong She really wanted to become a youth volunteer, but she was still too young. But because they needed people, they took her She worked as a militant for the North, which was very important anyway. She was in charge of a unit with 10 people. She was the work. She had to bring rice, weapons and ammunition to the only woman. In 1968 during the cease-fire, she got married. Then soldiers in the South. One day, in June 1968, when they were she went back to she had her first child in 1971. She was afraid of transporting goods, three U.S. airplanes discovered them and death. She had two more children, one boy in 1973 and another in began to shoot at them. So they took their guns and fired back. 1975. War is cruel. Cruel. When you have a war, people and When she shot the first time, she didn't hit the plane. So she laid families are divided between husband and wife, parent and down and placed the rifle against a tree and aimed. When she shot child. Her wish was that if there is no war in the world, we can the second time, she shot right at the gas tank, and the whole help each other to lead our lives peacefully instead of fighting, airplane exploded, and crashed into the next hill. Then she saw went she said that in her message. something falling from the sky. The life of the human being is sacred. If you don't want the war, you don't want to fight, but when the enemy comes you have no choice. We had to protect our

122 123 M. Padmaja Vietnam Women in War during Ho chi Minh Period millenniums. As mentioned in the 1st century A.D., the Trung 4.Nguyen Thi Hoa sisters, often called Vietnam's earliest national patriots, led a The war was tough - especially because of how cruel the three-year rebellion against the Chinese Han dynasty, which American soldiers were. For example, once they visit to the ruled their country. The female legacy persists in the modern era; village and saw a pregnant woman who they thought was in all of Vietnam's recent conflicts, women have been crucial. somehow having a relationship with a Vietnamese Communist. They fought alongside men and carried heavy loads down the Ho So they poured detergent and hot chili water into her mouth, and Chi Minh Trail. stood on her belly until they forced the baby out. Yet as the historian Karen G. Turner notes in her book Even the At the time of the war, she was only 15. She knew that the war had Women Must Fight, “Women warriors, so essential to Vietnam's nothing to do with that woman and her baby. When she heard the long history and so important in the most photographed war in stories and witnessed the cruelty of the American soldiers, she history, have remained invisible.” developed great hatred toward the enemy. One woman's Following are some of the stories of women who were all soldiers sacrifice is nothing only like a grain of sand. But many women, for the North Vietnamese Army in the war against the United many grains, can contribute a lot, and those contributions can States. Most were young when they joined teenagers, barely out help the country. According to traditional Vietnamese culture, of school or too poor to attend in the first place. Some had seen the woman is dependent on three things. First, she is dependent war already, yet still had no idea what they would find this time on her father. Then when she gets married, she is dependent on around. For a few, motherhood came before they fought, while her husband's family. Whatever they say, she has to follow, even for others, it was not until after they returned home. though sometimes she gets mistreated and is beaten. If her husband dies, then she has to follow her sons. As a woman, she is 3.Le Thi My Le totally dependent on others. The war did change the position of She was born in 1946, about 150 kilometers from Hue by the Nhat women in society. After the war ended in 1975, the country tried Le River. That's why she was named as Le. It means “Beautiful.” to set a new standard for women and the women became In July 1965, she heard the appeal from the government, saying liberated more. that because the war was so fierce they needed volunteers to help. Ngo Thi Thuong She really wanted to become a youth volunteer, but she was still too young. But because they needed people, they took her She worked as a militant for the North, which was very important anyway. She was in charge of a unit with 10 people. She was the work. She had to bring rice, weapons and ammunition to the only woman. In 1968 during the cease-fire, she got married. Then soldiers in the South. One day, in June 1968, when they were she went back to she had her first child in 1971. She was afraid of transporting goods, three U.S. airplanes discovered them and death. She had two more children, one boy in 1973 and another in began to shoot at them. So they took their guns and fired back. 1975. War is cruel. Cruel. When you have a war, people and When she shot the first time, she didn't hit the plane. So she laid families are divided between husband and wife, parent and down and placed the rifle against a tree and aimed. When she shot child. Her wish was that if there is no war in the world, we can the second time, she shot right at the gas tank, and the whole help each other to lead our lives peacefully instead of fighting, airplane exploded, and crashed into the next hill. Then she saw went she said that in her message. something falling from the sky. The life of the human being is sacred. If you don't want the war, you don't want to fight, but when the enemy comes you have no choice. We had to protect our

122 123 M. Padmaja Vietnam Women in War during Ho chi Minh Period country, had to protect the life of our people, she said. was 20 and her son was just 6 months old her husband died. When Hoang Thi No her son was 15, he also joined in the American war with her. One day, the soldiers were taking their guns to go out to Hue, the She was born in 1949 in the countryside outside Hue. She joined American soldiers surrounded her son and shot him. She lost her the war when she was about 15 years old. At that age, she could son. Everything that she loved was gone. Many people, who understand, that the Americans had come and were trying to fought in the war, could never forgive America. But when she control and take her country. At that moment like every other joined the war, she knew everything had two sides. That loss was woman and man she too joined the war. When she joined the war, from both sides, America and Vietnam. It was 1965 when the she joined the group that they gathered information. They would American troops landed on the shores of Vietnam and began a go around and see what the Americans were doing, and then they war that would give rise to many questions back on the home would send that information to the leader. A bit later, she joined front. The main question Americans had was "why are we the group that rounded up other women to join the war. At the fighting someone else's war"? The US aided South Vietnam in time, all the women in that preventing the spread of communism from the recently group were very young, and they didn't know really about the revolutionized North Vietnam, who had broken away from their war and its plan. They just had to believe in the government, that French rule in 1955. The American government was aware of the everything would be O.K. If there were any problems, even spread of communism throughout the world, and promoted a though they didn't really know the grand plan or the next step, fear amongst Americans of its spread into the US. Americans they were always happy to be fighting for their country. They were also told that North Vietnam attacked South Vietnam and were ready to die. There were many difficulties. Everyone was was making an attempt overthrow their government (Kevin very poor, but everyone loved each other and tried to trust each Foote and Jaron Paul). other. After war she talked to her daughters about the war. She Brutally out-battled by the North Vietnamese, the US called for told them how to love and trust other people. She told them how more troops. The American government decided to have a draft people followed the laws, the rules of the government. of men between the ages of 18-26. The draft was implemented on Nguyen Thi Hiep January 1, 1970. Women were not drafted. They went as She had grown up in Hue. As parents passed away when she was volunteers, so that meant that they would not be paid. They 3 years old, she had to live with her grandparents. At that time, wanted to help out the troops the best they could, if they could not her family was such a poor rural family that when her parents got be in combat. Women could become a part of the WAVEs (Navy), sick they couldn't get medicine. In 1946, when the war with WASPs (Air Force), or WACs (Army). There were chances in France began, she was living in the small village. Many in the these fields to help out and even be paid a little bit. Women in village wanted to fight in the war, and so she joined, too. She was military service reacted to the war in different ways. Wherever 14. She didn't go to school, but when she joined the war, in the they were assigned they made it feel like home. This made it evening they taught her skills. During the French war, she made easier to deal with the horrors of the war and gave the men mines and planted them. After that, she worked to organize other something to believe in. Women also had conflicting feelings women to join the war, too. The women had anger, had pride, had about the Purple Heart medal (Awarded to US members of their health, and so they wanted to join with the soldiers to fight. Armed Force). Men were proud to receive these and liked to When she was 19, she got married and had one son. And when she show them off. Some of the women proclaimed "I want the General who gave this medal to come down here and see each

124 125 M. Padmaja Vietnam Women in War during Ho chi Minh Period country, had to protect the life of our people, she said. was 20 and her son was just 6 months old her husband died. When Hoang Thi No her son was 15, he also joined in the American war with her. One day, the soldiers were taking their guns to go out to Hue, the She was born in 1949 in the countryside outside Hue. She joined American soldiers surrounded her son and shot him. She lost her the war when she was about 15 years old. At that age, she could son. Everything that she loved was gone. Many people, who understand, that the Americans had come and were trying to fought in the war, could never forgive America. But when she control and take her country. At that moment like every other joined the war, she knew everything had two sides. That loss was woman and man she too joined the war. When she joined the war, from both sides, America and Vietnam. It was 1965 when the she joined the group that they gathered information. They would American troops landed on the shores of Vietnam and began a go around and see what the Americans were doing, and then they war that would give rise to many questions back on the home would send that information to the leader. A bit later, she joined front. The main question Americans had was "why are we the group that rounded up other women to join the war. At the fighting someone else's war"? The US aided South Vietnam in time, all the women in that preventing the spread of communism from the recently group were very young, and they didn't know really about the revolutionized North Vietnam, who had broken away from their war and its plan. They just had to believe in the government, that French rule in 1955. The American government was aware of the everything would be O.K. If there were any problems, even spread of communism throughout the world, and promoted a though they didn't really know the grand plan or the next step, fear amongst Americans of its spread into the US. Americans they were always happy to be fighting for their country. They were also told that North Vietnam attacked South Vietnam and were ready to die. There were many difficulties. Everyone was was making an attempt overthrow their government (Kevin very poor, but everyone loved each other and tried to trust each Foote and Jaron Paul). other. After war she talked to her daughters about the war. She Brutally out-battled by the North Vietnamese, the US called for told them how to love and trust other people. She told them how more troops. The American government decided to have a draft people followed the laws, the rules of the government. of men between the ages of 18-26. The draft was implemented on Nguyen Thi Hiep January 1, 1970. Women were not drafted. They went as She had grown up in Hue. As parents passed away when she was volunteers, so that meant that they would not be paid. They 3 years old, she had to live with her grandparents. At that time, wanted to help out the troops the best they could, if they could not her family was such a poor rural family that when her parents got be in combat. Women could become a part of the WAVEs (Navy), sick they couldn't get medicine. In 1946, when the war with WASPs (Air Force), or WACs (Army). There were chances in France began, she was living in the small village. Many in the these fields to help out and even be paid a little bit. Women in village wanted to fight in the war, and so she joined, too. She was military service reacted to the war in different ways. Wherever 14. She didn't go to school, but when she joined the war, in the they were assigned they made it feel like home. This made it evening they taught her skills. During the French war, she made easier to deal with the horrors of the war and gave the men mines and planted them. After that, she worked to organize other something to believe in. Women also had conflicting feelings women to join the war, too. The women had anger, had pride, had about the Purple Heart medal (Awarded to US members of their health, and so they wanted to join with the soldiers to fight. Armed Force). Men were proud to receive these and liked to When she was 19, she got married and had one son. And when she show them off. Some of the women proclaimed "I want the General who gave this medal to come down here and see each

124 125 M. Padmaja Vietnam Women in War during Ho chi Minh Period and every man who is suffering for himself", and, "a piece of metal References: cannot erase the horrific battles that the men endured". Although Douglas Pike, Viet Cong: The Organization and Techniques of the National the women who served in Vietnam did not get the fanfare as in Liberation Front of South Vietnam, (Cambridge, 1966), p. 178. WWII, they still had an amazing sense of pride. Ernest Bolt, Vietnamese Women in the War: A Review, University of Richmond, https://facultystaff.richmond.edu. Another Vietnamese woman whom Turner profiles is Ngo Thi "Female Viet Cong Warrior," http://rarehistoricalphotos.com/female-viet- Tuyen. Her heroism relates to her key role, in April 1965, in the cong-warrior1973/. supplying of Vietnamese defense of Dragon's Jaw Bridge, a key HYPERLINKhttp://www. history.com / topics/ vietnam-war/ho-chi-minh point on the Highway 1 north-south artery in Vietnam. Rebuilt and dedicated in 1964, American air attacks the next year failed to Jayne Werner, "Women, Socialism, and the Economy of Wartime North Vietnam," Studies in Comparative Communism, Vol. 16 (1981), pp.165- destroy it; it was not until 1972 that American bombing efforts 90. accomplished that goal. Ngo Thi Tuyen had helped down some of K. Raja Reddy and M. Prayaga, Vietnam Women: Past and Present, the attacking American planes on April 3 and 4, 1965. Until the Monograph No. X, (Centre for Studies on Indochina & South Pacific, Sri present day, she has been honored with badges and frequent Venkateswara University, Tirupati, 1999), p. 8. celebrations of her heroism. Turner effectively mixes and K. Raja Reddy, Vietnam: Struggle for Unification 1975-1975, (Centre for compares Vietnamese accounts and American accounts of the Studies on Indochina & South Pacific, Sri Venkateswar University, April 4 U.S. efforts -- reported as the dropping of over 300 bombs. Tirupati, 1999), pp. 115-116. She concludes that this was one of the frequent tests of wills Kevin Foote and Jaron Paul, "Vietnam Women Veterans Stories from (Dr. Ernest Bolt). Vietnam Women Veterans Living in the East Valley," as told by CGCC Students in partnership with Chandler Museum's Public History Conclusion Program. The status of women in early Vietnamese society was equal to Lady Borton, Ho Chi Minh: A Journey, (The Gioi, Hanoi, 2009), p.7. men. Women are very brave in Vietnam. Women were present Mai Luan Dac Xuan and Tran Dan Tien, Ho Chi Minh: From Childhood to everywhere, in the jungle guerrilla warfare, in city President of Viet Nam, (The Gioi, Hanoi, 2005), p.110. demonstrations, in factories, in manning the coastal defence guns Mai Thi Tu, "The Vietnames Women: Yesterday and Today," Vietnamese and defusing bombs. Vietnam women played a key role in war Studies, No. 10, (Hanoi, 1966), p. 149. during Ho Chi Minh period in response to the Three Marc Jason Gilbert, "When Heroism is Not Enough: Three Women Warriors Responsibilities' programme, women replaced men in many of Vietnam, Their Historians and World History," World History areas so as to freely allow the latter to engage in the war, in the Connected , Vol. 4, Issue 3., http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois. edu/4.3/gilbert.html. fields, women held plough or hammer with one hand, rifle in the other to position themselves against enemy attacks. Stories of Pham Xanh, Ho Chi Minh: The Nation and the Times 1911-1946, (The Gioi, Hanoi, 2008), p.189. women's bravery were rich in the Vietnam War's history. Nurses witnessed the bravery of Vietnam women when their stay on Sandra C. Taylor, Vietnamese Women at War: Fighting for Ho Chi Minh and t h e R e v o l u t i o n , L a w r e n c e : ( H Y P E R L I N K board Navy ships to care for the wounded that were flown in from "http://www.kansaspress.ku.edu/"University Press of Kansas, 1999). the battle front. Vietnam women case studies are excellent William J. Duiker, Ho Chi Minh, (Hyperion, New York, 2000), pp. 17-18. landmark for their braveness and stands forever and ever in " W o m e n i n t h e V i e t n a m W a r , " 2 0 1 1 , history. http://www.history.com/topics/vietnam-war/women-in-the- vietnam-war/print.

126 127 M. Padmaja Vietnam Women in War during Ho chi Minh Period and every man who is suffering for himself", and, "a piece of metal References: cannot erase the horrific battles that the men endured". Although Douglas Pike, Viet Cong: The Organization and Techniques of the National the women who served in Vietnam did not get the fanfare as in Liberation Front of South Vietnam, (Cambridge, 1966), p. 178. WWII, they still had an amazing sense of pride. Ernest Bolt, Vietnamese Women in the War: A Review, University of Richmond, https://facultystaff.richmond.edu. Another Vietnamese woman whom Turner profiles is Ngo Thi "Female Viet Cong Warrior," http://rarehistoricalphotos.com/female-viet- Tuyen. Her heroism relates to her key role, in April 1965, in the cong-warrior1973/. supplying of Vietnamese defense of Dragon's Jaw Bridge, a key HYPERLINKhttp://www. history.com / topics/ vietnam-war/ho-chi-minh point on the Highway 1 north-south artery in Vietnam. Rebuilt and dedicated in 1964, American air attacks the next year failed to Jayne Werner, "Women, Socialism, and the Economy of Wartime North Vietnam," Studies in Comparative Communism, Vol. 16 (1981), pp.165- destroy it; it was not until 1972 that American bombing efforts 90. accomplished that goal. Ngo Thi Tuyen had helped down some of K. Raja Reddy and M. Prayaga, Vietnam Women: Past and Present, the attacking American planes on April 3 and 4, 1965. Until the Monograph No. X, (Centre for Studies on Indochina & South Pacific, Sri present day, she has been honored with badges and frequent Venkateswara University, Tirupati, 1999), p. 8. celebrations of her heroism. Turner effectively mixes and K. Raja Reddy, Vietnam: Struggle for Unification 1975-1975, (Centre for compares Vietnamese accounts and American accounts of the Studies on Indochina & South Pacific, Sri Venkateswar University, April 4 U.S. efforts -- reported as the dropping of over 300 bombs. Tirupati, 1999), pp. 115-116. She concludes that this was one of the frequent tests of wills Kevin Foote and Jaron Paul, "Vietnam Women Veterans Stories from (Dr. Ernest Bolt). Vietnam Women Veterans Living in the East Valley," as told by CGCC Students in partnership with Chandler Museum's Public History Conclusion Program. The status of women in early Vietnamese society was equal to Lady Borton, Ho Chi Minh: A Journey, (The Gioi, Hanoi, 2009), p.7. men. Women are very brave in Vietnam. Women were present Mai Luan Dac Xuan and Tran Dan Tien, Ho Chi Minh: From Childhood to everywhere, in the jungle guerrilla warfare, in city President of Viet Nam, (The Gioi, Hanoi, 2005), p.110. demonstrations, in factories, in manning the coastal defence guns Mai Thi Tu, "The Vietnames Women: Yesterday and Today," Vietnamese and defusing bombs. Vietnam women played a key role in war Studies, No. 10, (Hanoi, 1966), p. 149. during Ho Chi Minh period in response to the Three Marc Jason Gilbert, "When Heroism is Not Enough: Three Women Warriors Responsibilities' programme, women replaced men in many of Vietnam, Their Historians and World History," World History areas so as to freely allow the latter to engage in the war, in the Connected , Vol. 4, Issue 3., http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois. edu/4.3/gilbert.html. fields, women held plough or hammer with one hand, rifle in the other to position themselves against enemy attacks. Stories of Pham Xanh, Ho Chi Minh: The Nation and the Times 1911-1946, (The Gioi, Hanoi, 2008), p.189. women's bravery were rich in the Vietnam War's history. Nurses witnessed the bravery of Vietnam women when their stay on Sandra C. Taylor, Vietnamese Women at War: Fighting for Ho Chi Minh and t h e R e v o l u t i o n , L a w r e n c e : ( H Y P E R L I N K board Navy ships to care for the wounded that were flown in from "http://www.kansaspress.ku.edu/"University Press of Kansas, 1999). the battle front. Vietnam women case studies are excellent William J. Duiker, Ho Chi Minh, (Hyperion, New York, 2000), pp. 17-18. landmark for their braveness and stands forever and ever in " W o m e n i n t h e V i e t n a m W a r , " 2 0 1 1 , history. http://www.history.com/topics/vietnam-war/women-in-the- vietnam-war/print.

126 127 India-Vietnam Relations: Closer Ties would Strengthen Partnership India-Vietnam Relations: Closer Ties would Strengthen Partnership had their own fiefdoms in Vietnam -- dominated the Vietnamese and crushed their resistance. In the 18th century, came the French Shastri Ramachandaran occupation. Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia were forcibly merged Editor & Writer with leading newspapers in India and abroad and an independent to make up an administrative entity called Indo-China. That was foreign affairs commentator with special focus on Asia and the neighbourhood the beginning of the long struggle against French colonialism. Email: [email protected] During World War II, Japan defeated France and occupied Indo- China. After the War, the French came back and once again occupied Vietnam. Relations between India and Vietnam have a long history, a Shared history of anti-imperialism history that predates their emergence as nation states. Long In the 20th century, leaders of the Indian freedom struggle closely before the two came together in the 20th century on the basis of followed developments in Vietnam and in other countries that common interests - fighting colonialism and imperialism, were fighting colonial oppression. Indian and Vietnamese independent foreign policy and non-alignment - they had been nationalists united in the common cause of liberating their joined by cultural and religious commonalities. peoples from the yoke of colonialism -- were at the forefront of Civilisational Partner independence struggles in Asia. Jawaharlal Nehru and other leading figures of India's freedom struggle were known to have The Hindu Kingdom of Cham Pa that existed along the southern been in contact with Vietnam's revolutionary leader Ho Chi Minh and central coast of Vietnam from the 7th to 18th century had as early as 1927. trade relations with India. People from present-day Orissa travelled to Vietnam and settled there. There occurred the Vietnam's national liberation movement, and its army, led by the inevitable mingling of cultural practices, traditions, religions, Communists, fought against the French who were finally language, customs, and beliefs. This was followed by cultural defeated in 1954. An agreement was signed, which recognised exchanges between this Vietnamese civilisation and India. India- North Vietnam as an independent country and placed South Vietnamese religious interactions, too, began in the time of the Vietnam under French protection for a year, after which elections Cham civilisation. Buddhism, one of the three major religions of were to be held throughout Vietnam. However, France, Vietnam, is common to both countries, and as late as the 19th supported by the US, violated the agreement. They set up a century there was migration from India to Hanoi. puppet government in South Vietnam, which refused to hold elections. Emboldened by the victory of the Allied Forces in (The religious ties between India and Vietnam remain relevant World War II, the US set out on its new, self-appointed mission to even today, in the context of heritage. For example, the visit of check Communist influence in Asia. It replaced France as the Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung to India in October 2015 saw protector of South Vietnam's puppet regime and brought in the the signing of a memorandum for the Conservation and US army to fight what turned out to be its biggest war on foreign Restoration of the World Heritage Site of My Son -- the Hindu soil. temples built in the time of Cham Pa). At this juncture, India had an important role in Indochina, where Vietnam's heroic people, who overcame the US military it had the responsibility to oversee the withdrawal of French onslaught and stood up to the Chinese army, are heir to a proud forces and the conduct of the proposed elections, besides helping civilisation. For over a thousand years, China's warlords who to separate the rival forces and managing refugees. Throughout

128 129 India-Vietnam Relations: Closer Ties would Strengthen Partnership India-Vietnam Relations: Closer Ties would Strengthen Partnership had their own fiefdoms in Vietnam -- dominated the Vietnamese and crushed their resistance. In the 18th century, came the French Shastri Ramachandaran occupation. Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia were forcibly merged Editor & Writer with leading newspapers in India and abroad and an independent to make up an administrative entity called Indo-China. That was foreign affairs commentator with special focus on Asia and the neighbourhood the beginning of the long struggle against French colonialism. Email: [email protected] During World War II, Japan defeated France and occupied Indo- China. After the War, the French came back and once again occupied Vietnam. Relations between India and Vietnam have a long history, a Shared history of anti-imperialism history that predates their emergence as nation states. Long In the 20th century, leaders of the Indian freedom struggle closely before the two came together in the 20th century on the basis of followed developments in Vietnam and in other countries that common interests - fighting colonialism and imperialism, were fighting colonial oppression. Indian and Vietnamese independent foreign policy and non-alignment - they had been nationalists united in the common cause of liberating their joined by cultural and religious commonalities. peoples from the yoke of colonialism -- were at the forefront of Civilisational Partner independence struggles in Asia. Jawaharlal Nehru and other leading figures of India's freedom struggle were known to have The Hindu Kingdom of Cham Pa that existed along the southern been in contact with Vietnam's revolutionary leader Ho Chi Minh and central coast of Vietnam from the 7th to 18th century had as early as 1927. trade relations with India. People from present-day Orissa travelled to Vietnam and settled there. There occurred the Vietnam's national liberation movement, and its army, led by the inevitable mingling of cultural practices, traditions, religions, Communists, fought against the French who were finally language, customs, and beliefs. This was followed by cultural defeated in 1954. An agreement was signed, which recognised exchanges between this Vietnamese civilisation and India. India- North Vietnam as an independent country and placed South Vietnamese religious interactions, too, began in the time of the Vietnam under French protection for a year, after which elections Cham civilisation. Buddhism, one of the three major religions of were to be held throughout Vietnam. However, France, Vietnam, is common to both countries, and as late as the 19th supported by the US, violated the agreement. They set up a century there was migration from India to Hanoi. puppet government in South Vietnam, which refused to hold elections. Emboldened by the victory of the Allied Forces in (The religious ties between India and Vietnam remain relevant World War II, the US set out on its new, self-appointed mission to even today, in the context of heritage. For example, the visit of check Communist influence in Asia. It replaced France as the Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung to India in October 2015 saw protector of South Vietnam's puppet regime and brought in the the signing of a memorandum for the Conservation and US army to fight what turned out to be its biggest war on foreign Restoration of the World Heritage Site of My Son -- the Hindu soil. temples built in the time of Cham Pa). At this juncture, India had an important role in Indochina, where Vietnam's heroic people, who overcame the US military it had the responsibility to oversee the withdrawal of French onslaught and stood up to the Chinese army, are heir to a proud forces and the conduct of the proposed elections, besides helping civilisation. For over a thousand years, China's warlords who to separate the rival forces and managing refugees. Throughout

128 129 Shastri Ramachandaran India-Vietnam Relations: Closer Ties would Strengthen Partnership the 1950s, India supported North Vietnam and this bond deception during the 1971 war against Pakistan. Similarly, both reinforced the principles of pan-Asian nationalism. have suffered a military defeat at the hands of China: India in 1962 The US invasion saw more than 500,000 soldiers being brought in and Vietnam in 1979. to crush the Vietnamese people, their indomitable spirit and their (However, Vietnam enjoys the unique global distinction of struggle for independence. The military campaign was also an humbling the US at the height of its political, economic and ideological war against socialism and the leadership of Ho Chi military superiority and also giving China a “bloody nose”). Minh. Yet, for all its military might, the US failed and its own Since the 1976 reunification of North and South Vietnam at the people rose in protest against US imperialism's war in Vietnam. end of the war, India and Vietnam have continued to draw closer, Vietnam had the support of the whole world, except that of the including on the Non-Aligned Movement's principles, and imperialists and their followers. As the struggle continued, the US pursued new areas of cooperation. Bilateral relations have been military forces unleashed every weapon and every form of multifaceted. Hanoi was one of the first to support India as a chemical warfare against Vietnam. Yet Vietnam succeeded in nuclear weapons state and its bid for a UN Security Council seat. defeating the mighty army of the world's strongest imperialist It supports the position of Kashmir being an integral part of India; force of the time. The US army was forced to withdraw from and, for its own reasons, aborted Pakistan's bid for ASEAN Vietnam and Saigon was liberated on April 30, 1975. It was a great membership, which New Delhi welcomed. Beyond the strategic liberation struggle and the land is soaked with the blood of and political, Indian expertise and equipment for a rice research martyrs. More than three million Vietnamese perished in US institute in 1977 enabled Vietnam's emergence as a leading rice imperialism's dirtiest war. Hence the term 'Heroic Vietnam', an exporter. In the decades since then, beyond capacity building, abiding inspiration to all oppressed peoples. there has been cooperation in a range of sectors such as technical, economic, information technology, forensics and defence. India India-Vietnam move closer has also offered expertise in development of infrastructure, Ho Chi Minh, the liberation hero who was Vietnam's President engineering, transport and power generation projects. for 15 years until 1969, remains an iconic figure for many Indians and millions across the world as a symbol of anti-imperialism, Despite commonalities and shared interests, India and Vietnam anti-colonialism, freedom and, above all, the triumph of the are ideologically and politically poles apart. India has travelled human spirit over military might. far from its socialistic roots, while Vietnam remains a socialist state under a Communist Party. Bilateral exchanges were neither India's support to the Vietnamese struggle against US military so frequent nor conspicuous during the long years of the Non- aggression and the principles that drew India and Vietnam close Aligned Movement. Bilateral cooperation, however, continued. are well known. Yet these deserve mention here, in these times, Although there were mutual exchanges, meetings, agreements for the record and as a reminder that imperialist 'wars' continue, and memoranda, high-level visits were few and far between. albeit in new and non-military, but also military, forms to subdue Perhaps, it was not felt to be necessary, given that there were no and subjugate the peoples of the southern nations. discordant notes or unresolved issues. New Delhi and Hanoi met For its part, Vietnam has stood by India, whenever it was faced on international platforms and forums and took common with a military conflict, be it in 1971 or 1998. While Vietnam was positions on global and regional issues including peace, the victim of a US war, India was a victim of US duplicity and disarmament and economic development.

130 131 Shastri Ramachandaran India-Vietnam Relations: Closer Ties would Strengthen Partnership the 1950s, India supported North Vietnam and this bond deception during the 1971 war against Pakistan. Similarly, both reinforced the principles of pan-Asian nationalism. have suffered a military defeat at the hands of China: India in 1962 The US invasion saw more than 500,000 soldiers being brought in and Vietnam in 1979. to crush the Vietnamese people, their indomitable spirit and their (However, Vietnam enjoys the unique global distinction of struggle for independence. The military campaign was also an humbling the US at the height of its political, economic and ideological war against socialism and the leadership of Ho Chi military superiority and also giving China a “bloody nose”). Minh. Yet, for all its military might, the US failed and its own Since the 1976 reunification of North and South Vietnam at the people rose in protest against US imperialism's war in Vietnam. end of the war, India and Vietnam have continued to draw closer, Vietnam had the support of the whole world, except that of the including on the Non-Aligned Movement's principles, and imperialists and their followers. As the struggle continued, the US pursued new areas of cooperation. Bilateral relations have been military forces unleashed every weapon and every form of multifaceted. Hanoi was one of the first to support India as a chemical warfare against Vietnam. Yet Vietnam succeeded in nuclear weapons state and its bid for a UN Security Council seat. defeating the mighty army of the world's strongest imperialist It supports the position of Kashmir being an integral part of India; force of the time. The US army was forced to withdraw from and, for its own reasons, aborted Pakistan's bid for ASEAN Vietnam and Saigon was liberated on April 30, 1975. It was a great membership, which New Delhi welcomed. Beyond the strategic liberation struggle and the land is soaked with the blood of and political, Indian expertise and equipment for a rice research martyrs. More than three million Vietnamese perished in US institute in 1977 enabled Vietnam's emergence as a leading rice imperialism's dirtiest war. Hence the term 'Heroic Vietnam', an exporter. In the decades since then, beyond capacity building, abiding inspiration to all oppressed peoples. there has been cooperation in a range of sectors such as technical, economic, information technology, forensics and defence. India India-Vietnam move closer has also offered expertise in development of infrastructure, Ho Chi Minh, the liberation hero who was Vietnam's President engineering, transport and power generation projects. for 15 years until 1969, remains an iconic figure for many Indians and millions across the world as a symbol of anti-imperialism, Despite commonalities and shared interests, India and Vietnam anti-colonialism, freedom and, above all, the triumph of the are ideologically and politically poles apart. India has travelled human spirit over military might. far from its socialistic roots, while Vietnam remains a socialist state under a Communist Party. Bilateral exchanges were neither India's support to the Vietnamese struggle against US military so frequent nor conspicuous during the long years of the Non- aggression and the principles that drew India and Vietnam close Aligned Movement. Bilateral cooperation, however, continued. are well known. Yet these deserve mention here, in these times, Although there were mutual exchanges, meetings, agreements for the record and as a reminder that imperialist 'wars' continue, and memoranda, high-level visits were few and far between. albeit in new and non-military, but also military, forms to subdue Perhaps, it was not felt to be necessary, given that there were no and subjugate the peoples of the southern nations. discordant notes or unresolved issues. New Delhi and Hanoi met For its part, Vietnam has stood by India, whenever it was faced on international platforms and forums and took common with a military conflict, be it in 1971 or 1998. While Vietnam was positions on global and regional issues including peace, the victim of a US war, India was a victim of US duplicity and disarmament and economic development.

130 131 Shastri Ramachandaran India-Vietnam Relations: Closer Ties would Strengthen Partnership

Strategic Shifts in Tandem came high-profile visits in quick succession: External Affairs This trend began changing when India and Vietnam set out to Minister Sushma Swaraj's visit in August 2014; followed by that of find their place in the global economy and accordingly re-aligned President Pranab Mukherjee in September 2014; and, in return, their strategic interests. Vietnamese Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung came to India on a state visit in October 2014. Vietnam struck out on a course of economic reforms in the mid- 1980s, while India did so in the early 1990s, under Prime Minister During these visits, a series of agreements across a range of P V Narasimha Rao, who also launched the Look East Policy sectors was signed. The decks were cleared for direct India- (LEP). An early LEP outcome was The India-Vietnam Joint Vietnam flights (from November), the minimum required for “for Declaration on the Framework of Comprehensive Cooperation in greater people-to-people contact and…. improved connectivity 2003. In 2007, the two countries signed a Strategic Partnership within the region,” which Swaraj had stressed in her address to Agreement. the Third Round Table on ASEAN-India Network of Think-tanks in Hanoi. These agreements underscore the perception that closer ties would be mutually beneficial, particularly in the strategic sense of President Mukherjee's four-day state visit saw the signing of dealing with China's bid to assert itself in the South China Sea seven agreements including the one for direct flights, oil and, at the same time, pursuing energy explorations in these exploration and $ 100-million line of credit for defence purchases. contentious waters. At a broader level, Vietnam sees India as a A joint communique said that Mukherjee and Vietnamese balancing power with which it may align to ward off pressures President Truong Tan Sang agreed to strengthen and deepen from not only China but also the US and Russia. In dealing with bilateral cooperation on the basis of the Strategic Partnership with China, Hanoi does not want to willy-nilly be drawn into the focus on political, defence and security cooperation; economic games of the US and its regional allies in the South China Sea. cooperation, science and technology; culture and people-to- people links; technical cooperation; and, multilateral and regional With strategic and energy security concerns in focus, more high- cooperation. In their view, defence and security cooperation was level visits were called for. President Pratibha Patil's visit in 2008 an important pillar of the strategic partnership. (the first by a President after R Venkataraman's in 1991) started a trend of increased interactions, which continues despite political Prime Minister Narendra Modi and his Vietnamese counterpart changes. The third major bilateral agreement was in 2011 for joint Nguyen Tan Dung signed seven more agreements during the oil and gas exploration, which implies mutual convergence of latter's visit to New Delhi. Much of the media coverage was about strategic and (energy) security objectives. the South China Sea, energy cooperation, security, defence and trade all of which have become central to bilateral ties; while five Since then there have been more frequent interactions to focus on deals on culture, religion, education and media emphasised the hard core issues going beyond economic cooperation and trade to role of soft power. defence, strategic partnership and energy security as well as to develop the soft power aspects of cultural, social and religious Look East to Act East: Energy, Economy & Defence ties. There was a Festival of India in Vietnam in March 2014. Taken together these three high-level meetings sharpened the After the change of government, Narasimha Rao's Look East focus on three key sectors, viz. Energy, Economy and Defence Policy of 1992 was re-labelled as Act East Policy in 2014. Then (Security), which are considered crucial for the transformation of India's policy from Look East to Act East.

132 133 Shastri Ramachandaran India-Vietnam Relations: Closer Ties would Strengthen Partnership

Strategic Shifts in Tandem came high-profile visits in quick succession: External Affairs This trend began changing when India and Vietnam set out to Minister Sushma Swaraj's visit in August 2014; followed by that of find their place in the global economy and accordingly re-aligned President Pranab Mukherjee in September 2014; and, in return, their strategic interests. Vietnamese Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung came to India on a state visit in October 2014. Vietnam struck out on a course of economic reforms in the mid- 1980s, while India did so in the early 1990s, under Prime Minister During these visits, a series of agreements across a range of P V Narasimha Rao, who also launched the Look East Policy sectors was signed. The decks were cleared for direct India- (LEP). An early LEP outcome was The India-Vietnam Joint Vietnam flights (from November), the minimum required for “for Declaration on the Framework of Comprehensive Cooperation in greater people-to-people contact and…. improved connectivity 2003. In 2007, the two countries signed a Strategic Partnership within the region,” which Swaraj had stressed in her address to Agreement. the Third Round Table on ASEAN-India Network of Think-tanks in Hanoi. These agreements underscore the perception that closer ties would be mutually beneficial, particularly in the strategic sense of President Mukherjee's four-day state visit saw the signing of dealing with China's bid to assert itself in the South China Sea seven agreements including the one for direct flights, oil and, at the same time, pursuing energy explorations in these exploration and $ 100-million line of credit for defence purchases. contentious waters. At a broader level, Vietnam sees India as a A joint communique said that Mukherjee and Vietnamese balancing power with which it may align to ward off pressures President Truong Tan Sang agreed to strengthen and deepen from not only China but also the US and Russia. In dealing with bilateral cooperation on the basis of the Strategic Partnership with China, Hanoi does not want to willy-nilly be drawn into the focus on political, defence and security cooperation; economic games of the US and its regional allies in the South China Sea. cooperation, science and technology; culture and people-to- people links; technical cooperation; and, multilateral and regional With strategic and energy security concerns in focus, more high- cooperation. In their view, defence and security cooperation was level visits were called for. President Pratibha Patil's visit in 2008 an important pillar of the strategic partnership. (the first by a President after R Venkataraman's in 1991) started a trend of increased interactions, which continues despite political Prime Minister Narendra Modi and his Vietnamese counterpart changes. The third major bilateral agreement was in 2011 for joint Nguyen Tan Dung signed seven more agreements during the oil and gas exploration, which implies mutual convergence of latter's visit to New Delhi. Much of the media coverage was about strategic and (energy) security objectives. the South China Sea, energy cooperation, security, defence and trade all of which have become central to bilateral ties; while five Since then there have been more frequent interactions to focus on deals on culture, religion, education and media emphasised the hard core issues going beyond economic cooperation and trade to role of soft power. defence, strategic partnership and energy security as well as to develop the soft power aspects of cultural, social and religious Look East to Act East: Energy, Economy & Defence ties. There was a Festival of India in Vietnam in March 2014. Taken together these three high-level meetings sharpened the After the change of government, Narasimha Rao's Look East focus on three key sectors, viz. Energy, Economy and Defence Policy of 1992 was re-labelled as Act East Policy in 2014. Then (Security), which are considered crucial for the transformation of India's policy from Look East to Act East.

132 133 Shastri Ramachandaran India-Vietnam Relations: Closer Ties would Strengthen Partnership

Energy cooperation has played a crucial role in strengthening stronger partnership resting on multiple pillars could be of India-Vietnam relations. India's ONGC Videsh currently holds greater strategic advantage to both New Delhi and Hanoi in the two assets (blocks) in Vietnam and has invested over $ 400 million emerging situation in East and South East Asia whereas China has spent close to $ 1 billion. In 2012, New Delhi Conclusion had to give up exploration because of technical difficulties in one block. Vietnam gave another seven blocks without a competitive Developments in the South China Sea, including Chinese claims bid during Secretary General Nguyen Phu Trong's visit to India in that are contested by India and Vietnam (among others), have November 2013. During her talks with the Vietnamese Prime added new, urgent and strategic dimensions to bilateral energy Minister, Swaraj reiterated India's commitment to expand energy cooperation. Both countries are long-time partners in oil cooperation. This is to drive home the point that India remains exploration; and, energy security, more than anything else, has undeterred by China's open opposition, since 2012, to India's prioritised the position of Vietnam in India's scheme of things. involvement and would persist in protecting its strategic interests Both India and Vietnam are wary of being goaded into a conflict in the region. with China on the South China Sea issue by the US or its East More than any other aspect, economic relations between India Asian allies. The two countries are also reluctant to let their and Vietnam have been growing stronger, expanding to new responses and positions become hostage to the ups and downs of areas and increasing in volume. Swaraj has pointed out that US-China relations, which are not predictable. Both India and economic cooperation offers immense potential to boost ties and Vietnam are opposed to big power games in the region as well as said that trade could be tripled. Indian firms are said to be hegemons. India and Vietnam are more interested in ensuring interested in investing in large infrastructure projects of Vietnam. that China adheres to the terms of the UNCLOS (United Nations Despite the growing India-Vietnam synergy, India has just about Convention on the Law of the Sea) than be drawn into the China- $ 250 million worth of projects in Vietnam. China is the biggest US games especially as it would be easy to be swept into the US investor in Vietnam and its biggest trade partner with turnover camp at this juncture. exceeding $ 50 billion. Although India-Vietnam trade is Both India and Vietnam have common problems of having to go increasing, it is about $ 8 billion and even for 2020 has a target of in for economic reforms because there is no support for the only $ 15 billion. As of now, bilateral trade with Vietnam is just economic and developmental models they had pursued in the about one per cent of India's total trade. past. Both need huge investments for infrastructure and big-ticket Defence cooperation is an area in which India is keen to partner projects. Both countries are facing an agricultural crisis where the Vietnam. Swaraj said so openly during her visit in August 2014. growth rate is low if not negative. Her session with Indian heads of mission in South East and East Given these political, strategic and economic challenges, there is Asia dealt with security issues in the region such as China's tremendous scope for greater cooperation, for coming closer and presence in the South China Sea. Although India is not involved deepening the relationship for mutually rewarding outcomes on in the South China Sea dispute, it wants freedom and security of both hard and soft power issues. navigation, maritime safety and access to oil in the region. Besides Initiatives to enhance people to people contact are very much a common interest here, there are bilateral military agreements needed. Tourism could help in view of the fact that cultural relating to defence hardware (spares for Russian equipment), relations and similarities between the two countries are more than training, and technical support particularly to Vietnam's navy. A

134 135 Shastri Ramachandaran India-Vietnam Relations: Closer Ties would Strengthen Partnership

Energy cooperation has played a crucial role in strengthening stronger partnership resting on multiple pillars could be of India-Vietnam relations. India's ONGC Videsh currently holds greater strategic advantage to both New Delhi and Hanoi in the two assets (blocks) in Vietnam and has invested over $ 400 million emerging situation in East and South East Asia whereas China has spent close to $ 1 billion. In 2012, New Delhi Conclusion had to give up exploration because of technical difficulties in one block. Vietnam gave another seven blocks without a competitive Developments in the South China Sea, including Chinese claims bid during Secretary General Nguyen Phu Trong's visit to India in that are contested by India and Vietnam (among others), have November 2013. During her talks with the Vietnamese Prime added new, urgent and strategic dimensions to bilateral energy Minister, Swaraj reiterated India's commitment to expand energy cooperation. Both countries are long-time partners in oil cooperation. This is to drive home the point that India remains exploration; and, energy security, more than anything else, has undeterred by China's open opposition, since 2012, to India's prioritised the position of Vietnam in India's scheme of things. involvement and would persist in protecting its strategic interests Both India and Vietnam are wary of being goaded into a conflict in the region. with China on the South China Sea issue by the US or its East More than any other aspect, economic relations between India Asian allies. The two countries are also reluctant to let their and Vietnam have been growing stronger, expanding to new responses and positions become hostage to the ups and downs of areas and increasing in volume. Swaraj has pointed out that US-China relations, which are not predictable. Both India and economic cooperation offers immense potential to boost ties and Vietnam are opposed to big power games in the region as well as said that trade could be tripled. Indian firms are said to be hegemons. India and Vietnam are more interested in ensuring interested in investing in large infrastructure projects of Vietnam. that China adheres to the terms of the UNCLOS (United Nations Despite the growing India-Vietnam synergy, India has just about Convention on the Law of the Sea) than be drawn into the China- $ 250 million worth of projects in Vietnam. China is the biggest US games especially as it would be easy to be swept into the US investor in Vietnam and its biggest trade partner with turnover camp at this juncture. exceeding $ 50 billion. Although India-Vietnam trade is Both India and Vietnam have common problems of having to go increasing, it is about $ 8 billion and even for 2020 has a target of in for economic reforms because there is no support for the only $ 15 billion. As of now, bilateral trade with Vietnam is just economic and developmental models they had pursued in the about one per cent of India's total trade. past. Both need huge investments for infrastructure and big-ticket Defence cooperation is an area in which India is keen to partner projects. Both countries are facing an agricultural crisis where the Vietnam. Swaraj said so openly during her visit in August 2014. growth rate is low if not negative. Her session with Indian heads of mission in South East and East Given these political, strategic and economic challenges, there is Asia dealt with security issues in the region such as China's tremendous scope for greater cooperation, for coming closer and presence in the South China Sea. Although India is not involved deepening the relationship for mutually rewarding outcomes on in the South China Sea dispute, it wants freedom and security of both hard and soft power issues. navigation, maritime safety and access to oil in the region. Besides Initiatives to enhance people to people contact are very much a common interest here, there are bilateral military agreements needed. Tourism could help in view of the fact that cultural relating to defence hardware (spares for Russian equipment), relations and similarities between the two countries are more than training, and technical support particularly to Vietnam's navy. A

134 135 Shastri Ramachandaran India-Vietnam Relations: Closer Ties would Strengthen Partnership a thousand years old. With a large population of Buddhists, and Indo-Asian News Service: 2014; India, Vietnam sign seven agreements during places of Buddhist interest in India could become major religious President Pranab's visit. September 15, 2014 http://www.firstpost.com and tourist attractions for the Vietnamese. Being multi-ethnic /world/india-vietnam-sign-seven-agreements-president-pranabs- visit-1713121.html societies, both India and Vietnam can learn from each other's experience in tackling problems of ethnic unrest. International Strategic and Security Studies Programme: 2014; India Vietnam Cooperation: Implementing India's Act East Policy; ISSSP Reflections no. 20; A lot more can be done to bring about a powerful India-Vietnam International Strategic and Security Studies Programme. Posted By partnership for not only military and strategic cooperation, but ISSSP On September 12, 2014 also cultural exchanges and economic transactions. To actualize a Ministry of External Affairs: 2013; India-Vietnam Relations; Government of broader and deeper engagement India and Vietnam must ensure India. http://www.mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/Vietnam that the initiatives taken during the President Mukherjee's visit _Dec_2013.pdf are taken forward through substantive follow-up measures for Mishra, R,: 2008; India - Vietnam: So Close Yet So Far; Articles, Centre for sustainable, long-term outcomes. Land Warfare Studies CLAWS), New Delhi. December 23, 2008 http://www.claws.in/139/india-vietnam-so-close-yet-so-far-rahul- mishra.html#sthash.LSTwYgH4.dpuf Prasad, K. K; Mullen, D. R.: 2013; India - Vietnam Relations: Deepening Bilateral Ties for Mutual Benefit; Centre for Research Policy; New Delhi, India. Aug Bibliography 05, 2013 All India Kisan Sabha: 2013; Report of All India Kisan Sabha delegation that Reddy, S., S.: 2010; Red Salute, Vietnam; New Age Weekly. 25th May 2010. visited Vietnam in 2013. Published by New Age in January 2013. Posted http://www.newageweekly.com/2010/05/red-salute-vietnam-by- online by Tatipaka Premchand on Jan 18, 2013. http://www.new suravaram.html ageweekly.com/2013/01/reconstruction-in-vietnam.html Sharma, G.: 2004; India Vietnam Relations: First to Twenty First Century; Bhatia, R. K.; Sakhuja,V.; Ranjan, V (Ed): 2013; India Vietnam: Agenda for Dialogue Society, Kolkata Strengthening Partnership; Shipra Publications, Delhi, India. Sharma, G.; Prakashan, R.: 2010; Traces of Indian Culture in Vietnam; Rajkamal Blank, S.: 2005; Natural Allies: Regional Security in Asia and Prospects for Indo- Prakashan American Strategic Cooperation. DIANE Publishing, Pennsylvania, US The Hindu: 2007:Vietnam favours FTA with India. July 7, 2007 Brewster, D.: 2013; Chapter on 'Indochina: India's political partnership with The Hindu Business Line: 2007; Vietnam PM urges greater trade ties with Vietnam' in the book India as an Asia Pacific Power, Routledge. India. July 7, 2007 Chauhan, S.: 2014; Selling “Brand India” in Vietnam; The Diplomat Magazine. Thayer, C.: 2014; Can Vietnam's Maritime Strategy Counter China? The http://thediplomat.com/2014/11/selling-brand-india-in-vietnam/ Diplomat. September 29, 2014. http://thediplomat.com/2014/09/can- Frost, F.:1993; Vietnam's Foreign Relations: Dynamics of Change; Institute of vietnams-maritime-strategy-counter-china/ Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore (Publisher). The Times of India: 2008; India, Vietnam sign MoU or bilateral cooperation Haidar, S.: 2014; India-Vietnam naval ties to deepen strategic partnership; on security. March 24, 2008 The Hindu October 28, 2014. The Times of India: 2011; Vietnam counters Chinese aggression. September Katoch, P.: 2014; Danger at Sea. Articles, Centre for Land Warfare Studies 2, 2011 (CLAWS), New Delhi. June 6, 2014. http://www.claws.in/1208/ Vietnam News Agency: 2013; Vietnam among pillars of India's “Look East” danger-at-sea-prakash%20katoch.html policy. 18 November 2013. english.vietnamnet.vn

136 137 Shastri Ramachandaran India-Vietnam Relations: Closer Ties would Strengthen Partnership a thousand years old. With a large population of Buddhists, and Indo-Asian News Service: 2014; India, Vietnam sign seven agreements during places of Buddhist interest in India could become major religious President Pranab's visit. September 15, 2014 http://www.firstpost.com and tourist attractions for the Vietnamese. Being multi-ethnic /world/india-vietnam-sign-seven-agreements-president-pranabs- visit-1713121.html societies, both India and Vietnam can learn from each other's experience in tackling problems of ethnic unrest. International Strategic and Security Studies Programme: 2014; India Vietnam Cooperation: Implementing India's Act East Policy; ISSSP Reflections no. 20; A lot more can be done to bring about a powerful India-Vietnam International Strategic and Security Studies Programme. Posted By partnership for not only military and strategic cooperation, but ISSSP On September 12, 2014 also cultural exchanges and economic transactions. To actualize a Ministry of External Affairs: 2013; India-Vietnam Relations; Government of broader and deeper engagement India and Vietnam must ensure India. http://www.mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/Vietnam that the initiatives taken during the President Mukherjee's visit _Dec_2013.pdf are taken forward through substantive follow-up measures for Mishra, R,: 2008; India - Vietnam: So Close Yet So Far; Articles, Centre for sustainable, long-term outcomes. Land Warfare Studies CLAWS), New Delhi. December 23, 2008 http://www.claws.in/139/india-vietnam-so-close-yet-so-far-rahul- mishra.html#sthash.LSTwYgH4.dpuf Prasad, K. K; Mullen, D. R.: 2013; India - Vietnam Relations: Deepening Bilateral Ties for Mutual Benefit; Centre for Research Policy; New Delhi, India. Aug Bibliography 05, 2013 All India Kisan Sabha: 2013; Report of All India Kisan Sabha delegation that Reddy, S., S.: 2010; Red Salute, Vietnam; New Age Weekly. 25th May 2010. visited Vietnam in 2013. Published by New Age in January 2013. Posted http://www.newageweekly.com/2010/05/red-salute-vietnam-by- online by Tatipaka Premchand on Jan 18, 2013. http://www.new suravaram.html ageweekly.com/2013/01/reconstruction-in-vietnam.html Sharma, G.: 2004; India Vietnam Relations: First to Twenty First Century; Bhatia, R. K.; Sakhuja,V.; Ranjan, V (Ed): 2013; India Vietnam: Agenda for Dialogue Society, Kolkata Strengthening Partnership; Shipra Publications, Delhi, India. Sharma, G.; Prakashan, R.: 2010; Traces of Indian Culture in Vietnam; Rajkamal Blank, S.: 2005; Natural Allies: Regional Security in Asia and Prospects for Indo- Prakashan American Strategic Cooperation. DIANE Publishing, Pennsylvania, US The Hindu: 2007:Vietnam favours FTA with India. July 7, 2007 Brewster, D.: 2013; Chapter on 'Indochina: India's political partnership with The Hindu Business Line: 2007; Vietnam PM urges greater trade ties with Vietnam' in the book India as an Asia Pacific Power, Routledge. India. July 7, 2007 Chauhan, S.: 2014; Selling “Brand India” in Vietnam; The Diplomat Magazine. Thayer, C.: 2014; Can Vietnam's Maritime Strategy Counter China? The http://thediplomat.com/2014/11/selling-brand-india-in-vietnam/ Diplomat. September 29, 2014. http://thediplomat.com/2014/09/can- Frost, F.:1993; Vietnam's Foreign Relations: Dynamics of Change; Institute of vietnams-maritime-strategy-counter-china/ Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore (Publisher). The Times of India: 2008; India, Vietnam sign MoU or bilateral cooperation Haidar, S.: 2014; India-Vietnam naval ties to deepen strategic partnership; on security. March 24, 2008 The Hindu October 28, 2014. The Times of India: 2011; Vietnam counters Chinese aggression. September Katoch, P.: 2014; Danger at Sea. Articles, Centre for Land Warfare Studies 2, 2011 (CLAWS), New Delhi. June 6, 2014. http://www.claws.in/1208/ Vietnam News Agency: 2013; Vietnam among pillars of India's “Look East” danger-at-sea-prakash%20katoch.html policy. 18 November 2013. english.vietnamnet.vn

136 137 India-Vietnam Relations Catalyst to Act East policy India-Vietnam Relations Catalyst to Act East Policy In 1992, India and Vietnam established extensive economic ties, Syed Ali Mujtaba including oil exploration, agriculture and manufacturing. The Principal National College of Design, Chennai and Senior Journalist, Chennai relations between the two countries especially the defence ties, has Email: [email protected] benefited extensively from India's Look East policy perspective. A major turning point was reached in November 2007 when India Introduction and Vietnam raised their bilateral relations to a strategic India and Vietnam have traditionally enjoyed cordial relations partnership during the official visit to India by Vietnam's Prime which have its roots in the common struggle for liberation from Minister Nguyen Tan Dung. The Joint Declaration on Strategic foreign rules and the national struggle for independence. Partnership included thirty-three points and mapped out cooperation in five major areas: political, defense and security; India strongly supported and assisted Vietnam in its early days. closer economic cooperation and commercial engagement; Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was one of the first visitors to Vietnam science and technology; cultural and technical; and multilateral after its glorious victory against the French at Dien Bien Phu in and regional cooperation. The Joint Declaration set out six areas of 1954. In 1954, India opened its consulate general in Ha Noi. In cooperation under the political, defense and security heading: 1956, Vietnam opened its consulate general in New Delhi. Full diplomatic relations were established since 1972. First, India and Vietnam agreed to hold a Strategic Dialogue at deputy minister level. These have been held annually since 2007. During the post-war reconstruction in late 1970s India helped Vietnam in its reforms and economic development. In recent Second, India and Vietnam agreed to place future emphasis on times, political contacts have strengthened the relationship has defense supplies, joint projects, training cooperation and reached to an amazing level. This s is reflected in high level visits intelligence exchanges. of the leaders from both sides. For example, President Pranab Third, India and Vietnam agreed to enhance contacts and Mukherjee visited Hanoi in September 2014 and Vietnamese exchange visits between their defense and security Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung came on an official visit to establishments. Delhi in October 2014. Fourth, in light of shared maritime interests, India and Vietnam India's thrust under the 'Look East' policy combined with agreed to enhance cooperation in capacity building, technical Vietnam's growing engagement within the region and with India assistance and information sharing between relevant agencies has paid rich dividends to the two countries. with a particular attention to security of sea-lanes, anti-piracy, Vietnam is an important regional partner in South East Asia. India prevention of pollution and search and rescue. and Vietnam closely cooperate in various regional forums such as Fifth, India and Vietnam resolved to strengthen bilateral ASEAN, East Asia Summit, Mekong Ganga Cooperation, Asia cooperation to combat terrorism and to promote cooperation in Europe Meeting (ASEM) besides UN and WTO cyber security. In 1982, a major milestone in bilateral relations was reached with Sixth, India and Vietnam agreed to cooperate to address non- the establishment of the India-Vietnam Joint Committee for traditional security issues including drug trafficking, natural Economic, Cultural, Scientific and Technological Cooperation to disasters, climate change, energy security, HIV/AIDS, avian oversee bilateral relations. influenza and other epidemics.

138 139 India-Vietnam Relations Catalyst to Act East policy India-Vietnam Relations Catalyst to Act East Policy In 1992, India and Vietnam established extensive economic ties, Syed Ali Mujtaba including oil exploration, agriculture and manufacturing. The Principal National College of Design, Chennai and Senior Journalist, Chennai relations between the two countries especially the defence ties, has Email: [email protected] benefited extensively from India's Look East policy perspective. A major turning point was reached in November 2007 when India Introduction and Vietnam raised their bilateral relations to a strategic India and Vietnam have traditionally enjoyed cordial relations partnership during the official visit to India by Vietnam's Prime which have its roots in the common struggle for liberation from Minister Nguyen Tan Dung. The Joint Declaration on Strategic foreign rules and the national struggle for independence. Partnership included thirty-three points and mapped out cooperation in five major areas: political, defense and security; India strongly supported and assisted Vietnam in its early days. closer economic cooperation and commercial engagement; Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was one of the first visitors to Vietnam science and technology; cultural and technical; and multilateral after its glorious victory against the French at Dien Bien Phu in and regional cooperation. The Joint Declaration set out six areas of 1954. In 1954, India opened its consulate general in Ha Noi. In cooperation under the political, defense and security heading: 1956, Vietnam opened its consulate general in New Delhi. Full diplomatic relations were established since 1972. First, India and Vietnam agreed to hold a Strategic Dialogue at deputy minister level. These have been held annually since 2007. During the post-war reconstruction in late 1970s India helped Vietnam in its reforms and economic development. In recent Second, India and Vietnam agreed to place future emphasis on times, political contacts have strengthened the relationship has defense supplies, joint projects, training cooperation and reached to an amazing level. This s is reflected in high level visits intelligence exchanges. of the leaders from both sides. For example, President Pranab Third, India and Vietnam agreed to enhance contacts and Mukherjee visited Hanoi in September 2014 and Vietnamese exchange visits between their defense and security Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung came on an official visit to establishments. Delhi in October 2014. Fourth, in light of shared maritime interests, India and Vietnam India's thrust under the 'Look East' policy combined with agreed to enhance cooperation in capacity building, technical Vietnam's growing engagement within the region and with India assistance and information sharing between relevant agencies has paid rich dividends to the two countries. with a particular attention to security of sea-lanes, anti-piracy, Vietnam is an important regional partner in South East Asia. India prevention of pollution and search and rescue. and Vietnam closely cooperate in various regional forums such as Fifth, India and Vietnam resolved to strengthen bilateral ASEAN, East Asia Summit, Mekong Ganga Cooperation, Asia cooperation to combat terrorism and to promote cooperation in Europe Meeting (ASEM) besides UN and WTO cyber security. In 1982, a major milestone in bilateral relations was reached with Sixth, India and Vietnam agreed to cooperate to address non- the establishment of the India-Vietnam Joint Committee for traditional security issues including drug trafficking, natural Economic, Cultural, Scientific and Technological Cooperation to disasters, climate change, energy security, HIV/AIDS, avian oversee bilateral relations. influenza and other epidemics.

138 139 Syed Ali Mujtaba India-Vietnam Relations Catalyst to Act East policy

Since 2014, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi has injected information on their navies and air forces. Vietnam offered to new momentum in the 2007 India-Vietnam strategic partnership. provide facilities to repair maintain and fuel Indian naval ships. He views Vietnam as an essential partner and has re-named the India-Vietnam defense cooperation entails sale of military 'Look East Policy' as 'Act East' policy. equipment, sharing of intelligence, joint naval exercises and Geo-Strategic Vision training in counter insurgency and jungle warfare. High-level Geo-strategic vision of India and Vietnam are markedly exchange visits, an annual security dialogue, service-to-service converging on Vietnam's South China Sea policy. Both share interaction, naval port visits, ship construction, training and similar concerns about maritime security and Chinese muscle capacity building, assistance in maintaining military equipment, flexing over there. India has not only offered substantial support multilateral exercises, and cooperation at regional forums such as to Vietnam's navy and air force but also political-diplomatic the ASEAN Defense Ministers' Meeting are also part of defence support for Vietnam's South China Sea policy. India and Vietnam cooperation. India has offered a $100 million in credit for defense has issued a joint statement on South China Sea. Both countries deals that is to enable Vietnam to acquire new naval vessels from view that freedom of navigation and over flight should not be India. impeded and all parties should exercise restraint, avoid the threat India's sale of arms, equipment, spares, technology and services or use of force, and resolve disputes peacefully. India- Vietnam enhances Vietnam's ability to modernize its armed forces and joint statement called for cooperation in ensuring security of sea- strengthen its capacity for the repair and maintenance of air and lanes, maritime security, combating piracy and search and rescue naval platforms. In other words, Vietnam's defense relations with operations. India lessen its near total defense dependency on Russia. Defense cooperation The latest uptick in defense relations is, India is reportedly India-Vietnam defense cooperation dates to the 1980s and 1990s. negotiating the sale of the BrahMos cruise missile to Vietnam. Major defense cooperation agreements were signed in September India would train up to 500 Vietnamese sailors in 1994, March 2000 and May 2003. The MOU in 2007 included “comprehensive underwater combat operations” at its modern cooperation in national defense, navy, air defense and training. submarine training center INS Satavahana. Further, India and India would transfer 5,000 spare parts to assist Vietnam in Vietnam are discussing cooperation in defense co-production as maintaining its Petya-class ships and that India would send a well. team to Vietnam to assist in training for UN peacekeeping Energy Cooperation operations. India and Vietnam have identified hydrocarbons, power The MoU in 2010 include cooperation in reciprocal language generation and other supporting industries as part of energy training, humanitarian assistance, search and rescue, and sharing cooperation. Both countries are poised to benefit from the of experiences in United Nations peacekeeping operations, joint development of Vietnam's offshore hydrocarbon resources. India training in mountain and jungle warfare, naval ship repair and is seeking new markets while Vietnam wants to enhance its maintenance. economic heft. India already had three Vietnamese blocks, in India also agreed to assist Vietnam in training its forces for UN which the state-run ONGC Videsh (OVL) had invested about peacekeeping, establish a foreign language center, and exchange $360 million.

140 141 Syed Ali Mujtaba India-Vietnam Relations Catalyst to Act East policy

Since 2014, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi has injected information on their navies and air forces. Vietnam offered to new momentum in the 2007 India-Vietnam strategic partnership. provide facilities to repair maintain and fuel Indian naval ships. He views Vietnam as an essential partner and has re-named the India-Vietnam defense cooperation entails sale of military 'Look East Policy' as 'Act East' policy. equipment, sharing of intelligence, joint naval exercises and Geo-Strategic Vision training in counter insurgency and jungle warfare. High-level Geo-strategic vision of India and Vietnam are markedly exchange visits, an annual security dialogue, service-to-service converging on Vietnam's South China Sea policy. Both share interaction, naval port visits, ship construction, training and similar concerns about maritime security and Chinese muscle capacity building, assistance in maintaining military equipment, flexing over there. India has not only offered substantial support multilateral exercises, and cooperation at regional forums such as to Vietnam's navy and air force but also political-diplomatic the ASEAN Defense Ministers' Meeting are also part of defence support for Vietnam's South China Sea policy. India and Vietnam cooperation. India has offered a $100 million in credit for defense has issued a joint statement on South China Sea. Both countries deals that is to enable Vietnam to acquire new naval vessels from view that freedom of navigation and over flight should not be India. impeded and all parties should exercise restraint, avoid the threat India's sale of arms, equipment, spares, technology and services or use of force, and resolve disputes peacefully. India- Vietnam enhances Vietnam's ability to modernize its armed forces and joint statement called for cooperation in ensuring security of sea- strengthen its capacity for the repair and maintenance of air and lanes, maritime security, combating piracy and search and rescue naval platforms. In other words, Vietnam's defense relations with operations. India lessen its near total defense dependency on Russia. Defense cooperation The latest uptick in defense relations is, India is reportedly India-Vietnam defense cooperation dates to the 1980s and 1990s. negotiating the sale of the BrahMos cruise missile to Vietnam. Major defense cooperation agreements were signed in September India would train up to 500 Vietnamese sailors in 1994, March 2000 and May 2003. The MOU in 2007 included “comprehensive underwater combat operations” at its modern cooperation in national defense, navy, air defense and training. submarine training center INS Satavahana. Further, India and India would transfer 5,000 spare parts to assist Vietnam in Vietnam are discussing cooperation in defense co-production as maintaining its Petya-class ships and that India would send a well. team to Vietnam to assist in training for UN peacekeeping Energy Cooperation operations. India and Vietnam have identified hydrocarbons, power The MoU in 2010 include cooperation in reciprocal language generation and other supporting industries as part of energy training, humanitarian assistance, search and rescue, and sharing cooperation. Both countries are poised to benefit from the of experiences in United Nations peacekeeping operations, joint development of Vietnam's offshore hydrocarbon resources. India training in mountain and jungle warfare, naval ship repair and is seeking new markets while Vietnam wants to enhance its maintenance. economic heft. India already had three Vietnamese blocks, in India also agreed to assist Vietnam in training its forces for UN which the state-run ONGC Videsh (OVL) had invested about peacekeeping, establish a foreign language center, and exchange $360 million.

140 141 Syed Ali Mujtaba India-Vietnam Relations Catalyst to Act East policy

Trade and Investment trajectory. Vietnam is poised to play a greater role in facilitating India- Vietnam two-way trade has reached $5.2 billion in 2013 and India's 'Act East policy' both as a formal strategic partner and as is expected to reach $8 billion this year. Vietnam is currently the ASEAN country coordinator for relations with India. India's tenth largest trade partner. Vietnam's exports to India Conclusion include electronics (mobile phones and components, computers India Vietnam relationship is inspired by President Ho Chi and electronic hardware), natural rubber, chemicals, coffee and Minh's ideas who has described India Vietnam relationship to be wood products. Vietnam imports animal feed, corn, steel, flourishing under a “cloudless sky.” pharmaceuticals and machinery from India. Trade and economic linkages continue to grow between India and Vietnam. India has Living up to his words there has been a flurry of activities that has offered a $300 million line of credit for trade diversification and bolstered India and Vietnam bilateral relationship. Some high- strengthening of commercial ties. profile leaders of the two sides have visited each other's countries in recent times. These visits have put growing relationship on the Space fast track. Space is another major area of India-Vietnam cooperation. India- Vietnam in the joint statement in 2014 called for cooperation in Indian Prime Minister Narandra Modi has given a new space applications and the launch of Vietnam's satellites from momentum to India- Vietnam relationship. His shifting of gears India. The leaders of both the countries also called for the from the 'Look East' policy to an 'Act East' policy has brought a completion of the Satellite Tracking and Data Reception and new dynamism to India- Vietnam relationship. Imaging Center in Ho Chi Minh City. India is grabbing all opportunities for economic and security co- operation with Vietnam. The Indian government, together with Science and Technology the private sector, is ensuring the economic ties to further India Vietnam Joint Committee on Science and Technology has strengthen this relationship. India and Vietnam has identified identified several areas for Programme of Cooperation (POC). several areas for mutual cooperation. There are at least 85 Indian This includes joint projects, seminars, workshops and exploratory projects in Vietnam valued at USD 1 billion. Ramping up bilateral visits of experts in the fields of biotechnology, material science, trade and increasing private investment flows has contributed ocean development and oceanographic research, towards reinforcing the warmness in the relationship. pharmaceuticals and medical research etc. Both sides have initiated a Joint Project for leather research and tannery waste India and Vietnam have convergent security interests, including recycling between Central Leather Research Institute of India and maximizing their room for maneuver in dealing with China and the Viet Nam Leather Research Institute. other major powers within their respective regions. India's relations with Vietnam provide a basis for a larger Indian role in India, Vietnam and ASEAN East Asia, particularly in the maritime domain. For example, In 2015 India and Vietnam has become the coordinator for India uses its military relationship with Vietnam to apply counter relations between the Association of Southeast Asian Nations pressure on China for its support for Pakistan. (ASEAN) for a three-year term ending in 2018. This will be an India's sale of arms, equipment, spares, technology and services important partnership because the strategic interests of both enhances Vietnam's ability to modernize its armed forces and countries have converged and are likely to continue on this strengthen its capacity for the repair and maintenance of air and

142 143 Syed Ali Mujtaba India-Vietnam Relations Catalyst to Act East policy

Trade and Investment trajectory. Vietnam is poised to play a greater role in facilitating India- Vietnam two-way trade has reached $5.2 billion in 2013 and India's 'Act East policy' both as a formal strategic partner and as is expected to reach $8 billion this year. Vietnam is currently the ASEAN country coordinator for relations with India. India's tenth largest trade partner. Vietnam's exports to India Conclusion include electronics (mobile phones and components, computers India Vietnam relationship is inspired by President Ho Chi and electronic hardware), natural rubber, chemicals, coffee and Minh's ideas who has described India Vietnam relationship to be wood products. Vietnam imports animal feed, corn, steel, flourishing under a “cloudless sky.” pharmaceuticals and machinery from India. Trade and economic linkages continue to grow between India and Vietnam. India has Living up to his words there has been a flurry of activities that has offered a $300 million line of credit for trade diversification and bolstered India and Vietnam bilateral relationship. Some high- strengthening of commercial ties. profile leaders of the two sides have visited each other's countries in recent times. These visits have put growing relationship on the Space fast track. Space is another major area of India-Vietnam cooperation. India- Vietnam in the joint statement in 2014 called for cooperation in Indian Prime Minister Narandra Modi has given a new space applications and the launch of Vietnam's satellites from momentum to India- Vietnam relationship. His shifting of gears India. The leaders of both the countries also called for the from the 'Look East' policy to an 'Act East' policy has brought a completion of the Satellite Tracking and Data Reception and new dynamism to India- Vietnam relationship. Imaging Center in Ho Chi Minh City. India is grabbing all opportunities for economic and security co- operation with Vietnam. The Indian government, together with Science and Technology the private sector, is ensuring the economic ties to further India Vietnam Joint Committee on Science and Technology has strengthen this relationship. India and Vietnam has identified identified several areas for Programme of Cooperation (POC). several areas for mutual cooperation. There are at least 85 Indian This includes joint projects, seminars, workshops and exploratory projects in Vietnam valued at USD 1 billion. Ramping up bilateral visits of experts in the fields of biotechnology, material science, trade and increasing private investment flows has contributed ocean development and oceanographic research, towards reinforcing the warmness in the relationship. pharmaceuticals and medical research etc. Both sides have initiated a Joint Project for leather research and tannery waste India and Vietnam have convergent security interests, including recycling between Central Leather Research Institute of India and maximizing their room for maneuver in dealing with China and the Viet Nam Leather Research Institute. other major powers within their respective regions. India's relations with Vietnam provide a basis for a larger Indian role in India, Vietnam and ASEAN East Asia, particularly in the maritime domain. For example, In 2015 India and Vietnam has become the coordinator for India uses its military relationship with Vietnam to apply counter relations between the Association of Southeast Asian Nations pressure on China for its support for Pakistan. (ASEAN) for a three-year term ending in 2018. This will be an India's sale of arms, equipment, spares, technology and services important partnership because the strategic interests of both enhances Vietnam's ability to modernize its armed forces and countries have converged and are likely to continue on this strengthen its capacity for the repair and maintenance of air and

142 143 Syed Ali Mujtaba India's Look East Policy and Vietnam's Response naval platforms. In other words, Vietnam's defense relations with India lessen its near total defense dependency on Russia. Ngo Xuan Binh India is exhibiting boldness, pragmatism and imagination to Professor, Editor-in-chief and Former Director-General, The Institute for Indian and cement ties with Vietnam. The deepening of strategic ties with Southwest Asian Studies, Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences, Email: [email protected], [email protected] Vietnam has signaled that India is poised to play a big role in the emerging Asian security architecture. Vietnam's commitment to the national cause continues to inspire Abstract Under the leadership of the Prime Minister Narendra Modi since May 2014, the current generation of Indians. Under Prime Minister Modi, there have been important adjustments in India's internal and external India is focusing on Vietnam to pursue its national interests and policies. In terms of its foreign policy, a new term has been coined to connote also its 'Act East' policy. The two countries are coming closer in India's Look East policy, i.e. “Act East” policy. The objectives of Indian their quest for designing the emerging geo- economic foreign policy adjustments inter alia are: to tighten India's economic environment in Asia. India Vietnam relationship is a win- win cooperation with the Asia - Pacific region; to counter-balance with China's situation for both the countries. move in the Indian Ocean and to strengthen India's global influence. In the face of the tension in the South China Sea, Indian government has shown its intention to play a greater role in the region. India's Act East policy is a manifestation of India's increasing commitments towards its cooperation with the Asia - Pacific region. Adjustments of Indian foreign policy have had significant impact to the economic development as well as the political and security scenario in the region. This paper is to analyze India's adjustments of Look East policy and its impact to the East Asian region, particularly to Vietnam, in the context of South China Sea issue (preferably to be called “the East Sea issue” by the Vietnamese scholars). Keywords: Look East policy, Act East policy, South China Sea issue, scenario

1. From Look East to Act East Policy Under the leadership of Prime Minister Narendra Modi, since May 2014 up to now, India has made various important adjustments to its internal and external policies. Being the first Indian Prime Minister who was born after Independence, (Prime Minister Modi was born in 1950), it is expected that he has a “shift” in world view from the his predecessors. It is believed that under the leadership of Modi, “a man of development”, India would become a “smart power”, using hard power in its South Asian neighborhood and soft power elsewhere.1 Having been among the leading countries of Non-aligned Movement since the Cold War, the government of India has

144 145 Syed Ali Mujtaba India's Look East Policy and Vietnam's Response naval platforms. In other words, Vietnam's defense relations with India lessen its near total defense dependency on Russia. Ngo Xuan Binh India is exhibiting boldness, pragmatism and imagination to Professor, Editor-in-chief and Former Director-General, The Institute for Indian and cement ties with Vietnam. The deepening of strategic ties with Southwest Asian Studies, Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences, Email: [email protected], [email protected] Vietnam has signaled that India is poised to play a big role in the emerging Asian security architecture. Vietnam's commitment to the national cause continues to inspire Abstract Under the leadership of the Prime Minister Narendra Modi since May 2014, the current generation of Indians. Under Prime Minister Modi, there have been important adjustments in India's internal and external India is focusing on Vietnam to pursue its national interests and policies. In terms of its foreign policy, a new term has been coined to connote also its 'Act East' policy. The two countries are coming closer in India's Look East policy, i.e. “Act East” policy. The objectives of Indian their quest for designing the emerging geo- economic foreign policy adjustments inter alia are: to tighten India's economic environment in Asia. India Vietnam relationship is a win- win cooperation with the Asia - Pacific region; to counter-balance with China's situation for both the countries. move in the Indian Ocean and to strengthen India's global influence. In the face of the tension in the South China Sea, Indian government has shown its intention to play a greater role in the region. India's Act East policy is a manifestation of India's increasing commitments towards its cooperation with the Asia - Pacific region. Adjustments of Indian foreign policy have had significant impact to the economic development as well as the political and security scenario in the region. This paper is to analyze India's adjustments of Look East policy and its impact to the East Asian region, particularly to Vietnam, in the context of South China Sea issue (preferably to be called “the East Sea issue” by the Vietnamese scholars). Keywords: Look East policy, Act East policy, South China Sea issue, scenario

1. From Look East to Act East Policy Under the leadership of Prime Minister Narendra Modi, since May 2014 up to now, India has made various important adjustments to its internal and external policies. Being the first Indian Prime Minister who was born after Independence, (Prime Minister Modi was born in 1950), it is expected that he has a “shift” in world view from the his predecessors. It is believed that under the leadership of Modi, “a man of development”, India would become a “smart power”, using hard power in its South Asian neighborhood and soft power elsewhere.1 Having been among the leading countries of Non-aligned Movement since the Cold War, the government of India has

144 145 Ngo Xuan Binh India's Look East Policy and Vietnam's Response consistently improved its multilateral diplomacy to bring about - Tightening economic relations with the Asia-Pacific region; economic benefits. Prime Minister is determined to pursue a - Increasing strengths to balance the power with China in the “strong” foreign policy. One of the most important foreign policy Indian Ocean; initiatives of Modi's government isto focus on policy towards its neighbors, Asian powers and Look East policy. In the first six months - Increasing India's influence globally. of its administration, Narendra Modi's government took bold With this adjustment, the Indian government expressed its steps to improve its relations with South Asian neighbors and intention to play a greater role in the region3. The major objective promote ties with Southeast Asia, East Asia - Pacific of India's Look East policy in the 21st century is to broaden India's countries.Prime Minister Modi invited the heads of states of the economic and cultural exchanges with the ASEAN and Asia SAARC countries (including Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pacific countries. Bhutan, Nepal, Afghanistan, Maldives) to take part in the inauguration of the Prime Minister Office in May 2014. After that, According to Michael Kugelman, a senior researcher on South Prime Minister Modi made his first foreign trips to Bhutan, Nepal and Southeast Asia at The Wilson Centre, in an interview about the key drivers and restrainsts of India's foreign policy toward and Japan (August 2014). India's new Foreign Minister Madam 4 Sushma Swaraj also made high-profile visits to Bangladesh, this region , the Act East policy is derived from a fundamental Bhutan, Nepal, Myanmar, Singapore and Vietnam. goal: to cooperate with East Asian countries. For many decades, through Look East policy, India has focused on its relations with Shortly after taking office, Prime Minister Narendra Modi eastern neighboring countries, especially its close ties with Japan. announced the adjustment of “Look East” Policy to “Act East” The driving force behind the Act East policy is also to be seen Policy which reflected the upgrading of India's commitments in through India's goals in its relations with ASEAN: the desire to the Asia-Pacific region. This adjustment has a significant impact develop markets, to needs to diversify energy supply and the on the economic, political and security situation in East and determination to compete with China for influence in the region. Southeast Asia, including Vietnam. What make the Act East policy different from its earlier policy is It is noteworthy that the term “Act East” was first mentioned the speed of its implementation. This shows India's great during the visit to Vietnam by Indian Foreign Minister Sushma ambition in “elevating” its relations with the Eastern countries- Swaraj in August 2014. The Minister said that India is not only including ASEAN and Northeast Asia, especially Japan and “Looking East” but also “Acting East”2. She affirmed that India South Korea. should implement “Act East” policy to substitute 2 decade-old Look East From this view point, it can be seen that the most prominent policy thereby emphasize a more active role for India in the region. Thus, adjustment from Look East to Act East policy is the emphasis on continuing the foreign policy since the 1990s, Look East policy economic objectives: India needs to find new markets for its shifted to a new stage in 2014, expanding its economic rapidly growing economy. This is essential even in the context cooperation to the East on the basis of a long-term policy. Act East that New Delhi is promoting its domestic growth through “Make policy is to promote India's relations with countries in East and in India” initiative which encourages local and multinational Southeast Asia, including Japan, Australia, ASEAN and Vietnam. corporations to produce goods in India. Some ASEAN countries According an expert on India at the Sydney Research Center, this have high economic growth rates (typically Singapore). Vietnam policy has 3 main objectives, i.e.: is the country holding the record of FDI attraction. India - ASEAN

146 147 Ngo Xuan Binh India's Look East Policy and Vietnam's Response consistently improved its multilateral diplomacy to bring about - Tightening economic relations with the Asia-Pacific region; economic benefits. Prime Minister is determined to pursue a - Increasing strengths to balance the power with China in the “strong” foreign policy. One of the most important foreign policy Indian Ocean; initiatives of Modi's government isto focus on policy towards its neighbors, Asian powers and Look East policy. In the first six months - Increasing India's influence globally. of its administration, Narendra Modi's government took bold With this adjustment, the Indian government expressed its steps to improve its relations with South Asian neighbors and intention to play a greater role in the region3. The major objective promote ties with Southeast Asia, East Asia - Pacific of India's Look East policy in the 21st century is to broaden India's countries.Prime Minister Modi invited the heads of states of the economic and cultural exchanges with the ASEAN and Asia SAARC countries (including Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pacific countries. Bhutan, Nepal, Afghanistan, Maldives) to take part in the inauguration of the Prime Minister Office in May 2014. After that, According to Michael Kugelman, a senior researcher on South Prime Minister Modi made his first foreign trips to Bhutan, Nepal and Southeast Asia at The Wilson Centre, in an interview about the key drivers and restrainsts of India's foreign policy toward and Japan (August 2014). India's new Foreign Minister Madam 4 Sushma Swaraj also made high-profile visits to Bangladesh, this region , the Act East policy is derived from a fundamental Bhutan, Nepal, Myanmar, Singapore and Vietnam. goal: to cooperate with East Asian countries. For many decades, through Look East policy, India has focused on its relations with Shortly after taking office, Prime Minister Narendra Modi eastern neighboring countries, especially its close ties with Japan. announced the adjustment of “Look East” Policy to “Act East” The driving force behind the Act East policy is also to be seen Policy which reflected the upgrading of India's commitments in through India's goals in its relations with ASEAN: the desire to the Asia-Pacific region. This adjustment has a significant impact develop markets, to needs to diversify energy supply and the on the economic, political and security situation in East and determination to compete with China for influence in the region. Southeast Asia, including Vietnam. What make the Act East policy different from its earlier policy is It is noteworthy that the term “Act East” was first mentioned the speed of its implementation. This shows India's great during the visit to Vietnam by Indian Foreign Minister Sushma ambition in “elevating” its relations with the Eastern countries- Swaraj in August 2014. The Minister said that India is not only including ASEAN and Northeast Asia, especially Japan and “Looking East” but also “Acting East”2. She affirmed that India South Korea. should implement “Act East” policy to substitute 2 decade-old Look East From this view point, it can be seen that the most prominent policy thereby emphasize a more active role for India in the region. Thus, adjustment from Look East to Act East policy is the emphasis on continuing the foreign policy since the 1990s, Look East policy economic objectives: India needs to find new markets for its shifted to a new stage in 2014, expanding its economic rapidly growing economy. This is essential even in the context cooperation to the East on the basis of a long-term policy. Act East that New Delhi is promoting its domestic growth through “Make policy is to promote India's relations with countries in East and in India” initiative which encourages local and multinational Southeast Asia, including Japan, Australia, ASEAN and Vietnam. corporations to produce goods in India. Some ASEAN countries According an expert on India at the Sydney Research Center, this have high economic growth rates (typically Singapore). Vietnam policy has 3 main objectives, i.e.: is the country holding the record of FDI attraction. India - ASEAN

146 147 Ngo Xuan Binh India's Look East Policy and Vietnam's Response economic relations have not developed adequately with the has lots of opportunities to enhance its position in the region and potentials of both sides. According to McKinsey, ASEAN is the some ASEAN countries do not support the increasing presence of seventh largest economic region in the world and is home to 200 China. Vietnam and the Philippines have territorial disputes with of the world's largest companies. That is why the Prime Minister China in the South China Sea and both countries are fiercely Modi has been promoting the policy of strengthening economic opposed to Chinese provocative acts in this area. Recent polls by cooperation with ASEAN. Just as India is in search of ways to the Pew Research Center show that Vietnam and the Philippines penetrate into new markets, the fast-growing economies in have negative views on China. Only 15% of the Vietnamese and ASEAN also needs to find their own markets. The newly elected less than 40 % of the Philippines being asked have a sympathetic President of the US, Donald Trump, has already announced the view of China. In addition, Myanmar - a country which has had a withdrawal of the US from Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP). TPP long history of close relationship with China has in recent years member countreis such as Singapore, Vietnam and Malaysia kept a certant distance with Beijing and conducted a more should urgently look for an alternative to TPP that will help them independent foreign policy.Myanmar's foreign policy reach the key markets. India is a market with young population of adjustments have helped ease the tensions in its relations with the 1,2 billion people is indeed an attractive destination. United States. India has wisely took the advantage of the Moreover, the Indian economy is in need of expanding the market adjustment of Myanmar's policy by pursuing a deeper as well as energy supply. Therefore, ASEAN's energy market cooperation mechanism with this country. This is evident in the plays a very important role. India's domestic energy supply has signing of maritime agreement between the two countries in been unable to keep up with the high demand of the developing February 2016. country. Indian policy-makers are well aware that they have to In fact, for the ASEAN region, New Delhi sees the opportunities to look for external supplies to bridge the supply-demand gap. expand its linkages with more partners and increase its influence India's growing coal demand has led to its import of coal from in the region. At the same time, India should take concrete steps to Indonesia. India has alse signed agreements of oil exploration take the advantage of this opportunity. The recent efforts of the with Vietnam. Australia, with its abundant supply of natural gas Philippines President Rodrigo Duterte in expanding its and coal, would also be a target for India's energy policy-makers cooperation with China show that, even this Asian country is not in the future. It is to be noted that, most of India's current energy aware that its close relationship with Beijing will have significant supply comes from its imports from the Middle East countries, impact on its bilateral relations with other countries. It is likely with crude oil accounting for 2/3.New Delhi is considering that this move was fueled by the growing concern about the rapid importing energy from a closer and more stable region, that is decline in the leading capacity of the US in ASEAN and ASEAN. In addition, due to the huge demand for energy for both throughout the Asia Pacific region. consumption and economic growth, energy security is indeed Another important adjustment of the Act East policy in India's security issue. To address this issue, India should develop comparison to the Look East policy is the increasing attention a plan to diversify its energy supplies by seeking more stable given to the South China Sea issue. The developments in the cooperation areas. South China Sea region are critical to India's strategic interests Besides, with the Act East policy, Indian government expect to and India's role in the Asia Pacific region. Under the Modi enhance its economic and political position in ASEAN where the government, India has given direct comments and viewpoints influence and presence of China is increasing day by day. India about the need to resolve the South China Sea dispute, signed a

148 149 Ngo Xuan Binh India's Look East Policy and Vietnam's Response economic relations have not developed adequately with the has lots of opportunities to enhance its position in the region and potentials of both sides. According to McKinsey, ASEAN is the some ASEAN countries do not support the increasing presence of seventh largest economic region in the world and is home to 200 China. Vietnam and the Philippines have territorial disputes with of the world's largest companies. That is why the Prime Minister China in the South China Sea and both countries are fiercely Modi has been promoting the policy of strengthening economic opposed to Chinese provocative acts in this area. Recent polls by cooperation with ASEAN. Just as India is in search of ways to the Pew Research Center show that Vietnam and the Philippines penetrate into new markets, the fast-growing economies in have negative views on China. Only 15% of the Vietnamese and ASEAN also needs to find their own markets. The newly elected less than 40 % of the Philippines being asked have a sympathetic President of the US, Donald Trump, has already announced the view of China. In addition, Myanmar - a country which has had a withdrawal of the US from Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP). TPP long history of close relationship with China has in recent years member countreis such as Singapore, Vietnam and Malaysia kept a certant distance with Beijing and conducted a more should urgently look for an alternative to TPP that will help them independent foreign policy.Myanmar's foreign policy reach the key markets. India is a market with young population of adjustments have helped ease the tensions in its relations with the 1,2 billion people is indeed an attractive destination. United States. India has wisely took the advantage of the Moreover, the Indian economy is in need of expanding the market adjustment of Myanmar's policy by pursuing a deeper as well as energy supply. Therefore, ASEAN's energy market cooperation mechanism with this country. This is evident in the plays a very important role. India's domestic energy supply has signing of maritime agreement between the two countries in been unable to keep up with the high demand of the developing February 2016. country. Indian policy-makers are well aware that they have to In fact, for the ASEAN region, New Delhi sees the opportunities to look for external supplies to bridge the supply-demand gap. expand its linkages with more partners and increase its influence India's growing coal demand has led to its import of coal from in the region. At the same time, India should take concrete steps to Indonesia. India has alse signed agreements of oil exploration take the advantage of this opportunity. The recent efforts of the with Vietnam. Australia, with its abundant supply of natural gas Philippines President Rodrigo Duterte in expanding its and coal, would also be a target for India's energy policy-makers cooperation with China show that, even this Asian country is not in the future. It is to be noted that, most of India's current energy aware that its close relationship with Beijing will have significant supply comes from its imports from the Middle East countries, impact on its bilateral relations with other countries. It is likely with crude oil accounting for 2/3.New Delhi is considering that this move was fueled by the growing concern about the rapid importing energy from a closer and more stable region, that is decline in the leading capacity of the US in ASEAN and ASEAN. In addition, due to the huge demand for energy for both throughout the Asia Pacific region. consumption and economic growth, energy security is indeed Another important adjustment of the Act East policy in India's security issue. To address this issue, India should develop comparison to the Look East policy is the increasing attention a plan to diversify its energy supplies by seeking more stable given to the South China Sea issue. The developments in the cooperation areas. South China Sea region are critical to India's strategic interests Besides, with the Act East policy, Indian government expect to and India's role in the Asia Pacific region. Under the Modi enhance its economic and political position in ASEAN where the government, India has given direct comments and viewpoints influence and presence of China is increasing day by day. India about the need to resolve the South China Sea dispute, signed a

148 149 Ngo Xuan Binh India's Look East Policy and Vietnam's Response common strategic vision with the US on the Asia-Pacific and with the international law; to implement the Declaration on the Indian Ocean region, negotiated with key countries to strengthen Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea (DOC); working security and maritime cooperation. toward the signing of the Code of Conduct of Parties in the South 5 The Modi government recognizes that South China Sea is an China Sea (COC) and to support ASEAN's central role . These are important element in its relation with the East, both in terms of good signals indicating an increase in the status of this region in trade and strategy. In order to strengthen its relationship with Asia as well as in the world. Southeast Asian countries, India describes itself as a reliable Regarding the strengthening of regional connectivity: the key partner in the region. By giving comments and viewpoints about pillars of Act East policy demonstrate India's strong engagement the South China Sea dispute, India has taken a step forward in in East Asia in trade, regional connectivity, cultural, educational position, from indirectly to directly involved in the South China and people to people exchanges. On that basis, India has been at Sea issue. India has pointed out the dangers causing insecurity in the forefront in promoting a range of transnational projects aimed the region which is expressed in its joint declaration with the US, at creating a network of roads, railways and waterways. The Vietnam and in its participation at the East Asia Summit and the physical, institutional and spiritual connectivity will create a India ASEAN Summits in 2014. close link between India and ASEAN. In the coming years, India Thus, under the leadership of the Prime Minister Narendra Modi, and most of East Asian countries want to strengthen bilateral the objectives of India's Look East policy continue to be cooperation in promoting the balance, peace and stability in the implemented. Look East policy has become more active and region. proactive. In its new perception, India is now not only looking Regarding economic and trade cooperation: the adjustment of east but also implementing practical actions to protect its Look East policy to Act East policy has promoted the economic interests, to express its desire to play a greater role, to be a big cooperation among East Asian countries with India, thus player in the regional and international arena. It can be seen that, contributed a great deal to the economic growth of these Act East is India's new step forward in its connection with East countries. This can be seen by looking into several typical cases: Asian countries at present. China - India economic cooperation: China is one of India's 2. Impact of the adjustment of Look East policy major economic partners. Prime Minister Modi chose to Adjustments of India's Look East policy not only serve India's cooperate with China to achieve the goal of economic national interests but also has great impact on all countries in the development and national benefits. In terms of economic region including Vietnam. cooperation with China, India believes that there is enough space for both countries to develop simultaneously. Economic East Asia: cooperation is to bring about benefits for both countries. China is Regarding the ensurance of regional security: adjustments of India's biggest economic partner in 2013-2014, with total blateral Look East policy promise to bring a balance of power in East trade reached 65 billion USD6. At the same time, India also tries to Asian region and help contain China's influence in this region. prevent Chinese aggression7. As the focus of Modi's policy is The the ASEAN alone, recent analysis has shown that, India will economic development, India witness substantial economic continue to express its views at various ASEAN-led multilateral reforms in 2014, such as “Make in India” Campaign, fora in favour of security, safety and freedom of navigation; trade improvement in the investment environment and infrastructure. is not impeded; peaceful settlements of disputes in accordance

150 151 Ngo Xuan Binh India's Look East Policy and Vietnam's Response common strategic vision with the US on the Asia-Pacific and with the international law; to implement the Declaration on the Indian Ocean region, negotiated with key countries to strengthen Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea (DOC); working security and maritime cooperation. toward the signing of the Code of Conduct of Parties in the South 5 The Modi government recognizes that South China Sea is an China Sea (COC) and to support ASEAN's central role . These are important element in its relation with the East, both in terms of good signals indicating an increase in the status of this region in trade and strategy. In order to strengthen its relationship with Asia as well as in the world. Southeast Asian countries, India describes itself as a reliable Regarding the strengthening of regional connectivity: the key partner in the region. By giving comments and viewpoints about pillars of Act East policy demonstrate India's strong engagement the South China Sea dispute, India has taken a step forward in in East Asia in trade, regional connectivity, cultural, educational position, from indirectly to directly involved in the South China and people to people exchanges. On that basis, India has been at Sea issue. India has pointed out the dangers causing insecurity in the forefront in promoting a range of transnational projects aimed the region which is expressed in its joint declaration with the US, at creating a network of roads, railways and waterways. The Vietnam and in its participation at the East Asia Summit and the physical, institutional and spiritual connectivity will create a India ASEAN Summits in 2014. close link between India and ASEAN. In the coming years, India Thus, under the leadership of the Prime Minister Narendra Modi, and most of East Asian countries want to strengthen bilateral the objectives of India's Look East policy continue to be cooperation in promoting the balance, peace and stability in the implemented. Look East policy has become more active and region. proactive. In its new perception, India is now not only looking Regarding economic and trade cooperation: the adjustment of east but also implementing practical actions to protect its Look East policy to Act East policy has promoted the economic interests, to express its desire to play a greater role, to be a big cooperation among East Asian countries with India, thus player in the regional and international arena. It can be seen that, contributed a great deal to the economic growth of these Act East is India's new step forward in its connection with East countries. This can be seen by looking into several typical cases: Asian countries at present. China - India economic cooperation: China is one of India's 2. Impact of the adjustment of Look East policy major economic partners. Prime Minister Modi chose to Adjustments of India's Look East policy not only serve India's cooperate with China to achieve the goal of economic national interests but also has great impact on all countries in the development and national benefits. In terms of economic region including Vietnam. cooperation with China, India believes that there is enough space for both countries to develop simultaneously. Economic East Asia: cooperation is to bring about benefits for both countries. China is Regarding the ensurance of regional security: adjustments of India's biggest economic partner in 2013-2014, with total blateral Look East policy promise to bring a balance of power in East trade reached 65 billion USD6. At the same time, India also tries to Asian region and help contain China's influence in this region. prevent Chinese aggression7. As the focus of Modi's policy is The the ASEAN alone, recent analysis has shown that, India will economic development, India witness substantial economic continue to express its views at various ASEAN-led multilateral reforms in 2014, such as “Make in India” Campaign, fora in favour of security, safety and freedom of navigation; trade improvement in the investment environment and infrastructure. is not impeded; peaceful settlements of disputes in accordance

150 151 Ngo Xuan Binh India's Look East Policy and Vietnam's Response

While China focuses on developing domestic demand, India is India - ASEAN economic cooperation: Total trade between India keen to expand its interational trade system and give priority to and ASEAN reached $74 billion in 20149. So far, India's the production of goods. international economic relations with ASEAN as well as China - Japan economic cooperation: the implementation of the neighboring countries have flourished. In 2015, the government Act East policy has helped warm up India - Japan relations. The of India plans to promote the “Act East” policy to facilitate and two countries have common interests in maritime security. Prime attract investment fro Indian businesses to CLMV countries Minister Modi made a trip to Japan soon after he was elected. (Cambodia - Laos - Myanmar - Vietnam). Trade relations between After China claimed sovereignty over the waters of the U-shape India and Southeast Asian countries has increased. In particular, Singapore is a big partner, besides the growing relations with line in the East Sea, Japan and some neighboring countries 10 encountered disputes over the fishing in the East Sea. China Vietnam, Myanmar… showed an aggressive attitude towards countries in the East Sea However, the adjustment from Look East policy to Act East policy region, at the same time is against strong naval forces such as could also make the regional security situation more stressful for India and Japan. After the dispute over Shen Kaku which China several reasons: claims to be a part of the Yellow Sea, Japan wants to strengthen its Firstly, China is seeking markets for its fast-growing economy, naval forces, and expand its presence int he East and Sea and the which requires greater presence in the South and Southeast Asian Indian Ocean. Japan and India have exchanged high-level visits region; Like China, India has economic incentive to boost its role by leaders of the two countries which promoted bilateral in Southeast Asia. The competition between China and India for relations. In September 2014, Japanese Prime Minister visited influence may make the situation in this area more stressful. India in his Asian tour. In economic terms, the cooperation between the two countries bring about advantages in the face of Secondly, India's economic incentive to increase its presence in the rise of China. Prime Minister Modi is of the opinion that his Asia has also added to the security concerns in the region. India - visit to Japan will “write a new chapter” in bilateral relations. Vietnam relation is a typical example. One of the major reasons Japanese Prime Minister is of the view that India Japan bilateral for India's recent push for its cooperation with Vietnam in recent relations has the greatest potential in the world8, due to the fact year is to get access to its energy sources. Currenly, India has that the two countries are the two major economies in Asia, next to signed an energy agreement which allow it to explore oil and gas China. Rajiv Biswas, an economic researcher of IHS, is also of the in Vietnamese waters. India's growing interests in Vietnam mean view that India - Japan trade and investment exchanges will that India's energy security may be affected by territorial disputes become stronger in the coming decade. In the past, Japan was in the South China Sea in which Vietnam is directly involved.The India's major investor, with a total investment of $21 billion in uncertainty or even conflict in the area could jeopardize Indian oil 2007-2013. Trade cooperation between the two countries will be exploration as well as Indian citizens taking part in this activity. improved as Japan invest $33 billion in both India's public and In other words, India's ever-deeper engagement with Vietnam in private sectors in the next 5 years. With this investment, India is energy sector has made India increasing being caught up in the able to upgrade its manufacturing facilities and build smart cities, unstable geo-political network of the East Sea. This does not mean and improve its internal economic performance. It can be said that that India will become a participant in the dispute. On the India is to move closer to China in terms of economic contrary, while desiring to deepen the energy and economic development and infrastructure quality. cooperation with the countries concerned, New Delhi does not

152 153 Ngo Xuan Binh India's Look East Policy and Vietnam's Response

While China focuses on developing domestic demand, India is India - ASEAN economic cooperation: Total trade between India keen to expand its interational trade system and give priority to and ASEAN reached $74 billion in 20149. So far, India's the production of goods. international economic relations with ASEAN as well as China - Japan economic cooperation: the implementation of the neighboring countries have flourished. In 2015, the government Act East policy has helped warm up India - Japan relations. The of India plans to promote the “Act East” policy to facilitate and two countries have common interests in maritime security. Prime attract investment fro Indian businesses to CLMV countries Minister Modi made a trip to Japan soon after he was elected. (Cambodia - Laos - Myanmar - Vietnam). Trade relations between After China claimed sovereignty over the waters of the U-shape India and Southeast Asian countries has increased. In particular, Singapore is a big partner, besides the growing relations with line in the East Sea, Japan and some neighboring countries 10 encountered disputes over the fishing in the East Sea. China Vietnam, Myanmar… showed an aggressive attitude towards countries in the East Sea However, the adjustment from Look East policy to Act East policy region, at the same time is against strong naval forces such as could also make the regional security situation more stressful for India and Japan. After the dispute over Shen Kaku which China several reasons: claims to be a part of the Yellow Sea, Japan wants to strengthen its Firstly, China is seeking markets for its fast-growing economy, naval forces, and expand its presence int he East and Sea and the which requires greater presence in the South and Southeast Asian Indian Ocean. Japan and India have exchanged high-level visits region; Like China, India has economic incentive to boost its role by leaders of the two countries which promoted bilateral in Southeast Asia. The competition between China and India for relations. In September 2014, Japanese Prime Minister visited influence may make the situation in this area more stressful. India in his Asian tour. In economic terms, the cooperation between the two countries bring about advantages in the face of Secondly, India's economic incentive to increase its presence in the rise of China. Prime Minister Modi is of the opinion that his Asia has also added to the security concerns in the region. India - visit to Japan will “write a new chapter” in bilateral relations. Vietnam relation is a typical example. One of the major reasons Japanese Prime Minister is of the view that India Japan bilateral for India's recent push for its cooperation with Vietnam in recent relations has the greatest potential in the world8, due to the fact year is to get access to its energy sources. Currenly, India has that the two countries are the two major economies in Asia, next to signed an energy agreement which allow it to explore oil and gas China. Rajiv Biswas, an economic researcher of IHS, is also of the in Vietnamese waters. India's growing interests in Vietnam mean view that India - Japan trade and investment exchanges will that India's energy security may be affected by territorial disputes become stronger in the coming decade. In the past, Japan was in the South China Sea in which Vietnam is directly involved.The India's major investor, with a total investment of $21 billion in uncertainty or even conflict in the area could jeopardize Indian oil 2007-2013. Trade cooperation between the two countries will be exploration as well as Indian citizens taking part in this activity. improved as Japan invest $33 billion in both India's public and In other words, India's ever-deeper engagement with Vietnam in private sectors in the next 5 years. With this investment, India is energy sector has made India increasing being caught up in the able to upgrade its manufacturing facilities and build smart cities, unstable geo-political network of the East Sea. This does not mean and improve its internal economic performance. It can be said that that India will become a participant in the dispute. On the India is to move closer to China in terms of economic contrary, while desiring to deepen the energy and economic development and infrastructure quality. cooperation with the countries concerned, New Delhi does not

152 153 Ngo Xuan Binh India's Look East Policy and Vietnam's Response want to stand on either side of the dispute. However, if India desperately need for its development and international succeeds in boosting its relations with many countries, and India- integration. US cooperation in Asia continue to grow, sooner or later India will 3. Suggestions for Vietnam reacognize itself as a member of the campaign against China, even if New Delhi is unwilling to publicly oppose Beijing. India's Look East policy has gone through more than two decades. It has had significant impact on Vietnam as well as To Vietnam: Vietnam India relations. However, in order to make effective use The impact of the adjustments of India's Look East policy towards of this policy of India, Vietnam is to promote several steps as Vietnam is to be seen in Vietnam - India relations in all fields of follows: politics - diplomacy, security and defence, economy trade and First, to continue to promote the traditional friendship between cultural cooperation. The success of the Look East policy and the Vietnam and India. On the basis of the achievements made, the strengthening of India's position in Asia - Pacific region in general two sides should further strengthen their political, diplomatic, and in Southeast Asian region in particupar have had direct cooperative relations and mutual support in multilateral forums, impact on Vietnam due to the following reasons: Vietnam notably the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, East occupies a prominent position in India's Look East policy; being Asia Summit. For India, strengthening its relations with Vietnam one of the 5 countries of the “BRICS” group, Indian economy is is a very important basis for achieving strategic gains in the growing rapidly and bring about many opportunities for maritime area. Vietnam should be a more comprehensive economic cooperation with Vietnam; India's relations with participant in many sectors, as the most important country for ASEAN in particular and with Asia Pacific region in general have India in Southeast Asia, so that this relationship will grow important implications for Vietnam in areas of security, economic stronger and stronger. development and trade relations. Secondly, on defense and security, Vietnam can make good use of In addition, China's rise and stiff actions in recent years in the India's defense policy as the two countries often focus on South China Sea have made security pressures more and more defensive measures. Similarly, Vietnam's military is focused on burdensome for Vietnam. India China relations, including its combating sabotage and invasion of the border with a resolute yet trade and investment relation, also have implications for soft attitude. India is constantly conducting exercises and Vietnam. Whether India chooses the path of cooperation, or both improving its defense capabilities. Besides the BrahMos missile cooperation and confrontation, in its relations with China, will be sale agreements, the Indian military has helped trained naval beneficial to Vietnam.In case of India's confrontation with China, personnel for Vietnam, and supported the use of submarines. At Vietnam will be the object that both China and India need to enlist presence, there are 500 people are trained in India, but in the the support. In this case, both China and India will try to future, this number may increase due to the demand of Vietnam. strengthen its relations with Vietnam in order to acquire its own Besides, the two countries have also reached an agreement to strategic interests. This will open up new opportunities for support Vietnam in launching the satellite and opening satellite Vietnam, especially in the trade and investment sectors, as well as controlling centre in Ho Chi Minh City. Thus, with India's shift in many other areas such such security defense, culture society… from Look East to Act East policy, Vietnam is becoming one of the On the other hand, if India China relations proceed in a good main pillars of this policy in terms of economic and military direction, it will contribute to creating a peaceful environment for relations. However, while India and Vietnam are moving the region, something which countries such as Vietnam

154 155 Ngo Xuan Binh India's Look East Policy and Vietnam's Response want to stand on either side of the dispute. However, if India desperately need for its development and international succeeds in boosting its relations with many countries, and India- integration. US cooperation in Asia continue to grow, sooner or later India will 3. Suggestions for Vietnam reacognize itself as a member of the campaign against China, even if New Delhi is unwilling to publicly oppose Beijing. India's Look East policy has gone through more than two decades. It has had significant impact on Vietnam as well as To Vietnam: Vietnam India relations. However, in order to make effective use The impact of the adjustments of India's Look East policy towards of this policy of India, Vietnam is to promote several steps as Vietnam is to be seen in Vietnam - India relations in all fields of follows: politics - diplomacy, security and defence, economy trade and First, to continue to promote the traditional friendship between cultural cooperation. The success of the Look East policy and the Vietnam and India. On the basis of the achievements made, the strengthening of India's position in Asia - Pacific region in general two sides should further strengthen their political, diplomatic, and in Southeast Asian region in particupar have had direct cooperative relations and mutual support in multilateral forums, impact on Vietnam due to the following reasons: Vietnam notably the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, East occupies a prominent position in India's Look East policy; being Asia Summit. For India, strengthening its relations with Vietnam one of the 5 countries of the “BRICS” group, Indian economy is is a very important basis for achieving strategic gains in the growing rapidly and bring about many opportunities for maritime area. Vietnam should be a more comprehensive economic cooperation with Vietnam; India's relations with participant in many sectors, as the most important country for ASEAN in particular and with Asia Pacific region in general have India in Southeast Asia, so that this relationship will grow important implications for Vietnam in areas of security, economic stronger and stronger. development and trade relations. Secondly, on defense and security, Vietnam can make good use of In addition, China's rise and stiff actions in recent years in the India's defense policy as the two countries often focus on South China Sea have made security pressures more and more defensive measures. Similarly, Vietnam's military is focused on burdensome for Vietnam. India China relations, including its combating sabotage and invasion of the border with a resolute yet trade and investment relation, also have implications for soft attitude. India is constantly conducting exercises and Vietnam. Whether India chooses the path of cooperation, or both improving its defense capabilities. Besides the BrahMos missile cooperation and confrontation, in its relations with China, will be sale agreements, the Indian military has helped trained naval beneficial to Vietnam.In case of India's confrontation with China, personnel for Vietnam, and supported the use of submarines. At Vietnam will be the object that both China and India need to enlist presence, there are 500 people are trained in India, but in the the support. In this case, both China and India will try to future, this number may increase due to the demand of Vietnam. strengthen its relations with Vietnam in order to acquire its own Besides, the two countries have also reached an agreement to strategic interests. This will open up new opportunities for support Vietnam in launching the satellite and opening satellite Vietnam, especially in the trade and investment sectors, as well as controlling centre in Ho Chi Minh City. Thus, with India's shift in many other areas such such security defense, culture society… from Look East to Act East policy, Vietnam is becoming one of the On the other hand, if India China relations proceed in a good main pillars of this policy in terms of economic and military direction, it will contribute to creating a peaceful environment for relations. However, while India and Vietnam are moving the region, something which countries such as Vietnam

154 155 Ngo Xuan Binh India's Look East Policy and Vietnam's Response forward in cooperation, the China factor should be taken into projects help reduce the risk of insecurity. At the same time, it account. China's expansive ambition in the Indian Ocean and helps enhance India's presence and footprint int he region. In Pacific Ocean is the driving force for Vietnam India cooperation. addition, this is a practical action to protect Vietnam's legitimate This cooperation will create a balance of power with China in the sovereignty and to put a pressure on China's irrational “U-shape” sea. China has been considering to support Pakistan in line. developing the submarine missiles and promoting close relations Conclusion with India's neighbors. Promoting cooperation with Vietnam may be seen as a counter move of India in China's neighborhood. It can be said that, the shifting from Look East to Act East policy of Regarding the South China Sea issue, in the face of the acts of India is a significant breakthrough in India's external relations in intimidation of sovereignty, the Vietnamese government the second decade of the 21st century. With this adjustment, continues to assert Vietnam's maritime sovereignty through India's Look East policy has become more and more military and economic activities. However, we should also be comprehensive, marking “a change in India's strategic vision in vigilant in order to maintain a peaceful cooperative atmosphere the world and India's position in the global economy”. and to prevent possible conflicts. Cooperation between India and ASEAN and North East Asia has been strengthened which has helped create new mechanisms of Thirdly, to strengthen Vietnam India economic cooperation. With regional cooperation in Asia. Thanks to the adjustment of Look India's increasing cooperation with Vietnam in recent years, East policy, India has built and developed strategic partnership domestic producers can seize the opportunity to search for new with many countries in the Asia Pacific region, thereby increased markets of resources and materials. Maintaining good its influence to become a new power in Asia to counter-balance cooperation with both China and India and other countries can with China. With the adjustment of India's Look East policy, help balance the power in the South East Asian region and help Vietnam - India cooperation has achieved significant results in Vietnam develop economically. Vietnam should also promote both bilateral and multilateral sectors. It is likely that the mutual understanding with India thereby creating a friendly adjustments of India's Look East policy will open new vistas for environment which is conducive to economic development. Vietnam - India relations in the future. Although the two sides have geographical distance, the tradition of good relationship in history is the advantageous factor. In order to create more opportunities for cooperation in the future, both sides should create more bridges of culture which help improve mutual understanding of each other. References Finally, Vietnam should step up its cooperation with India in 1. Prakash Nanda, Indian Foreign Policy under Modi, Australia India addressing the South China Sea issue, especially in encouraging Institute, Winter 2014, Volume 3, p.18. India to involve in energy projects in the EEZ and Continental 2. Vinod Anand & Rahul Mishra, 'India's 'Act East' Policy: A Perspective," Shelf of Vietnam. Naval presence and expression of viewpoints VIVEK: Issues and Options, Septerber-October 2014, Issue: III No: V, p. 27. on the South China Sea remains important, but it is not sufficient 3. "Modi reshapes India's foreign policy," DW, 30/12/2014, because naval presence is concerned with security issues and is http://dw.de/p/1ECCT easily be opposed by China. Expression of viewpoints without 4. Sara Itagaki (2016), "Understanding India's Evolving Role in Asia practical action can not prevent China's agressive acts. Economic through an ASEAN Prism, The National Bureau of Asian Research."

156 157 Ngo Xuan Binh India's Look East Policy and Vietnam's Response forward in cooperation, the China factor should be taken into projects help reduce the risk of insecurity. At the same time, it account. China's expansive ambition in the Indian Ocean and helps enhance India's presence and footprint int he region. In Pacific Ocean is the driving force for Vietnam India cooperation. addition, this is a practical action to protect Vietnam's legitimate This cooperation will create a balance of power with China in the sovereignty and to put a pressure on China's irrational “U-shape” sea. China has been considering to support Pakistan in line. developing the submarine missiles and promoting close relations Conclusion with India's neighbors. Promoting cooperation with Vietnam may be seen as a counter move of India in China's neighborhood. It can be said that, the shifting from Look East to Act East policy of Regarding the South China Sea issue, in the face of the acts of India is a significant breakthrough in India's external relations in intimidation of sovereignty, the Vietnamese government the second decade of the 21st century. With this adjustment, continues to assert Vietnam's maritime sovereignty through India's Look East policy has become more and more military and economic activities. However, we should also be comprehensive, marking “a change in India's strategic vision in vigilant in order to maintain a peaceful cooperative atmosphere the world and India's position in the global economy”. and to prevent possible conflicts. Cooperation between India and ASEAN and North East Asia has been strengthened which has helped create new mechanisms of Thirdly, to strengthen Vietnam India economic cooperation. With regional cooperation in Asia. Thanks to the adjustment of Look India's increasing cooperation with Vietnam in recent years, East policy, India has built and developed strategic partnership domestic producers can seize the opportunity to search for new with many countries in the Asia Pacific region, thereby increased markets of resources and materials. Maintaining good its influence to become a new power in Asia to counter-balance cooperation with both China and India and other countries can with China. With the adjustment of India's Look East policy, help balance the power in the South East Asian region and help Vietnam - India cooperation has achieved significant results in Vietnam develop economically. Vietnam should also promote both bilateral and multilateral sectors. It is likely that the mutual understanding with India thereby creating a friendly adjustments of India's Look East policy will open new vistas for environment which is conducive to economic development. Vietnam - India relations in the future. Although the two sides have geographical distance, the tradition of good relationship in history is the advantageous factor. In order to create more opportunities for cooperation in the future, both sides should create more bridges of culture which help improve mutual understanding of each other. References Finally, Vietnam should step up its cooperation with India in 1. Prakash Nanda, Indian Foreign Policy under Modi, Australia India addressing the South China Sea issue, especially in encouraging Institute, Winter 2014, Volume 3, p.18. India to involve in energy projects in the EEZ and Continental 2. Vinod Anand & Rahul Mishra, 'India's 'Act East' Policy: A Perspective," Shelf of Vietnam. Naval presence and expression of viewpoints VIVEK: Issues and Options, Septerber-October 2014, Issue: III No: V, p. 27. on the South China Sea remains important, but it is not sufficient 3. "Modi reshapes India's foreign policy," DW, 30/12/2014, because naval presence is concerned with security issues and is http://dw.de/p/1ECCT easily be opposed by China. Expression of viewpoints without 4. Sara Itagaki (2016), "Understanding India's Evolving Role in Asia practical action can not prevent China's agressive acts. Economic through an ASEAN Prism, The National Bureau of Asian Research."

156 157 Ngo Xuan Binh The East Sea Issue and its Impact on 5. An Nhiên, "ASEAN trong "Hành động hướng Đông" của Ấn Độ (ASEAN in India's Vietnam-India Relations A c t E a s t P o l i c y ) ," C o m m u n i s t M a g a z i n e i , o n 3 / 2 / 2 0 1 7 http://www.tapchicongsan.org.vn/Home/Binh-luan/2016/38143/ASEAN-trong- Le Thi Hang Nga Hanh-dong-huong-Dong-cua-An-Do.aspx Head, Department of Historical and Cultural Studies, Institute for Indian and Southwest Asian Studies, Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences 6. Danielle Rajendram, "India's Modi Looks East - To the Asia-Pacific," Email: [email protected] 22/12/2014, http://nationalinterest.org/feature/indias-modi-looks- east%E2%80%94-the-asia-pacific-11902 7. Scott David, "India's role in the South China Sea: Geopolitics and Geo- Abstract economics in play," India Review, 12/2/2013, p.52. This paper is an attempt to study the impact of the East Sea issue on Vietnam - 8. Michael Schuman, "Why India's Modi and Japan's Abe Need Each Other- India relations. South China Sea is called East Sea in Vietnam. I would prefer Badly," 2/9/2014, http://time.com/3255880/japan-india-narendra- to call the East Sea as the “East Vietnam Sea” in the same way as China calls it modi-shinzo-abe-business-economy-trade-china/ the “South China Sea”. By “East Vietnam Sea”, I do not mean that it is the Sea of Vietnam, but I only mean that it is the Sea on the Estern side of Vietnamese 9. Danielle Rajendram, n.6. territory.I would start with the visit to Vietnam of Indian Prime Minister in 10. "http://thediplomat.com/authors/prashanth-parameswaran September 2016. This visit was remarkable as it took place after the /"Prashanth Parameswaran, "India and ASEAN: Beyond "Looking East", announcement of the verdict of the Permanent Court Arbitration claiming 23/8/2014, http://thediplomat.com/2014/08/india-and-asean- that China has no legal basis or historic claim on the nine-dash line in the so- beyond-looking-east/. called South China Sea. The visit was even more significant as Prime Minister N. Modi chose to visit Vietnam before going to China to attend the G-20 Summit. This has a symbolic meaning. According to some researchers in Vietnam, by visiting Vietnam before travelling to China to attend the G20 Summit, the Prime Minister of India wants to send a message to the Chinese side that India attaches importance to its relations with Vietnam, that India is also playing the role of a major power in the region1. This view is also shared by Prof. Carl Thayer, Australia Institute of Defense, New South Wales University, in an exchange with the Thanh Nien, when he asserted that, the visit of Prime Minister Modi to Vietnam before the G20 Summit highlights the importance of Indo - Vietnam bilateral relation2. The paper is to assert that in the context of the emerging scenario in the South China Sea, Vietnam - India relation has undergone new significant developments: the uplifting of bilateral relation from Strategic Partnership to Comprehensive Strategic Partnership; more exchanges of high level visits (Indian Prime Minister N. Modi visited Vietnam in September 2016, Vietnam Defense Minister Ngo Xuan Lich and the President of the Congress Nguyen Thi Kim Ngan visited India in December 2016…); celebration of “Vietnam - India Friendship Year 2017” to mark the 45th anniversary of diplomatic relationship and 10th anniversary of Strategic Partnership between the two countries... Keywords: East Sea, bilateral relations, comprehensive strategic partnership.

158 159 Ngo Xuan Binh The East Sea Issue and its Impact on 5. An Nhiên, "ASEAN trong "Hành động hướng Đông" của Ấn Độ (ASEAN in India's Vietnam-India Relations A c t E a s t P o l i c y ) ," C o m m u n i s t M a g a z i n e i , o n 3 / 2 / 2 0 1 7 http://www.tapchicongsan.org.vn/Home/Binh-luan/2016/38143/ASEAN-trong- Le Thi Hang Nga Hanh-dong-huong-Dong-cua-An-Do.aspx Head, Department of Historical and Cultural Studies, Institute for Indian and Southwest Asian Studies, Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences 6. Danielle Rajendram, "India's Modi Looks East - To the Asia-Pacific," Email: [email protected] 22/12/2014, http://nationalinterest.org/feature/indias-modi-looks- east%E2%80%94-the-asia-pacific-11902 7. Scott David, "India's role in the South China Sea: Geopolitics and Geo- Abstract economics in play," India Review, 12/2/2013, p.52. This paper is an attempt to study the impact of the East Sea issue on Vietnam - 8. Michael Schuman, "Why India's Modi and Japan's Abe Need Each Other- India relations. South China Sea is called East Sea in Vietnam. I would prefer Badly," 2/9/2014, http://time.com/3255880/japan-india-narendra- to call the East Sea as the “East Vietnam Sea” in the same way as China calls it modi-shinzo-abe-business-economy-trade-china/ the “South China Sea”. By “East Vietnam Sea”, I do not mean that it is the Sea of Vietnam, but I only mean that it is the Sea on the Estern side of Vietnamese 9. Danielle Rajendram, n.6. territory.I would start with the visit to Vietnam of Indian Prime Minister in 10. "http://thediplomat.com/authors/prashanth-parameswaran September 2016. This visit was remarkable as it took place after the /"Prashanth Parameswaran, "India and ASEAN: Beyond "Looking East", announcement of the verdict of the Permanent Court Arbitration claiming 23/8/2014, http://thediplomat.com/2014/08/india-and-asean- that China has no legal basis or historic claim on the nine-dash line in the so- beyond-looking-east/. called South China Sea. The visit was even more significant as Prime Minister N. Modi chose to visit Vietnam before going to China to attend the G-20 Summit. This has a symbolic meaning. According to some researchers in Vietnam, by visiting Vietnam before travelling to China to attend the G20 Summit, the Prime Minister of India wants to send a message to the Chinese side that India attaches importance to its relations with Vietnam, that India is also playing the role of a major power in the region1. This view is also shared by Prof. Carl Thayer, Australia Institute of Defense, New South Wales University, in an exchange with the Thanh Nien, when he asserted that, the visit of Prime Minister Modi to Vietnam before the G20 Summit highlights the importance of Indo - Vietnam bilateral relation2. The paper is to assert that in the context of the emerging scenario in the South China Sea, Vietnam - India relation has undergone new significant developments: the uplifting of bilateral relation from Strategic Partnership to Comprehensive Strategic Partnership; more exchanges of high level visits (Indian Prime Minister N. Modi visited Vietnam in September 2016, Vietnam Defense Minister Ngo Xuan Lich and the President of the Congress Nguyen Thi Kim Ngan visited India in December 2016…); celebration of “Vietnam - India Friendship Year 2017” to mark the 45th anniversary of diplomatic relationship and 10th anniversary of Strategic Partnership between the two countries... Keywords: East Sea, bilateral relations, comprehensive strategic partnership.

158 159 Le Thi Hang Nga The East Sea Issue and its Impact on Vietnam-India Relations

1. Literature review coutcomes for all parties instead of being influenced by national In the early years of the 21st century, the East Sea has become a hot sentiment and egoistic considerations. The understanding and issue, attracting international attention. In Vietnam, many restraint of countries in dealing with disputes can help build a researches, seminars, articles … have addressed the issue of the space for peace and prosperity in the region. East Sea. There are a few books which received the attention of the The book titled “Kỷ yếu Hoàng Sa” (Proceedings of Paracels readers, including: : “Biển Đông: Địa chính trị, Lợi ích, Chính sách Islands)by the People Committee of Hoàng Sa (Paracels) District, và Hành động của các bên liên quan” (The East Sea: Geopolitics, Da Nang (Information and Communications Publishing House, Interests, Policy and Action of Stakeholders) by Dang Dinh Quy - 2012) is the largest book on the Paracels Island in Vietnam so far. Nguyen Minh Ngoc (ed., World Publisher, 2014). The 5 chapter The book introduces readers to the geographical location of the book focuses on political issues related to the East Sea, including Paracel Island, the importance of the Paracel Islands to Vietnam, an assessment of the role of the East Sea in terms of strategy and the process of establishment, exploitation, management and geopolitical calculations; the internal factors influencing the protection of sovereignty of the State of Vietnam through various countries' decisions on the East Sea; trend of military periods in history. The highlight of the book is the introductions modernization in the region and its impact on the East Sea of 24 winesses who lived and worked in the Paracels in the 1950s dispute; involvement of major powers such as USA, Japan, India, and 1970s of the 20th century. The book is a valuable source of Russia and Korea. The papers including in this book agree on the information, confirming the presence of the Vietnamese people geopolitical importance of the East Sea, showing the calculation of and the longstanding and continuous occupation of the interests of the regional and extra-regional countries. It is the Vietnamese State over the Paracels in history. conflicts and competition among the countries that directly affect In addition, some other prominent books include: Nguyễn Ngọc the situation in the East Sea and pose the urgent need for impulse management, a solution to the dispute, to prevent the erosion of Trường (2014), Về Vấn đề Biển Đông (On the East Sea Issue), National strategic trust which may lead to regional turmoil and conflict, Political Publishing House; Trần Công Trực (2012), Dấu ấn Việt Nam resulting in a loss for all parties. trên Biển Đông (The Imprints of Vietnam in the East Sea), Information and Communications Publishing House, … Another book edited by Dang Dinh Quy - Nguyen Minh Ngoc, namely “Biển Đông: Quản lý tranh chấp và Định hướng giải pháp” It can be said that, although there is abundance of materials on the (The East Sea: Dispute Management and Solution Orientation) East Sea issue in Vietnam, yet it is difficult to do research on this (World Publisher, 2014), discusses new developments in the East topic as there remains important gaps of information and also this Sea issue, review the legal aspects of the problem and propose is a sensitive political issues which requires carefulness in solutions for the settlement of the dispute. The 3 chapter book has research and evaluation. highlighted the causes of tension in the East Sea in recent years, 2. South China Sea Issue analyzed the political and legal aspects of the issue in a Studies in Vietnam indicate that, in the East Sea issue, there are multidimensional way, and proposed some solutions to mitigate three levels of conflicts: the first level is the conflict among the the escalation of conflicts which may lead to confrontation among countries surrounding the East Sea (China, Philippines, Malaysia, the countries. The book emphasizes common interests in the East Brunei, Vietnam); the second level is the conflict between China Sea, the possibility of cooperation among countries in resolving on the one side and ASEAN as an organization on the other; the tension and conflicts by peaceful means, resulting in beneficial

160 161 Le Thi Hang Nga The East Sea Issue and its Impact on Vietnam-India Relations

1. Literature review coutcomes for all parties instead of being influenced by national In the early years of the 21st century, the East Sea has become a hot sentiment and egoistic considerations. The understanding and issue, attracting international attention. In Vietnam, many restraint of countries in dealing with disputes can help build a researches, seminars, articles … have addressed the issue of the space for peace and prosperity in the region. East Sea. There are a few books which received the attention of the The book titled “Kỷ yếu Hoàng Sa” (Proceedings of Paracels readers, including: : “Biển Đông: Địa chính trị, Lợi ích, Chính sách Islands)by the People Committee of Hoàng Sa (Paracels) District, và Hành động của các bên liên quan” (The East Sea: Geopolitics, Da Nang (Information and Communications Publishing House, Interests, Policy and Action of Stakeholders) by Dang Dinh Quy - 2012) is the largest book on the Paracels Island in Vietnam so far. Nguyen Minh Ngoc (ed., World Publisher, 2014). The 5 chapter The book introduces readers to the geographical location of the book focuses on political issues related to the East Sea, including Paracel Island, the importance of the Paracel Islands to Vietnam, an assessment of the role of the East Sea in terms of strategy and the process of establishment, exploitation, management and geopolitical calculations; the internal factors influencing the protection of sovereignty of the State of Vietnam through various countries' decisions on the East Sea; trend of military periods in history. The highlight of the book is the introductions modernization in the region and its impact on the East Sea of 24 winesses who lived and worked in the Paracels in the 1950s dispute; involvement of major powers such as USA, Japan, India, and 1970s of the 20th century. The book is a valuable source of Russia and Korea. The papers including in this book agree on the information, confirming the presence of the Vietnamese people geopolitical importance of the East Sea, showing the calculation of and the longstanding and continuous occupation of the interests of the regional and extra-regional countries. It is the Vietnamese State over the Paracels in history. conflicts and competition among the countries that directly affect In addition, some other prominent books include: Nguyễn Ngọc the situation in the East Sea and pose the urgent need for impulse management, a solution to the dispute, to prevent the erosion of Trường (2014), Về Vấn đề Biển Đông (On the East Sea Issue), National strategic trust which may lead to regional turmoil and conflict, Political Publishing House; Trần Công Trực (2012), Dấu ấn Việt Nam resulting in a loss for all parties. trên Biển Đông (The Imprints of Vietnam in the East Sea), Information and Communications Publishing House, … Another book edited by Dang Dinh Quy - Nguyen Minh Ngoc, namely “Biển Đông: Quản lý tranh chấp và Định hướng giải pháp” It can be said that, although there is abundance of materials on the (The East Sea: Dispute Management and Solution Orientation) East Sea issue in Vietnam, yet it is difficult to do research on this (World Publisher, 2014), discusses new developments in the East topic as there remains important gaps of information and also this Sea issue, review the legal aspects of the problem and propose is a sensitive political issues which requires carefulness in solutions for the settlement of the dispute. The 3 chapter book has research and evaluation. highlighted the causes of tension in the East Sea in recent years, 2. South China Sea Issue analyzed the political and legal aspects of the issue in a Studies in Vietnam indicate that, in the East Sea issue, there are multidimensional way, and proposed some solutions to mitigate three levels of conflicts: the first level is the conflict among the the escalation of conflicts which may lead to confrontation among countries surrounding the East Sea (China, Philippines, Malaysia, the countries. The book emphasizes common interests in the East Brunei, Vietnam); the second level is the conflict between China Sea, the possibility of cooperation among countries in resolving on the one side and ASEAN as an organization on the other; the tension and conflicts by peaceful means, resulting in beneficial

160 161 Le Thi Hang Nga The East Sea Issue and its Impact on Vietnam-India Relations third level is the conflict among Asia Pacific powers, notably century of the ocean. The issue of maritime freedom and safety is China, the United States and Japan. The countries at the first level particularly emphasized, as the apprearance of new maritime of conflict are directly involved in the dispute, but it is the powers is affecting the international maritime order, along with interaction and competition among the countries at the third level the awareness that maritime routes are not just limited within one which have greater impact to the trends of tention and conflict. It region, but the maritime transport network is the lifeblood of an can be said that, the disputes in the East Sea tends to be resolved integrated whole, extending far beyond the Asia-Pacific region to by the will of the major countries at the third level. cover the entire oceans of Oceania, South Pacific Ocean and Conflict in the East Sea is not a new issue, it is an issue that has Indian Ocean. deep roots in history. Vietnam and China had naval battles as For Beijing, the East Sea is the focus of China's “maritime power” early as 1974. However, tension in the East Sea issue has really strategy which was reaffirmed by the XVIII Congress of the intensified since 2009. On 7th May 2009, for the first time, China Chinese Communist Party. The political report of the XVIII officially made its claim on the nine dot lines which occupies over Congress, dated 8 November 2012, reads: “Building the capacity 80% of the East Sea. On 8th March 2009, the US surveillance ship for marine resources exploitation, marine economic USNS Impeccable was harassed by Chinese ships. In addition, development, protection of marine ecological environment, China increased the US's concerns when it officially viewed the resolute protection of national marine rights and interests, East Sea as part of China's “core interests” at par with Taiwan and building the sea power”.5 The East Sea becomes the most Tibet. Thus, as rightly pointed out by Daniel Schaeffer, China important area for China to assert is marine power. Without the made concrete steps to “territorialize” the East Sea.3 East Sea, China's geopolitical policy on marine power is nearly Consequently, on 23 July 2010, the US signed the Treaty of Amity empty. However, China's escalation of assertiveness in the East and Cooperation (TAC) at the ARF meeting in Hanoi. The US Sea has prompted other major states to re-engage into the region. Secretary of State attracted the world's attention by stating that, The East Sea continues to be a regional political-security hotspot. freedom of navigation in the East Sea is the US's “national 4 Among the Southeast Asian countries involved in the dispute, interests”. The East Sea has become one of the distant defensive unlike Malaysia and Brunei, both Vietnam and the Philippines directions of the US. The US are determined to set up missile have territorial disputes with China over the Spratly Islands. In defence system in which South East Asia/ the East Sea is a part of addition, Vietnam has bilateral dispute with China over the a system linking North Japan with the western sea of the Paracels, the Philippines have bilateral dispute with China over Phillippines. The East Sea has become a place where “the tigers the Scarborough Shoal. So it can also be said that at the innermost reside”. So, since 2010, from a bilateral issue, the East Sea has level of the East Sea dispute, the confrontation centred on the become a multilateral issue involving ASEAN countries and dispute between China and Vietnam Philippines. The second or other major powers. This is one of the most complicated disputes middle level of the dispute relates to the confrontation between in the world, related to maritime sovereignty, international law, China on the one side and Southeast Asian countries as a bloc, i.e. international economic and maritime security. It involves not ASEAN, on the other side. Although not all ASEAN countries are only the coastal states of the East Sea, but also the geopotitical involved in the disputes, ASEAN itself has benefits in the interests of many countries in Asia Pacific and most of major successful settlement of dispute among its member countries countries in the world. with China. This will help ensure peace, security, freedom of Looking beyond the East Sea issue, the 21st century is considered navigation in the region as well as enhance ASEAN's political

162 163 Le Thi Hang Nga The East Sea Issue and its Impact on Vietnam-India Relations third level is the conflict among Asia Pacific powers, notably century of the ocean. The issue of maritime freedom and safety is China, the United States and Japan. The countries at the first level particularly emphasized, as the apprearance of new maritime of conflict are directly involved in the dispute, but it is the powers is affecting the international maritime order, along with interaction and competition among the countries at the third level the awareness that maritime routes are not just limited within one which have greater impact to the trends of tention and conflict. It region, but the maritime transport network is the lifeblood of an can be said that, the disputes in the East Sea tends to be resolved integrated whole, extending far beyond the Asia-Pacific region to by the will of the major countries at the third level. cover the entire oceans of Oceania, South Pacific Ocean and Conflict in the East Sea is not a new issue, it is an issue that has Indian Ocean. deep roots in history. Vietnam and China had naval battles as For Beijing, the East Sea is the focus of China's “maritime power” early as 1974. However, tension in the East Sea issue has really strategy which was reaffirmed by the XVIII Congress of the intensified since 2009. On 7th May 2009, for the first time, China Chinese Communist Party. The political report of the XVIII officially made its claim on the nine dot lines which occupies over Congress, dated 8 November 2012, reads: “Building the capacity 80% of the East Sea. On 8th March 2009, the US surveillance ship for marine resources exploitation, marine economic USNS Impeccable was harassed by Chinese ships. In addition, development, protection of marine ecological environment, China increased the US's concerns when it officially viewed the resolute protection of national marine rights and interests, East Sea as part of China's “core interests” at par with Taiwan and building the sea power”.5 The East Sea becomes the most Tibet. Thus, as rightly pointed out by Daniel Schaeffer, China important area for China to assert is marine power. Without the made concrete steps to “territorialize” the East Sea.3 East Sea, China's geopolitical policy on marine power is nearly Consequently, on 23 July 2010, the US signed the Treaty of Amity empty. However, China's escalation of assertiveness in the East and Cooperation (TAC) at the ARF meeting in Hanoi. The US Sea has prompted other major states to re-engage into the region. Secretary of State attracted the world's attention by stating that, The East Sea continues to be a regional political-security hotspot. freedom of navigation in the East Sea is the US's “national 4 Among the Southeast Asian countries involved in the dispute, interests”. The East Sea has become one of the distant defensive unlike Malaysia and Brunei, both Vietnam and the Philippines directions of the US. The US are determined to set up missile have territorial disputes with China over the Spratly Islands. In defence system in which South East Asia/ the East Sea is a part of addition, Vietnam has bilateral dispute with China over the a system linking North Japan with the western sea of the Paracels, the Philippines have bilateral dispute with China over Phillippines. The East Sea has become a place where “the tigers the Scarborough Shoal. So it can also be said that at the innermost reside”. So, since 2010, from a bilateral issue, the East Sea has level of the East Sea dispute, the confrontation centred on the become a multilateral issue involving ASEAN countries and dispute between China and Vietnam Philippines. The second or other major powers. This is one of the most complicated disputes middle level of the dispute relates to the confrontation between in the world, related to maritime sovereignty, international law, China on the one side and Southeast Asian countries as a bloc, i.e. international economic and maritime security. It involves not ASEAN, on the other side. Although not all ASEAN countries are only the coastal states of the East Sea, but also the geopotitical involved in the disputes, ASEAN itself has benefits in the interests of many countries in Asia Pacific and most of major successful settlement of dispute among its member countries countries in the world. with China. This will help ensure peace, security, freedom of Looking beyond the East Sea issue, the 21st century is considered navigation in the region as well as enhance ASEAN's political

162 163 Le Thi Hang Nga The East Sea Issue and its Impact on Vietnam-India Relations significance and position. The strategic shift at this level of remains unresolves territorial disputes between China and India. dispute is also very complicated as some of the ASEAN members In addition, China has increased its penetration into South Asia who are not directly involved in the dispute have different and Indian Ocean region which is traditionally under India's positions in dealing with the East Sea issue. While countries like influence. Therefore, New Delhi desires to find a partner which is Indonesia and Singapore are more resolute in dealing with China, capable and reliable enough to help India increase its presence in primarily because of its fear of China's ambitions in the region, South East Asian region as a necessary counterweight to China. other countries such as Thailand, Myanmar and especially The Indian policy makers generally support a closer strategic Cambodia, do not show any firm attitude, if not to say that they relationship between Vietnam and India.8 are somewhat compromising to China's illegal claims in the East Regarding Vietnam's foreign policy, it is to be noted that, Sea. However, as an organization, ASEAN is trying hard to Vietnam's foreign policy is now operating on the basis of demonstrate a unified and proactive role in handling the East Sea multilaterialization and diversification. Vietnam not only dispute and its relations with China. This is most clearly reflected promotes its relations with India, but also strengthens its relations in its being chair in the negotiations to build the Code of Conduct 6 with other major countries in the region such as Japan, South in the East Sea with China. Korea, ASEAN members… However, Vietnam has given great 3. Implications for India and Vietnam importance to its relations to India. By signing the Some hard-line officials and scholars in New Delhi are of the Comprehensive Strategic Partnership with India in September opinion that, Vietnam can play a similar role to India as Pakistan's 2016, Vietnam has made India its third Comprehensive Strategic role to China. India should step up its defence cooperation with Partnership besides Russia and China. Vietnam, making Vietnam a strong counterweight both in terms Vietnam is a coastal country with the total water area under the of diplomacy and defence on the southern border of China to sovereignty, sovereign rights and jurisdiction of Vietnam about contain Beijing. Some others emphasize the strategic beliefs as one million square kilometer. With this sea area, along with 3260 well as the pragmatism of Vietnam's foreign policy and therefore km coastline and more than 3000 islands being adjacent to the argue that Vietnam's role to India can not and should not be the main international sea lanes, Vietnam has an important strategic 7 same as Pakistan's role (to China). location in South East Asia and in the East Sea. In the 21st century However, it should be emphasized that though China may be the “a century of the ocean”, the sea is of great significance and is vital important factor, it is not the only important factor shaping for the cause of national reconstruction and modernization of Vietnam India Comprehensive Strategic Partnership. It can be Vietnam. said that, Vietnam India relation is built on the basis of sharing The East Sea issue is currently the biggest challenge for Vietnam interests in the maintenance of peace and stability in Asia-Pacific foreign policy in terms of security defence. It has great impact on region and a just order based on the rule law. The China factor can the future of the nation. Addressing the East Sea issue is no easy be seen as an important catalyst for strengthening the strategic task as it involves not only China but also many intra and extra partnership between Vietnam and India. China's unilateral and regional countries. Being an independent actor in the assertive policy towards the disputed territories is adversely international system in the East Sea, but Vietnam has moderate affecting the security environment of the both Vietnam and India. strength in Southeast Asia. Therefore, Vietnam has to formulate a And so, Vietnam's rapproachment with India on defense security policy which is not based on strength but on wisdom and cooperation is something which can be anticipated. There tactfulness. Some suggestions for the policy of Vietnam are as

164 165 Le Thi Hang Nga The East Sea Issue and its Impact on Vietnam-India Relations significance and position. The strategic shift at this level of remains unresolves territorial disputes between China and India. dispute is also very complicated as some of the ASEAN members In addition, China has increased its penetration into South Asia who are not directly involved in the dispute have different and Indian Ocean region which is traditionally under India's positions in dealing with the East Sea issue. While countries like influence. Therefore, New Delhi desires to find a partner which is Indonesia and Singapore are more resolute in dealing with China, capable and reliable enough to help India increase its presence in primarily because of its fear of China's ambitions in the region, South East Asian region as a necessary counterweight to China. other countries such as Thailand, Myanmar and especially The Indian policy makers generally support a closer strategic Cambodia, do not show any firm attitude, if not to say that they relationship between Vietnam and India.8 are somewhat compromising to China's illegal claims in the East Regarding Vietnam's foreign policy, it is to be noted that, Sea. However, as an organization, ASEAN is trying hard to Vietnam's foreign policy is now operating on the basis of demonstrate a unified and proactive role in handling the East Sea multilaterialization and diversification. Vietnam not only dispute and its relations with China. This is most clearly reflected promotes its relations with India, but also strengthens its relations in its being chair in the negotiations to build the Code of Conduct 6 with other major countries in the region such as Japan, South in the East Sea with China. Korea, ASEAN members… However, Vietnam has given great 3. Implications for India and Vietnam importance to its relations to India. By signing the Some hard-line officials and scholars in New Delhi are of the Comprehensive Strategic Partnership with India in September opinion that, Vietnam can play a similar role to India as Pakistan's 2016, Vietnam has made India its third Comprehensive Strategic role to China. India should step up its defence cooperation with Partnership besides Russia and China. Vietnam, making Vietnam a strong counterweight both in terms Vietnam is a coastal country with the total water area under the of diplomacy and defence on the southern border of China to sovereignty, sovereign rights and jurisdiction of Vietnam about contain Beijing. Some others emphasize the strategic beliefs as one million square kilometer. With this sea area, along with 3260 well as the pragmatism of Vietnam's foreign policy and therefore km coastline and more than 3000 islands being adjacent to the argue that Vietnam's role to India can not and should not be the main international sea lanes, Vietnam has an important strategic 7 same as Pakistan's role (to China). location in South East Asia and in the East Sea. In the 21st century However, it should be emphasized that though China may be the “a century of the ocean”, the sea is of great significance and is vital important factor, it is not the only important factor shaping for the cause of national reconstruction and modernization of Vietnam India Comprehensive Strategic Partnership. It can be Vietnam. said that, Vietnam India relation is built on the basis of sharing The East Sea issue is currently the biggest challenge for Vietnam interests in the maintenance of peace and stability in Asia-Pacific foreign policy in terms of security defence. It has great impact on region and a just order based on the rule law. The China factor can the future of the nation. Addressing the East Sea issue is no easy be seen as an important catalyst for strengthening the strategic task as it involves not only China but also many intra and extra partnership between Vietnam and India. China's unilateral and regional countries. Being an independent actor in the assertive policy towards the disputed territories is adversely international system in the East Sea, but Vietnam has moderate affecting the security environment of the both Vietnam and India. strength in Southeast Asia. Therefore, Vietnam has to formulate a And so, Vietnam's rapproachment with India on defense security policy which is not based on strength but on wisdom and cooperation is something which can be anticipated. There tactfulness. Some suggestions for the policy of Vietnam are as

164 165 Le Thi Hang Nga The East Sea Issue and its Impact on Vietnam-India Relations follows: First, to call for international support. In the East Sea the two countries on the one hand, and enhance and expand issue, the most important thing is the support of the international bilateral cooperation in new fields such as cooperation in the community. Secondly, to continuously find ways to increase exploitation and use of outer space for peaceful purposes, national strength. Thirdly, to support the democratization of cooperation on cyber security, exchange of non-military marine international politics. Fourthly, to take the advantage of information, cooperation in the construction of infrastructure for diplomatic relations, to improve negotiating skills. the training of high quality information and technology… 4. Promotion of Vietnam - India relation Since the visit of the Prime Minister Modi's visit to Vietnam in In the context of the increasing tension in the East Sea, Vietnam September 2016, there has been vibrant development in political- India relation has become closer. The East Sea issue has had diplomatic activities between the two sides…Shortly after the positive impact on Vietnam India relations. Bilateral relation has visit of the Indian Prime Minister to Hanoi, Vietnam has had two been elevated to Strategic Partnership in 2007 and then to official visits by senior leaders to India: Defense Minister Ngo Comprehensive Strategic Partnership in 2016. India has often Xuan Lich and Chairperson of the National Assembly Nguyen emphasized that Vietnam is among the most important partners Thi Kim Ngan, both in December 2016. in its “Act East Policy”. Vietnam has also emphasized that India is Regarding economic cooperation, which has always been an among its most important partners in the region. While bilateral important topic of discussions during the meetings of the leaders relations in all areas including politics, diplomacy, defence of the two sides, both sides stressed the strengthening of security, economy, information technology, culture, education, economic cooperation as a strategic goal. According to Madam tourism… have been strengthened, it is the cooperation in Preeti Saran, Secretary (East), Ministry of External Affairs of security-defence which has the fastest growth in recent years. India, in recent years, bilateral trade between Vietnam and India Regarding bilateral political-diplomatic activities, there have been has increased at 26 per cent/a year. Currently, bilateral trade 9 frequent visits by high-level leaders of both countries to each stands at about 8 billion USD. The two sides set the target of other. Prime Minister Narendra Modi made an official visit to raising bilateral trade to 15 billion USD in 2020. The two sides Vietnam on 2-3 September 2016. During this visit, PM Modi had focus on encouraging each other's strengths in the fields of textiles meetings with Vietnamese PM Nguyễn Xuân Phúc, witnessed the and garments, pharmacheuticals, machinery, information signing of 12 cooperation documents between the two countries; technology and services. Statistics of the General Department of pay greetings to the Secretary General Nguyễn Phú Trọng, the Customs show that, bilateral trade between Vietnam and India 10 President Trần Đại Quang, the Chairman of the National Assembly Nguyễn has increased both in quality and quantity. Thị Kim Ngân; laying a wreath at the memorial of national heroes and The recent new developments in bilateral economic relation martyrs, paying homage to the President Ho Chi Minh, visited include the opening of the branch of the Bank of India in Ho Chi Uncle Ho's stilt house and visited Quán Sứ Pagoda in Hanoi. The Minh City, Vietnam since July 2016 and the possibility of starting visit to Vietnam of Prime Minister Modi brought about some direct flights to India by Vietnamese carriers by the end of 2017. In important results: both sides signed a Joint Statement, 12 addition, most recently in 2017, India has lifted import ban on six cooperation documents in which there is an MOU on the commodities of Vietnam including coffe beans. Vietnam has also cooperation between Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences and removed suspension on imports of five commodities of India Indian Council of World Affairs. The signing of these cooperative including pods and seeds of peanuts…11 documents helps consolidate the strong traditional ties between

166 167 Le Thi Hang Nga The East Sea Issue and its Impact on Vietnam-India Relations follows: First, to call for international support. In the East Sea the two countries on the one hand, and enhance and expand issue, the most important thing is the support of the international bilateral cooperation in new fields such as cooperation in the community. Secondly, to continuously find ways to increase exploitation and use of outer space for peaceful purposes, national strength. Thirdly, to support the democratization of cooperation on cyber security, exchange of non-military marine international politics. Fourthly, to take the advantage of information, cooperation in the construction of infrastructure for diplomatic relations, to improve negotiating skills. the training of high quality information and technology… 4. Promotion of Vietnam - India relation Since the visit of the Prime Minister Modi's visit to Vietnam in In the context of the increasing tension in the East Sea, Vietnam September 2016, there has been vibrant development in political- India relation has become closer. The East Sea issue has had diplomatic activities between the two sides…Shortly after the positive impact on Vietnam India relations. Bilateral relation has visit of the Indian Prime Minister to Hanoi, Vietnam has had two been elevated to Strategic Partnership in 2007 and then to official visits by senior leaders to India: Defense Minister Ngo Comprehensive Strategic Partnership in 2016. India has often Xuan Lich and Chairperson of the National Assembly Nguyen emphasized that Vietnam is among the most important partners Thi Kim Ngan, both in December 2016. in its “Act East Policy”. Vietnam has also emphasized that India is Regarding economic cooperation, which has always been an among its most important partners in the region. While bilateral important topic of discussions during the meetings of the leaders relations in all areas including politics, diplomacy, defence of the two sides, both sides stressed the strengthening of security, economy, information technology, culture, education, economic cooperation as a strategic goal. According to Madam tourism… have been strengthened, it is the cooperation in Preeti Saran, Secretary (East), Ministry of External Affairs of security-defence which has the fastest growth in recent years. India, in recent years, bilateral trade between Vietnam and India Regarding bilateral political-diplomatic activities, there have been has increased at 26 per cent/a year. Currently, bilateral trade 9 frequent visits by high-level leaders of both countries to each stands at about 8 billion USD. The two sides set the target of other. Prime Minister Narendra Modi made an official visit to raising bilateral trade to 15 billion USD in 2020. The two sides Vietnam on 2-3 September 2016. During this visit, PM Modi had focus on encouraging each other's strengths in the fields of textiles meetings with Vietnamese PM Nguyễn Xuân Phúc, witnessed the and garments, pharmacheuticals, machinery, information signing of 12 cooperation documents between the two countries; technology and services. Statistics of the General Department of pay greetings to the Secretary General Nguyễn Phú Trọng, the Customs show that, bilateral trade between Vietnam and India 10 President Trần Đại Quang, the Chairman of the National Assembly Nguyễn has increased both in quality and quantity. Thị Kim Ngân; laying a wreath at the memorial of national heroes and The recent new developments in bilateral economic relation martyrs, paying homage to the President Ho Chi Minh, visited include the opening of the branch of the Bank of India in Ho Chi Uncle Ho's stilt house and visited Quán Sứ Pagoda in Hanoi. The Minh City, Vietnam since July 2016 and the possibility of starting visit to Vietnam of Prime Minister Modi brought about some direct flights to India by Vietnamese carriers by the end of 2017. In important results: both sides signed a Joint Statement, 12 addition, most recently in 2017, India has lifted import ban on six cooperation documents in which there is an MOU on the commodities of Vietnam including coffe beans. Vietnam has also cooperation between Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences and removed suspension on imports of five commodities of India Indian Council of World Affairs. The signing of these cooperative including pods and seeds of peanuts…11 documents helps consolidate the strong traditional ties between

166 167 Le Thi Hang Nga The East Sea Issue and its Impact on Vietnam-India Relations

Regarding cultural, educational, technological cooperation, though itis announced India's support to Vietnam with 5 million USD to not the focus at the meeting tables of the leaders of the two sides in build the Software Park in Nha Trang University of high-level visits, yet it isan important aspect. This is evident in the Telecommunications. The agreement of space cooperation also fact that in his one day visit to Hanoi in September 2016 and enables the two sides to carry out collaborative activities in this despite a very tight schedule, the Indian Prime Miniser took time field. The Cultural Centre of India has also been established. Now to visit Quán Sứ Pagoda, reminding everyone of the cultural and classes of Indian dance and yoga have been opened, attracting the religious bonds between Vietnam and India over 2,000 years ago. participation of many Vietnamese, especially the youth. The In many events celebrating 45 years of diplomatic relations and 10 Institute of Archaelogy of India has planned restoration work at years of Strategic Parnership between Vietnam and India, the Mỹ Sơn Champa towers… organizing of Indian Buddhist Days Festivals at the Mandala Regarding security - defence cooperation, it is a key area of bilateral Great Stupa, Tay Thien Pagoda, Vinh Phuc province in Vietnam is cooperation. There has been momentum for new developments an important one. The event has helped revive the cultural and indefence sector when Prime Minister Modi announced to offer spiritual connections between Vietnam and India through Vietnam a credit line worth US$500 million. This announcement Buddhism. Speaking at the opening ceremony of the event, has proved India's explicit commitment to assist Vietnam in Indian Ambassador to Vietnam H. Parish recalled Prime Minister strengthening its defence capabilities.13 The visit to India by Modi's words during his visit to Vietnam, that many external Defense Minister Ngo Xuan Lich on 7 December 2016 was also an actors had come to Vietnam in history, but they had come with the important event in bilateral defence cooperation. Accompanying message of war. India has come to Vietnam with the message of the Defense Minister was an unprecedented 30-member peace. Those who came with the message of war have no place in delegation, including the Chief of Staff and Deputy Chief of Staff the hearts of the Vietnamese people. India has come with the of the Air Force and the Navy of Vietnam. Within the framework message of peace and therefore it will surely have a solid place in of bilateral Comprehensive Strategic Partnership, General Ngo 12 the hearts of the Vietnamese people. Xuan Lich has sought to multiply the success of the two countries' Most recently, on 21 April 2017, at Hanoi Opera House, Vietnam naval cooperation as well as military and air cooperation. India Arts Programs was organized to inaugurate the Vietnam Over the past year, defense cooperation has proved to be a key India Friendship Year 2017. The cultural show featured pillar in the Comprehensive Strategic Partnership between the performances by four classical Indian dance: Kuchipudi, two sides. Indian vessels have frequently made friendly visits to Bharatanatyam, Odissi and Kathak as well as a concert between Vietnamese ports. For the first time, a Vietnamese vessel the Indian Army Corps and the People's Army of Vietnam. The participated in the International Fleet Review (IFR) in event has really impressed Vietnamese audiences, helped Vishakhapatnam, India in February 2016. The purpose of the promoting awareness in Vietnam about the richness of Indian cooperation between the two navies is to maintain maritime order culture. and safeguard sea trade from threats such as piracy, terrorism...14 With a view to promoting cultural, educational and people to Through marine cooperation with Vietnam, India also wants to people exchanges, India is committed to continue to provide convey the messages to other partners that India is commited to many scholarships for Vietnamese students and staffs, and adhering to global rules and promoting peace and stability in the special scholarships for Buddhist studies in India. PM Modi Asia Pacific region, including the settlement of the disputes in the East Sea.15

168 169 Le Thi Hang Nga The East Sea Issue and its Impact on Vietnam-India Relations

Regarding cultural, educational, technological cooperation, though itis announced India's support to Vietnam with 5 million USD to not the focus at the meeting tables of the leaders of the two sides in build the Software Park in Nha Trang University of high-level visits, yet it isan important aspect. This is evident in the Telecommunications. The agreement of space cooperation also fact that in his one day visit to Hanoi in September 2016 and enables the two sides to carry out collaborative activities in this despite a very tight schedule, the Indian Prime Miniser took time field. The Cultural Centre of India has also been established. Now to visit Quán Sứ Pagoda, reminding everyone of the cultural and classes of Indian dance and yoga have been opened, attracting the religious bonds between Vietnam and India over 2,000 years ago. participation of many Vietnamese, especially the youth. The In many events celebrating 45 years of diplomatic relations and 10 Institute of Archaelogy of India has planned restoration work at years of Strategic Parnership between Vietnam and India, the Mỹ Sơn Champa towers… organizing of Indian Buddhist Days Festivals at the Mandala Regarding security - defence cooperation, it is a key area of bilateral Great Stupa, Tay Thien Pagoda, Vinh Phuc province in Vietnam is cooperation. There has been momentum for new developments an important one. The event has helped revive the cultural and indefence sector when Prime Minister Modi announced to offer spiritual connections between Vietnam and India through Vietnam a credit line worth US$500 million. This announcement Buddhism. Speaking at the opening ceremony of the event, has proved India's explicit commitment to assist Vietnam in Indian Ambassador to Vietnam H. Parish recalled Prime Minister strengthening its defence capabilities.13 The visit to India by Modi's words during his visit to Vietnam, that many external Defense Minister Ngo Xuan Lich on 7 December 2016 was also an actors had come to Vietnam in history, but they had come with the important event in bilateral defence cooperation. Accompanying message of war. India has come to Vietnam with the message of the Defense Minister was an unprecedented 30-member peace. Those who came with the message of war have no place in delegation, including the Chief of Staff and Deputy Chief of Staff the hearts of the Vietnamese people. India has come with the of the Air Force and the Navy of Vietnam. Within the framework message of peace and therefore it will surely have a solid place in of bilateral Comprehensive Strategic Partnership, General Ngo 12 the hearts of the Vietnamese people. Xuan Lich has sought to multiply the success of the two countries' Most recently, on 21 April 2017, at Hanoi Opera House, Vietnam naval cooperation as well as military and air cooperation. India Arts Programs was organized to inaugurate the Vietnam Over the past year, defense cooperation has proved to be a key India Friendship Year 2017. The cultural show featured pillar in the Comprehensive Strategic Partnership between the performances by four classical Indian dance: Kuchipudi, two sides. Indian vessels have frequently made friendly visits to Bharatanatyam, Odissi and Kathak as well as a concert between Vietnamese ports. For the first time, a Vietnamese vessel the Indian Army Corps and the People's Army of Vietnam. The participated in the International Fleet Review (IFR) in event has really impressed Vietnamese audiences, helped Vishakhapatnam, India in February 2016. The purpose of the promoting awareness in Vietnam about the richness of Indian cooperation between the two navies is to maintain maritime order culture. and safeguard sea trade from threats such as piracy, terrorism...14 With a view to promoting cultural, educational and people to Through marine cooperation with Vietnam, India also wants to people exchanges, India is committed to continue to provide convey the messages to other partners that India is commited to many scholarships for Vietnamese students and staffs, and adhering to global rules and promoting peace and stability in the special scholarships for Buddhist studies in India. PM Modi Asia Pacific region, including the settlement of the disputes in the East Sea.15

168 169 Le Thi Hang Nga The East Sea Issue and its Impact on Vietnam-India Relations

Negotiations on the possibilities of the sale of the MrahMos and weapons of Vietnamese navy. Currently, 500 submarine sailors Akash missiles proves the effective and substantial are being trained under the coopration agreement between the implementation of Vietnam - India Comprehensive Strategic two countries. In addition, Vietnam and India have great Partnership over the past year, making it “one of the strongest potential for collaboration in border control. Both sides face issues relations in the region”.16 In principle, India has agreed to sell the such as smuggling, narcotics, human trafficking and light BrahMos missile to Vietnam and negotiations is going on. weapons trade through land and sea borders.19 Meanwhile, India has offered to sell the Akash missile to Vietnam. The visit to Vietnam of Prime Minister Modi took place shortly The Akash missile has an intercept range of 25 km against enemy after the decralation of International Tribunal Court against planes, helicopters and drones. Vietnam has shown “keen 17 China's claim on the 9 dot line of the South China Sea (12 July interest” in acquiring the Akash missile . Comparing to the 2016). This also has important implication. Although India is not a BrahMos, the sale of the Akash missile is easier because 96 percent claimant in the South China Sea, it has its economic and political of the system is indigenous. The BrahMos missile is a product of interests and needs to protect its interests in the area. In addition the joint venture between India and Russia with over 60 percent of to its direct economic interests (India is engaged in oil exploration its components being imported from Russia. When the deal is in the offshore waters of Vietnam, the ONGC takes part in oil and completed, the presence of the Akash missile in the defense gas exploration activities in the waters claimed by Vietnam), system of Vietnam will help strengthen its military capacity India also has the benefits in ensuring maritime safety in the substantially, increase its defense strength in the face of a South China Sea. South China Sea is an important waterway for powerful China, prevent China from a pre-emptive attack as it 18 India's trade with ASEAN countries as well as with Japan, Taiwan may provoke a larger scale retaliation. and South Korea. Moreover, historically and culturally, South In addition to the arms sales, India and Vietnam continue to use China Sea is a zone where the traces of Indian civilization spread informal diplomatic channels, confidence building measures and out to the region and therefore, any domination by China will joint exercises to enhance defence cooperation between the two reduce the space for India's Look East Policy (now Act East countries. The two sides has also pledged to promote defence Policy). The visit of the Indian Prime Minister to Vietnam in this cooperation through collaboration in anti-terrorism and context re-affirms India's position that it attaches importance to transnational crimes. the protection of freedom of maritime navigation and the peaceful settlement of disputes in accordance with the United Before the visit of Prime Minister Modi to Vietnam, the Joint Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the Statement on the Vision of India Vietnam Defense Relations for respect of the International Tribunal Court on the South China Sea the period 2015-2020 was the driving force for bilateral defense issue on July 12, 2016.20 India's maritime military strategy in 2015 relations. The upgrading of bilateral relations to Comprehensive as well as its earlier versions describe the East Sea as a strategic Strategic Partnership during the Indian Prime Minister's visit in interest area for India. Visiting Vietnam before going to China to September 2016 has provided new framework for bilateral attend the G20 Summit, the Indian Prime Minister may want to defence cooperation. Vietnam and India have the potentials to send to China the message that India attaches its importance to its promote cooperation in defence industry because both sides own relations with Vietnam and India is acting as a major player in the and operate systems originating from Russia (former Soviet 21 Union). India owns more than 200 Su-30 MKI fighter jets and 09 region. kilo diesel electric submarines which are also the most advanced

170 171 Le Thi Hang Nga The East Sea Issue and its Impact on Vietnam-India Relations

Negotiations on the possibilities of the sale of the MrahMos and weapons of Vietnamese navy. Currently, 500 submarine sailors Akash missiles proves the effective and substantial are being trained under the coopration agreement between the implementation of Vietnam - India Comprehensive Strategic two countries. In addition, Vietnam and India have great Partnership over the past year, making it “one of the strongest potential for collaboration in border control. Both sides face issues relations in the region”.16 In principle, India has agreed to sell the such as smuggling, narcotics, human trafficking and light BrahMos missile to Vietnam and negotiations is going on. weapons trade through land and sea borders.19 Meanwhile, India has offered to sell the Akash missile to Vietnam. The visit to Vietnam of Prime Minister Modi took place shortly The Akash missile has an intercept range of 25 km against enemy after the decralation of International Tribunal Court against planes, helicopters and drones. Vietnam has shown “keen 17 China's claim on the 9 dot line of the South China Sea (12 July interest” in acquiring the Akash missile . Comparing to the 2016). This also has important implication. Although India is not a BrahMos, the sale of the Akash missile is easier because 96 percent claimant in the South China Sea, it has its economic and political of the system is indigenous. The BrahMos missile is a product of interests and needs to protect its interests in the area. In addition the joint venture between India and Russia with over 60 percent of to its direct economic interests (India is engaged in oil exploration its components being imported from Russia. When the deal is in the offshore waters of Vietnam, the ONGC takes part in oil and completed, the presence of the Akash missile in the defense gas exploration activities in the waters claimed by Vietnam), system of Vietnam will help strengthen its military capacity India also has the benefits in ensuring maritime safety in the substantially, increase its defense strength in the face of a South China Sea. South China Sea is an important waterway for powerful China, prevent China from a pre-emptive attack as it 18 India's trade with ASEAN countries as well as with Japan, Taiwan may provoke a larger scale retaliation. and South Korea. Moreover, historically and culturally, South In addition to the arms sales, India and Vietnam continue to use China Sea is a zone where the traces of Indian civilization spread informal diplomatic channels, confidence building measures and out to the region and therefore, any domination by China will joint exercises to enhance defence cooperation between the two reduce the space for India's Look East Policy (now Act East countries. The two sides has also pledged to promote defence Policy). The visit of the Indian Prime Minister to Vietnam in this cooperation through collaboration in anti-terrorism and context re-affirms India's position that it attaches importance to transnational crimes. the protection of freedom of maritime navigation and the peaceful settlement of disputes in accordance with the United Before the visit of Prime Minister Modi to Vietnam, the Joint Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the Statement on the Vision of India Vietnam Defense Relations for respect of the International Tribunal Court on the South China Sea the period 2015-2020 was the driving force for bilateral defense issue on July 12, 2016.20 India's maritime military strategy in 2015 relations. The upgrading of bilateral relations to Comprehensive as well as its earlier versions describe the East Sea as a strategic Strategic Partnership during the Indian Prime Minister's visit in interest area for India. Visiting Vietnam before going to China to September 2016 has provided new framework for bilateral attend the G20 Summit, the Indian Prime Minister may want to defence cooperation. Vietnam and India have the potentials to send to China the message that India attaches its importance to its promote cooperation in defence industry because both sides own relations with Vietnam and India is acting as a major player in the and operate systems originating from Russia (former Soviet 21 Union). India owns more than 200 Su-30 MKI fighter jets and 09 region. kilo diesel electric submarines which are also the most advanced

170 171 Le Thi Hang Nga The East Sea Issue and its Impact on Vietnam-India Relations

Conclusion 5 Nguyễn Ngọc Trường, Về vấn đề Biển Đông [On the East Sea Issue], National It is true that the East Sea (South China Sea) issue is very much P o l i t i c a l P u b l i s h i n g H o u s e , H a n o i , 2 0 1 4 . https://www.nxbctqg.org.vn/index.php?option=com_content&view= visible in the strengthening of Vietnam - India relation in recent a r t i c l e & i d = 4 1 5 8 : v - v n - b i n - o n g & c a t i d = 1 6 9 : b i n - o - q u e - years, however, this fact should not be over-emphasized. It is hng&Itemid=641(accessed on 11 May 2017). more important to emphasize that Vietnam - India relation is 6 Lê Hồng Hiệp, Việt Nam giữa ba tầng tranh chấp Biển Đông [Vietnam in the 3-level operated on the basis of the great mutual trust that both sides dispute of the East Sea], see more at: http://nghiencuuquocte.org/2014/05 nurture about each other. Vietnam - India relation is also operated /21/viet-nam-giua-ba-tang-tranh-chap-bien-dong/#sthash.14f5wHZi. on the basis of the sharing of common interests and the internal (accessed on 11 May 2017). calculations of both countries, rather than being driven by exteral 7 Nguyễn Thế Phương, Hợp tác an ninh quốc phòng Việt Nam - Ấn Độ vượt qua factors. As rightly pointed out by Avinash Godbole, in the past, xung lực song phương [Vietnam-India defence-security cooperation overcome strategic cooperation between Vietnam and India was mainly bilateral impulse], http://nghiencuubiendong.vn/y-kien-va-binh- influenced by external factors. At present, it is more influenced by luan/6136-hop-tac-an-ninh-quoc-phong-viet-nam-an-do-vuot-qua- the two countries' own choices. The two countries have xung-luc-song-phuong(accessed on 11 May 2017). increasingly had more common in the strategic vision in the Asia - 8 Nguyễn Thế Phương, Hợp tác an ninh quốc phòng Việt Nam - Ấn Độ vượt qua Pacific region, at the same time have had a clearer orientation in xung lực song phương [Vietnam-India defence-security cooperation overcome 22 their bilaterial strategic partnership. Both India and Vietnam bilateral impulse], http://nghiencuubiendong.vn/y-kien-va-binh- oppose the military alliance and the use of military bases to luan/6136-hop-tac-an-ninh-quoc-phong-viet-nam-an-do-vuot-qua- threaten third countries. The two countries are in favor of xung-luc-song-phuong(accessed on 11 May 2017). building an open, balanced and comprehensive security structure 9 Vietnam News Agency. 2017, India greatly values its relations with in the region. Both India and Vietnam support freedom of Vietnam, 5 February 2017, http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms navigation, free trade and respect for international law. /government/172094/india-greatly-values-relations-with- vietnam.html(accessed on 23 March 2017). 10 Hai Anh. 2017. Việt Nam - Ấn Độ: Thương mại song phương tăng cả chất và lượng [Vietnam India: Bilateral Trade increases in both quality and Notes and References: quantity], Thời báo tài chính Việt Nam [Vietnam Finance News], 23 March 1 Viewpoint expressed by Prof. Ngo Xuan Binh, Director-General of the 2017, http://thoibaotaichinhvietnam.vn/pages/kinh-doanh/2016-09- Institute for Indian & Southwest Asian Studies, in an interview by the 01/viet-nam-an-do-thuong-mai-song-phuong-tang-ca-chat-va-luong- author, dated 30 October 2016. 35199.aspx, accessed on 23 March 2017. 2 Giá trị từ chuyến thăm của Thủ tướng Ấn Độ đến Việt Nam, [Values from the visit to 11 Sangamitra Sarma, New Developments in Vietnam India Vietnam of the Indian Prime Minister] http://thanhnien.vn/the-gioi/gia-tri-tu- Comprehensive Strategic Partnership, International Conference st Proceedings on “45 Years of Vietnam India Relations: Achievements and chuyen-tham-cua-thu-tuong-an-do-den-viet-nam-740710.html, accessed on 1 Prospects”, Institute for Indian & Southwest Asian Studies, Vietnam December 2016. Academy of Social Sciences, Hanoi, Vietnam, May 2017. 3 Daniel Schaeffer, a retired French general who served as a military attache at the French embassies in Vietnam, Thailand and China. 12 Thu Phuong, 2017. Khai mạc ngày văn hoá Phật giáo Ấn Độ tại Việt Nam lần thứ 2 năm 2017 [Opening ceremony of the 2nd Indian Buddhist Days 4 Remarks by the Secretary of State Hillary Clinton at the ASEAN Regional Festival in Vietnam 2017], The News, http://baotintuc.vn/thoi-su/khai- Forum (ARF) organized in Hanoi, 2010, http://nghiencuubiendong. mac-ngay-van-hoa-phat-giao-an-do-tai-viet-nam-lan-thu-hai-nam- vn/nghien-cuu-nuoc-ngoai/2017-2017, accessed on 15th May 2017. 2017-20170316210124081.html(accessed on 29 March 2017)

172 173 Le Thi Hang Nga The East Sea Issue and its Impact on Vietnam-India Relations

Conclusion 5 Nguyễn Ngọc Trường, Về vấn đề Biển Đông [On the East Sea Issue], National It is true that the East Sea (South China Sea) issue is very much P o l i t i c a l P u b l i s h i n g H o u s e , H a n o i , 2 0 1 4 . https://www.nxbctqg.org.vn/index.php?option=com_content&view= visible in the strengthening of Vietnam - India relation in recent a r t i c l e & i d = 4 1 5 8 : v - v n - b i n - o n g & c a t i d = 1 6 9 : b i n - o - q u e - years, however, this fact should not be over-emphasized. It is hng&Itemid=641(accessed on 11 May 2017). more important to emphasize that Vietnam - India relation is 6 Lê Hồng Hiệp, Việt Nam giữa ba tầng tranh chấp Biển Đông [Vietnam in the 3-level operated on the basis of the great mutual trust that both sides dispute of the East Sea], see more at: http://nghiencuuquocte.org/2014/05 nurture about each other. Vietnam - India relation is also operated /21/viet-nam-giua-ba-tang-tranh-chap-bien-dong/#sthash.14f5wHZi. on the basis of the sharing of common interests and the internal (accessed on 11 May 2017). calculations of both countries, rather than being driven by exteral 7 Nguyễn Thế Phương, Hợp tác an ninh quốc phòng Việt Nam - Ấn Độ vượt qua factors. As rightly pointed out by Avinash Godbole, in the past, xung lực song phương [Vietnam-India defence-security cooperation overcome strategic cooperation between Vietnam and India was mainly bilateral impulse], http://nghiencuubiendong.vn/y-kien-va-binh- influenced by external factors. At present, it is more influenced by luan/6136-hop-tac-an-ninh-quoc-phong-viet-nam-an-do-vuot-qua- the two countries' own choices. The two countries have xung-luc-song-phuong(accessed on 11 May 2017). increasingly had more common in the strategic vision in the Asia - 8 Nguyễn Thế Phương, Hợp tác an ninh quốc phòng Việt Nam - Ấn Độ vượt qua Pacific region, at the same time have had a clearer orientation in xung lực song phương [Vietnam-India defence-security cooperation overcome 22 their bilaterial strategic partnership. Both India and Vietnam bilateral impulse], http://nghiencuubiendong.vn/y-kien-va-binh- oppose the military alliance and the use of military bases to luan/6136-hop-tac-an-ninh-quoc-phong-viet-nam-an-do-vuot-qua- threaten third countries. The two countries are in favor of xung-luc-song-phuong(accessed on 11 May 2017). building an open, balanced and comprehensive security structure 9 Vietnam News Agency. 2017, India greatly values its relations with in the region. Both India and Vietnam support freedom of Vietnam, 5 February 2017, http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms navigation, free trade and respect for international law. /government/172094/india-greatly-values-relations-with- vietnam.html(accessed on 23 March 2017). 10 Hai Anh. 2017. Việt Nam - Ấn Độ: Thương mại song phương tăng cả chất và lượng [Vietnam India: Bilateral Trade increases in both quality and Notes and References: quantity], Thời báo tài chính Việt Nam [Vietnam Finance News], 23 March 1 Viewpoint expressed by Prof. Ngo Xuan Binh, Director-General of the 2017, http://thoibaotaichinhvietnam.vn/pages/kinh-doanh/2016-09- Institute for Indian & Southwest Asian Studies, in an interview by the 01/viet-nam-an-do-thuong-mai-song-phuong-tang-ca-chat-va-luong- author, dated 30 October 2016. 35199.aspx, accessed on 23 March 2017. 2 Giá trị từ chuyến thăm của Thủ tướng Ấn Độ đến Việt Nam, [Values from the visit to 11 Sangamitra Sarma, New Developments in Vietnam India Vietnam of the Indian Prime Minister] http://thanhnien.vn/the-gioi/gia-tri-tu- Comprehensive Strategic Partnership, International Conference st Proceedings on “45 Years of Vietnam India Relations: Achievements and chuyen-tham-cua-thu-tuong-an-do-den-viet-nam-740710.html, accessed on 1 Prospects”, Institute for Indian & Southwest Asian Studies, Vietnam December 2016. Academy of Social Sciences, Hanoi, Vietnam, May 2017. 3 Daniel Schaeffer, a retired French general who served as a military attache at the French embassies in Vietnam, Thailand and China. 12 Thu Phuong, 2017. Khai mạc ngày văn hoá Phật giáo Ấn Độ tại Việt Nam lần thứ 2 năm 2017 [Opening ceremony of the 2nd Indian Buddhist Days 4 Remarks by the Secretary of State Hillary Clinton at the ASEAN Regional Festival in Vietnam 2017], The News, http://baotintuc.vn/thoi-su/khai- Forum (ARF) organized in Hanoi, 2010, http://nghiencuubiendong. mac-ngay-van-hoa-phat-giao-an-do-tai-viet-nam-lan-thu-hai-nam- vn/nghien-cuu-nuoc-ngoai/2017-2017, accessed on 15th May 2017. 2017-20170316210124081.html(accessed on 29 March 2017)

172 173 Le Thi Hang Nga India-Vietnam Defence Cooperation : An Analysis 13 Ravi, Neeklakantan. 2017. 'Quan hệ Ấn Độ - Việt Nam: Từ cơ sở đến kiến trúc thượng tầng'[India-Vietnam Relations: From the base to the G. Vijay Kumar Reddy superstructure], International Scientific Conference Proceedings 'Vietnam Assistant Professor India: 45 years of Diplomatic relations & 10 years of Strategic Partnership', Ho Center for Southeast Asian & Pacific Studies Chi Minh National Political Publishing House, Hanoi, pp.21-33. Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati 14 Panda, Rajaram. 2017. 'Ấn Độ và Việt Nam: Liên kết, hỗ trợ lẫn nhau vì những lợi ích chung' [India and Vietnam: mutual linkages and support for common interests], International Scientific Conference Proceedings: Vietnam India:45 years of diplomatic relations and 10 years of strategic partnership”, Ho Vietnam is one of the Southeast Asian nations with which India Chi Minh National Political Publishing House, Hanoi, pp. 47-48. has cultural links which are centuries old. Vietnam forms the part of India's extended neighborhood. Vietnam is one nation in 15 Ibid., pp.51. Southeast Asia which India attaches much importance. Both the 16 Ibid. nations have traditionally close and cordial relations which have 17 Ibid. their historical roots in the common struggle for liberation from 18 Panda, Rajaram. 2017. 'Ấn Độ và Việt Nam: Liên kết, hỗ trợ lẫn nhau vì foreign rulers and the ties goes back to the ancient Cham những lợi ích chung' [India and Vietnam: mutual linkages and support for Civilization when people from Orissa travelled to Vietnam and common interests], International Scientific Conference Proceedings: Vietnam found a hospitable home there, mingling cultures, customs, India:45 years of diplomatic relations and 10 years of strategic partnership”, Ho language and beliefs. India strongly supported and assisted Chi Minh National Political Publishing House, Hanoi, pp. 47-48. Vietnam in its early days of post-war reconstruction in late 1970's 19 Avinash Godbole, Quan hệ quốc phòng Ấn Độ - Việt Nam: Lịch sử và triển and its reforms and economic development later. Both the nations spects], vọng [India Vietnam defence relation: History and Pro share common colonial experience, a common strategic closeness International Scientific Conference Proceedings 'Vietnam India: 45 years of Diplomatic relations & 10 years of Strategic Partnership', Ho Chi Minh with Soviet Union during the Cold War period and a common National Political Publishing House, Hanoi, pp, 390. painful experience of Chinese aggression against India in 1962 and against Vietnam in 1979. The end of the Cold War with the 20 Panda, Rajaram. 2017. 'Ấn Độ và Việt Nam: Liên kết, hỗ trợ lẫn nhau vì những lợi ích chung' [India and Vietnam: mutual linkages and support for disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991 has altered the contours common interests], International Scientific Conference Proceedings: Vietnam of international as well as regional power equation, but Chinese India:45 years of diplomatic relations and 10 years of strategic partnership”, Ho threat in both countries remains unaltered. Chi Minh National Political Publishing House, Hanoi, pp. 47-48. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was one of the first visitors to Vietnam 21 Viewpoint expressed by Prof. Ngo Xuan Binh, Director-General of the after its glorious victory against the French Colonists at Dien Bien Institute for Indian & Southwest Asian Studies, in an interview by the author, dated 30 October 2016. Phu in 1954. President Ho Chi Minh visited India in February 1958. India opened its consulate general in Ha Noi in 1956 and 22 Avinash Godbole, Quan hệ quốc phòng Ấn Độ - Việt Nam: Lịch sử và triển Vietnam opened its consulate general in New Delhi in the same vọng [India Vietnam defence cooperation: History and Prospects], year. Full diplomatic relations were established on 7th January International Scientific Conference Proceedings 'Vietnam India: 45 years of 1 Diplomatic relations & 10 years of Strategic Partnership', Ho Chi Minh 1972 . National Political Publishing House, Hanoi2017, pp. 389. In 1975, India granted Most Favoured Nation status to Vietnam in all her trade cooperation. This was further cemented by Bilateral Investment Promotion Agreement in 1997. The development

174 175 Le Thi Hang Nga India-Vietnam Defence Cooperation : An Analysis 13 Ravi, Neeklakantan. 2017. 'Quan hệ Ấn Độ - Việt Nam: Từ cơ sở đến kiến trúc thượng tầng'[India-Vietnam Relations: From the base to the G. Vijay Kumar Reddy superstructure], International Scientific Conference Proceedings 'Vietnam Assistant Professor India: 45 years of Diplomatic relations & 10 years of Strategic Partnership', Ho Center for Southeast Asian & Pacific Studies Chi Minh National Political Publishing House, Hanoi, pp.21-33. Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati 14 Panda, Rajaram. 2017. 'Ấn Độ và Việt Nam: Liên kết, hỗ trợ lẫn nhau vì những lợi ích chung' [India and Vietnam: mutual linkages and support for common interests], International Scientific Conference Proceedings: Vietnam India:45 years of diplomatic relations and 10 years of strategic partnership”, Ho Vietnam is one of the Southeast Asian nations with which India Chi Minh National Political Publishing House, Hanoi, pp. 47-48. has cultural links which are centuries old. Vietnam forms the part of India's extended neighborhood. Vietnam is one nation in 15 Ibid., pp.51. Southeast Asia which India attaches much importance. Both the 16 Ibid. nations have traditionally close and cordial relations which have 17 Ibid. their historical roots in the common struggle for liberation from 18 Panda, Rajaram. 2017. 'Ấn Độ và Việt Nam: Liên kết, hỗ trợ lẫn nhau vì foreign rulers and the ties goes back to the ancient Cham những lợi ích chung' [India and Vietnam: mutual linkages and support for Civilization when people from Orissa travelled to Vietnam and common interests], International Scientific Conference Proceedings: Vietnam found a hospitable home there, mingling cultures, customs, India:45 years of diplomatic relations and 10 years of strategic partnership”, Ho language and beliefs. India strongly supported and assisted Chi Minh National Political Publishing House, Hanoi, pp. 47-48. Vietnam in its early days of post-war reconstruction in late 1970's 19 Avinash Godbole, Quan hệ quốc phòng Ấn Độ - Việt Nam: Lịch sử và triển and its reforms and economic development later. Both the nations spects], vọng [India Vietnam defence relation: History and Pro share common colonial experience, a common strategic closeness International Scientific Conference Proceedings 'Vietnam India: 45 years of Diplomatic relations & 10 years of Strategic Partnership', Ho Chi Minh with Soviet Union during the Cold War period and a common National Political Publishing House, Hanoi, pp, 390. painful experience of Chinese aggression against India in 1962 and against Vietnam in 1979. The end of the Cold War with the 20 Panda, Rajaram. 2017. 'Ấn Độ và Việt Nam: Liên kết, hỗ trợ lẫn nhau vì những lợi ích chung' [India and Vietnam: mutual linkages and support for disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991 has altered the contours common interests], International Scientific Conference Proceedings: Vietnam of international as well as regional power equation, but Chinese India:45 years of diplomatic relations and 10 years of strategic partnership”, Ho threat in both countries remains unaltered. Chi Minh National Political Publishing House, Hanoi, pp. 47-48. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was one of the first visitors to Vietnam 21 Viewpoint expressed by Prof. Ngo Xuan Binh, Director-General of the after its glorious victory against the French Colonists at Dien Bien Institute for Indian & Southwest Asian Studies, in an interview by the author, dated 30 October 2016. Phu in 1954. President Ho Chi Minh visited India in February 1958. India opened its consulate general in Ha Noi in 1956 and 22 Avinash Godbole, Quan hệ quốc phòng Ấn Độ - Việt Nam: Lịch sử và triển Vietnam opened its consulate general in New Delhi in the same vọng [India Vietnam defence cooperation: History and Prospects], year. Full diplomatic relations were established on 7th January International Scientific Conference Proceedings 'Vietnam India: 45 years of 1 Diplomatic relations & 10 years of Strategic Partnership', Ho Chi Minh 1972 . National Political Publishing House, Hanoi2017, pp. 389. In 1975, India granted Most Favoured Nation status to Vietnam in all her trade cooperation. This was further cemented by Bilateral Investment Promotion Agreement in 1997. The development

174 175 G. Vijay Kumar Reddy India-Vietnam Defence Cooperation : An Analysis cooperation continued to improve in terms of trade inching upto convergence of interests on which a solid strategic partnership USD 395.68 million. A joint declaration on comprehensive can be built up. cooperation was signed in 2003. Subsequent to this declaration Although India and Vietnam do not share borders, both are in the development cooperation was expanded to information different geographical locations, but there seems to be developing technology, education, space, direct air links and relaxed visa an understanding on the need to cooperate on a wide range of regulations. It has been progressive increment which reflects the issues at the regional and global level. India-Vietnam relations continuation of close relationship that the two countries have have gained momentum in recent years. The post cold war global maintained. The expansion of trade list has kept pace with India's strategic developments have its impact on the relationship own development. Every field in which India has gained between the two countries in a significant way. The recent boom improvement has been shared with Vietnam. By 2015, the in strategic ties between India and Vietnam has to be seen in the bilateral trade stood at USD9 billion, which is likely to increase to 2 context of the emergence of India's Look East Policy. The post cold USD 15 billion by year 2020 . war India-Vietnam relation is for the mutual benefit of the two The relationship between the two countries make a lot of sense countries and. Vietnam supports India in its peaceful use of when they share common interest- maritime security, fighting nuclear energy and backs India's bid for a permanent candidature terrorism, security of the sea lanes of communications, piracy and in United Nations Security Council reforms, while, India natural disasters. Ever since India and Vietnam signed the New supported Vietnam entry into the World Trade Organization. Strategic Partnership in 2007, there witnessed significant This way it won't be wrong to say that relationship with Vietnam improvement in a multifaceted ties ranging from political and is of very important from the political, economic and strategic economic engagements, security and defense cooperation, point of view3. science and technology and close cultural contacts. Despite Strategic and Converging Interests Chinese objections, India and Vietnam went a step ahead to signing six agreements encompassing promote oil exploration in There has been significant reorientation in the Indo-Asia Pacific in South China Sea, extradition treaty, deepen trade, security and last few years. The Chinese assertiveness in the South China Sea, strategic ties, etc. The visit of Vietnam President Truong Tan drawdown of U.S. forces from Afghanistan, the emergence of Sang's to India aims to affirm Vietnam's consistent policy of ISIS, the upscaling of terror and racial violence world over, the giving high priority to the strategic partnership with India and to turbulence in economy due to slowdown of the Chinese economy, promote the two countries' cooperation in all fields and at British exit from European Union, etc. are some of the major regional and international forums. What makes this relationship changes which have impacted upon peace and stability the world special is because of the close understanding that both countries over. The rebalancing of U.S. strategic interests to the Indo-Asia share over the growing rise of China and its subsequent Pacific, has reassured many countries of overall security cover in implication on the security of both countries. However, the turn these periods of turbulence, both economic and military. 60 percent of U.S. assets are expected to get redeployed to the Indo- of the millennium presents a complex strategic environment in 4 Asia-Pacific and impinging on India's security and its national Asia Pacific by the year 2020 . security interests. In India's search for strategic bilateral The recent judgment of the Tribunal of the PCA on the case filed cooperation with important regional countries, Vietnam should by Philippines has demolished China's 'historical claims' in South be the logical choice. India and Vietnam share a wide area of China Sea and reaffirmed the EEZ definition with respect to

176 177 G. Vijay Kumar Reddy India-Vietnam Defence Cooperation : An Analysis cooperation continued to improve in terms of trade inching upto convergence of interests on which a solid strategic partnership USD 395.68 million. A joint declaration on comprehensive can be built up. cooperation was signed in 2003. Subsequent to this declaration Although India and Vietnam do not share borders, both are in the development cooperation was expanded to information different geographical locations, but there seems to be developing technology, education, space, direct air links and relaxed visa an understanding on the need to cooperate on a wide range of regulations. It has been progressive increment which reflects the issues at the regional and global level. India-Vietnam relations continuation of close relationship that the two countries have have gained momentum in recent years. The post cold war global maintained. The expansion of trade list has kept pace with India's strategic developments have its impact on the relationship own development. Every field in which India has gained between the two countries in a significant way. The recent boom improvement has been shared with Vietnam. By 2015, the in strategic ties between India and Vietnam has to be seen in the bilateral trade stood at USD9 billion, which is likely to increase to 2 context of the emergence of India's Look East Policy. The post cold USD 15 billion by year 2020 . war India-Vietnam relation is for the mutual benefit of the two The relationship between the two countries make a lot of sense countries and. Vietnam supports India in its peaceful use of when they share common interest- maritime security, fighting nuclear energy and backs India's bid for a permanent candidature terrorism, security of the sea lanes of communications, piracy and in United Nations Security Council reforms, while, India natural disasters. Ever since India and Vietnam signed the New supported Vietnam entry into the World Trade Organization. Strategic Partnership in 2007, there witnessed significant This way it won't be wrong to say that relationship with Vietnam improvement in a multifaceted ties ranging from political and is of very important from the political, economic and strategic economic engagements, security and defense cooperation, point of view3. science and technology and close cultural contacts. Despite Strategic and Converging Interests Chinese objections, India and Vietnam went a step ahead to signing six agreements encompassing promote oil exploration in There has been significant reorientation in the Indo-Asia Pacific in South China Sea, extradition treaty, deepen trade, security and last few years. The Chinese assertiveness in the South China Sea, strategic ties, etc. The visit of Vietnam President Truong Tan drawdown of U.S. forces from Afghanistan, the emergence of Sang's to India aims to affirm Vietnam's consistent policy of ISIS, the upscaling of terror and racial violence world over, the giving high priority to the strategic partnership with India and to turbulence in economy due to slowdown of the Chinese economy, promote the two countries' cooperation in all fields and at British exit from European Union, etc. are some of the major regional and international forums. What makes this relationship changes which have impacted upon peace and stability the world special is because of the close understanding that both countries over. The rebalancing of U.S. strategic interests to the Indo-Asia share over the growing rise of China and its subsequent Pacific, has reassured many countries of overall security cover in implication on the security of both countries. However, the turn these periods of turbulence, both economic and military. 60 percent of U.S. assets are expected to get redeployed to the Indo- of the millennium presents a complex strategic environment in 4 Asia-Pacific and impinging on India's security and its national Asia Pacific by the year 2020 . security interests. In India's search for strategic bilateral The recent judgment of the Tribunal of the PCA on the case filed cooperation with important regional countries, Vietnam should by Philippines has demolished China's 'historical claims' in South be the logical choice. India and Vietnam share a wide area of China Sea and reaffirmed the EEZ definition with respect to

176 177 G. Vijay Kumar Reddy India-Vietnam Defence Cooperation : An Analysis islands, reefs and rocks and has reestablished faith of maritime security ties” and “pledged themselves to strengthen cooperation nations in rule-based world order. However, the rejection of the in defense supplies, joint projects, training cooperation and judgment by China has put a question mark on her claim for rise intelligence exchanges”. Prime Minister Nguyen described this as to superpower status in the near future without the adherence to the launch of a 'strategic partnership' between the two countries. rule based system of the world. From the existing construct of “A strong India-Vietnam relation is a factor of peace, stability and unipolarity, China is challenging to create a Cold War period development in the Asia-Pacific region. It stands on its own construct of a bipolar world. Many emerging powers are seeking merits. The president's visit has given a new thrust and direction new regional security and strategic alliances to create multi to this partnership.”5 The former Prime Minister of India, Mr. polarity to prevent dividing the world in two groups and this is Manmohan Singh said during the Vietnamese President Truong where views of India and Vietnam converge on shared interest. Tan Sang visit to India. Defense and security relations between India and Vietnam in Vietnam is an important regional partner in South East Asia. India recent times have made significant progress and cover several and Vietnam closely cooperate in various regional forums such as facets including high level military exchanges, military training ASEAN, East Asia Summit, Mekong Ganga Cooperation, Asia and joint exercises. In a bid to further strengthen the security ties, Europe Meeting (ASEM). Converging long-term political, both sides have agreed to launch a biennial security dialogue economic and strategic interests, aspirations and concerns have between their home ministries. However, defense cooperation driven the partnership. This partnership will enable both got a major boost when in the year 2000, the Indian defense countries to harness the vast potential of bilateral relations, minister George Fernandes signed a new defense protocol which drawing upon complementarities and each other's intrinsic was more comprehensive and included an institutionalized strengths, and work together to address regional and global framework for regular discussions between the two defence challenges. The evolving strategic partnership is meant for ministers3. There has been if not regular a naval exercises between mutual benefit that would work together to meeting the common the two navies and coast guards. Indian air force provided concerns for the long-term partnership and does not lead to training to Vietnamese air force pilots. While, Vietnam has also alliance against any third country. allowed Indian officers to train in its jungle warfare school since Another important key to significant progress is in the field of 2000. India's concerns over the challenges posed by terrorism maritime security since India and Vietnam are maritime meant that both countries had a vested interest in developing neighbors. Both countries face common security challenges from their asymmetric warfare capabilities in which Vietnam has had a terrorism, piracy and natural disasters. Therefore, it became very long history of success. The two sides will benefit from the important that both sides cooperate to deal with all such issues growing defense and security cooperation given their vast and ensure the safety and security of the vital sea lanes of experience and knowledge and the understanding they share. communication. Maritime insecurity has the potential to threaten The defense cooperation got a further boost when in May 2000, the economic growth and welfare of both countries. The Indian both countries signed a joint declaration on the Framework of Navy and the Coast Guard has a significant role to play in Comprehensive Cooperation. In July 2007, a new level of security ensuring maritime security unilaterally or in coordination with cooperation was reached when the visiting Vietnamese Prime navies of Vietnam6. Minister Nguyen Tan Dung signed a joint declaration that “welcomed the steady development of bilateral defense and

178 179 G. Vijay Kumar Reddy India-Vietnam Defence Cooperation : An Analysis islands, reefs and rocks and has reestablished faith of maritime security ties” and “pledged themselves to strengthen cooperation nations in rule-based world order. However, the rejection of the in defense supplies, joint projects, training cooperation and judgment by China has put a question mark on her claim for rise intelligence exchanges”. Prime Minister Nguyen described this as to superpower status in the near future without the adherence to the launch of a 'strategic partnership' between the two countries. rule based system of the world. From the existing construct of “A strong India-Vietnam relation is a factor of peace, stability and unipolarity, China is challenging to create a Cold War period development in the Asia-Pacific region. It stands on its own construct of a bipolar world. Many emerging powers are seeking merits. The president's visit has given a new thrust and direction new regional security and strategic alliances to create multi to this partnership.”5 The former Prime Minister of India, Mr. polarity to prevent dividing the world in two groups and this is Manmohan Singh said during the Vietnamese President Truong where views of India and Vietnam converge on shared interest. Tan Sang visit to India. Defense and security relations between India and Vietnam in Vietnam is an important regional partner in South East Asia. India recent times have made significant progress and cover several and Vietnam closely cooperate in various regional forums such as facets including high level military exchanges, military training ASEAN, East Asia Summit, Mekong Ganga Cooperation, Asia and joint exercises. In a bid to further strengthen the security ties, Europe Meeting (ASEM). Converging long-term political, both sides have agreed to launch a biennial security dialogue economic and strategic interests, aspirations and concerns have between their home ministries. However, defense cooperation driven the partnership. This partnership will enable both got a major boost when in the year 2000, the Indian defense countries to harness the vast potential of bilateral relations, minister George Fernandes signed a new defense protocol which drawing upon complementarities and each other's intrinsic was more comprehensive and included an institutionalized strengths, and work together to address regional and global framework for regular discussions between the two defence challenges. The evolving strategic partnership is meant for ministers3. There has been if not regular a naval exercises between mutual benefit that would work together to meeting the common the two navies and coast guards. Indian air force provided concerns for the long-term partnership and does not lead to training to Vietnamese air force pilots. While, Vietnam has also alliance against any third country. allowed Indian officers to train in its jungle warfare school since Another important key to significant progress is in the field of 2000. India's concerns over the challenges posed by terrorism maritime security since India and Vietnam are maritime meant that both countries had a vested interest in developing neighbors. Both countries face common security challenges from their asymmetric warfare capabilities in which Vietnam has had a terrorism, piracy and natural disasters. Therefore, it became very long history of success. The two sides will benefit from the important that both sides cooperate to deal with all such issues growing defense and security cooperation given their vast and ensure the safety and security of the vital sea lanes of experience and knowledge and the understanding they share. communication. Maritime insecurity has the potential to threaten The defense cooperation got a further boost when in May 2000, the economic growth and welfare of both countries. The Indian both countries signed a joint declaration on the Framework of Navy and the Coast Guard has a significant role to play in Comprehensive Cooperation. In July 2007, a new level of security ensuring maritime security unilaterally or in coordination with cooperation was reached when the visiting Vietnamese Prime navies of Vietnam6. Minister Nguyen Tan Dung signed a joint declaration that “welcomed the steady development of bilateral defense and

178 179 G. Vijay Kumar Reddy India-Vietnam Defence Cooperation : An Analysis

South China Sea as a factor India and Vietnam have embarked upon a mission to strengthen Vietnam is crucially impacted by Chinese military adventurism their naval ties and establish a sustainable maritime presence as and aggression in the South China Sea maritime expanse and Indian naval warships have been granted permission to drop India has sizeable strategic and economic stakes in the security anchor at the Nha Trang port in southern Vietnam. Vietnam's and safety of 'global commons' which now cover both maritime Navy Chief and deputy minister Vice Admiral Nguyen Van Hien and aerial space dimensions after China's unilateral declaration of has also visited India to discuss the security challenges in the an Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ) over the East China region and expand the scope of defense cooperation. Sea and is estimated to attempt the same over the South China Sea The move to allow the Indian Navy to drop anchor at the South 7 region . Vietnamese port in 2016 assumes significance due to the fact that Vietnam is the pivotal state in South East Asia and a powerful one the Indian Navy is the only foreign navy in the world to have been too with its elongated configuration running parallel to the South granted such a privilege at a port other than Halong Bay near China Sea. It has an unrivalled geostrategic location in relation to Hanoi. This will facilitate the presence of Indian Navy in the the security dominance of the South China Sea. China fully South China Sea and enable a greater strategic role in Southeast conscious of this reality has indulged in 'island grabbing' of Asia. India and Vietnam are wary of growing Chinese military Vietnamese Islands that dot the South China Sea. In terms of capabilities as well as their increasing presence in the region. Asian security and the security of the South China Sea maritime Vietnam has also formally requested India to supply the Indo- expanse it is only Vietnam that stands between China and its Russian BrahMos cruise missiles at a meeting in New Delhi in military ambitions for full-scale sea control of the South China Sea 2013. The request was made when Vietnam Communist party at the expense of subverting the safety of the 'global commons'. general secretary Nguyen Phu Trong visited the Indian capital, India is one of the contending Asian Powers against China's the sources said, adding that the Southeast Asian country was unilateral strategic dominance of the Asian strategic space which looking at enhancing security cooperation with India. Informal China covets as its exclusive domain. China has made its negotiations had been going between the countries for the joint intentions clear in this direction in no uncertain terms, with Indo-Russian missiles that are being manufactured in India. Vietnam as its first target. It is now up to India to shoulder the Vietnam's interest was renewed as a plan between Russia and the responsibilities as responsible and benign stakeholder in Asian country to jointly produce a modified anti-ship missile. BrahMos security. officials declined to comment on the negotiations between India and Vietnam. During Phu Trong's visits, requests were also made According to defense analysts, India's defense cooperation with to India for submarine training and for conversion training for Vietnam may largely be counted as a counter-strategy to the Vietnamese pilots to fly Sukhoi-30 aircrafts. According to the growing Chinese presence in the Indian Ocean. However, with reports in the press India would be ready to supply the missiles, as China's "String of Pearls” strategy by engaging in maritime it was looking for international buyers and countries like cooperation with Burma, Sri Lanka and Pakistan, it is only Malaysia and Indonesia had already expressed interests. They obvious that India would want its footprint in South China sea added that New Delhi was also ready to provide training for and south east Asia in general. India is also boosting its defense Vietnamese pilots but were cautious about further military capabilities at the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, located close to cooperation keeping the China factor in mind. Beijing has been Southeast Asia. viewing India's growing presence in Vietnam with a degree of

180 181 G. Vijay Kumar Reddy India-Vietnam Defence Cooperation : An Analysis

South China Sea as a factor India and Vietnam have embarked upon a mission to strengthen Vietnam is crucially impacted by Chinese military adventurism their naval ties and establish a sustainable maritime presence as and aggression in the South China Sea maritime expanse and Indian naval warships have been granted permission to drop India has sizeable strategic and economic stakes in the security anchor at the Nha Trang port in southern Vietnam. Vietnam's and safety of 'global commons' which now cover both maritime Navy Chief and deputy minister Vice Admiral Nguyen Van Hien and aerial space dimensions after China's unilateral declaration of has also visited India to discuss the security challenges in the an Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ) over the East China region and expand the scope of defense cooperation. Sea and is estimated to attempt the same over the South China Sea The move to allow the Indian Navy to drop anchor at the South 7 region . Vietnamese port in 2016 assumes significance due to the fact that Vietnam is the pivotal state in South East Asia and a powerful one the Indian Navy is the only foreign navy in the world to have been too with its elongated configuration running parallel to the South granted such a privilege at a port other than Halong Bay near China Sea. It has an unrivalled geostrategic location in relation to Hanoi. This will facilitate the presence of Indian Navy in the the security dominance of the South China Sea. China fully South China Sea and enable a greater strategic role in Southeast conscious of this reality has indulged in 'island grabbing' of Asia. India and Vietnam are wary of growing Chinese military Vietnamese Islands that dot the South China Sea. In terms of capabilities as well as their increasing presence in the region. Asian security and the security of the South China Sea maritime Vietnam has also formally requested India to supply the Indo- expanse it is only Vietnam that stands between China and its Russian BrahMos cruise missiles at a meeting in New Delhi in military ambitions for full-scale sea control of the South China Sea 2013. The request was made when Vietnam Communist party at the expense of subverting the safety of the 'global commons'. general secretary Nguyen Phu Trong visited the Indian capital, India is one of the contending Asian Powers against China's the sources said, adding that the Southeast Asian country was unilateral strategic dominance of the Asian strategic space which looking at enhancing security cooperation with India. Informal China covets as its exclusive domain. China has made its negotiations had been going between the countries for the joint intentions clear in this direction in no uncertain terms, with Indo-Russian missiles that are being manufactured in India. Vietnam as its first target. It is now up to India to shoulder the Vietnam's interest was renewed as a plan between Russia and the responsibilities as responsible and benign stakeholder in Asian country to jointly produce a modified anti-ship missile. BrahMos security. officials declined to comment on the negotiations between India and Vietnam. During Phu Trong's visits, requests were also made According to defense analysts, India's defense cooperation with to India for submarine training and for conversion training for Vietnam may largely be counted as a counter-strategy to the Vietnamese pilots to fly Sukhoi-30 aircrafts. According to the growing Chinese presence in the Indian Ocean. However, with reports in the press India would be ready to supply the missiles, as China's "String of Pearls” strategy by engaging in maritime it was looking for international buyers and countries like cooperation with Burma, Sri Lanka and Pakistan, it is only Malaysia and Indonesia had already expressed interests. They obvious that India would want its footprint in South China sea added that New Delhi was also ready to provide training for and south east Asia in general. India is also boosting its defense Vietnamese pilots but were cautious about further military capabilities at the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, located close to cooperation keeping the China factor in mind. Beijing has been Southeast Asia. viewing India's growing presence in Vietnam with a degree of

180 181 G. Vijay Kumar Reddy India-Vietnam Defence Cooperation : An Analysis suspicion, the sources added. India and Vietnam have program, which is already very substantial, joint exercises and traditionally maintained friendly and cordial relations and cooperation in defense equipment. We will quickly leading analysts suggest that the countries could be at the operationalize the 100 million dollars Line of Credit that will forefront of a new kind of non-aligned movement8. enable Vietnam to acquire new naval vessels from India. We have also agreed to enhance our security cooperation, including The Visit of President of India Mr, Pranab Mukherjee to Vietnam 10 from September 14 to 17th 2014 is very important. He issued a counter-terrorism . joint statement with his counterpart, President Truong Tan Sang. With the decision to step up supplying vessels and training the This statement declared “that cooperation in national defense Vietnamese navy, Mr. Modi seems to be backing the tough words was an important pillar in their strategic partnership”. To with conscious action. A source said the Vietnamese government underscore this point President Mukherjee announced that the now “will be free to place orders with either government or Export Import Bank of India had signed a $100 million line of private Indian vendors11.” credit agreement with Vietnam's Ministry of Finance with an India under the Modi government has made no secret of its desire annual interest of two per cent, to facilitate defense procurement to play a more assertive role in the larger Indo-Pacific region. over the next decade and half. In the past Vietnam lacked funds Modi himself has argued that India can be an anchor for peace, and used barter and/or partial payment to procure military prosperity, and stability from Asia to Africa and from Indian equipment. It is also agreed to expand military training and assist 9 Ocean to the Pacific. Therefore, a more ambitious outreach to Vietnam Navy's strike capabilities . Vietnam should not be surprising. The Modi government has also In 2015 Vietnam became the country coordinator for relations indicated that it remains willing to sell the supersonic BrahMos between the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) missile, made by an Indo-Russian joint venture, to Vietnam after and India for a three-year term ending in 2018. This will be an lot of consultations on Hanoi's request for this sale since 2011. important partnership because the strategic interests of both Though India's ties with Vietnam have been growing in the last countries markedly converged in 2014 and are likely to continue few years, this sale was seen as a step too far that would on this trajectory. antagonize China12. During his visit to Vietnam Indian Prime Minister Mr. Narendra But the Modi government last year directed BrahMos Aerospace, Modi said Vietnam was at the “forefront” of India's efforts in the which produces the missiles, to expedite this sale to Vietnam Asia Pacific region, which he said his government had “promptly along with four other countries including Indonesia, South and purposefully intensified”. Mr. Modi's tough statement on the Africa, Chile, and Brazil. India is already providing a concessional South China Sea comes after his statement in Japan that seemed to line of credit of $100 million for the procurement of defense accuse China of “expansionist policies”, and the joint statement equipment and in a first of its kind has sold four offshore patrol during his visit to the U.S. called for “safeguarding maritime vessels to Vietnam, which are likely to be used to strengthen the security in the South China Sea.” nation's defenses in the energy-rich South China Sea. India's Mr.Modi also declared that “Our defense cooperation with outreach comes at a time when the U.S. has also lifted its Vietnam is among our most important ones. India remains longstanding ban on sales of lethal military equipment to committed to the modernization of Vietnam's defense and Vietnam. New Delhi's abiding interest in Vietnam too remains in security forces. This will include expansion of our training the defense realm. India wants to build relations with states like Vietnam that can act as pressure points against China. With this in

182 183 G. Vijay Kumar Reddy India-Vietnam Defence Cooperation : An Analysis suspicion, the sources added. India and Vietnam have program, which is already very substantial, joint exercises and traditionally maintained friendly and cordial relations and cooperation in defense equipment. We will quickly leading analysts suggest that the countries could be at the operationalize the 100 million dollars Line of Credit that will forefront of a new kind of non-aligned movement8. enable Vietnam to acquire new naval vessels from India. We have also agreed to enhance our security cooperation, including The Visit of President of India Mr, Pranab Mukherjee to Vietnam 10 from September 14 to 17th 2014 is very important. He issued a counter-terrorism . joint statement with his counterpart, President Truong Tan Sang. With the decision to step up supplying vessels and training the This statement declared “that cooperation in national defense Vietnamese navy, Mr. Modi seems to be backing the tough words was an important pillar in their strategic partnership”. To with conscious action. A source said the Vietnamese government underscore this point President Mukherjee announced that the now “will be free to place orders with either government or Export Import Bank of India had signed a $100 million line of private Indian vendors11.” credit agreement with Vietnam's Ministry of Finance with an India under the Modi government has made no secret of its desire annual interest of two per cent, to facilitate defense procurement to play a more assertive role in the larger Indo-Pacific region. over the next decade and half. In the past Vietnam lacked funds Modi himself has argued that India can be an anchor for peace, and used barter and/or partial payment to procure military prosperity, and stability from Asia to Africa and from Indian equipment. It is also agreed to expand military training and assist 9 Ocean to the Pacific. Therefore, a more ambitious outreach to Vietnam Navy's strike capabilities . Vietnam should not be surprising. The Modi government has also In 2015 Vietnam became the country coordinator for relations indicated that it remains willing to sell the supersonic BrahMos between the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) missile, made by an Indo-Russian joint venture, to Vietnam after and India for a three-year term ending in 2018. This will be an lot of consultations on Hanoi's request for this sale since 2011. important partnership because the strategic interests of both Though India's ties with Vietnam have been growing in the last countries markedly converged in 2014 and are likely to continue few years, this sale was seen as a step too far that would on this trajectory. antagonize China12. During his visit to Vietnam Indian Prime Minister Mr. Narendra But the Modi government last year directed BrahMos Aerospace, Modi said Vietnam was at the “forefront” of India's efforts in the which produces the missiles, to expedite this sale to Vietnam Asia Pacific region, which he said his government had “promptly along with four other countries including Indonesia, South and purposefully intensified”. Mr. Modi's tough statement on the Africa, Chile, and Brazil. India is already providing a concessional South China Sea comes after his statement in Japan that seemed to line of credit of $100 million for the procurement of defense accuse China of “expansionist policies”, and the joint statement equipment and in a first of its kind has sold four offshore patrol during his visit to the U.S. called for “safeguarding maritime vessels to Vietnam, which are likely to be used to strengthen the security in the South China Sea.” nation's defenses in the energy-rich South China Sea. India's Mr.Modi also declared that “Our defense cooperation with outreach comes at a time when the U.S. has also lifted its Vietnam is among our most important ones. India remains longstanding ban on sales of lethal military equipment to committed to the modernization of Vietnam's defense and Vietnam. New Delhi's abiding interest in Vietnam too remains in security forces. This will include expansion of our training the defense realm. India wants to build relations with states like Vietnam that can act as pressure points against China. With this in

182 183 G. Vijay Kumar Reddy India-Vietnam Defence Cooperation : An Analysis mind, New Delhi has been helping Hanoi beef up its naval and air Conclusion capabilities. Hanoi is gradually becoming the linchpin of this eastward move The two nations also have stakes in ensuring sea-lane security, as by New Delhi. Hanoi fought a brief war with Beijing in 1979 and well as shared concerns about Chinese access to the Indian Ocean has grown wary of the Middle Kingdom's increasing economic and the South China Sea. Hence, India is helping Vietnam to build and military weight. That's why in some quarters of New Delhi, capacity for repair and maintenance of its defense platforms. At Vietnam is already seen as a counterweight in the same way the same time, the armed forces of the two states have started Pakistan has been for China. If China wants to expand its presence cooperation in areas like information technology and the English- in South Asia and the Indian Ocean region, New Delhi's thinking language training of Vietnamese Army personnel. The two goes, India can do the same thing in East Asia. And if China can countries potentially share a common friend too in the United have a strategic partnership with Pakistan ignoring Indian States. New Delhi has a burgeoning relationship with concerns, India can develop robust ties with states like Vietnam Washington with the two signing a logistical support agreement on China's periphery without giving China a veto on such this week, while Vietnam has been courting America as the South relationships. China Sea becomes an increasingly tense flash point. As these With its outreach to Hanoi, Delhi seems to be ready to challenge three countries ponder how to manage China's rise, they have Beijing on its own turf. And for the moment at least, this stance is been drawn closer together. being welcomed by states like Vietnam who fear the growing It is important that India entered the fraught region of the South aggression of China. A more engaged India will also lead to a China Sea via Vietnam. India signed an agreement with Vietnam more stable balance of power in the region. While India may want in October 2011 to expand and promote oil exploration in South to downplay the BrahMos connect at this particular point in its China Sea and then reconfirmed its decision to carry on despite engagement with Vietnam, a final decision on this will have to be the Chinese challenge to the legality of India's presence. Beijing made soon. The Doklam crisis cannot be the determining told New Delhi that its permission was needed for India's state- variable. India's decision will have to be based on the nation's owned oil and gas firm to explore for energy in the two long term foreign and security priorities. Vietnamese blocks in those waters. But Vietnam quickly cited the India, which feels its own squeeze from China's growing military 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea to claim its and economic influence, values the Vietnam relationship as a way sovereign rights over the two blocks in question. Hanoi has been to keep Beijing in check, scholars such as this one with the China publicly sparring with Beijing over the South China Sea for the Policy Institute in the United Kingdom say. India calls closer ties last few years, so such a response was expected. with Vietnam part of its Act East policy. What was new, however, was New Delhi's new-found aggression Prime Minister Modi has been seeking stronger relationships in taking on China. It immediately decided to support Hanoi's with states that have ongoing disputes with China on multiple claims. By accepting the Vietnamese invitation to explore oil and fronts, the institute scholar says. Clearly, Vietnam has emerged as gas in Blocks 127 and 128, India's state-owned oil company a pivotal state...as a strategic partner in countering China's ONGC Videsh Ltd (OVL), not only expressed New Delhi's desire assertiveness in the South China Sea and in the Indian Ocean to deepen its friendship with Vietnam, but ignored China's region. warning to stay away. This display of backbone helped India strengthen its relationship with Vietnam.

184 185 G. Vijay Kumar Reddy India-Vietnam Defence Cooperation : An Analysis mind, New Delhi has been helping Hanoi beef up its naval and air Conclusion capabilities. Hanoi is gradually becoming the linchpin of this eastward move The two nations also have stakes in ensuring sea-lane security, as by New Delhi. Hanoi fought a brief war with Beijing in 1979 and well as shared concerns about Chinese access to the Indian Ocean has grown wary of the Middle Kingdom's increasing economic and the South China Sea. Hence, India is helping Vietnam to build and military weight. That's why in some quarters of New Delhi, capacity for repair and maintenance of its defense platforms. At Vietnam is already seen as a counterweight in the same way the same time, the armed forces of the two states have started Pakistan has been for China. If China wants to expand its presence cooperation in areas like information technology and the English- in South Asia and the Indian Ocean region, New Delhi's thinking language training of Vietnamese Army personnel. The two goes, India can do the same thing in East Asia. And if China can countries potentially share a common friend too in the United have a strategic partnership with Pakistan ignoring Indian States. New Delhi has a burgeoning relationship with concerns, India can develop robust ties with states like Vietnam Washington with the two signing a logistical support agreement on China's periphery without giving China a veto on such this week, while Vietnam has been courting America as the South relationships. China Sea becomes an increasingly tense flash point. As these With its outreach to Hanoi, Delhi seems to be ready to challenge three countries ponder how to manage China's rise, they have Beijing on its own turf. And for the moment at least, this stance is been drawn closer together. being welcomed by states like Vietnam who fear the growing It is important that India entered the fraught region of the South aggression of China. A more engaged India will also lead to a China Sea via Vietnam. India signed an agreement with Vietnam more stable balance of power in the region. While India may want in October 2011 to expand and promote oil exploration in South to downplay the BrahMos connect at this particular point in its China Sea and then reconfirmed its decision to carry on despite engagement with Vietnam, a final decision on this will have to be the Chinese challenge to the legality of India's presence. Beijing made soon. The Doklam crisis cannot be the determining told New Delhi that its permission was needed for India's state- variable. India's decision will have to be based on the nation's owned oil and gas firm to explore for energy in the two long term foreign and security priorities. Vietnamese blocks in those waters. But Vietnam quickly cited the India, which feels its own squeeze from China's growing military 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea to claim its and economic influence, values the Vietnam relationship as a way sovereign rights over the two blocks in question. Hanoi has been to keep Beijing in check, scholars such as this one with the China publicly sparring with Beijing over the South China Sea for the Policy Institute in the United Kingdom say. India calls closer ties last few years, so such a response was expected. with Vietnam part of its Act East policy. What was new, however, was New Delhi's new-found aggression Prime Minister Modi has been seeking stronger relationships in taking on China. It immediately decided to support Hanoi's with states that have ongoing disputes with China on multiple claims. By accepting the Vietnamese invitation to explore oil and fronts, the institute scholar says. Clearly, Vietnam has emerged as gas in Blocks 127 and 128, India's state-owned oil company a pivotal state...as a strategic partner in countering China's ONGC Videsh Ltd (OVL), not only expressed New Delhi's desire assertiveness in the South China Sea and in the Indian Ocean to deepen its friendship with Vietnam, but ignored China's region. warning to stay away. This display of backbone helped India strengthen its relationship with Vietnam.

184 185 G. Vijay Kumar Reddy India-Vietnam Relations in the Post-Cold War Notes: Strategic and Economic Engagement 1) For more details see C. Ravindranatha Reddy, India and Vietnam: Era of Friendship and Cooperation 1947-1991, (Emerald Publishers, 2009), Pp.5-8. I. Babu Rao* and T.M. Rajendra Prasad** *Post Doctoral Fellow, UGC-Center for Southeast Asian and Pacific Studies 2) http://www.salute.co.in/india-vietnam-cooperation-on-defence-and- S.V.University, Tirupati security/ **Junior Lecturer in Civics, S.P.W. Jr. College, Tirupati-517502 3) Ibid Email: [email protected], [email protected] 4) Ibid 5) The Hindu, “India, Vietnam sign Defense Pact”, 29 March, 2000. 6) Press Information Bureau, Government of India, Prime Minister's Office, India and Vietnam have traditionally close and cordial relations Statement by the PM to the Media During Visit of President of Vietnam, which have their historical roots common struggle for liberation 12-October-2011, http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx from foreign rules and national struggle for independence. India ?relid=76610. strongly supported and assisted Vietnam in its early days of post 7) Dr. Subhash Kapila, “Vietnam- India-Japan Trilateral as an Asian war reconstruction in its reforms and economic development. S t r a t e g i c C o a l i t i o n ” , f o r m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n s e e The relationship between India and Vietnam has been http/www.southasiaanalysis.org/node/1641#sthash.W8XfdY3G.dpuf remarkably cordial and over the years. India the post Cold War 8) http://in.rbth.com/economics/2013/12/03/vietnam_looking_to_ years, the appearance of a new global order, in the wake of the purchase_brahmos_cruise_missiles_31321.html disintegration of the former Soviet Union, strikingly changed the 9) “Pranab Mukerjee in Vietnam : Modi's Asian Power Play” Indian Express, whole dimension of India's overall foreign policy approach 14 September, 2014. towards the Southeast Asian region. After starting its economic 10) The Hindu, 29 October 2014. reforms in 1991, India has been emerging as one of the new 11) Ibid. economic power in Asia and in the world at large. Vietnam since 12) Harsh V. Pant, “The India-Vietnam Relationship: Beyond the BrahMos the end of the 1990's has treated its relations with India as strategic Connection” The Diplomat, 22 September 2017 and for more information ties. India has also considered Vietnam as its special partner in see https://thediplomat.com/2017/08/the-india-vietnam- Asia-Pacific region. relationship-beyond-the-brahmos-connection/ However, in Asia-Pacific, in the eyes of Indian, 'Vietnam is important in the promotion of India's political, economic and security interests in Southeast Asia, and in turn, in the success of our Look East Policy. Economically, Vietnam with its stress on economic liberation offers very attractive preferential prospects for Indian Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)'. During the official visit of Vietnamese Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung to India in July 2007, the two countries signed joint declaration on the Vietnam-India Strategic Partnership and other agreements on cooperation in various fields. Like wise, India's 2013 diplomatic calendar for Vietnam commenced with the visit of India's Vice President Hamid Ansari

186 187 G. Vijay Kumar Reddy India-Vietnam Relations in the Post-Cold War Notes: Strategic and Economic Engagement 1) For more details see C. Ravindranatha Reddy, India and Vietnam: Era of Friendship and Cooperation 1947-1991, (Emerald Publishers, 2009), Pp.5-8. I. Babu Rao* and T.M. Rajendra Prasad** *Post Doctoral Fellow, UGC-Center for Southeast Asian and Pacific Studies 2) http://www.salute.co.in/india-vietnam-cooperation-on-defence-and- S.V.University, Tirupati security/ **Junior Lecturer in Civics, S.P.W. Jr. College, Tirupati-517502 3) Ibid Email: [email protected], [email protected] 4) Ibid 5) The Hindu, “India, Vietnam sign Defense Pact”, 29 March, 2000. 6) Press Information Bureau, Government of India, Prime Minister's Office, India and Vietnam have traditionally close and cordial relations Statement by the PM to the Media During Visit of President of Vietnam, which have their historical roots common struggle for liberation 12-October-2011, http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx from foreign rules and national struggle for independence. India ?relid=76610. strongly supported and assisted Vietnam in its early days of post 7) Dr. Subhash Kapila, “Vietnam- India-Japan Trilateral as an Asian war reconstruction in its reforms and economic development. S t r a t e g i c C o a l i t i o n ” , f o r m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n s e e The relationship between India and Vietnam has been http/www.southasiaanalysis.org/node/1641#sthash.W8XfdY3G.dpuf remarkably cordial and over the years. India the post Cold War 8) http://in.rbth.com/economics/2013/12/03/vietnam_looking_to_ years, the appearance of a new global order, in the wake of the purchase_brahmos_cruise_missiles_31321.html disintegration of the former Soviet Union, strikingly changed the 9) “Pranab Mukerjee in Vietnam : Modi's Asian Power Play” Indian Express, whole dimension of India's overall foreign policy approach 14 September, 2014. towards the Southeast Asian region. After starting its economic 10) The Hindu, 29 October 2014. reforms in 1991, India has been emerging as one of the new 11) Ibid. economic power in Asia and in the world at large. Vietnam since 12) Harsh V. Pant, “The India-Vietnam Relationship: Beyond the BrahMos the end of the 1990's has treated its relations with India as strategic Connection” The Diplomat, 22 September 2017 and for more information ties. India has also considered Vietnam as its special partner in see https://thediplomat.com/2017/08/the-india-vietnam- Asia-Pacific region. relationship-beyond-the-brahmos-connection/ However, in Asia-Pacific, in the eyes of Indian, 'Vietnam is important in the promotion of India's political, economic and security interests in Southeast Asia, and in turn, in the success of our Look East Policy. Economically, Vietnam with its stress on economic liberation offers very attractive preferential prospects for Indian Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)'. During the official visit of Vietnamese Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung to India in July 2007, the two countries signed joint declaration on the Vietnam-India Strategic Partnership and other agreements on cooperation in various fields. Like wise, India's 2013 diplomatic calendar for Vietnam commenced with the visit of India's Vice President Hamid Ansari

186 187 I. Babu Rao and T.M. Rajendra Prasad India-Vietnam Relations in the Post-Cold War Strategic and Economic Engagement to Vietnam to conclude the 'Year of India-Vietnam Friendship'. The Therefore, in the post-Vietnam War period, New Delhi's ties with visit also explored trade and investment prospects. The present Hanoi improved briskly. India, during these years, fervently study attempts to analyze India's post Cold War strategic and opposed American and Chinese stances on the Cambodian issue economic engagement towards Vietnam and the measures to at the UN, and thereby annoyed Washington, Beijing and the maintain the momentum of its meaningful engagement. ASEAN nations and isolated itself from the orbit of ASEAN's economic and political sphere. This isolation impelled New Delhi Introduction and Hanoi to amalgamate their strategic interests against China The relations between India and Vietnam have been and provided them the foundation for building and reinforcing exceptionally friendly and virtually free of any dissonance or strategic cooperation against the latter. Given such a common friction. The ties go back to the ancient cham civilization when outlook, New Delhi's political, economic and strategic relations people from Orissa traveled to Vietnam and found a hospitable with Hanoi even in the Cold War years developed slowly but home there, mingling culture, customs, language and beliefs. steadily. As a result, in the Cold War era, India with its limited Built on robus foundations laid down by India's first Prime capacity, contributed substantial credit and other resource Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Vietnam's iconic leader Ho Chi support to Vietnam to restructure its war-shattered economy. Minh, the ties have growth exceptionally over the years. Pandit Nehru traveled to Vietnam in 1954 to celebrate Vietnam's victory Therefore India, being a trusted friend of Vietnam, had signed a in the famous Dien Bien Phu battle against the French forces. This series of agreements, such as the Cultural Cooperation was followed by Ho Chi Minh's visit India in 1958. Indian Agreement (1976); the Trade Agreement and the Agreement of President Rajendra Prasad visited Vietnam in 1959. The sense of Scientific-Technological Cooperation (1978); the Agreement on the shared anti-colonial impulse and solidarity that shaped Encouraging and Protecting Investment; Agreement on bilateral ties in post independence years has now morphed into a Cooperation in the fields of Mining, Health Care and multi-pronged strategic partnership with the focus on Environment. Beside this, the Government of India, under the development cooperation, sharing experiences in nation patronage of the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation building, expanding trade and investment and enhancing (ITEC) Programme, had not only set up the O'Mon Water Rice defense ties. Research Centre and the Song Be Milk Buffalo Forage Research Centre, but had shared its experience in crossbreeding of a During the Cold War years, India's relations with Vietnam number of animals (milk buffalo, milk goat, fish and shrimp) and extremely cordial, barring episodes of minor bitterness in the supplied Vietnam with an amount of highly productive breeds early years. Both enjoyed convergence of strategic interests, and seeds (maize, cotton etc) as well1. Besides these economic and which largely offered the boulevard for building a reinforcing other assistances, the most striking episode, which took place mutual cooperation. India, in the past, has stood by Vietnam in between India and Vietnam, during the Cold War period, was opposing US military intervention at the cost of embittering Indo- New Delhi's initiative to assist Hanoi to develop its alternative US relations. New Delhi's cavernous strategic and political energy sources through peaceful use of nuclear energy to understanding with the former Soviet Union in later years, upgrade the Da Lat Nuclear Reactor for scientific research, which prompted by circumstantial rationale and Hanoi's development was disbanded by US before it left Vietnam in 1975. The process of of proximal and warm relations with Moscow, at the cost of its Indian assistance started in August 1988, when a delegation of the policy of friendship with the People's Republic of China (PRC) Indian Atomic Energy Commission led by its Chairman, M.R. had further strengthened the ties between India and Vietnam.

188 189 I. Babu Rao and T.M. Rajendra Prasad India-Vietnam Relations in the Post-Cold War Strategic and Economic Engagement to Vietnam to conclude the 'Year of India-Vietnam Friendship'. The Therefore, in the post-Vietnam War period, New Delhi's ties with visit also explored trade and investment prospects. The present Hanoi improved briskly. India, during these years, fervently study attempts to analyze India's post Cold War strategic and opposed American and Chinese stances on the Cambodian issue economic engagement towards Vietnam and the measures to at the UN, and thereby annoyed Washington, Beijing and the maintain the momentum of its meaningful engagement. ASEAN nations and isolated itself from the orbit of ASEAN's economic and political sphere. This isolation impelled New Delhi Introduction and Hanoi to amalgamate their strategic interests against China The relations between India and Vietnam have been and provided them the foundation for building and reinforcing exceptionally friendly and virtually free of any dissonance or strategic cooperation against the latter. Given such a common friction. The ties go back to the ancient cham civilization when outlook, New Delhi's political, economic and strategic relations people from Orissa traveled to Vietnam and found a hospitable with Hanoi even in the Cold War years developed slowly but home there, mingling culture, customs, language and beliefs. steadily. As a result, in the Cold War era, India with its limited Built on robus foundations laid down by India's first Prime capacity, contributed substantial credit and other resource Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Vietnam's iconic leader Ho Chi support to Vietnam to restructure its war-shattered economy. Minh, the ties have growth exceptionally over the years. Pandit Nehru traveled to Vietnam in 1954 to celebrate Vietnam's victory Therefore India, being a trusted friend of Vietnam, had signed a in the famous Dien Bien Phu battle against the French forces. This series of agreements, such as the Cultural Cooperation was followed by Ho Chi Minh's visit India in 1958. Indian Agreement (1976); the Trade Agreement and the Agreement of President Rajendra Prasad visited Vietnam in 1959. The sense of Scientific-Technological Cooperation (1978); the Agreement on the shared anti-colonial impulse and solidarity that shaped Encouraging and Protecting Investment; Agreement on bilateral ties in post independence years has now morphed into a Cooperation in the fields of Mining, Health Care and multi-pronged strategic partnership with the focus on Environment. Beside this, the Government of India, under the development cooperation, sharing experiences in nation patronage of the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation building, expanding trade and investment and enhancing (ITEC) Programme, had not only set up the O'Mon Water Rice defense ties. Research Centre and the Song Be Milk Buffalo Forage Research Centre, but had shared its experience in crossbreeding of a During the Cold War years, India's relations with Vietnam number of animals (milk buffalo, milk goat, fish and shrimp) and extremely cordial, barring episodes of minor bitterness in the supplied Vietnam with an amount of highly productive breeds early years. Both enjoyed convergence of strategic interests, and seeds (maize, cotton etc) as well1. Besides these economic and which largely offered the boulevard for building a reinforcing other assistances, the most striking episode, which took place mutual cooperation. India, in the past, has stood by Vietnam in between India and Vietnam, during the Cold War period, was opposing US military intervention at the cost of embittering Indo- New Delhi's initiative to assist Hanoi to develop its alternative US relations. New Delhi's cavernous strategic and political energy sources through peaceful use of nuclear energy to understanding with the former Soviet Union in later years, upgrade the Da Lat Nuclear Reactor for scientific research, which prompted by circumstantial rationale and Hanoi's development was disbanded by US before it left Vietnam in 1975. The process of of proximal and warm relations with Moscow, at the cost of its Indian assistance started in August 1988, when a delegation of the policy of friendship with the People's Republic of China (PRC) Indian Atomic Energy Commission led by its Chairman, M.R. had further strengthened the ties between India and Vietnam.

188 189 I. Babu Rao and T.M. Rajendra Prasad India-Vietnam Relations in the Post-Cold War Strategic and Economic Engagement

Srinivasan, paid an official visit to Vietnam and on 15 August, regional and international issues, coordinated and supported signed an accord on peaceful use of atomic energy. each other in international fora. We treat cooperation relations Therefore, in a nutshell, it can be argued that during the Cold War with India as strategic and long-term importance". Developments of India-Vietnam political relations in 1990s made Indian analysts period, India's political and economic aid assistance to Vietnam - 2 displayed an exemplary image of a developing country helping believe that the relations were "a strategic tie-up . another waning developing economy and thereby created close Strategic Cooperation interdependence. This Indian role may be described as the first Both India and Vietnam share disputed borders and have been individualistic pragmatic policy of solidarity towards any subjected to military aggression by China. Vietnam is performing country of Southeast Asia, against the backdrop of the then closer the role of checkmate against southward expansion of China thus politico-security relations with the former Soviet Union and ensuring safety of other countries of Southeast Asia a strategy Vietnam. This explicit pro-Vietnam policy, as followed by India which is vital for the security of India also. Above all, the collapse mainly during the last two decades of the Cold War years, amply of Soviet Union and the desire of China to emerge as Super power reflects New Delhi's overall foreign policy precedence towards also made India and Vietnam to be cautious in its security which this country, rather than the ASEAN members. Thus, in the last can be ensured among other things strengthening strategic two decades of the Cold War epoch, India's political and cooperation. economic ties had mollified her regional image in two ways. On the one hand, while it had de-linked itself with the ASEAN orbit Vietnam, a dominant country in the Indo-china region, is an to a great extent, on the other, its image had graduated on a important balancing force in East and Southeast Asia. It resisted compact footing in the psyche of Vietnam leadership. the American efforts to dominate the region and subsequently frustrated Chinese attempts to establish their hegemony. A strong India became Sectoral-Dialogue Partner of Association of Vietnam is an asset and contributes to peace and stability of Asia Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1992, India realized that and the world and complements India's interests in the region. Southeast Asia region in general and ASEAN in particular were India knows that Vietnam could play crucial role in the regional the focal point of its Look East policy. In that context, Vietnam security in Southeast Asia. Vietnam is aware of India's crucial continued being regarded as an important factor in the policy. In political support in the past and gives importance to India for the talk with his counterpart, Vietnamese Prime Minister Vo Van strengthening strategic cooperation. Therefore India needs Kiet in Hanoi in 1994, Indian Prime Minister Narasimha Rao strategic relationship with Vietnam and vice-versa. There is need affirmed that India supported innovation of Vietnam and for India to forge special relationship with Vietnam having regarded Vietnam as a special partner. Since then, Indian Minister strategic advantages in meeting the pressure of neighbors. of Foreign Affairs Jaswant Singh and Prime Minister Atal Behari Building up of economic, political and military strength provide Vajpayee have paid visits to Vietnam in 2000 and 2003 India and Vietnam counterbalancing relationship in Asia. India respectively. Before Indian Prime Minister Narasimha Rao has had strategic understanding with Vietnam. Vietnam is in the visited Vietnam in 1994, General Secretary of Communist Party of process of reducing its military personnel quantitatively Vietnam, Do Muoi paid a visit to India in 1992. Then, Vietnamese replacing with new equipment. But its military equipment almost Prime Minister Vo Van Kiet visited India in January 1997. In his supplied by the former Soviet Union is outdated especially MIG- visit to India in 1999, President Tran Due Luong stressed that "our 21 fighter Air Craft. The Vietnamese navy is also not strong. Given two countries had similar interests and viewpoint on major its claims for the islands in the South China Sea, both the air force

190 191 I. Babu Rao and T.M. Rajendra Prasad India-Vietnam Relations in the Post-Cold War Strategic and Economic Engagement

Srinivasan, paid an official visit to Vietnam and on 15 August, regional and international issues, coordinated and supported signed an accord on peaceful use of atomic energy. each other in international fora. We treat cooperation relations Therefore, in a nutshell, it can be argued that during the Cold War with India as strategic and long-term importance". Developments of India-Vietnam political relations in 1990s made Indian analysts period, India's political and economic aid assistance to Vietnam - 2 displayed an exemplary image of a developing country helping believe that the relations were "a strategic tie-up . another waning developing economy and thereby created close Strategic Cooperation interdependence. This Indian role may be described as the first Both India and Vietnam share disputed borders and have been individualistic pragmatic policy of solidarity towards any subjected to military aggression by China. Vietnam is performing country of Southeast Asia, against the backdrop of the then closer the role of checkmate against southward expansion of China thus politico-security relations with the former Soviet Union and ensuring safety of other countries of Southeast Asia a strategy Vietnam. This explicit pro-Vietnam policy, as followed by India which is vital for the security of India also. Above all, the collapse mainly during the last two decades of the Cold War years, amply of Soviet Union and the desire of China to emerge as Super power reflects New Delhi's overall foreign policy precedence towards also made India and Vietnam to be cautious in its security which this country, rather than the ASEAN members. Thus, in the last can be ensured among other things strengthening strategic two decades of the Cold War epoch, India's political and cooperation. economic ties had mollified her regional image in two ways. On the one hand, while it had de-linked itself with the ASEAN orbit Vietnam, a dominant country in the Indo-china region, is an to a great extent, on the other, its image had graduated on a important balancing force in East and Southeast Asia. It resisted compact footing in the psyche of Vietnam leadership. the American efforts to dominate the region and subsequently frustrated Chinese attempts to establish their hegemony. A strong India became Sectoral-Dialogue Partner of Association of Vietnam is an asset and contributes to peace and stability of Asia Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1992, India realized that and the world and complements India's interests in the region. Southeast Asia region in general and ASEAN in particular were India knows that Vietnam could play crucial role in the regional the focal point of its Look East policy. In that context, Vietnam security in Southeast Asia. Vietnam is aware of India's crucial continued being regarded as an important factor in the policy. In political support in the past and gives importance to India for the talk with his counterpart, Vietnamese Prime Minister Vo Van strengthening strategic cooperation. Therefore India needs Kiet in Hanoi in 1994, Indian Prime Minister Narasimha Rao strategic relationship with Vietnam and vice-versa. There is need affirmed that India supported innovation of Vietnam and for India to forge special relationship with Vietnam having regarded Vietnam as a special partner. Since then, Indian Minister strategic advantages in meeting the pressure of neighbors. of Foreign Affairs Jaswant Singh and Prime Minister Atal Behari Building up of economic, political and military strength provide Vajpayee have paid visits to Vietnam in 2000 and 2003 India and Vietnam counterbalancing relationship in Asia. India respectively. Before Indian Prime Minister Narasimha Rao has had strategic understanding with Vietnam. Vietnam is in the visited Vietnam in 1994, General Secretary of Communist Party of process of reducing its military personnel quantitatively Vietnam, Do Muoi paid a visit to India in 1992. Then, Vietnamese replacing with new equipment. But its military equipment almost Prime Minister Vo Van Kiet visited India in January 1997. In his supplied by the former Soviet Union is outdated especially MIG- visit to India in 1999, President Tran Due Luong stressed that "our 21 fighter Air Craft. The Vietnamese navy is also not strong. Given two countries had similar interests and viewpoint on major its claims for the islands in the South China Sea, both the air force

190 191 I. Babu Rao and T.M. Rajendra Prasad India-Vietnam Relations in the Post-Cold War Strategic and Economic Engagement and navy should receive attention in Vietnam. Vietnam is not in a military-to-military cooperation, sale of advanced military light position to replace its MIG-21 Air Crafts or built a credible navy. helicopters, assistance in repairs, overhaul of Hanoi's mainstay There is where India stepped in defence cooperation in Vietnam.3 MIG fighters and raising the level of military contacts between the two countries. The defence cooperation agreement signed at the New Delhi's defence relations with Hanoi developed slowly, in a conclusion of visits of the Defence Minister George Fernandas to limited manner, as part of exchange of high level military Hanoi also provides for framework for periodical talks between delegations, the former chief of General Staff of the Indian Army Defence Ministers of the two countries and cooperation between Gen. K V Krishna Rao visited Hanoi in May 1983 after Sino- Indian Coast Guard and Vietnamese Sea Police in combating Vietnam war of 1979. Lt. Gen. Nguyen Huy Van led a four 8 member senior military delegation to India in July 1992, where growing menace of piracy in the eastern seas. Bilateral agreement they met Chief of the Indian Army Staff Gen. Rodrigue as well as was reached on Joint naval training to combat piracy, jungle 4 warfare and counter insurgency training, repair of MIG Air others . As part of exchange of high level military delegations, the Crafts, pilot training and assistance on small and medium arms Vice Chief of the Indian Army Staff; Lt. Gen. Surendranath, production. India also agreed to Vietnam defence industry and visited Vietnam in 1994. A high level delegation headed by the extend technical know how by Indian Defence Research and Vietnamese Vice Minister of Defence and Chief of the General Development Organisation (DRDO), Fernandas described the Staff, Gen. Dai Din Luyen visited India from 3-11,1995. The 9 Director, Military Intelligence of Vietnam also visited India in agreement as “most significant” September 1997. In the exchange of high level delegation of Under the new pact, Vietnam has offered to admit Indian Armed defence personnel, discussions were held for cooperation in ship Forces personnel for training in the field of jungle warfare and to repair, ship construction, hydrographics and other areas5. In get this project underway speedily. The Vietnamese army has asimilar move, the Director General of Military Intelligence of the offered training in Vietnamese language to Indian officers Indian army, New Delhi, Lt. Gen. R L Sahney visited Vietnam selected for warfare course. Vietnam also agreed to study from November 10-13, 1998 . The Chief of the Army Staff of India catalogue of the ordinance factory board and explore the visited Vietnam fromFebruary23-28, 19996. possibilities of using the products and services being offered by India's defence manufacturing industries. India has also agreed to Indian Premier Narasimha Rao visited Vietnam in September assist in the process of setting up of its defence industry and also 1994. The agreement merely provided for maintenance and opened its door to the research done by DRDO.10 There could also upkeep of military equipment, mostly supplied by Soviet Union. be immense advantages in commencing the sale of nuclear The stated mission of this agreement was to promote bilateral military hardware to Vietnam including some quality of Prithvi cooperation between the defence establishments of the two 7 missiles with launchers under Govt. to Govt. soft loans. The countries and that it was not aimed against any third country . DRDO could in future provide technical know how to Vietnam's Since then India has been supplying ammunition, propellants, nascent armament industry. Vietnam has been seeking to MIG tyres, spares and silver oxide Air Craft batteries. upgrade air force as far as, the availability of cheaper Indian The most significant defence pact was signed in March 2000 technology for refurbishing its ageing Russian Air Craft, setting during Defence Minister George Fernandas visit to Hanoi, the up of small armed industry and other purchase of equipment first such visit by an Indian Defence Minister to Vietnam. The were crucial. The enhanced military capabilities enabled India not wide ranging defence agreement paved the way for greater only to meet its own security concerns but also to project itself as a

192 193 I. Babu Rao and T.M. Rajendra Prasad India-Vietnam Relations in the Post-Cold War Strategic and Economic Engagement and navy should receive attention in Vietnam. Vietnam is not in a military-to-military cooperation, sale of advanced military light position to replace its MIG-21 Air Crafts or built a credible navy. helicopters, assistance in repairs, overhaul of Hanoi's mainstay There is where India stepped in defence cooperation in Vietnam.3 MIG fighters and raising the level of military contacts between the two countries. The defence cooperation agreement signed at the New Delhi's defence relations with Hanoi developed slowly, in a conclusion of visits of the Defence Minister George Fernandas to limited manner, as part of exchange of high level military Hanoi also provides for framework for periodical talks between delegations, the former chief of General Staff of the Indian Army Defence Ministers of the two countries and cooperation between Gen. K V Krishna Rao visited Hanoi in May 1983 after Sino- Indian Coast Guard and Vietnamese Sea Police in combating Vietnam war of 1979. Lt. Gen. Nguyen Huy Van led a four 8 member senior military delegation to India in July 1992, where growing menace of piracy in the eastern seas. Bilateral agreement they met Chief of the Indian Army Staff Gen. Rodrigue as well as was reached on Joint naval training to combat piracy, jungle 4 warfare and counter insurgency training, repair of MIG Air others . As part of exchange of high level military delegations, the Crafts, pilot training and assistance on small and medium arms Vice Chief of the Indian Army Staff; Lt. Gen. Surendranath, production. India also agreed to Vietnam defence industry and visited Vietnam in 1994. A high level delegation headed by the extend technical know how by Indian Defence Research and Vietnamese Vice Minister of Defence and Chief of the General Development Organisation (DRDO), Fernandas described the Staff, Gen. Dai Din Luyen visited India from 3-11,1995. The 9 Director, Military Intelligence of Vietnam also visited India in agreement as “most significant” September 1997. In the exchange of high level delegation of Under the new pact, Vietnam has offered to admit Indian Armed defence personnel, discussions were held for cooperation in ship Forces personnel for training in the field of jungle warfare and to repair, ship construction, hydrographics and other areas5. In get this project underway speedily. The Vietnamese army has asimilar move, the Director General of Military Intelligence of the offered training in Vietnamese language to Indian officers Indian army, New Delhi, Lt. Gen. R L Sahney visited Vietnam selected for warfare course. Vietnam also agreed to study from November 10-13, 1998 . The Chief of the Army Staff of India catalogue of the ordinance factory board and explore the visited Vietnam fromFebruary23-28, 19996. possibilities of using the products and services being offered by India's defence manufacturing industries. India has also agreed to Indian Premier Narasimha Rao visited Vietnam in September assist in the process of setting up of its defence industry and also 1994. The agreement merely provided for maintenance and opened its door to the research done by DRDO.10 There could also upkeep of military equipment, mostly supplied by Soviet Union. be immense advantages in commencing the sale of nuclear The stated mission of this agreement was to promote bilateral military hardware to Vietnam including some quality of Prithvi cooperation between the defence establishments of the two 7 missiles with launchers under Govt. to Govt. soft loans. The countries and that it was not aimed against any third country . DRDO could in future provide technical know how to Vietnam's Since then India has been supplying ammunition, propellants, nascent armament industry. Vietnam has been seeking to MIG tyres, spares and silver oxide Air Craft batteries. upgrade air force as far as, the availability of cheaper Indian The most significant defence pact was signed in March 2000 technology for refurbishing its ageing Russian Air Craft, setting during Defence Minister George Fernandas visit to Hanoi, the up of small armed industry and other purchase of equipment first such visit by an Indian Defence Minister to Vietnam. The were crucial. The enhanced military capabilities enabled India not wide ranging defence agreement paved the way for greater only to meet its own security concerns but also to project itself as a

192 193 I. Babu Rao and T.M. Rajendra Prasad India-Vietnam Relations in the Post-Cold War Strategic and Economic Engagement power to pursue the security affairs of the nations whose peace counter terrorism in the region. “Strength of defence links was and security was a matter of concern for India.11 reflected by the exchange of many high level visits and experience sharing between the two countries.” said Vietnamese Foreign Vietnam strongly voices the need for closure relationship with Minister, Nguyen Dy Nien about the strategic understanding India and New Delhi must respond to give strategic depth in the 15 region. Vietnam seeks modernization of its defence capacity and between India and Vietnam . Indian troops had been receiving India can suitably partner for this purpose. Describing Hanoi as training in jungle warfare in Vietnam. Confirming this, A B the most trusted friend and ally, Fernandas said when India got Vajpayee said when he visited Vietnam, “this is ongoing flakes from all over the world after 1998 nuclear tests, Vietnam programme imparting of military training that has been going on “stood by us “because” they understand that if we went nuclear, since very long. Expanding Vajpayee's statement that Indians 12 were being trained in jungle warfare in Vietnam, Brijesh Mishra, there were good security reasons for it”. A strong partnership in Security Advisor to Prime Minister, of India Vajpayee clarified the area of defence helps the two nations to get their relations that this exercise involved a few select officers and not combat reinforced besides promoting stability, peace, prosperity in the troops in general. He said that the agreement was reached during region. Thus the Indian Defence Minister's visit in March 2000 the visit of Defence Minister in March 2000 to Vietnam. Brajesh gave a fillip to defence cooperation between the two countries. Mishra also said Vietnamese officers received training at the Vietnam has expressed some interest in purchase of military National Defence College in India16. Thus India and Vietnam equipment including the advanced light helicopters and the defence cooperation has been fruitfully developed17. repair and overhaul of its MIG Air Craft fleet from India. Though, India has offered to modernize people's army, Vietnam currently In fact, Vietnam was one of the first countries in Asia-Pacific plagued by shortage in spares and military hardware. Vietnam is believed that its relations with India as strategic importance. After not in a position to buy them since its priority is to rebuilt its the term of "strategic" was used to describe Vietnam-India economy. But then, given its constraints of funds, India finds it relations in his visit to India in 1999, Vietnamese President Tran difficult to underwrite this military assistance13. Along with Due Luong reaffirmed his appreciation of Vietnam-India traditional and friendly relations, the Indo-Vietnamese relations relations when he remarked to Indian Foreign Minister Jaswant and cooperation in defence areas have been gradually promoted, Singh in mid-November 2000 that "Vietnam treats India with expanded and strengthened. In the process of development, the strategic importance". The term of "strategic" was officially issued leaders of armed forces have paid attention to strengthening in 2003 in Joint Declaration on the Framework of Comprehensive Cooperation between the Republic of India and the Socialist Republic of cooperation between Vietnam people's army and Indian Armed Vietnam as They Enter the 21st Century. In the Joint Declaration, Services. Cooperation includes exchange of delegations, training "both sides endeavour to develop a strategic dimension to their programmes etc. After the visit of Fernandes, Indian Defence partnership for the mutual benefit of their peoples, and to Minister, in March 2000, Indian Government drew a programme, contribute to peace, stability, cooperation and prosperity in the in which Indian Army was interested in the art of operations 18 14 Asia-Pacific region and the world at large" . Strategic partnership during the war. between India and Vietnam was officially established in 2007 India and Vietnam cooperate in education, training and when the two countries signed Joint Declaration on the Vietnam- information sharing. The two Defence Ministers of both countries India Strategic Partnership. With the Joint Declaration, Vietnam have also frequent exchanges. Both shared information on the was the first country in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia-

194 195 I. Babu Rao and T.M. Rajendra Prasad India-Vietnam Relations in the Post-Cold War Strategic and Economic Engagement power to pursue the security affairs of the nations whose peace counter terrorism in the region. “Strength of defence links was and security was a matter of concern for India.11 reflected by the exchange of many high level visits and experience sharing between the two countries.” said Vietnamese Foreign Vietnam strongly voices the need for closure relationship with Minister, Nguyen Dy Nien about the strategic understanding India and New Delhi must respond to give strategic depth in the 15 region. Vietnam seeks modernization of its defence capacity and between India and Vietnam . Indian troops had been receiving India can suitably partner for this purpose. Describing Hanoi as training in jungle warfare in Vietnam. Confirming this, A B the most trusted friend and ally, Fernandas said when India got Vajpayee said when he visited Vietnam, “this is ongoing flakes from all over the world after 1998 nuclear tests, Vietnam programme imparting of military training that has been going on “stood by us “because” they understand that if we went nuclear, since very long. Expanding Vajpayee's statement that Indians 12 were being trained in jungle warfare in Vietnam, Brijesh Mishra, there were good security reasons for it”. A strong partnership in Security Advisor to Prime Minister, of India Vajpayee clarified the area of defence helps the two nations to get their relations that this exercise involved a few select officers and not combat reinforced besides promoting stability, peace, prosperity in the troops in general. He said that the agreement was reached during region. Thus the Indian Defence Minister's visit in March 2000 the visit of Defence Minister in March 2000 to Vietnam. Brajesh gave a fillip to defence cooperation between the two countries. Mishra also said Vietnamese officers received training at the Vietnam has expressed some interest in purchase of military National Defence College in India16. Thus India and Vietnam equipment including the advanced light helicopters and the defence cooperation has been fruitfully developed17. repair and overhaul of its MIG Air Craft fleet from India. Though, India has offered to modernize people's army, Vietnam currently In fact, Vietnam was one of the first countries in Asia-Pacific plagued by shortage in spares and military hardware. Vietnam is believed that its relations with India as strategic importance. After not in a position to buy them since its priority is to rebuilt its the term of "strategic" was used to describe Vietnam-India economy. But then, given its constraints of funds, India finds it relations in his visit to India in 1999, Vietnamese President Tran difficult to underwrite this military assistance13. Along with Due Luong reaffirmed his appreciation of Vietnam-India traditional and friendly relations, the Indo-Vietnamese relations relations when he remarked to Indian Foreign Minister Jaswant and cooperation in defence areas have been gradually promoted, Singh in mid-November 2000 that "Vietnam treats India with expanded and strengthened. In the process of development, the strategic importance". The term of "strategic" was officially issued leaders of armed forces have paid attention to strengthening in 2003 in Joint Declaration on the Framework of Comprehensive Cooperation between the Republic of India and the Socialist Republic of cooperation between Vietnam people's army and Indian Armed Vietnam as They Enter the 21st Century. In the Joint Declaration, Services. Cooperation includes exchange of delegations, training "both sides endeavour to develop a strategic dimension to their programmes etc. After the visit of Fernandes, Indian Defence partnership for the mutual benefit of their peoples, and to Minister, in March 2000, Indian Government drew a programme, contribute to peace, stability, cooperation and prosperity in the in which Indian Army was interested in the art of operations 18 14 Asia-Pacific region and the world at large" . Strategic partnership during the war. between India and Vietnam was officially established in 2007 India and Vietnam cooperate in education, training and when the two countries signed Joint Declaration on the Vietnam- information sharing. The two Defence Ministers of both countries India Strategic Partnership. With the Joint Declaration, Vietnam have also frequent exchanges. Both shared information on the was the first country in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia-

194 195 I. Babu Rao and T.M. Rajendra Prasad India-Vietnam Relations in the Post-Cold War Strategic and Economic Engagement

Pacific officially established strategic relations with India19. economic scenario. After the end of Cold War, geo-politics was replaced by geo economics. It is good opportunity for India to Recently, several forms of strategic dialogues between the two introspect and review its economic policies with the world. A countries have been established. Vietnam - India political greater economic orientation to the foreign policy of India since consultative meeting was held for the first time in 2006 and the 1990s has been an important feature. To cope with the new forth meeting was held in New Delhi in October 2009. According international order in the post Cold War, the Government of India to Joint Declaration on the Strategic Partnership, Vietnam and under the leadership of P V Narasimha Rao announced its New India "agreed to establish a Strategic Dialogue at the level of Vice 20 Economic Policy in July 1991, which was guided more by Ministers in the Foreign Office". As a result, the first strategic economic imperatives and expediency than by political rhetoric. dialogue meeting between Vietnam and India took place in New Among the various foreign policy initiatives, India has Delhi on October 15, 2009. According to the schedule, the fifth undertaken, probably the most significant and the most political consultative and the second strategic dialogue meeting successful one has been its 'Look East Policy' India desired to between Vietnam and India will be held in Hanoi, Vietnam in improve relations with ASEAN and other Asia-Pacific nations 2010. including Indo-china states and undertake to associate closely In September 2011, India entered into negotiations with Vietnam with the region. The fall of Soviet Union, compelled India to to sell its first Brah-Mos cruise missiles to a foreign country; search for new trade avenues and links throughout the world. signed agreement for the application of information technology While economic reasons are the prime motive behind this attempt and e-technology, and technical support for the Vietnamese navy; other reasons are political and strategic considerations. This and over the years there has been an increase in the frequency of resulted in a shift in the over all Indian foreign policy priorities. goodwill visits of Indian naval ships to Vietnamese ports; from The economic liberalization by New Delhi naturally attracted 1998 to 2014, the visits have exceeded eighteen so far. However, many Southeast Asian countries to develop better economic the Indo-Vietnam bilateral joint naval exercises in the South linkages with India. China Sea, were not favourably looked upon by China and it was With the end of Cold War like most other countries Indo-china treated as an attempt to undermine its sovereignty over 21 states too started liberalizing its economy in a big way. Due to uninhabited islands in the South China Sea . Besides this, during changed political conditions and Honai's decision to withdraw its Nguyen Phu Trong, the General Secretary of the Communist troops from Cambodia. ASEAN found it more useful to bring Party of Vietnam's visit to India in December 2013, New Delhi Indo-china importance in Southeast Asia has suddenly increased decided to offer a $100 million credit line to Vietnam to purchase strategically as well as economically. Vietnam emerged as the military equipment. Usually a privilege reserved for its new economic hub of Asia-Pacific. With regard to Vietnam, it is immediate neighbours, this is the first time that New Delhi has located at the centre of world's fastest growing economic region. extended a credit line for defence purchases to a far-off nation, in Bestowed with a wealth of natural and human resources and order to open new avenues for cooperation on the future strategically positioned, Vietnam possesses a relatively young trajectory of this relationship. and motivated population of eighty two million (approx), a low Economic Cooperation cost labor base, strong agricultural capability and a rich energy The disintegration of the former Soviet Union at the beginning of reserves within a politically stable government. Since 1986, the 1990s resulted in the emergence of a new global political and Vietnam has been engaged in a course of market reforms known

196 197 I. Babu Rao and T.M. Rajendra Prasad India-Vietnam Relations in the Post-Cold War Strategic and Economic Engagement

Pacific officially established strategic relations with India19. economic scenario. After the end of Cold War, geo-politics was replaced by geo economics. It is good opportunity for India to Recently, several forms of strategic dialogues between the two introspect and review its economic policies with the world. A countries have been established. Vietnam - India political greater economic orientation to the foreign policy of India since consultative meeting was held for the first time in 2006 and the 1990s has been an important feature. To cope with the new forth meeting was held in New Delhi in October 2009. According international order in the post Cold War, the Government of India to Joint Declaration on the Strategic Partnership, Vietnam and under the leadership of P V Narasimha Rao announced its New India "agreed to establish a Strategic Dialogue at the level of Vice 20 Economic Policy in July 1991, which was guided more by Ministers in the Foreign Office". As a result, the first strategic economic imperatives and expediency than by political rhetoric. dialogue meeting between Vietnam and India took place in New Among the various foreign policy initiatives, India has Delhi on October 15, 2009. According to the schedule, the fifth undertaken, probably the most significant and the most political consultative and the second strategic dialogue meeting successful one has been its 'Look East Policy' India desired to between Vietnam and India will be held in Hanoi, Vietnam in improve relations with ASEAN and other Asia-Pacific nations 2010. including Indo-china states and undertake to associate closely In September 2011, India entered into negotiations with Vietnam with the region. The fall of Soviet Union, compelled India to to sell its first Brah-Mos cruise missiles to a foreign country; search for new trade avenues and links throughout the world. signed agreement for the application of information technology While economic reasons are the prime motive behind this attempt and e-technology, and technical support for the Vietnamese navy; other reasons are political and strategic considerations. This and over the years there has been an increase in the frequency of resulted in a shift in the over all Indian foreign policy priorities. goodwill visits of Indian naval ships to Vietnamese ports; from The economic liberalization by New Delhi naturally attracted 1998 to 2014, the visits have exceeded eighteen so far. However, many Southeast Asian countries to develop better economic the Indo-Vietnam bilateral joint naval exercises in the South linkages with India. China Sea, were not favourably looked upon by China and it was With the end of Cold War like most other countries Indo-china treated as an attempt to undermine its sovereignty over 21 states too started liberalizing its economy in a big way. Due to uninhabited islands in the South China Sea . Besides this, during changed political conditions and Honai's decision to withdraw its Nguyen Phu Trong, the General Secretary of the Communist troops from Cambodia. ASEAN found it more useful to bring Party of Vietnam's visit to India in December 2013, New Delhi Indo-china importance in Southeast Asia has suddenly increased decided to offer a $100 million credit line to Vietnam to purchase strategically as well as economically. Vietnam emerged as the military equipment. Usually a privilege reserved for its new economic hub of Asia-Pacific. With regard to Vietnam, it is immediate neighbours, this is the first time that New Delhi has located at the centre of world's fastest growing economic region. extended a credit line for defence purchases to a far-off nation, in Bestowed with a wealth of natural and human resources and order to open new avenues for cooperation on the future strategically positioned, Vietnam possesses a relatively young trajectory of this relationship. and motivated population of eighty two million (approx), a low Economic Cooperation cost labor base, strong agricultural capability and a rich energy The disintegration of the former Soviet Union at the beginning of reserves within a politically stable government. Since 1986, the 1990s resulted in the emergence of a new global political and Vietnam has been engaged in a course of market reforms known

196 197 I. Babu Rao and T.M. Rajendra Prasad India-Vietnam Relations in the Post-Cold War Strategic and Economic Engagement as “Doi Moi” or “renovation”. The core of this policy was policy of Vietnam and economic reform and liberalization in liberalization and deregulation of the economy, with a strategic India gave new impetus for further promoting friendly shift towards private sector development and agricultural cooperative relations between India and Vietnam bringing them reforms. The government started with a dual aim of export to a new comprehensive and more effective stage. oriented growth and attraction of foreign investment. With the Immediately after the end of Cold War, the visit of Secretary improving living standards of the Vietnam people and of General of Vietnam communist Party Du Muoi in September 1992 encouraging foreign investment through an open door policy, the pushed the process of cooperation to achieve the new depth as the Vietnam economy has recorded very important achievements in two sides decided to further strengthen ties in the economic the economic sectors of agriculture, oil, gas, mining, industry, sphere. India and Vietnam agreed to implement more effectively construction services and tourism. As the fastest growing ASEAN the existing agreement and to identify more areas and forms of economy, second only to China in Asia, Vietnam nine percent cooperation, with emphasis on joint ventures in the field of oil record growth rate during 1991 -1997 exemplifies the success of 22 exploration, exploiting the process of minerals, small industry, economic reforms . agriculture and agro-based industries, hotel industry and marine After reunification of Vietnam in 1975, Vietnam leaders have been products.24 Vietnam was in need of Indian support in order to searching for appropriate strategies to transform its traditional carry out its comprehensive reforms and get out of the financial economy. By December 1986, after trial and error efforts of crisis. During Du Muoi visit both countries discussed to find applying a Soviet type socialist strategy were declared failure by better ways for cooperation economically, serving best for the the view of famous sixth party congress. Vietnam shifted reforms were being launched in both India and Vietnam. India direction and intensified reforms of its political economy after and Vietnam noted the economic relations were not to the there efforts. The rapid East Asian growth led Vietnam to adopt expectation of both the leaders of the two nations. the renovation process of Doi Moi. It accepted the market Trade and Investment mechanism to allocate resources. Reforms included deregulation of prices, reducing subsidies to state enterprises, ending the India and Vietnam have had long trade relations. In modern collective agricultural system, enacting the new commercial own times, trade relations between two countries have officially begun framing laws and creating policies diverted towards the since 22 September 1956 when the first agreement was signed by stabilization and convertibility of currency. Adoption of Doi Moi the government of Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) and by Vietnam clearly marked her journey towards internationa- government of India. Since then, the economic and trade lization and economic transformation.23 relationship between the two countries has had positive developments. After the unification of Vietnam, a bilateral The traditional economic relations between India and Vietnam economic agreement was signed in July 1978 between India and were enhanced by the establishment of the India-Vietnam Joint Vietnam during the visit of Pham Van Dong, Prime Minister of Commission for Economic, Scientific and Technical Cooperation Vietnam. When the fifth meeting of Indo-Vietnam Joint on December 1982. For Vietnam, this had a great significance, Commission took place in New Delhi in March 1992, the two sides because at that time Vietnam was under economic embargo and expressed satisfaction at the fact that a number of Indian business economic assistance from international finding agencies was not delegations had visited Vietnam for expansion of economic reaching the country. In the light of new situation after the end of relations. Cold War, the implementation of renovation and open foreign

198 199 I. Babu Rao and T.M. Rajendra Prasad India-Vietnam Relations in the Post-Cold War Strategic and Economic Engagement as “Doi Moi” or “renovation”. The core of this policy was policy of Vietnam and economic reform and liberalization in liberalization and deregulation of the economy, with a strategic India gave new impetus for further promoting friendly shift towards private sector development and agricultural cooperative relations between India and Vietnam bringing them reforms. The government started with a dual aim of export to a new comprehensive and more effective stage. oriented growth and attraction of foreign investment. With the Immediately after the end of Cold War, the visit of Secretary improving living standards of the Vietnam people and of General of Vietnam communist Party Du Muoi in September 1992 encouraging foreign investment through an open door policy, the pushed the process of cooperation to achieve the new depth as the Vietnam economy has recorded very important achievements in two sides decided to further strengthen ties in the economic the economic sectors of agriculture, oil, gas, mining, industry, sphere. India and Vietnam agreed to implement more effectively construction services and tourism. As the fastest growing ASEAN the existing agreement and to identify more areas and forms of economy, second only to China in Asia, Vietnam nine percent cooperation, with emphasis on joint ventures in the field of oil record growth rate during 1991 -1997 exemplifies the success of 22 exploration, exploiting the process of minerals, small industry, economic reforms . agriculture and agro-based industries, hotel industry and marine After reunification of Vietnam in 1975, Vietnam leaders have been products.24 Vietnam was in need of Indian support in order to searching for appropriate strategies to transform its traditional carry out its comprehensive reforms and get out of the financial economy. By December 1986, after trial and error efforts of crisis. During Du Muoi visit both countries discussed to find applying a Soviet type socialist strategy were declared failure by better ways for cooperation economically, serving best for the the view of famous sixth party congress. Vietnam shifted reforms were being launched in both India and Vietnam. India direction and intensified reforms of its political economy after and Vietnam noted the economic relations were not to the there efforts. The rapid East Asian growth led Vietnam to adopt expectation of both the leaders of the two nations. the renovation process of Doi Moi. It accepted the market Trade and Investment mechanism to allocate resources. Reforms included deregulation of prices, reducing subsidies to state enterprises, ending the India and Vietnam have had long trade relations. In modern collective agricultural system, enacting the new commercial own times, trade relations between two countries have officially begun framing laws and creating policies diverted towards the since 22 September 1956 when the first agreement was signed by stabilization and convertibility of currency. Adoption of Doi Moi the government of Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) and by Vietnam clearly marked her journey towards internationa- government of India. Since then, the economic and trade lization and economic transformation.23 relationship between the two countries has had positive developments. After the unification of Vietnam, a bilateral The traditional economic relations between India and Vietnam economic agreement was signed in July 1978 between India and were enhanced by the establishment of the India-Vietnam Joint Vietnam during the visit of Pham Van Dong, Prime Minister of Commission for Economic, Scientific and Technical Cooperation Vietnam. When the fifth meeting of Indo-Vietnam Joint on December 1982. For Vietnam, this had a great significance, Commission took place in New Delhi in March 1992, the two sides because at that time Vietnam was under economic embargo and expressed satisfaction at the fact that a number of Indian business economic assistance from international finding agencies was not delegations had visited Vietnam for expansion of economic reaching the country. In the light of new situation after the end of relations. Cold War, the implementation of renovation and open foreign

198 199 I. Babu Rao and T.M. Rajendra Prasad India-Vietnam Relations in the Post-Cold War Strategic and Economic Engagement

Prime Minster, P V Narasimha Rao's visit to Vietnam in During the visit of Indian Prime Minister A B Vajpayee to September 1994 gave a new dimension to the economic relations Vietnam in January 2001, both the governments agreed to make between the two countries. During his visit, agreement on more efforts to increase their trade exchange to US $500 million by avoidance of double taxation was signed among others. Pursuant two years to come i.e., by 2003. Bçth countries have the direction of Prime Minister Rao's visit in September 1994, a joint working through long-term trade agreements. During the visit of Indian group was set up with Vietnam under the aegis of India- Vietnam Prime Minister Vajpayee to Vietnam in January 2001, FICCI and Joint Commission to meet frequently to discuss and enhance Vietnam Chamber of Commerce had set up a Joint Trade Council. bilateral cooperation. The second meeting of India-Vietnam Joint Regular exchange of visits by the leaders of the two countries' at working group was held at Hanoi on 18 and 19 December 1995. the highest level has provided a fresh impetus to bilateral The Indian delegation was led by Secretary (East) in Ministry of relations. However, the trade relation between Vietnam and India External Affairs (MEA). It was agreed to identify concrete do not reflect the potential and cordial relations of the two measures to promote trade, investment, banking and commercial countries.27 India' s current trade with Vietnam is rather low, both relations between the two countries.25 in terms of absolute value and relative share because of high A new bilateral agreement on Trade and Economic cooperation shipping costs, lack of contacts between business communities, was signed in March 1997 during the visit to India by Prime relatively lower volume of demand and so on. Minister Vo Van Kiet of Vietnam. Till that time satisfaction was There has been increase in the trade between India and Vietnam, found at the growth of bilateral trade which had crossed US $100 but it has not been stable. The trade turnover is too small which is million mark on the period of 1994-95. From 1996-97 there was not equal to the potential of the two countries. The total two way balance of trade in favor of India. Bilateral agreement on trade and trade during 1991-1995 reached $199.15 million. In spite of 2.4 economic cooperation reached in March 1997 served to promote times of increase, the largest two way trade in l995and 1996 the India-Vietnam trade. After the fourth session of the Joint reached, it was only more than $70 million and was only 03 -0.5 working group meeting in Hanoi in April 1998, new efforts were percent Vietnamese trade with foreign countries. Mutual made by the two countries to diversify their respective export of economic interaction, though not as encouraging as political commodities to enhance the quantum of bilateral trade for the amity, has been showing signs of improvement. Bilateral trade desired growth target of US $200 millennium to be reached by the turn over which was $56 million in 1999 increased to $300 million end of this century. India agreed to consider the request of by 2003. The visiting Indian Foreign Minister in 2004 committed Vietnam for exploring possibilities of importing commodities to raise the bilateral trade volume to $1 billion by the year 200628. from Vietnam such as raw silk, coal, crude oil, non-ferrous metals Indian entrepreneurs and companies making nervous efforts to and handicrafts items from Vietnam. To further strengthen and intensify industrial collaborations with Vietnam counterparts. upgrade India- Vietnam economic and commercial relations, The Vietnam companies are also trying to find markets for their their companies decide to take part in their mutual trade fairs.26 products in India. On the occasion of Vietnam Prime Minister Vo Van Kiet's visit to India's trade with Vietnam remains at the top. During the year India in March 1997, the two countries signed a number of 2007-08 (April-March) their bilateral trade grew by more than agreements which created more convenient bases for further 40% over the previous years. However, the Balance of Trade from development of economic and trade cooperation between the 1991-92 to 1993-94 went in favour of Vietnam and since 1994-95 till countries. date, it was titled in favour of India. In general, Vietnam's export

200 201 I. Babu Rao and T.M. Rajendra Prasad India-Vietnam Relations in the Post-Cold War Strategic and Economic Engagement

Prime Minster, P V Narasimha Rao's visit to Vietnam in During the visit of Indian Prime Minister A B Vajpayee to September 1994 gave a new dimension to the economic relations Vietnam in January 2001, both the governments agreed to make between the two countries. During his visit, agreement on more efforts to increase their trade exchange to US $500 million by avoidance of double taxation was signed among others. Pursuant two years to come i.e., by 2003. Bçth countries have the direction of Prime Minister Rao's visit in September 1994, a joint working through long-term trade agreements. During the visit of Indian group was set up with Vietnam under the aegis of India- Vietnam Prime Minister Vajpayee to Vietnam in January 2001, FICCI and Joint Commission to meet frequently to discuss and enhance Vietnam Chamber of Commerce had set up a Joint Trade Council. bilateral cooperation. The second meeting of India-Vietnam Joint Regular exchange of visits by the leaders of the two countries' at working group was held at Hanoi on 18 and 19 December 1995. the highest level has provided a fresh impetus to bilateral The Indian delegation was led by Secretary (East) in Ministry of relations. However, the trade relation between Vietnam and India External Affairs (MEA). It was agreed to identify concrete do not reflect the potential and cordial relations of the two measures to promote trade, investment, banking and commercial countries.27 India' s current trade with Vietnam is rather low, both relations between the two countries.25 in terms of absolute value and relative share because of high A new bilateral agreement on Trade and Economic cooperation shipping costs, lack of contacts between business communities, was signed in March 1997 during the visit to India by Prime relatively lower volume of demand and so on. Minister Vo Van Kiet of Vietnam. Till that time satisfaction was There has been increase in the trade between India and Vietnam, found at the growth of bilateral trade which had crossed US $100 but it has not been stable. The trade turnover is too small which is million mark on the period of 1994-95. From 1996-97 there was not equal to the potential of the two countries. The total two way balance of trade in favor of India. Bilateral agreement on trade and trade during 1991-1995 reached $199.15 million. In spite of 2.4 economic cooperation reached in March 1997 served to promote times of increase, the largest two way trade in l995and 1996 the India-Vietnam trade. After the fourth session of the Joint reached, it was only more than $70 million and was only 03 -0.5 working group meeting in Hanoi in April 1998, new efforts were percent Vietnamese trade with foreign countries. Mutual made by the two countries to diversify their respective export of economic interaction, though not as encouraging as political commodities to enhance the quantum of bilateral trade for the amity, has been showing signs of improvement. Bilateral trade desired growth target of US $200 millennium to be reached by the turn over which was $56 million in 1999 increased to $300 million end of this century. India agreed to consider the request of by 2003. The visiting Indian Foreign Minister in 2004 committed Vietnam for exploring possibilities of importing commodities to raise the bilateral trade volume to $1 billion by the year 200628. from Vietnam such as raw silk, coal, crude oil, non-ferrous metals Indian entrepreneurs and companies making nervous efforts to and handicrafts items from Vietnam. To further strengthen and intensify industrial collaborations with Vietnam counterparts. upgrade India- Vietnam economic and commercial relations, The Vietnam companies are also trying to find markets for their their companies decide to take part in their mutual trade fairs.26 products in India. On the occasion of Vietnam Prime Minister Vo Van Kiet's visit to India's trade with Vietnam remains at the top. During the year India in March 1997, the two countries signed a number of 2007-08 (April-March) their bilateral trade grew by more than agreements which created more convenient bases for further 40% over the previous years. However, the Balance of Trade from development of economic and trade cooperation between the 1991-92 to 1993-94 went in favour of Vietnam and since 1994-95 till countries. date, it was titled in favour of India. In general, Vietnam's export

200 201 I. Babu Rao and T.M. Rajendra Prasad India-Vietnam Relations in the Post-Cold War Strategic and Economic Engagement basket contains crude oil, textile and garments, marine products, technological revolution, establishing itself as a knowledge- footwear, rice, electronics, coffee, vegetables and fruits, based economy. Vietnam needs technological assistance for its handicrafts, rubber, pepper and tea. On the other hand, major socio-economic development, for which India is an appropriate Indian exports to Vietnam include animal feed, pharmaceuticals partner. In this regard both countries can work together in the key and fine chemicals, plastic and linoleum and equipment, iron and areas of science and technology, education and cultural steel, pesticides, leather, leather garments and fabrics, wheat etc. exchanges. In the field of science and technology cooperation, India has a number of ongoing cooperation programmes with India and Vietnam have signed many agreements and have Vietnam and its investment in it has been in the range of more undertaken several projects since 1976 and identified the than US$ 230 million in 2005-06. Besides this, by the end of 2006, particular areas of cooperation, such as biotechnology in India had 12 FDI projects with registered investment of US$ 46.4 agriculture and healthcare, technology for new materials, IT and million29. Vietnam, as a leading producer of oil and gas, also has a electronics, super-computing, nuclear energy for peaceful uses, vital place in India's quest for diversifying its sources of energy science and technology policy making, remote sensing, non- supply. Moreover, the overseas arm of India's State-owned traditional energy and so on. exploration company, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) In the area of education, the Indian government provides about is involved in exploration projects in Vietnam and has signed a 130 scholarships every year to Vietnamese students and petroleum sharing contract with Petro-Vietnam for three blocks - researchers for studying in Indian educational institutes. India 06,12E and 19 - in Nam Con Son basin, about 370 km offshore, also has plans to set up English language teaching centres in the besides signing an MOU with Petro-Vietnam Investment and Da Nang province in central Vietnam. Under the framework of Development Company (PIDC) on 9 January, 2001 for India-Vietnam protocol on IT, Vietnam receives Indian assistance collaboration between ONGC Videsh and PIDC in the for training its manpower in the area of IT and IT-enabled exploration and production of hydrocarbons in Vietnam. services. However, in order to make bilateral cooperation in the Furthermore, India has provided considerable assistance to field of human resource development additionally effective in Vietnam through commodity loans as also through Government- February 2007, the Vietnam-India Action Plan for 2007-2009 was to-Government credit transfer, to overcome the shortage of concluded between Vietnam's Deputy Prime Minister and foreign exchange and the general lack of external financing which Foreign Minister Pham Gia Khiem and his Indian counterpart, had hitherto hampered their mutual trade. Pranab Mukherjee. Since 1976, India has extended 14 lines of credit totaling Rs.3610 India's relations with Vietnam reached its zenith when the Prime million to Vietnam. In August 2004, New Delhi announced Minister of Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), Mr. Nguyen Tan another credit line of US$ 27 million to Vietnam between Exim Dung, paid a State visit to India from 4-6, July 2007, at the end of Bank of India and Ministry of Finance of Vietnam. India also which, on 6th July both the nations signed a historic agreement declared an aid of Rs.100 million for setting up of an Advanced titled 'Strategic Partnership', considered by the two Prime Resource Centre in IT in Hanoi. Another grant of Rs. 122.07 Ministers as a major breakthrough in bilateral relations that could million has been provided to Vietnam for assisting human pave the way for their all-faceted cooperation to expand further. It resource development in the field of IT in 6 educational 30 has been felt by both the countries that this 'Strategic Partnership' institutions . Both these projects have already started operating. will support each others durable growth and prosperity and work During the past fewyears, India has undergone rapid for the safe of peace, stability, cooperation and development in

202 203 I. Babu Rao and T.M. Rajendra Prasad India-Vietnam Relations in the Post-Cold War Strategic and Economic Engagement basket contains crude oil, textile and garments, marine products, technological revolution, establishing itself as a knowledge- footwear, rice, electronics, coffee, vegetables and fruits, based economy. Vietnam needs technological assistance for its handicrafts, rubber, pepper and tea. On the other hand, major socio-economic development, for which India is an appropriate Indian exports to Vietnam include animal feed, pharmaceuticals partner. In this regard both countries can work together in the key and fine chemicals, plastic and linoleum and equipment, iron and areas of science and technology, education and cultural steel, pesticides, leather, leather garments and fabrics, wheat etc. exchanges. In the field of science and technology cooperation, India has a number of ongoing cooperation programmes with India and Vietnam have signed many agreements and have Vietnam and its investment in it has been in the range of more undertaken several projects since 1976 and identified the than US$ 230 million in 2005-06. Besides this, by the end of 2006, particular areas of cooperation, such as biotechnology in India had 12 FDI projects with registered investment of US$ 46.4 agriculture and healthcare, technology for new materials, IT and million29. Vietnam, as a leading producer of oil and gas, also has a electronics, super-computing, nuclear energy for peaceful uses, vital place in India's quest for diversifying its sources of energy science and technology policy making, remote sensing, non- supply. Moreover, the overseas arm of India's State-owned traditional energy and so on. exploration company, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) In the area of education, the Indian government provides about is involved in exploration projects in Vietnam and has signed a 130 scholarships every year to Vietnamese students and petroleum sharing contract with Petro-Vietnam for three blocks - researchers for studying in Indian educational institutes. India 06,12E and 19 - in Nam Con Son basin, about 370 km offshore, also has plans to set up English language teaching centres in the besides signing an MOU with Petro-Vietnam Investment and Da Nang province in central Vietnam. Under the framework of Development Company (PIDC) on 9 January, 2001 for India-Vietnam protocol on IT, Vietnam receives Indian assistance collaboration between ONGC Videsh and PIDC in the for training its manpower in the area of IT and IT-enabled exploration and production of hydrocarbons in Vietnam. services. However, in order to make bilateral cooperation in the Furthermore, India has provided considerable assistance to field of human resource development additionally effective in Vietnam through commodity loans as also through Government- February 2007, the Vietnam-India Action Plan for 2007-2009 was to-Government credit transfer, to overcome the shortage of concluded between Vietnam's Deputy Prime Minister and foreign exchange and the general lack of external financing which Foreign Minister Pham Gia Khiem and his Indian counterpart, had hitherto hampered their mutual trade. Pranab Mukherjee. Since 1976, India has extended 14 lines of credit totaling Rs.3610 India's relations with Vietnam reached its zenith when the Prime million to Vietnam. In August 2004, New Delhi announced Minister of Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), Mr. Nguyen Tan another credit line of US$ 27 million to Vietnam between Exim Dung, paid a State visit to India from 4-6, July 2007, at the end of Bank of India and Ministry of Finance of Vietnam. India also which, on 6th July both the nations signed a historic agreement declared an aid of Rs.100 million for setting up of an Advanced titled 'Strategic Partnership', considered by the two Prime Resource Centre in IT in Hanoi. Another grant of Rs. 122.07 Ministers as a major breakthrough in bilateral relations that could million has been provided to Vietnam for assisting human pave the way for their all-faceted cooperation to expand further. It resource development in the field of IT in 6 educational 30 has been felt by both the countries that this 'Strategic Partnership' institutions . Both these projects have already started operating. will support each others durable growth and prosperity and work During the past fewyears, India has undergone rapid for the safe of peace, stability, cooperation and development in

202 203 I. Babu Rao and T.M. Rajendra Prasad India-Vietnam Relations in the Post-Cold War Strategic and Economic Engagement the Asia Pacific and the world at largey. To promote this new Look East friends, the Indo-china states. India's historical ties 'Strategic Partnership', the two leaders reached an agreement on with Indo-china states were a key factor in reviving the traditional continuing to strengthen security and defence cooperation, terms in a new International setup. In doing so, New Delhi especially in training and sharing of information on anti- refurbished its foreign policy priority, based on economic terrorism, sea piracy and transnational crimes. On trade interests, national security and strategic imperatives, towards the cooperation, they decided to prolong working to bring two-way Indo-china states (mainly Vietnam). It's a realistic enough that the trade to the levels of US$ 2 billion in 2010 and US$ 5 billion in 2015. post Cold War years, both India and Vietnam have emerged as In this area, the Indian side took note of Vietnam's request to geo-strategically important nations in the new global security recognize its full-fledged market economy and pledged to take order of the Asian region. necessary measures to enable Vietnamese products to enter Although India's relations with Vietnam have been cordial and Indian markets, so as to balance two-way trade. The Indian Prime friendly, there is a need for a more structured and intensive Minister informed Vietnamese counterpart on his governments approach in terms of bilateral visits and business delegations. decision to lend Vietnam a US$ 45 million credit with preferential 31 India's look east policy was launched when the situation was treatments for the building of a hydro-electricity power plant. At quite different from the way it is today, so, India should also the end of this visit, it was stated by Vietnam that its trade with review its policy and identify nations of priority in the region. China and US is over US$ 10 billion, while that with India has just India should also learn from on objectives analysis of its relations touched US$ 1 billion. To overcome this nominal figure, the with Vietnam and should complement Vietnamese growth so as Vietnamese Prime Minister proposed the setting up of a Forum to have a greater economic stake through trade and investment, for Trade and Investment Policy Exchange, which could provide emerge, infrastructures and joint ventures etc. a platform to officials of both the countries to engage in trade and investment relations, investment promotion, tourism and trade. India-Vietnam strategic partnership established in July 2007 was the result of untiring efforts of both countries originated from During Dung's visit to India, the Vietnamese delegation and awareness of the importance of each side to the other. The businessmen met for working sessions with leading Indian coincidence of strategic calculations of India and Vietnam and corporations such as ESSAR, Reliance, ONGC, INFOSYS, NIT, traditional relationship between the two countries are an WIPRO, Ranbaxy, Satyam, GAIL, Aditya Birla etc. On this important foundation for Vietnam-India strategic partnership to occasion, both sides signed important agreements and trading be upgraded to Vietnam-India truly comprehensive strategic contracts worth over US$ 4 billion. The visiting Prime Minister partnership for friendship and prosperity of the two peoples and described the Joint Declaration on 'Strategic Partnership' to be of for peace, cooperation and development of Asia-pacific region 'great significance' and described Incta as 'a powered country in and the world at large. many aspects in international arena.32 Conclusion India's overall Southeast Asia since the fall of the former Soviet Union has been result on developing economic and political linkages with the old and developed ASEAN members by temporary soft-pedaling of its historical links with Cold War

204 205 I. Babu Rao and T.M. Rajendra Prasad India-Vietnam Relations in the Post-Cold War Strategic and Economic Engagement the Asia Pacific and the world at largey. To promote this new Look East friends, the Indo-china states. India's historical ties 'Strategic Partnership', the two leaders reached an agreement on with Indo-china states were a key factor in reviving the traditional continuing to strengthen security and defence cooperation, terms in a new International setup. In doing so, New Delhi especially in training and sharing of information on anti- refurbished its foreign policy priority, based on economic terrorism, sea piracy and transnational crimes. On trade interests, national security and strategic imperatives, towards the cooperation, they decided to prolong working to bring two-way Indo-china states (mainly Vietnam). It's a realistic enough that the trade to the levels of US$ 2 billion in 2010 and US$ 5 billion in 2015. post Cold War years, both India and Vietnam have emerged as In this area, the Indian side took note of Vietnam's request to geo-strategically important nations in the new global security recognize its full-fledged market economy and pledged to take order of the Asian region. necessary measures to enable Vietnamese products to enter Although India's relations with Vietnam have been cordial and Indian markets, so as to balance two-way trade. The Indian Prime friendly, there is a need for a more structured and intensive Minister informed Vietnamese counterpart on his governments approach in terms of bilateral visits and business delegations. decision to lend Vietnam a US$ 45 million credit with preferential 31 India's look east policy was launched when the situation was treatments for the building of a hydro-electricity power plant. At quite different from the way it is today, so, India should also the end of this visit, it was stated by Vietnam that its trade with review its policy and identify nations of priority in the region. China and US is over US$ 10 billion, while that with India has just India should also learn from on objectives analysis of its relations touched US$ 1 billion. To overcome this nominal figure, the with Vietnam and should complement Vietnamese growth so as Vietnamese Prime Minister proposed the setting up of a Forum to have a greater economic stake through trade and investment, for Trade and Investment Policy Exchange, which could provide emerge, infrastructures and joint ventures etc. a platform to officials of both the countries to engage in trade and investment relations, investment promotion, tourism and trade. India-Vietnam strategic partnership established in July 2007 was the result of untiring efforts of both countries originated from During Dung's visit to India, the Vietnamese delegation and awareness of the importance of each side to the other. The businessmen met for working sessions with leading Indian coincidence of strategic calculations of India and Vietnam and corporations such as ESSAR, Reliance, ONGC, INFOSYS, NIT, traditional relationship between the two countries are an WIPRO, Ranbaxy, Satyam, GAIL, Aditya Birla etc. On this important foundation for Vietnam-India strategic partnership to occasion, both sides signed important agreements and trading be upgraded to Vietnam-India truly comprehensive strategic contracts worth over US$ 4 billion. The visiting Prime Minister partnership for friendship and prosperity of the two peoples and described the Joint Declaration on 'Strategic Partnership' to be of for peace, cooperation and development of Asia-pacific region 'great significance' and described Incta as 'a powered country in and the world at large. many aspects in international arena.32 Conclusion India's overall Southeast Asia since the fall of the former Soviet Union has been result on developing economic and political linkages with the old and developed ASEAN members by temporary soft-pedaling of its historical links with Cold War

204 205 I. Babu Rao and T.M. Rajendra Prasad India-Vietnam Relations in the Post-Cold War Strategic and Economic Engagement

References: 18. Joint Declaration on the Framework of Comprehensive Cooperation between the Republic of India and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam 1. Tribid Chakra Borthi, “India's Economic Support to Socialist Vietnam : (SRV) as they enter the 21st Century, New Delhi - May 01, 2003, An aspect of India's foreign policy”, in A Lakshmana Chetty (ed.), The http://meaindia.nic.in States of Indo-china: Stability Development and Foreign relations, Centre for Studies on Indochina, (Tirupati, 1997), p. 45. 19. In 2005, India and Indonesia signed Joint Declaration (between the Republic of India and the Republic of Indonesia) in which "the two Leaders decided to 2. S. Prasannarajan, “Ahoy Hanoi”, India Today on the net, November establish a New Strategic Partnership between their countries in keeping 20.2000, http://www.india-today.com/itoday/20001120 with contemporary realities". In the same year, India and Japan signed /diplomacy6.shtm. Joint Statement, India-Japan Partnership in a New Asian Era: Strategic 3. G V C Naidu, “Post Cold War Pacific Asian Security: Indian perceptions Orientation of India-Japan Global Partnership and since then, the two and Options”, Institute of Defense Studies and Analysis (IDSA), Vol. 1, countries annually signed joint statements to advance their bilateral Delhi Papers (New Delhi, 1994), p.82. strategic relations. In Joint Communique Issued on The occasion of The Visit to India of H. E. Data 'Sri Mohd Najib Tim Abdul Razak, the Prime Minister of 4. Ramesh Thakur and Carlyle A Thayer, “Soviet Relations with India and Malaysia released on January 2010, the two sides agree to developing & Vietnam”, The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 51, No. 4, (Delhi, 1993). framework for strategic cooperation and partnership between the two 5. Prakash Nanda, “Rediscovering Asia: Evolution of India's Look East countries (http://www. kln.gov.my/web/ guest/home/- Policy”, Lancer Publishers & Distributors, (New Delhi, 2003), p.390. / j o u r n a l _ c o n t e n t / 5 6 / 1 0 1 3 6 4 0 3 7 3 8 ^ s s i o n i d = 8 8 5 4 6 B 6. Ibid. FC107743A3BDI89F5601517488? refererPlid=10J39). 7. Tridib Chakraborti, “From National Reconstruction to market economy: 20. Vietnam - India joint declaration on strategic partnership, Space and Time Analysis of India's Look East Policy”, in P.V.Rao, (ed.), http://www.mofa.gov.vn/en/ nr040807104143/ nr040807105001/ India and ASEAN Partners at Summit, K.W. Publishers Pvt., Ltd., (New ns070709164916# 1hrFzb14xT4F Delhi, 2008), p.336-42. 21. For details see http://www.wantchinatimes.com/ news- 8. http://www.tribune.india.com/2002029/world.html suclasscnt.aspx? Id=2013 061000 00067@cid=1101 (accessed on 16 April, 2014). 9. Tribid Chakraborti, no. 7, p. 328. 22. Nguyen Tat Hung, “Vietnam still attract foreign investments”, in A. 10. http://www.tribune.india.com/2000/20329/world.html Lakshman Chetty (ed.), India's Relations with Southeast Asia, Center for 11. Thomas P.Thomton, “Indian Aircraft: the search for mourning in a new studies on Indo-china (Tirupati, 1997), p. 157. world order”, Asian Survey, Vol.32, no.12, December 1992, pp.1063- 1077. 23. R.L.Vaishney and R.K.Wadhwa, “India-Vietnam Trade Relations”, in 12. The Hindu, 28 March 2000. V.D.Chopra, Vietnam Today and Indo Vietnam Ralations, Gyan Publishing House, (New Delhi, 2000) p. 223. 13. Prakash Nanda, no. 5, p.391. 24. V.P. Dutt, Introduction in V.D.Chopra, Vietnam Today and Indo Vietnam 14. Col. Nguyen Van Vui, “The national defence relationship between Ralations, Gyan Publishing House, (New Delhi, 2000), p. 221. Vietnam and India in 30 years”, Vietnam, January 2002, pp.30-32. 25. Ministry of External Affairs, Annual Report, 1995-96, New Delhi, p. 23. 15. P S Suryanarayana's interview with Foreign Minister of Vietnam, Nguyen Dy Nien, The Hindu, 22 November 2004. 26. Chu Van Chuc, “30 years of Vietnam-India Economic Relations”, Vietnam, January, 2002. 16. Amit Barua, “Concensus in ASEAN for summit with India”, The Hindu, 10th January 2001. 27. Nguyen Van Tri, “Prospects of Trade Relations between Vietnam-India”, Vietnam, Jan-2002, p. 33. 17. Col.Nguyen Van, No. 14, p. 31. 28. Prakash Nanda, no. 5, p. 346.

206 207 I. Babu Rao and T.M. Rajendra Prasad India-Vietnam Relations in the Post-Cold War Strategic and Economic Engagement

References: 18. Joint Declaration on the Framework of Comprehensive Cooperation between the Republic of India and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam 1. Tribid Chakra Borthi, “India's Economic Support to Socialist Vietnam : (SRV) as they enter the 21st Century, New Delhi - May 01, 2003, An aspect of India's foreign policy”, in A Lakshmana Chetty (ed.), The http://meaindia.nic.in States of Indo-china: Stability Development and Foreign relations, Centre for Studies on Indochina, (Tirupati, 1997), p. 45. 19. In 2005, India and Indonesia signed Joint Declaration (between the Republic of India and the Republic of Indonesia) in which "the two Leaders decided to 2. S. Prasannarajan, “Ahoy Hanoi”, India Today on the net, November establish a New Strategic Partnership between their countries in keeping 20.2000, http://www.india-today.com/itoday/20001120 with contemporary realities". In the same year, India and Japan signed /diplomacy6.shtm. Joint Statement, India-Japan Partnership in a New Asian Era: Strategic 3. G V C Naidu, “Post Cold War Pacific Asian Security: Indian perceptions Orientation of India-Japan Global Partnership and since then, the two and Options”, Institute of Defense Studies and Analysis (IDSA), Vol. 1, countries annually signed joint statements to advance their bilateral Delhi Papers (New Delhi, 1994), p.82. strategic relations. In Joint Communique Issued on The occasion of The Visit to India of H. E. Data 'Sri Mohd Najib Tim Abdul Razak, the Prime Minister of 4. Ramesh Thakur and Carlyle A Thayer, “Soviet Relations with India and Malaysia released on January 2010, the two sides agree to developing & Vietnam”, The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 51, No. 4, (Delhi, 1993). framework for strategic cooperation and partnership between the two 5. Prakash Nanda, “Rediscovering Asia: Evolution of India's Look East countries (http://www. kln.gov.my/web/ guest/home/- Policy”, Lancer Publishers & Distributors, (New Delhi, 2003), p.390. / j o u r n a l _ c o n t e n t / 5 6 / 1 0 1 3 6 4 0 3 7 3 8 ^ s s i o n i d = 8 8 5 4 6 B 6. Ibid. FC107743A3BDI89F5601517488? refererPlid=10J39). 7. Tridib Chakraborti, “From National Reconstruction to market economy: 20. Vietnam - India joint declaration on strategic partnership, Space and Time Analysis of India's Look East Policy”, in P.V.Rao, (ed.), http://www.mofa.gov.vn/en/ nr040807104143/ nr040807105001/ India and ASEAN Partners at Summit, K.W. Publishers Pvt., Ltd., (New ns070709164916# 1hrFzb14xT4F Delhi, 2008), p.336-42. 21. For details see http://www.wantchinatimes.com/ news- 8. http://www.tribune.india.com/2002029/world.html suclasscnt.aspx? Id=2013 061000 00067@cid=1101 (accessed on 16 April, 2014). 9. Tribid Chakraborti, no. 7, p. 328. 22. Nguyen Tat Hung, “Vietnam still attract foreign investments”, in A. 10. http://www.tribune.india.com/2000/20329/world.html Lakshman Chetty (ed.), India's Relations with Southeast Asia, Center for 11. Thomas P.Thomton, “Indian Aircraft: the search for mourning in a new studies on Indo-china (Tirupati, 1997), p. 157. world order”, Asian Survey, Vol.32, no.12, December 1992, pp.1063- 1077. 23. R.L.Vaishney and R.K.Wadhwa, “India-Vietnam Trade Relations”, in 12. The Hindu, 28 March 2000. V.D.Chopra, Vietnam Today and Indo Vietnam Ralations, Gyan Publishing House, (New Delhi, 2000) p. 223. 13. Prakash Nanda, no. 5, p.391. 24. V.P. Dutt, Introduction in V.D.Chopra, Vietnam Today and Indo Vietnam 14. Col. Nguyen Van Vui, “The national defence relationship between Ralations, Gyan Publishing House, (New Delhi, 2000), p. 221. Vietnam and India in 30 years”, Vietnam, January 2002, pp.30-32. 25. Ministry of External Affairs, Annual Report, 1995-96, New Delhi, p. 23. 15. P S Suryanarayana's interview with Foreign Minister of Vietnam, Nguyen Dy Nien, The Hindu, 22 November 2004. 26. Chu Van Chuc, “30 years of Vietnam-India Economic Relations”, Vietnam, January, 2002. 16. Amit Barua, “Concensus in ASEAN for summit with India”, The Hindu, 10th January 2001. 27. Nguyen Van Tri, “Prospects of Trade Relations between Vietnam-India”, Vietnam, Jan-2002, p. 33. 17. Col.Nguyen Van, No. 14, p. 31. 28. Prakash Nanda, no. 5, p. 346.

206 207 I. Babu Rao and T.M. Rajendra Prasad Economic Opportunities in India-Vietnam Relations 29. Tridib Chakraborti, “India and Indo-china States in the New Global Firmament : Charting the Look East Domain”, in Robindraen, and others (eds.), Power, Commerce and influence India's Look-East experience, Lancer V. Ramesh Babu Books, (New Delhi; 2009), p. 254. Assistant Professor, UGC-Centre for Southeast Asian & Pacific Studies S.V.University, Tirupati 30. Ibid, p. 256. Email: [email protected] 31. Nhan Dan, July, 2007. 32. Special bulletin on the 62nd Anniversiry of the National Day of Vietnam, Embassy of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, (New Delhi, 2007), p. 12. Driven by their cultural linkages, ideological similarity and a common political worldview, India and Vietnam have shared a cordial bilateral relation since their independence. But till the 1990s the economic and commercial interactions never figured significantly in their bilateral relations. The domestic economic setup, growth paradigm and foreign policy preferences in both the countries, prevalent at that time, were the major reasons hindering the growth of bilateral economic relations. In 1986 the virtually 'closed economy' of Vietnam introduced the 'Doi Moi' (renovation) policy. The 'Doi Moi' policy focused on “market- oriented economic management”. After some years, India started opening its 'import substitution'-based economy with the introduction of the structural adjustment programme in the early 1990s. At the same time, the changing dynamics of world politics in the early 1990s led to a rethinking both in terms of content and focus in Indian foreign policy. The adoption of the 'Look East Policy', imbued with the economic element, marked an important turn in India-Vietnam economic relations. The need for economic development increased the importance of bilateral economic and commercial linkages between both the countries. Hence, both the countries made conscious efforts to expand the areas of economic Cooperation and increase the volume of trade and investment. These efforts received fillip from regional arrangements, for example, ASEAN- India cooperation and Mekong Ganga Cooperation. Since the accession of Vietnam into the World Trade Organization, in 2007, foreign investment into the country has exceeded such investment flows into Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand combined. Sectors identified that are promising for

208 209 I. Babu Rao and T.M. Rajendra Prasad Economic Opportunities in India-Vietnam Relations 29. Tridib Chakraborti, “India and Indo-china States in the New Global Firmament : Charting the Look East Domain”, in Robindraen, and others (eds.), Power, Commerce and influence India's Look-East experience, Lancer V. Ramesh Babu Books, (New Delhi; 2009), p. 254. Assistant Professor, UGC-Centre for Southeast Asian & Pacific Studies S.V.University, Tirupati 30. Ibid, p. 256. Email: [email protected] 31. Nhan Dan, July, 2007. 32. Special bulletin on the 62nd Anniversiry of the National Day of Vietnam, Embassy of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, (New Delhi, 2007), p. 12. Driven by their cultural linkages, ideological similarity and a common political worldview, India and Vietnam have shared a cordial bilateral relation since their independence. But till the 1990s the economic and commercial interactions never figured significantly in their bilateral relations. The domestic economic setup, growth paradigm and foreign policy preferences in both the countries, prevalent at that time, were the major reasons hindering the growth of bilateral economic relations. In 1986 the virtually 'closed economy' of Vietnam introduced the 'Doi Moi' (renovation) policy. The 'Doi Moi' policy focused on “market- oriented economic management”. After some years, India started opening its 'import substitution'-based economy with the introduction of the structural adjustment programme in the early 1990s. At the same time, the changing dynamics of world politics in the early 1990s led to a rethinking both in terms of content and focus in Indian foreign policy. The adoption of the 'Look East Policy', imbued with the economic element, marked an important turn in India-Vietnam economic relations. The need for economic development increased the importance of bilateral economic and commercial linkages between both the countries. Hence, both the countries made conscious efforts to expand the areas of economic Cooperation and increase the volume of trade and investment. These efforts received fillip from regional arrangements, for example, ASEAN- India cooperation and Mekong Ganga Cooperation. Since the accession of Vietnam into the World Trade Organization, in 2007, foreign investment into the country has exceeded such investment flows into Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand combined. Sectors identified that are promising for

208 209 V. Ramesh Babu Economic Opportunities in India-Vietnam Relations

Indian entrepreneurs include textiles and garments, leather capital of US $ 98.12 million in the areas of food processing, footwear, auto-components, electronics, assembling and fertilizers, auto components, textile accessories etc. With these manufacturing of agri machineries, tyres, food processing, projects, India now has 131 major projects with total investments industrial salt, and plastics, apart from packaging.1 of about US$707.95, ranking 25th among 110 countries and territories investing in Vietnam. The figure from Vietnam does Bilateral Trade not include Indian investment from third countries. Major sectors Bilateral trade between India and Vietnam has seen continuous of investment are energy, mineral exploration, agro-processing, growth over the past few years. India is now among the top ten sugar manufacturing, agrochemicals, IT and auto components.4 trading partners of Vietnam. Vietnam's exports include crude oil, textiles and garments, marine products, footwear, rice, Within manufacturing, expansion of intra-industry trade in the electronics, coffee, vegetables and fruits, handicrafts, rubber, textile sector could be a huge win-win for both countries. Vietnam pepper and tea. India's exports are: animal feed, pharmaceuticals could replace its imports of fabric and yarn from China, with and fine chemicals, fertilizers, plastic and linoleum products, imports from India while exporting its lower priced garments to seafood, machinery and equipment, iron and steel, pesticides, the expanding Indian market. This would be a classic example of leather and leather garments and fabrics.2 According to India's mutual benefits from intra-industry trade. official data, bilateral trade touched US$ 6.1 billion in 2012. However, in the case of the agricultural sector, India still has high During the first nine months of 2013, trade registered an increase levels of protection relative to levels of tariff imposed by Vietnam. of 39% vis-à-vis the corresponding period of last year. Exports India could consider lowering these tariffs to provide better from India reached US$2.1 billion, up 31% while exports from market access to agro-exports from Vietnam which needs to Vietnam were US$ 1.84 billion, up 49%. In 2014, two-way trade diversify its export basket to India, to gain advantages of the between Vietnam and India topped US$5.4 billion, while exports expanding market.5 from Vietnam to India were worth more than $2.4 billion and Some of the major Indian investors in Vietnam are OVL, Essar imports from the country reached more than $3 billion. Both sides Exploration and Production Ltd, Nagarjuna Ltd, KCP Industries revised the trade target to US$ 15 billion by 2020. Vietnam's Limited, Ngon Coffee Manufacturing, Venkateswara Hatcheries, ambassador to India, Ton Sinh Thanh, during his meeting with Philips Carbon and McLeod Russell, CGL. Tata Power plans to the members of the Exim Club Association of Exporters and develop the US$ 1.8 billion Long Phu-II Thermal Power Plant in Importers he said that the bilateral trade between Vietnam and Soc Trang. An MOU was signed between Tata Power and India which was US $ 8 billion in 2014 has touched US$9.3 billion Vietnamese Ministry of Industry and Trade during the visit of in 2016, and is likely to reach US $ 20 billion by 2020. Thanh also General Secretary of Vietnam to India. In the field of IT training, informed that Vietnam wants to import cotton from India and NIIT, APTECH and Tata InfoTech have so far opened more than seeks investment of Indian companies in textile, chemical dyes 80 franchised centers spread all across Vietnam.6 and other sectors. Also, Indian companies will be allowed to have joint venture in Vietnam.3 The India-Vietnam Joint Commission for Economic, Scientific and Technical cooperation, and Indo-Vietnam Joint Business Indian investments in Vietnam have remained constant at around Council are platforms to discuss business issues by the corporate US$ 1 billion but are expected to rise in the coming years. During people. It is “a body of the private business sectors in the two 2016, according to figures from the Foreign Investment Agency of countries, coordinated by the FICCI on the Indian side and Vietnam, Indian companies registered 17 new projects with a total

210 211 V. Ramesh Babu Economic Opportunities in India-Vietnam Relations

Indian entrepreneurs include textiles and garments, leather capital of US $ 98.12 million in the areas of food processing, footwear, auto-components, electronics, assembling and fertilizers, auto components, textile accessories etc. With these manufacturing of agri machineries, tyres, food processing, projects, India now has 131 major projects with total investments industrial salt, and plastics, apart from packaging.1 of about US$707.95, ranking 25th among 110 countries and territories investing in Vietnam. The figure from Vietnam does Bilateral Trade not include Indian investment from third countries. Major sectors Bilateral trade between India and Vietnam has seen continuous of investment are energy, mineral exploration, agro-processing, growth over the past few years. India is now among the top ten sugar manufacturing, agrochemicals, IT and auto components.4 trading partners of Vietnam. Vietnam's exports include crude oil, textiles and garments, marine products, footwear, rice, Within manufacturing, expansion of intra-industry trade in the electronics, coffee, vegetables and fruits, handicrafts, rubber, textile sector could be a huge win-win for both countries. Vietnam pepper and tea. India's exports are: animal feed, pharmaceuticals could replace its imports of fabric and yarn from China, with and fine chemicals, fertilizers, plastic and linoleum products, imports from India while exporting its lower priced garments to seafood, machinery and equipment, iron and steel, pesticides, the expanding Indian market. This would be a classic example of leather and leather garments and fabrics.2 According to India's mutual benefits from intra-industry trade. official data, bilateral trade touched US$ 6.1 billion in 2012. However, in the case of the agricultural sector, India still has high During the first nine months of 2013, trade registered an increase levels of protection relative to levels of tariff imposed by Vietnam. of 39% vis-à-vis the corresponding period of last year. Exports India could consider lowering these tariffs to provide better from India reached US$2.1 billion, up 31% while exports from market access to agro-exports from Vietnam which needs to Vietnam were US$ 1.84 billion, up 49%. In 2014, two-way trade diversify its export basket to India, to gain advantages of the between Vietnam and India topped US$5.4 billion, while exports expanding market.5 from Vietnam to India were worth more than $2.4 billion and Some of the major Indian investors in Vietnam are OVL, Essar imports from the country reached more than $3 billion. Both sides Exploration and Production Ltd, Nagarjuna Ltd, KCP Industries revised the trade target to US$ 15 billion by 2020. Vietnam's Limited, Ngon Coffee Manufacturing, Venkateswara Hatcheries, ambassador to India, Ton Sinh Thanh, during his meeting with Philips Carbon and McLeod Russell, CGL. Tata Power plans to the members of the Exim Club Association of Exporters and develop the US$ 1.8 billion Long Phu-II Thermal Power Plant in Importers he said that the bilateral trade between Vietnam and Soc Trang. An MOU was signed between Tata Power and India which was US $ 8 billion in 2014 has touched US$9.3 billion Vietnamese Ministry of Industry and Trade during the visit of in 2016, and is likely to reach US $ 20 billion by 2020. Thanh also General Secretary of Vietnam to India. In the field of IT training, informed that Vietnam wants to import cotton from India and NIIT, APTECH and Tata InfoTech have so far opened more than seeks investment of Indian companies in textile, chemical dyes 80 franchised centers spread all across Vietnam.6 and other sectors. Also, Indian companies will be allowed to have joint venture in Vietnam.3 The India-Vietnam Joint Commission for Economic, Scientific and Technical cooperation, and Indo-Vietnam Joint Business Indian investments in Vietnam have remained constant at around Council are platforms to discuss business issues by the corporate US$ 1 billion but are expected to rise in the coming years. During people. It is “a body of the private business sectors in the two 2016, according to figures from the Foreign Investment Agency of countries, coordinated by the FICCI on the Indian side and Vietnam, Indian companies registered 17 new projects with a total

210 211 V. Ramesh Babu Economic Opportunities in India-Vietnam Relations

Vietnam Chambers of Commerce and Industry on the in Vietnam.8 Vietnamese side.” These meetings facilitate various trade-related Steel: The boom in the real estate sector is driving the demand for agreements between the companies of the two countries. In steel in Vietnam. Despite being rich in natural resources, Vietnam international trade and commerce, companies and countries imports crude steel. The proposed investment of TATA in the compete and cooperate at the same time. This also holds true for Vietnamese steel sector has shown the potential of indo- IndiaVietnam bilateral trade and commerce. Due to the Vietnamese cooperation in this sector. So the rich Indian complementarities of their major export items, they compete, but experience in the steel sector can be valuable for Vietnam.9 at the same time cooperate, to benefit from mutual trade and commercial relations. As noted earlier, India and Vietnam export Knowledge-based Industries: India is a world leader in similar types of goods, which inhibit the rapid growth of trade. knowledge-based industries. Vietnam being a new entrant in this However, given the vast growth of the market in both countries, field can benefit from the Indian experience. Vietnam has invited the space for bilateral trade is expanding. And the growth pattern Indian companies to invest in the educational sector. With the of bilateral trade in last decade verifies this statement.7 growth of the economy, the demand for human resource is Areas of Cooperation continuously increasing in Vietnam and this provides an opportunity for India to explore the human resource Oil and gas: In light of the fact that Vietnam is very rich in development sector. There are a number of private education mineral resources, a number of sectors where Indian companies providers who can invest in the Vietnamese educational sector. can invest in Vietnam might be identified. Vietnam has 600 The science and technology field provides immense million barrels of proven oil reserves. While it is a major oil opportunities for economic growth of both the countries. producer in Southeast Asia; it still has to import oil to meet its Especially in the Information Technology sector, India and domestic needs. This is largely due to the fact that Vietnam lacks Vietnam can establish joint ventures in Vietnam. Further, given the technical know-how of exploration and there is a lack of India's expertise in these areas, it can train Vietnamese manpower refineries. In both these areas, Indian companies can be major to cater to the market needs of high-skilled labour.10 players. Transportation: Both India and Vietnam are building their Vietnam is estimated to have natural gas reserves up to 10 Trillion transportation sector to meet the challenges of infrastructure Cubic Feet (TCF). Vietnam is emerging as a potential natural gas development. In Vietnam, the rail network consists of only 2,600 exporter in Southeast Asia. Here, India can enter into joint kilometers of single track line. There is a major plan to extend the ventures with an added benefit of getting natural gas supply from length and improve the condition of tracks. India has shown its Vietnam. interest in the Vietnamese Railway sector. RITES Ltd has supplied Pharmaceuticals: Vietnam imports a major portion of its 20 electrical locomotives to Vietnam Railways under lines of pharmaceutical needs. The demand for drugs is growing, with credit, extended by the Government of India. Indian Railways the availability of an additional amount of income to be spent on operate the second-longest railway network in the world. Indian health needs. The Indian company, Ranbaxy, has invested in Railways has proved its expertise by taking on projects in various Vietnam. The scope for further investment in this sector is very countries and in varied geographical terrains. Therefore, it has a wide. India being a major player in Asia in the pharmaceuticals rich experience and competent technical expertise to help sector, can help Vietnam strengthen the pharmaceutical industry Vietnam in strengthening and expanding its railway network.

212 213 V. Ramesh Babu Economic Opportunities in India-Vietnam Relations

Vietnam Chambers of Commerce and Industry on the in Vietnam.8 Vietnamese side.” These meetings facilitate various trade-related Steel: The boom in the real estate sector is driving the demand for agreements between the companies of the two countries. In steel in Vietnam. Despite being rich in natural resources, Vietnam international trade and commerce, companies and countries imports crude steel. The proposed investment of TATA in the compete and cooperate at the same time. This also holds true for Vietnamese steel sector has shown the potential of indo- IndiaVietnam bilateral trade and commerce. Due to the Vietnamese cooperation in this sector. So the rich Indian complementarities of their major export items, they compete, but experience in the steel sector can be valuable for Vietnam.9 at the same time cooperate, to benefit from mutual trade and commercial relations. As noted earlier, India and Vietnam export Knowledge-based Industries: India is a world leader in similar types of goods, which inhibit the rapid growth of trade. knowledge-based industries. Vietnam being a new entrant in this However, given the vast growth of the market in both countries, field can benefit from the Indian experience. Vietnam has invited the space for bilateral trade is expanding. And the growth pattern Indian companies to invest in the educational sector. With the of bilateral trade in last decade verifies this statement.7 growth of the economy, the demand for human resource is Areas of Cooperation continuously increasing in Vietnam and this provides an opportunity for India to explore the human resource Oil and gas: In light of the fact that Vietnam is very rich in development sector. There are a number of private education mineral resources, a number of sectors where Indian companies providers who can invest in the Vietnamese educational sector. can invest in Vietnam might be identified. Vietnam has 600 The science and technology field provides immense million barrels of proven oil reserves. While it is a major oil opportunities for economic growth of both the countries. producer in Southeast Asia; it still has to import oil to meet its Especially in the Information Technology sector, India and domestic needs. This is largely due to the fact that Vietnam lacks Vietnam can establish joint ventures in Vietnam. Further, given the technical know-how of exploration and there is a lack of India's expertise in these areas, it can train Vietnamese manpower refineries. In both these areas, Indian companies can be major to cater to the market needs of high-skilled labour.10 players. Transportation: Both India and Vietnam are building their Vietnam is estimated to have natural gas reserves up to 10 Trillion transportation sector to meet the challenges of infrastructure Cubic Feet (TCF). Vietnam is emerging as a potential natural gas development. In Vietnam, the rail network consists of only 2,600 exporter in Southeast Asia. Here, India can enter into joint kilometers of single track line. There is a major plan to extend the ventures with an added benefit of getting natural gas supply from length and improve the condition of tracks. India has shown its Vietnam. interest in the Vietnamese Railway sector. RITES Ltd has supplied Pharmaceuticals: Vietnam imports a major portion of its 20 electrical locomotives to Vietnam Railways under lines of pharmaceutical needs. The demand for drugs is growing, with credit, extended by the Government of India. Indian Railways the availability of an additional amount of income to be spent on operate the second-longest railway network in the world. Indian health needs. The Indian company, Ranbaxy, has invested in Railways has proved its expertise by taking on projects in various Vietnam. The scope for further investment in this sector is very countries and in varied geographical terrains. Therefore, it has a wide. India being a major player in Asia in the pharmaceuticals rich experience and competent technical expertise to help sector, can help Vietnam strengthen the pharmaceutical industry Vietnam in strengthening and expanding its railway network.

212 213 V. Ramesh Babu Economic Opportunities in India-Vietnam Relations

Both India and Vietnam are involved in the up gradation and tourists from Vietnam to visit the holy places associated with expansion (in length) of their national highways. Here, both Buddhism. The concept of the 'Buddhist circuit' is a welcome countries can share their respective experiences. One special area initiative in this direction. To this end, a massive tourism- of mutual interest can be the building of bridges over rivers, since promotion campaign in Vietnam could prove to be productive. both countries need to build a large number of bridges, On the other hand, Vietnam needs to focus on Indian tourists considering their geographical conditions. The Vietnamese traveling to other countries for nature-based tourism. There is a government has also set a target for construction of 2,000 km of lack of knowledge among potential Indian tourists about the new highways by 2020. Indian companies can look at possible destinations in Vietnam. Thereby, Indian tourists mainly opportunities on BOT basis across North South expressway go to Malaysia and Thailand. With a more intensive tourism- (3,262 km long); Central region Western highlands expressway promotion campaign therefore, Vietnam can attract a large (264 km long); and Northern expressways (324 km long).11 number of tourists from India. Vietnam will also need to inform potential Indian tourists that it offers a wide variety of choices, Inland waterways are widely used for domestic use in Vietnam. ranging from sea beaches to tropical forests. Given the fact that However, in India, despite its potential, it remains largely tourism is one of the four focus areas in MGC, it makes it even untapped. Here, India can learn from the Vietnamese experience more vital for both countries to cooperate in this area and in developing inland waterways and managing them as a 12 sustainable mode of transport. strengthen the regional setup. With the globalization of their economies, the civil aviation sector Agricultural techniques, research and biotechnology: is growing in importance in both the countries. The up gradation India and Vietnam produce a large number of agricultural and building of new airports are major activities in this direction, products which are common to both the countries. India can learn and therefore, this can also be an important area of mutual some novel agricultural techniques to increase productivity. cooperation to benefit from. Especially India can learn from Vietnamese in marine products and rice cultivation. Vietnamese firms have shown interest in Tourism: The tourism sector has emerged as an important learning the techniques of soya cultivation and making various component in the India-ASEAN summit discussions, given its soya- based products. India being a major producer of soya potential in facilitating mutual development. In recent times, both products can help Vietnam in this direction. The benefits of newer the countries have emerged as top tourist destinations in the technologies like bio-technology can be jointly harnessed to world. Despite this, the mutual tourist inflow between the two increase agricultural productivity and improve the living countries has remained very low. During 2006, Vietnam received standards of farmers.13 3.6 million foreign tourists, of which only 1,463.0 thousands were Indians. While in2006 India received 4 million tourists, the Conclusion number of tourists to India from Vietnam was negligible in For the consistent development of bilateral commercial relations, comparison to other ASEAN countries. Since both countries are connectivity is a major issue. This is an area India and Vietnam gearing up to make the tourism sector a magnet for foreign need to work on, since the hindrances posed by distance can be exchange earnings, it is imperative that both cooperate in this turned into opportunities through the means of connectivity. area. Vietnam has a large Buddhist population, and India being Although there is an agreement between India and Vietnam the birth place of Lord Buddha, India can attract a large number of regarding civil aviation, there is still no direct flight available

214 215 V. Ramesh Babu Economic Opportunities in India-Vietnam Relations

Both India and Vietnam are involved in the up gradation and tourists from Vietnam to visit the holy places associated with expansion (in length) of their national highways. Here, both Buddhism. The concept of the 'Buddhist circuit' is a welcome countries can share their respective experiences. One special area initiative in this direction. To this end, a massive tourism- of mutual interest can be the building of bridges over rivers, since promotion campaign in Vietnam could prove to be productive. both countries need to build a large number of bridges, On the other hand, Vietnam needs to focus on Indian tourists considering their geographical conditions. The Vietnamese traveling to other countries for nature-based tourism. There is a government has also set a target for construction of 2,000 km of lack of knowledge among potential Indian tourists about the new highways by 2020. Indian companies can look at possible destinations in Vietnam. Thereby, Indian tourists mainly opportunities on BOT basis across North South expressway go to Malaysia and Thailand. With a more intensive tourism- (3,262 km long); Central region Western highlands expressway promotion campaign therefore, Vietnam can attract a large (264 km long); and Northern expressways (324 km long).11 number of tourists from India. Vietnam will also need to inform potential Indian tourists that it offers a wide variety of choices, Inland waterways are widely used for domestic use in Vietnam. ranging from sea beaches to tropical forests. Given the fact that However, in India, despite its potential, it remains largely tourism is one of the four focus areas in MGC, it makes it even untapped. Here, India can learn from the Vietnamese experience more vital for both countries to cooperate in this area and in developing inland waterways and managing them as a 12 sustainable mode of transport. strengthen the regional setup. With the globalization of their economies, the civil aviation sector Agricultural techniques, research and biotechnology: is growing in importance in both the countries. The up gradation India and Vietnam produce a large number of agricultural and building of new airports are major activities in this direction, products which are common to both the countries. India can learn and therefore, this can also be an important area of mutual some novel agricultural techniques to increase productivity. cooperation to benefit from. Especially India can learn from Vietnamese in marine products and rice cultivation. Vietnamese firms have shown interest in Tourism: The tourism sector has emerged as an important learning the techniques of soya cultivation and making various component in the India-ASEAN summit discussions, given its soya- based products. India being a major producer of soya potential in facilitating mutual development. In recent times, both products can help Vietnam in this direction. The benefits of newer the countries have emerged as top tourist destinations in the technologies like bio-technology can be jointly harnessed to world. Despite this, the mutual tourist inflow between the two increase agricultural productivity and improve the living countries has remained very low. During 2006, Vietnam received standards of farmers.13 3.6 million foreign tourists, of which only 1,463.0 thousands were Indians. While in2006 India received 4 million tourists, the Conclusion number of tourists to India from Vietnam was negligible in For the consistent development of bilateral commercial relations, comparison to other ASEAN countries. Since both countries are connectivity is a major issue. This is an area India and Vietnam gearing up to make the tourism sector a magnet for foreign need to work on, since the hindrances posed by distance can be exchange earnings, it is imperative that both cooperate in this turned into opportunities through the means of connectivity. area. Vietnam has a large Buddhist population, and India being Although there is an agreement between India and Vietnam the birth place of Lord Buddha, India can attract a large number of regarding civil aviation, there is still no direct flight available

214 215 V. Ramesh Babu Economic Opportunities in India-Vietnam Relations between India and Hanoi, on a regular basis. It is mainly the Thai References: and Malaysian carriers that operate between New Delhi and 1) “Project Development & Facilitation Framework: Opportunities in Trade Hanoi. And it is unfortunate that it takes ten to twenty four hours & Investment for India in CLMV Countries,” EXIM-Bank, 2015, pp. 14- to reach Hanoi from New Delhi, largely due to connecting flights. 17, April 2015. http://commerce.gov.in/writereaddata/uploadedfile The problem is that Airlines operate on the basis of commercial /MOC_635963414360381849_Opportunities_India_CLMV_Region_EXI viability, and this route offers fewer incentives to them. There is M_Bank.pdf an urgent need therefore, for both countries to discuss this issue 2) M. Prayaga and V.Ramesh Babu, “India and Vietnam: Burgeoning within the broader framework of tourism-promotion and Strategic Partnership” in S. Manivasakan (Ed.), Security Dynamics of increased economic interaction. India's Future Relations with Southeast Asian Nations, (CSSEAS, University of Madras, Chennai, 2012), p.167. There are obvious benefits of a rail and road link between the two 3) “India-Vietnam Relations,” Embassy of India, Hanoi, January 2016. countries. Road linkages facilitate further growth of economic http://www.apparelresources.com/india-vietnam-bilateral-trade- and cultural linkages. Apart from its obvious benefits related to potential-reach-us-20-billion-2020 the movement of goods, it also promotes overall equitable 4) “IndiaVietnam Relations, Economic and Commercial Relations,” May development in various regions, which is a major developmental 2017, http://www.mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/ goal for both the countries. Additionally, the flow of tourists will Vietnam_May_2017.pdf also increase phenomenally. Both India and Vietnam are part of 5) “Why India-Vietnam ties are important: India has to exhibit boldness, the Mekong Ganga Cooperation (MGC), which has a special focus Pragmatism and imagination to cement ties with Vietnam,” on overland connectivity. “The New Delhi-Hanoi rail link was http://www.dailyo.in/politics/why-india-vietnam-ties-are- proposed at the ministerial meeting at Phnom Penh in June 2003. important/story/1/498.html Even though rail networks exist in India, Myanmar, Thailand, 6) Pranav Kumar “India-Vietnam Economic Relations Opportunities & Cambodia and Vietnam, there are certain missing links that need Challenges”, IPCS Special Report, New Delhi, No. 57, July 2008. to be laid out for the completion and operationalization of the rail h t t p : / / w w w . f i c c i . c o m / i n t e r n a t i o n a l / c o u n t r i e s / link from New Delhi to Hanoi.” Some five years after its official Vietnam/vietnamcommerce. announcement, there seems to be no further ground work on this 7) “ I n d i a V i e t n a m R e l a t i o n s , ” J u l y 2 0 1 3 , proposal. h t t p : / / m e a . g o v . i n / P o r t a l / F o r e i g n R e l a t i o n / I n d i a - Vietnam_Relations.pdf. Both the countries need to understand their strengths and opportunities in their bilateral economic relations and act 8) “Pharmaceuticals Export Promotion Council of India,” http://www.pharmexcil.com/ accordingly. In a short period of time, it will be impossible for Vietnam to bridge the trade balance, which is currently in India's 9) “ G l o b a l E x p o r t I m p o r t M a r k e t I n t e l l i g e n c e , ” http://www.infodriveindia.com/india-import-data/stainless-steel- favour. Vietnam's attention therefore, must be focused on pipe-import/fc-vietnam-report.aspx attracting investment from India, which Vietnam needs, to fuel its 10) Pankaj K. Jha, “India-Vietnam Relations: Need for Enhanced growing economy. At the same time, India in its endeavor to Cooperation,” Strategic Analysis, Vol.32, No.6, November 2008, pp.1092- become a global economic player, needs to strengthen its 94. economic relations with Vietnam through increased interaction 11) Pranav Kumar, n.6. with physical, commercial, investment, and trade linkages to venture into the larger Asia-Pacific.

216 217 V. Ramesh Babu Economic Opportunities in India-Vietnam Relations between India and Hanoi, on a regular basis. It is mainly the Thai References: and Malaysian carriers that operate between New Delhi and 1) “Project Development & Facilitation Framework: Opportunities in Trade Hanoi. And it is unfortunate that it takes ten to twenty four hours & Investment for India in CLMV Countries,” EXIM-Bank, 2015, pp. 14- to reach Hanoi from New Delhi, largely due to connecting flights. 17, April 2015. http://commerce.gov.in/writereaddata/uploadedfile The problem is that Airlines operate on the basis of commercial /MOC_635963414360381849_Opportunities_India_CLMV_Region_EXI viability, and this route offers fewer incentives to them. There is M_Bank.pdf an urgent need therefore, for both countries to discuss this issue 2) M. Prayaga and V.Ramesh Babu, “India and Vietnam: Burgeoning within the broader framework of tourism-promotion and Strategic Partnership” in S. Manivasakan (Ed.), Security Dynamics of increased economic interaction. India's Future Relations with Southeast Asian Nations, (CSSEAS, University of Madras, Chennai, 2012), p.167. There are obvious benefits of a rail and road link between the two 3) “India-Vietnam Relations,” Embassy of India, Hanoi, January 2016. countries. Road linkages facilitate further growth of economic http://www.apparelresources.com/india-vietnam-bilateral-trade- and cultural linkages. Apart from its obvious benefits related to potential-reach-us-20-billion-2020 the movement of goods, it also promotes overall equitable 4) “IndiaVietnam Relations, Economic and Commercial Relations,” May development in various regions, which is a major developmental 2017, http://www.mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/ goal for both the countries. Additionally, the flow of tourists will Vietnam_May_2017.pdf also increase phenomenally. Both India and Vietnam are part of 5) “Why India-Vietnam ties are important: India has to exhibit boldness, the Mekong Ganga Cooperation (MGC), which has a special focus Pragmatism and imagination to cement ties with Vietnam,” on overland connectivity. “The New Delhi-Hanoi rail link was http://www.dailyo.in/politics/why-india-vietnam-ties-are- proposed at the ministerial meeting at Phnom Penh in June 2003. important/story/1/498.html Even though rail networks exist in India, Myanmar, Thailand, 6) Pranav Kumar “India-Vietnam Economic Relations Opportunities & Cambodia and Vietnam, there are certain missing links that need Challenges”, IPCS Special Report, New Delhi, No. 57, July 2008. to be laid out for the completion and operationalization of the rail h t t p : / / w w w . f i c c i . c o m / i n t e r n a t i o n a l / c o u n t r i e s / link from New Delhi to Hanoi.” Some five years after its official Vietnam/vietnamcommerce. announcement, there seems to be no further ground work on this 7) “ I n d i a V i e t n a m R e l a t i o n s , ” J u l y 2 0 1 3 , proposal. h t t p : / / m e a . g o v . i n / P o r t a l / F o r e i g n R e l a t i o n / I n d i a - Vietnam_Relations.pdf. Both the countries need to understand their strengths and opportunities in their bilateral economic relations and act 8) “Pharmaceuticals Export Promotion Council of India,” http://www.pharmexcil.com/ accordingly. In a short period of time, it will be impossible for Vietnam to bridge the trade balance, which is currently in India's 9) “ G l o b a l E x p o r t I m p o r t M a r k e t I n t e l l i g e n c e , ” http://www.infodriveindia.com/india-import-data/stainless-steel- favour. Vietnam's attention therefore, must be focused on pipe-import/fc-vietnam-report.aspx attracting investment from India, which Vietnam needs, to fuel its 10) Pankaj K. Jha, “India-Vietnam Relations: Need for Enhanced growing economy. At the same time, India in its endeavor to Cooperation,” Strategic Analysis, Vol.32, No.6, November 2008, pp.1092- become a global economic player, needs to strengthen its 94. economic relations with Vietnam through increased interaction 11) Pranav Kumar, n.6. with physical, commercial, investment, and trade linkages to venture into the larger Asia-Pacific.

216 217 V. Ramesh Babu Vietnam's Foreign Policy: Role of India in 12) Rajesh Mehta, “India-Vietnam Trade: Current Relations and Prospect”, South China Sea RIS-DP, December 2005,http://www.academia.edu/720991/India- Vietnam_Trade_Current_Relations_and_ Prospect Huynh Thanh Loan 13) For more details on MGC see 'India Vietnam Relations,' January 2013 Deputy Head, Department of International Relations Studies (available at http://www.mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/ Vietnam Institute for Indian and Southwest Asian Studies Vietnam_Feb_2013.pdf). Email: [email protected]

Abstract After nearly two decades of conducting reforms, Vietnam has maintained the goal of building Vietnam to a strong country with social justice, democracy, and civilization, Vietnam consistently pursues a foreign policy of independence, self-reliance, openness, diversification and multilateralisation of international relations, and international integration. On the basis of the foreign policy, Vietnam has expanded bilaterally and multilaterally its multifaceted cooperation with other countries and territories, giving priority to developing relations with neighboring countries and regions, and with powerful countries, international organizations and regions in line with the fundamental principles of international law. With India who is both a regional neighbor and a rising power having traditional friendly relations and multifaceted cooperation with Vietnam, Vietnam has put great importance in developing its relation with India. Related to the South China Sea, in 2014, China blatantly deployed its HD oil rig 981 in the exclusive economic zone and continental shelf of Vietnam. This action has created enormous challenges for Vietnam sovereignty, serious affecting regional security. To protect its national sovereignty, Vietnam has raised the synergy of the entire nation, including diplomacy (consisting of public diplomacy, military diplomacy and public diplomacy). In this context, India rose as a very important strategic partner and played a major role in the foreign policy of Vietnam. This paper seeks to analyze some external activities between Vietnam and India, finds out the role of India in Vietnam's foreign policy and concludes that during and after the HD oil rig 981 event, Vietnam has put a greater attention on India's role in Vietnam's South China Sea policy and Vietnam has applied a number of measures to strengthen cooperation between Vietnam and India, especially in the South China Sea issue. Keywords: Vietnam's foreign policy, India, South China Sea issue

218 219 V. Ramesh Babu Vietnam's Foreign Policy: Role of India in 12) Rajesh Mehta, “India-Vietnam Trade: Current Relations and Prospect”, South China Sea RIS-DP, December 2005,http://www.academia.edu/720991/India- Vietnam_Trade_Current_Relations_and_ Prospect Huynh Thanh Loan 13) For more details on MGC see 'India Vietnam Relations,' January 2013 Deputy Head, Department of International Relations Studies (available at http://www.mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/ Vietnam Institute for Indian and Southwest Asian Studies Vietnam_Feb_2013.pdf). Email: [email protected]

Abstract After nearly two decades of conducting reforms, Vietnam has maintained the goal of building Vietnam to a strong country with social justice, democracy, and civilization, Vietnam consistently pursues a foreign policy of independence, self-reliance, openness, diversification and multilateralisation of international relations, and international integration. On the basis of the foreign policy, Vietnam has expanded bilaterally and multilaterally its multifaceted cooperation with other countries and territories, giving priority to developing relations with neighboring countries and regions, and with powerful countries, international organizations and regions in line with the fundamental principles of international law. With India who is both a regional neighbor and a rising power having traditional friendly relations and multifaceted cooperation with Vietnam, Vietnam has put great importance in developing its relation with India. Related to the South China Sea, in 2014, China blatantly deployed its HD oil rig 981 in the exclusive economic zone and continental shelf of Vietnam. This action has created enormous challenges for Vietnam sovereignty, serious affecting regional security. To protect its national sovereignty, Vietnam has raised the synergy of the entire nation, including diplomacy (consisting of public diplomacy, military diplomacy and public diplomacy). In this context, India rose as a very important strategic partner and played a major role in the foreign policy of Vietnam. This paper seeks to analyze some external activities between Vietnam and India, finds out the role of India in Vietnam's foreign policy and concludes that during and after the HD oil rig 981 event, Vietnam has put a greater attention on India's role in Vietnam's South China Sea policy and Vietnam has applied a number of measures to strengthen cooperation between Vietnam and India, especially in the South China Sea issue. Keywords: Vietnam's foreign policy, India, South China Sea issue

218 219 Huynh Thanh Loan Vietnam's Foreign Policy: Role of India in South China Sea

1. Vietnam's Foreign Policy the implementation of the important task. Well aware of that, After the course of national liberation and unification in 1975, foreign activity was focused on addressing Cambodian issue and Vietnam entered period of construction and protection of normalizing the relations with China. Apart from that, Vietnam socialism, a goal which is chosen by the Communist Party has vigorously conducted bilarteral high level external activities Vietnam (CPV) and the Vietnamese people of Vietnam. With that with ASEAN's country members and proactively participated in goal, in the process of renewal, at the 7th National Congress of CPV the Association's affairs. As a result, Vietnam became an official (1991), the 3rd session of the 7th Central Committee of CPV and the member of ASEAN in 1995. This is a right and timely decision. 8th Party Congress (1996), Vietnam continuously put forward and Besides that, to contribute to ensuring the its security and developed the foreign policy line of independence, self-reliance, stability, Vietnam has actively and proactively resolved the peace, cooperation and development; the foreign policy of remaining issues with neighbours and regional countries. The openness and diversification and multilateralization of important achievements include agreements on land border international relations under the motto “Viet Nam is willing to resolution with Laos, Cambodia, China, an agreement on joint become a friend of all countries in the international community, striving development in areas of overlapping claims with Malaysia; an for peace, independence and development”, aiming at “solid agreement on “historic waters” in the Gulf of Thailand with preservation of peaceful environment, expansion of friendly and Cambodia; an agreement on delimiting continental shelf and cooperative relations, and creation of favorable international conditions Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) boundaries with Thailand; an for process of socialist building and national defense, while contributing agreement on the delimitation of their continental shelf boundary actively to the common struggle of the world people for peace, national with Indonesia. These bilateral agreements have been of great independence, democracy and social progress”. help for maintaining an international peaceful and stable environment, and creating favorable for national construction Regarding objectives of foreign policy, CPV clearly defines the targets and safeguarding. of Vietnam's foreign policy goals as for the sake of national interests, for a strong and prosperous socialist Vietnam (the 11th Secondly, try to enlist the favorable international conditions that Party Congress), as President Truong Tan Sang said in his speech contribute to the country's development and expansion of economic titled “Promoting the strength of the entire nation to safeguard cooperation. This is a core task of Vietnamese diplomacy in the the nation and people” on the occasion of the New Year, 2015: renewal period. Thanks to the significant achievements of the “The interests of our country, our nation are very specific: They renewal process and foreign policy of openness, are independence, sovereignty, unification, sacred territorial multilateralization and diversification of international relations, integrity, the socialist regime, the strength and prosperity of the Vietnam has expanded and diversified the market and promoted country, and the freedom and happiness of the people”1. bilateral economic and trade relations with more than 130 countries and territories. Creating a peaceful international Following that, from the 4th to 11th Congress, CPV has consistently environment, enhancing cooperation, expanding markets, taking affirmed 4 fundermetal tasks of foreign acitvity, as follows: advantage of capital and technology for the cause of national Firstly, create and consolidate peaceful and stable environment for the construction is also a direct and practical contribution to assuring cause of construction and defense of the Homeland. Consolidation and security requirement. promotion of bilateral relations, especially relations with Thirdly, enhance the status of the country in the international arena. neighboring and regional countries play a vital significance for Implementing the foreign policy of independence, self-reliance,

220 221 Huynh Thanh Loan Vietnam's Foreign Policy: Role of India in South China Sea

1. Vietnam's Foreign Policy the implementation of the important task. Well aware of that, After the course of national liberation and unification in 1975, foreign activity was focused on addressing Cambodian issue and Vietnam entered period of construction and protection of normalizing the relations with China. Apart from that, Vietnam socialism, a goal which is chosen by the Communist Party has vigorously conducted bilarteral high level external activities Vietnam (CPV) and the Vietnamese people of Vietnam. With that with ASEAN's country members and proactively participated in goal, in the process of renewal, at the 7th National Congress of CPV the Association's affairs. As a result, Vietnam became an official (1991), the 3rd session of the 7th Central Committee of CPV and the member of ASEAN in 1995. This is a right and timely decision. 8th Party Congress (1996), Vietnam continuously put forward and Besides that, to contribute to ensuring the its security and developed the foreign policy line of independence, self-reliance, stability, Vietnam has actively and proactively resolved the peace, cooperation and development; the foreign policy of remaining issues with neighbours and regional countries. The openness and diversification and multilateralization of important achievements include agreements on land border international relations under the motto “Viet Nam is willing to resolution with Laos, Cambodia, China, an agreement on joint become a friend of all countries in the international community, striving development in areas of overlapping claims with Malaysia; an for peace, independence and development”, aiming at “solid agreement on “historic waters” in the Gulf of Thailand with preservation of peaceful environment, expansion of friendly and Cambodia; an agreement on delimiting continental shelf and cooperative relations, and creation of favorable international conditions Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) boundaries with Thailand; an for process of socialist building and national defense, while contributing agreement on the delimitation of their continental shelf boundary actively to the common struggle of the world people for peace, national with Indonesia. These bilateral agreements have been of great independence, democracy and social progress”. help for maintaining an international peaceful and stable environment, and creating favorable for national construction Regarding objectives of foreign policy, CPV clearly defines the targets and safeguarding. of Vietnam's foreign policy goals as for the sake of national interests, for a strong and prosperous socialist Vietnam (the 11th Secondly, try to enlist the favorable international conditions that Party Congress), as President Truong Tan Sang said in his speech contribute to the country's development and expansion of economic titled “Promoting the strength of the entire nation to safeguard cooperation. This is a core task of Vietnamese diplomacy in the the nation and people” on the occasion of the New Year, 2015: renewal period. Thanks to the significant achievements of the “The interests of our country, our nation are very specific: They renewal process and foreign policy of openness, are independence, sovereignty, unification, sacred territorial multilateralization and diversification of international relations, integrity, the socialist regime, the strength and prosperity of the Vietnam has expanded and diversified the market and promoted country, and the freedom and happiness of the people”1. bilateral economic and trade relations with more than 130 countries and territories. Creating a peaceful international Following that, from the 4th to 11th Congress, CPV has consistently environment, enhancing cooperation, expanding markets, taking affirmed 4 fundermetal tasks of foreign acitvity, as follows: advantage of capital and technology for the cause of national Firstly, create and consolidate peaceful and stable environment for the construction is also a direct and practical contribution to assuring cause of construction and defense of the Homeland. Consolidation and security requirement. promotion of bilateral relations, especially relations with Thirdly, enhance the status of the country in the international arena. neighboring and regional countries play a vital significance for Implementing the foreign policy of independence, self-reliance,

220 221 Huynh Thanh Loan Vietnam's Foreign Policy: Role of India in South China Sea diversification and multilateralisation, Vietnam has now had In addition, Vietnam's foreign policy is based on a consistent diplomatic relations with 167 countries of all continents and for principle of peace, independence and self-reliance, not joining the first time in history has a comprehensive and strategic alliances with any country or group of countries against other partnership with all major countries, permanent members of the countries. In the 2009 Vietnam Defense White Paper, Vietnam UN Security Council. In recent international context, as the declared its defense policy of “Three Nos”: "Vietnam consistently process of integration is accelerating, multilateral diplomacy advocates neither joining any military alliances nor giving any increasingly plays an important role, contributing to enhancing other countries permission to have military bases or use its soil to Vietnam's international status. Vietnam has been active in carry out military activities against other countries”4. increasing its roles in the United Nations (Vietnam is a member of During the process of establishment, expansion and ECOSOC, UNDP, UNFPA and UPU ...), promoting the active role consolidation of its international relations, Vietnam consistently of the Non-aligned Movement, Organization Internationale De adheres to the following principles: Firstly, respect for La Francophonie , ASEAN, etc. independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity, non- Fourthly, actively contribute to the struggle of the world people for peace, interference in each other's internal affairs and peaceful national independence, democracy and social progress. The rich and coexistence5. Secondly, equality, mutual benefits. This is the diverse external activities in both the Party and the State channels principle which is written in the UN Charter, is the result of the and people-to-people one have contributed to maintaining and humanbeings' common struggle and in conformity with consolidating the bonds of solidarity and friendship with political Vietnam's national interest and culture. Thirdly, non-use or threat parties, particularly communist and worker parties and of force in international relations. Fourthly, settlement of progressive organizations fighting for peace, national disagreements and disputes by means of peaceful negotiations; independence and democracy, from that enlisting political resolution of border and territorial disputes in conformity with support for the cause of national construction and defense2. international laws and regional practices Regarding the Principles of external affairs, Guiding viewpoints to Vietnam's external affairs, in resolution of Vietnam's foreign policy considers assurance of national interests the 3rd Session of 7th Central Committee, CPV defined the as the highest principle and the basis for foreign policy guideline to the Party and State's foreign policy as upholding the formulation. According to Standing Deputy Foreign Minister of principles of independence, unity and socialism while being Vietnam, Pham Binh Minh, "stating clearly in the 11th Party creative, active and flexible with country's position, specific Congress' documents that the foreign-policy objective, that is “for condition and situation as well as development of the world and the sake of national interests”. This is of important significance as regional context and to characteristics of each subject and partner affirming the national interests as the foreign-policy objective also that Vietnam has relationship with”.6 The resolution of the 8th means that the national interests must be ranked as the supreme session (9th Party Congress) reaffirmed the guiding viewpoint of principle of foreign-policy activities, and that ensuring the consistently pursuing the goal of national independence inherent national interests is a principle which must be followed by all in socialism. external-relation activities, from the state diplomacy to the Party's Currently, CPV and Vietnamese State consistently pursue a external-relation activities as well as the people's diplomacy3. foreign policy of peace, independence, self reliance, openness, multilateralization and divertification of relations under the

222 223 Huynh Thanh Loan Vietnam's Foreign Policy: Role of India in South China Sea diversification and multilateralisation, Vietnam has now had In addition, Vietnam's foreign policy is based on a consistent diplomatic relations with 167 countries of all continents and for principle of peace, independence and self-reliance, not joining the first time in history has a comprehensive and strategic alliances with any country or group of countries against other partnership with all major countries, permanent members of the countries. In the 2009 Vietnam Defense White Paper, Vietnam UN Security Council. In recent international context, as the declared its defense policy of “Three Nos”: "Vietnam consistently process of integration is accelerating, multilateral diplomacy advocates neither joining any military alliances nor giving any increasingly plays an important role, contributing to enhancing other countries permission to have military bases or use its soil to Vietnam's international status. Vietnam has been active in carry out military activities against other countries”4. increasing its roles in the United Nations (Vietnam is a member of During the process of establishment, expansion and ECOSOC, UNDP, UNFPA and UPU ...), promoting the active role consolidation of its international relations, Vietnam consistently of the Non-aligned Movement, Organization Internationale De adheres to the following principles: Firstly, respect for La Francophonie , ASEAN, etc. independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity, non- Fourthly, actively contribute to the struggle of the world people for peace, interference in each other's internal affairs and peaceful national independence, democracy and social progress. The rich and coexistence5. Secondly, equality, mutual benefits. This is the diverse external activities in both the Party and the State channels principle which is written in the UN Charter, is the result of the and people-to-people one have contributed to maintaining and humanbeings' common struggle and in conformity with consolidating the bonds of solidarity and friendship with political Vietnam's national interest and culture. Thirdly, non-use or threat parties, particularly communist and worker parties and of force in international relations. Fourthly, settlement of progressive organizations fighting for peace, national disagreements and disputes by means of peaceful negotiations; independence and democracy, from that enlisting political resolution of border and territorial disputes in conformity with support for the cause of national construction and defense2. international laws and regional practices Regarding the Principles of external affairs, Guiding viewpoints to Vietnam's external affairs, in resolution of Vietnam's foreign policy considers assurance of national interests the 3rd Session of 7th Central Committee, CPV defined the as the highest principle and the basis for foreign policy guideline to the Party and State's foreign policy as upholding the formulation. According to Standing Deputy Foreign Minister of principles of independence, unity and socialism while being Vietnam, Pham Binh Minh, "stating clearly in the 11th Party creative, active and flexible with country's position, specific Congress' documents that the foreign-policy objective, that is “for condition and situation as well as development of the world and the sake of national interests”. This is of important significance as regional context and to characteristics of each subject and partner affirming the national interests as the foreign-policy objective also that Vietnam has relationship with”.6 The resolution of the 8th means that the national interests must be ranked as the supreme session (9th Party Congress) reaffirmed the guiding viewpoint of principle of foreign-policy activities, and that ensuring the consistently pursuing the goal of national independence inherent national interests is a principle which must be followed by all in socialism. external-relation activities, from the state diplomacy to the Party's Currently, CPV and Vietnamese State consistently pursue a external-relation activities as well as the people's diplomacy3. foreign policy of peace, independence, self reliance, openness, multilateralization and divertification of relations under the

222 223 Huynh Thanh Loan Vietnam's Foreign Policy: Role of India in South China Sea motto “more friends less enemies”, cooperation going together viewpoint in which one of the important guidelines is to with struggle, enhancement of cooperation, avoidance of multilateralize and diversify its international relations while confrontation, isolation or dependence; preservation of peaceful promote traditional friendly countries including India. and stable environment; assuring that Vietnam is a friend and In addition, China's growing economic and military might and its reliable partner and responsible member in the international 7 territorial expansion ambitions, especially in the South China Sea, community . have made Vietnam more concerned and more cautious with its Strategic priorities in Vietnam's foreign policy. Firstly, attach complicated relationship. Thus, in its strategy of foreign policy, importance to developing the bonds of friendship and Viet Nam attaches importance to developing relations with all cooperation with all the neighbouring countries, particularly countries in order to create overlapping benefits and with bording neighbours like Laos, Cambodia, and China. counterweight between major countries. In particular, India plays Secondly, give priority to relations with ASEAN country an important role in ensuring the security and balance of power in members. Thirdly, focus on establishing friendly and cooperative the region, primarily in Southeast Asia. relations with major powers, especially permanent members of With a foreign policy of peace, independence and non-aligned, UNSC. striving for a peaceful, stable and developed regional 2. India's Role in Vietnam's Foreign Policy environment being pursued by both Vietnam and India and the As mentioned above, one of the strategic priorities in the traditional friendship, India has become one of the most reliable Vietnam's foreign policy is development of relationship with and priotized partners in Vietnam's foreign policy. Vietnam's regional neigbouring countries. India along with China and Japan position towards India was reflected in General Secretary are the biggest regional powers in Asia. With an area of about 3.3 Nguyen Phu Trong's speaking: "Vietnam attaches great million square km and a population of 1.25 billion, India is a importance to traditional friendship and strategic partnership member of Group 20 and a great potential economy for Vietnam. with India; supports India's Act East Policy and its all round connectivity with Southeast Asia as well as India's increasingly While the tension over the East Sea issue between Vietnam and important role in the region and the world”9. At the same time, China is in increasing trend, threat of economic sanction serves as Vietnam also supports India as a permanent member of the UN a measure which has been being used by China to put pressure on Security Council once the mechanism is expanded. Vietnam. This makes Vietnam to find and expand new markets to reduce the dependence on China. In this context, India shows its 3. The HD981 Oil Rig event and India's position in willingness to replace China to supply Vietnam with textile foreign policy adjustment of Vietnam materials so that Vietnam does not depend on China8. Therefore, The East Sea issue is a concept that refers to sovereignty disputes with the need for development, good will from both sides and the in the East Sea (South China Sea). The sovereignty disputes in the traditional bonds of friendship, India has become a reliable East Sea has taken place for a long time. However, when the partner and occupied a priority position in the Vietnam's foreign United Nations adopted the Law of the Sea (1982), allowing all of policy. the contries extend their EEZs to 200 nautical miles (370.6 km) It needs to be noted that after the end of the Cold War, especially from their territorial waters, all of the countries in the East Sea the collapse of Soviet Union and socialist countries in the Eastern region have claimed their sovereignty under the Law of the Sea. Eupore, in this context it required Vietnam to have a new strategic China has claimed almost all of the East Sea. However, the

224 225 Huynh Thanh Loan Vietnam's Foreign Policy: Role of India in South China Sea motto “more friends less enemies”, cooperation going together viewpoint in which one of the important guidelines is to with struggle, enhancement of cooperation, avoidance of multilateralize and diversify its international relations while confrontation, isolation or dependence; preservation of peaceful promote traditional friendly countries including India. and stable environment; assuring that Vietnam is a friend and In addition, China's growing economic and military might and its reliable partner and responsible member in the international 7 territorial expansion ambitions, especially in the South China Sea, community . have made Vietnam more concerned and more cautious with its Strategic priorities in Vietnam's foreign policy. Firstly, attach complicated relationship. Thus, in its strategy of foreign policy, importance to developing the bonds of friendship and Viet Nam attaches importance to developing relations with all cooperation with all the neighbouring countries, particularly countries in order to create overlapping benefits and with bording neighbours like Laos, Cambodia, and China. counterweight between major countries. In particular, India plays Secondly, give priority to relations with ASEAN country an important role in ensuring the security and balance of power in members. Thirdly, focus on establishing friendly and cooperative the region, primarily in Southeast Asia. relations with major powers, especially permanent members of With a foreign policy of peace, independence and non-aligned, UNSC. striving for a peaceful, stable and developed regional 2. India's Role in Vietnam's Foreign Policy environment being pursued by both Vietnam and India and the As mentioned above, one of the strategic priorities in the traditional friendship, India has become one of the most reliable Vietnam's foreign policy is development of relationship with and priotized partners in Vietnam's foreign policy. Vietnam's regional neigbouring countries. India along with China and Japan position towards India was reflected in General Secretary are the biggest regional powers in Asia. With an area of about 3.3 Nguyen Phu Trong's speaking: "Vietnam attaches great million square km and a population of 1.25 billion, India is a importance to traditional friendship and strategic partnership member of Group 20 and a great potential economy for Vietnam. with India; supports India's Act East Policy and its all round connectivity with Southeast Asia as well as India's increasingly While the tension over the East Sea issue between Vietnam and important role in the region and the world”9. At the same time, China is in increasing trend, threat of economic sanction serves as Vietnam also supports India as a permanent member of the UN a measure which has been being used by China to put pressure on Security Council once the mechanism is expanded. Vietnam. This makes Vietnam to find and expand new markets to reduce the dependence on China. In this context, India shows its 3. The HD981 Oil Rig event and India's position in willingness to replace China to supply Vietnam with textile foreign policy adjustment of Vietnam materials so that Vietnam does not depend on China8. Therefore, The East Sea issue is a concept that refers to sovereignty disputes with the need for development, good will from both sides and the in the East Sea (South China Sea). The sovereignty disputes in the traditional bonds of friendship, India has become a reliable East Sea has taken place for a long time. However, when the partner and occupied a priority position in the Vietnam's foreign United Nations adopted the Law of the Sea (1982), allowing all of policy. the contries extend their EEZs to 200 nautical miles (370.6 km) It needs to be noted that after the end of the Cold War, especially from their territorial waters, all of the countries in the East Sea the collapse of Soviet Union and socialist countries in the Eastern region have claimed their sovereignty under the Law of the Sea. Eupore, in this context it required Vietnam to have a new strategic China has claimed almost all of the East Sea. However, the

224 225 Huynh Thanh Loan Vietnam's Foreign Policy: Role of India in South China Sea disputes in the East Sea are mainly disputes among Vietnam, warships, Coast Guard ships, tugboats and fishing boats. China China and Taiwan over the Paracels (Hoang Sa in Vietnamese) and also sent military planes to the area. the disputes among Vietnam, China, Taiwan, the Philippines, Nearly a week after China launched the HD 981 oil rig, the Malaysia, Brunei over the Spratly Islands (Truong Sa in Communist Party of Vietnam convened the Ninth Conference Vietnamese). with an official statement that Vietnam closely monitored the Among the countries claiming sovereignty over the Hoang Sa and maritime deadlock and called for a peaceful solution to the Truong Sa archipelagos, Vietnam and China are the two strongest dispute. The Vietnamese Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung also claimants. However, according to historical and legal evidence, mentioned Vietnam's position in her relationship with China. so far Vietnam exercised her sovereignty in the East Sea at least That is Vietnam will not exchange the divine things (sovereignty, since the 17th century when the two archipelagos were not under territorial integrity) for a dependent and equivocal peace. Or at the sovereignty of any country. Since then, Vietnam has the conference “Multilateral multilateral relations in the 21st established and enforced its sovereignty over Hoang Sa and century and policy recommendations for Vietnam” taking place Truong Sa archipelagos in a continuous and peaceful manner. in Hanoi on August 12th, 2014, in his opening remarks, Prime The recent East Sea issue, however, reveals new, dangerous and Minister Nguyen Tan Dung requested a renovation of thoughts, complex forms, and the main factors leading to the complicated the way of thinking, the way of doing, the way of interdisciplinary tension in the East Sea. Following China's military prowess in the cooperation in foreign affairs in general and in multilateral East Sea, China wants to include the East Sea in its “core foreign deployments, shifting strongly from “active interests”. In March 2010, during the visit to China by US Deputy participation” to “proactive contribution to construction and Secretary of State Stainberg, senior Chinese officials informed to shaping the rules of the game”. On November 19, 2014, Prime the US the China's motto of including the East Sea in her “core Minister Nguyen Tan Dung mentioned the new principle of her interests”. relations with China, which is encapsulated in such words: “Both Including the East Sea in China's “core interests” means that cooperate and struggle”. It can be said that these words really China places the East Sea issue equal to the Taiwan and Tibet reflect the nature of the two countries' relationship which has issues which China regards as “domestic issues”. This means that experienced lots of ups and downs. China would like to inform all of the countries that China will be In international conferences, the East Sea issue and the crisis of willing to use force to protect her “core interests” in those areas. In HD 981 drilling rig had been repeatedly addressed by Vietnam parallel with “upgrading” the East Sea issue to her “core and other countries in the world. In particular, the voices of major interests”, China has made a series of unusual and dangerous countries like USA, Japan, India, France,... and international activities that made the East Sea choppy. organizations such as ASEAN, APEC, Francophone Foreign policy adjustment of Vietnam after the HD 981 Organization... are important. The Vietnamese government also carried out a series of foreign visits (Foreign Minister Pham Binh oil rig event Minh, Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung, General Secretary of the There was no crisis more serious than the crisis erupted in early Party Nguyen Phu Trong paid a visit to the US in October 2014, May to mid-July 2014 when China moved her Haiyang Shiyou 981 India in October 2014, the Russian Federation in November 2014 (known in Vietnam as "Hải Dương - 981") oil rig into the EEZ of respectively. Vietnam. On the peak of the crisis, there was about a hundred of

226 227 Huynh Thanh Loan Vietnam's Foreign Policy: Role of India in South China Sea disputes in the East Sea are mainly disputes among Vietnam, warships, Coast Guard ships, tugboats and fishing boats. China China and Taiwan over the Paracels (Hoang Sa in Vietnamese) and also sent military planes to the area. the disputes among Vietnam, China, Taiwan, the Philippines, Nearly a week after China launched the HD 981 oil rig, the Malaysia, Brunei over the Spratly Islands (Truong Sa in Communist Party of Vietnam convened the Ninth Conference Vietnamese). with an official statement that Vietnam closely monitored the Among the countries claiming sovereignty over the Hoang Sa and maritime deadlock and called for a peaceful solution to the Truong Sa archipelagos, Vietnam and China are the two strongest dispute. The Vietnamese Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung also claimants. However, according to historical and legal evidence, mentioned Vietnam's position in her relationship with China. so far Vietnam exercised her sovereignty in the East Sea at least That is Vietnam will not exchange the divine things (sovereignty, since the 17th century when the two archipelagos were not under territorial integrity) for a dependent and equivocal peace. Or at the sovereignty of any country. Since then, Vietnam has the conference “Multilateral multilateral relations in the 21st established and enforced its sovereignty over Hoang Sa and century and policy recommendations for Vietnam” taking place Truong Sa archipelagos in a continuous and peaceful manner. in Hanoi on August 12th, 2014, in his opening remarks, Prime The recent East Sea issue, however, reveals new, dangerous and Minister Nguyen Tan Dung requested a renovation of thoughts, complex forms, and the main factors leading to the complicated the way of thinking, the way of doing, the way of interdisciplinary tension in the East Sea. Following China's military prowess in the cooperation in foreign affairs in general and in multilateral East Sea, China wants to include the East Sea in its “core foreign deployments, shifting strongly from “active interests”. In March 2010, during the visit to China by US Deputy participation” to “proactive contribution to construction and Secretary of State Stainberg, senior Chinese officials informed to shaping the rules of the game”. On November 19, 2014, Prime the US the China's motto of including the East Sea in her “core Minister Nguyen Tan Dung mentioned the new principle of her interests”. relations with China, which is encapsulated in such words: “Both Including the East Sea in China's “core interests” means that cooperate and struggle”. It can be said that these words really China places the East Sea issue equal to the Taiwan and Tibet reflect the nature of the two countries' relationship which has issues which China regards as “domestic issues”. This means that experienced lots of ups and downs. China would like to inform all of the countries that China will be In international conferences, the East Sea issue and the crisis of willing to use force to protect her “core interests” in those areas. In HD 981 drilling rig had been repeatedly addressed by Vietnam parallel with “upgrading” the East Sea issue to her “core and other countries in the world. In particular, the voices of major interests”, China has made a series of unusual and dangerous countries like USA, Japan, India, France,... and international activities that made the East Sea choppy. organizations such as ASEAN, APEC, Francophone Foreign policy adjustment of Vietnam after the HD 981 Organization... are important. The Vietnamese government also carried out a series of foreign visits (Foreign Minister Pham Binh oil rig event Minh, Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung, General Secretary of the There was no crisis more serious than the crisis erupted in early Party Nguyen Phu Trong paid a visit to the US in October 2014, May to mid-July 2014 when China moved her Haiyang Shiyou 981 India in October 2014, the Russian Federation in November 2014 (known in Vietnam as "Hải Dương - 981") oil rig into the EEZ of respectively. Vietnam. On the peak of the crisis, there was about a hundred of

226 227 Huynh Thanh Loan Vietnam's Foreign Policy: Role of India in South China Sea

In addition, defense diplomacy continues to be promoted. legitimate stance; reject unreasonable demands and oppose Between November 5 and November 28, 2014, two of Vietnam's unilateral activities violating international law of China in order most modern warships visited three Southeast Asian countries, to maintain peace, stability, security, safety, freedom of including Brunei, the Philippines and Indonesia. This is the first navigation and aviation in the East Sea and the region. time the Vietnamese naval ships have paid a visit to many Vietnam needs the support of international friends, and India has countries in the region. The visit demonstrates the spirit of shown her positiveness. Although India does not have any solidarity and friendship among countries in the region, disputes in this area, India has great economic and political contributing to consolidation of strategic trust. It also shows that interests. In the process of implementing the Look East Policy Vietnam and other countries who have disputed the Spratly (now Act East policy), India has shown her growing interest in the Islands are willing to cooperate together and to deal well with East Sea. And the East Sea becomes more and more important to disagreements. India's policy towards Southeast Asia in particular and India's It can be said that the above-mentioned visits are aimed at the foreign policy in general11. following main objectives: (1) diversification of relationships; (2) On 9th May, 2014, the spokeperson of India's External Affairs enhancing Vietnam's cooperation through international Ministry said that: “We have been following with concern recent organizations; (3) reducing dependence of Vietnam on an only developments in the South China Sea. We believe that partner (China); (4) enhancing Vietnam's defense capabilities; (5) maintenance of peace, stability, growth and prosperity in the strengthening and consolidating strategic trust, helping to 12 region is of vital interest to the international community” . This is prevent the risk of war. a clear signal of objection from India against the hegemony of Through the crisis of the HD 981 oil rig, the capabilities of China over the East Sea and the support of India to Vietnam. Vietnam's diplomatic agencies have also been raised to new In addition, some unofficial sayings of Indian officials and heights. Vietnam has implemented a flexible foreign policy of politicians have directly condemned China's actions. At a “acting in accordance with each circumstances without losing the roundtable meeting in Melbourne (Australia) on May 9, 2014 unchanged10” (Di bat bien, ung van bien) and “nothing is more sponsored by the Diplomatic Academy of Vietnam (DAV), when precious than independence and freedom” according to Ho Chi Ambassador Dang Dinh Quy denounced “Chinese Minh's thought. Vietnam considers “independence, sovereignty, assertiveness” and accused the Chinese navy of “acting without the sea and space territories are the most sacred and noble” but provocation” and charged that it was doing so on orders of “the Vietnam is also willing to build up a peaceful and co-operative Chinese leadership at the highest level”, Amitabh Matoo, environment for co-development with other countries. This is a Director of the India-Australia Institute, a stalwart of India's sincere and honest wish of Vietnam and Vietnam expects other national-security establishment, responded to Mr. Quy that countries in the region and in the world to have adequate and “Chinese assertiveness …is bordering on aggressiveness”. He appropriate responses. termed Beijing's behavior “short sighted and counter- India in the foreign policy of Vietnam after the HD981 productive”.13 oil rig event Mattoo is not the only Indian officials to bluntly denounce Encountering complicated developments in the East Sea, Chinese aggression in the East Sea. In an article titled “Chinese Vietnam has enlisted international public to support Vietnam's expansionism continues unabated” published in the May 7 issue

228 229 Huynh Thanh Loan Vietnam's Foreign Policy: Role of India in South China Sea

In addition, defense diplomacy continues to be promoted. legitimate stance; reject unreasonable demands and oppose Between November 5 and November 28, 2014, two of Vietnam's unilateral activities violating international law of China in order most modern warships visited three Southeast Asian countries, to maintain peace, stability, security, safety, freedom of including Brunei, the Philippines and Indonesia. This is the first navigation and aviation in the East Sea and the region. time the Vietnamese naval ships have paid a visit to many Vietnam needs the support of international friends, and India has countries in the region. The visit demonstrates the spirit of shown her positiveness. Although India does not have any solidarity and friendship among countries in the region, disputes in this area, India has great economic and political contributing to consolidation of strategic trust. It also shows that interests. In the process of implementing the Look East Policy Vietnam and other countries who have disputed the Spratly (now Act East policy), India has shown her growing interest in the Islands are willing to cooperate together and to deal well with East Sea. And the East Sea becomes more and more important to disagreements. India's policy towards Southeast Asia in particular and India's It can be said that the above-mentioned visits are aimed at the foreign policy in general11. following main objectives: (1) diversification of relationships; (2) On 9th May, 2014, the spokeperson of India's External Affairs enhancing Vietnam's cooperation through international Ministry said that: “We have been following with concern recent organizations; (3) reducing dependence of Vietnam on an only developments in the South China Sea. We believe that partner (China); (4) enhancing Vietnam's defense capabilities; (5) maintenance of peace, stability, growth and prosperity in the strengthening and consolidating strategic trust, helping to 12 region is of vital interest to the international community” . This is prevent the risk of war. a clear signal of objection from India against the hegemony of Through the crisis of the HD 981 oil rig, the capabilities of China over the East Sea and the support of India to Vietnam. Vietnam's diplomatic agencies have also been raised to new In addition, some unofficial sayings of Indian officials and heights. Vietnam has implemented a flexible foreign policy of politicians have directly condemned China's actions. At a “acting in accordance with each circumstances without losing the roundtable meeting in Melbourne (Australia) on May 9, 2014 unchanged10” (Di bat bien, ung van bien) and “nothing is more sponsored by the Diplomatic Academy of Vietnam (DAV), when precious than independence and freedom” according to Ho Chi Ambassador Dang Dinh Quy denounced “Chinese Minh's thought. Vietnam considers “independence, sovereignty, assertiveness” and accused the Chinese navy of “acting without the sea and space territories are the most sacred and noble” but provocation” and charged that it was doing so on orders of “the Vietnam is also willing to build up a peaceful and co-operative Chinese leadership at the highest level”, Amitabh Matoo, environment for co-development with other countries. This is a Director of the India-Australia Institute, a stalwart of India's sincere and honest wish of Vietnam and Vietnam expects other national-security establishment, responded to Mr. Quy that countries in the region and in the world to have adequate and “Chinese assertiveness …is bordering on aggressiveness”. He appropriate responses. termed Beijing's behavior “short sighted and counter- India in the foreign policy of Vietnam after the HD981 productive”.13 oil rig event Mattoo is not the only Indian officials to bluntly denounce Encountering complicated developments in the East Sea, Chinese aggression in the East Sea. In an article titled “Chinese Vietnam has enlisted international public to support Vietnam's expansionism continues unabated” published in the May 7 issue

228 229 Huynh Thanh Loan Vietnam's Foreign Policy: Role of India in South China Sea of the Times of India, S.D. Pradhan complained that the “Chinese More than half a month after China withdrawed its drilling rig policy of aggrandizement in its neighbouring areas” is “raising from the waters of Vietnam, on 5 August 2014, Indian stealth the serious risk of a conflict in the South China Sea.” He frigate INS Shivalik paid a visit to Hai Phong Port; this event contended that China's “aggressive behaviour towards Vietnam” reconfirmed the consistency of India's Act East Policy, affirming was part of a “grand strategy” directed against Japan and India India-Vietnam relations will not be interrupted before any and advocated India “join hands” with the “US, Japan, ASEAN, pressure. Indeed, after the HD-981 oil rig was located illegally in Russia, [and] Australia … in pressurising China to give up its Vietnam waters, relations between Vietnam and India has aggressive policies in the neighbouring countries”. “They should became closer with a series of cooperation projects in the fields of be prepared”, Pradhan said, “to impose consequences on China economy, oil and gas exploitation, national defense and security. 14 when it violates international laws and norms” . In the interview with reporter of the Vietnam News Agency, Furthermore, during the time when the drilling rig of HD -981 Secretary (East) of the Ministry of External Affairs Mrs. Preeti was located in the East Sea, on May 7, 2015, the Oil and Natural Saran confirmed that “Our position on the East Sea has been Gas Corporation of India (ONGC) made concrete moves to consistent. As can be seen in the Joint Statement issued during the Prime support Vietnam's position in the competition with China in the Minister Modi's visit to Vietnam in September 2016, we reiterated our East Sea. The Economic Times (7 May 2014) reported that desire and determination to work together with Vietnam to maintain 17 “Sources in the Indian government expressed surprise over the peace, stability, growth and prosperity in Asia and beyond” . Chinese move in Vietnam's territorial waters. They are Receiving positive feedbacks from India, Vietnam has attached particularly surprised as China made the move after ONGC great importance to promoting her foreign policy regarding to the decided to increase its presence in Vietnam”, And, “It may be East Sea issue with India, with the following main priorities: recalled that China had earlier opposed Indian presence in Vietnam's oil blocks in the South China Sea region. But Delhi First, Vietnam would work more closely with India and make ignored such reservation and OVL continues to maintain greater efforts to maritime and aviation security in the East Sea. presence in Vietnam whose strategic partnership with India is India's voice on maritime and aviation safety and security in the growing”15. East Sea has neither been very strong, nor commensurated with the role of the major country with legitimate interests here, nor A member of the Board of Directors of Videsh Ltd said “the firmly assured the Act East policy that India has declared. decision to extend exploration for both commercial purposes and Therefore, India needs to increase the quality in her voices over strategic purposes”. Alka Acharya, Director of the Institute of the disputes in the East Sea. Chinese Studies in New Delhi (India), commented that Videsh's extension of exploration of block 128 was a “strategic” decision Second, Vietnam wishes to strengthen defense cooperation with because withdrawing from Block128 would create a feeling that India to enhance Vietnam's defense capabilities. India is a India yielded to the pressure China made in the East Sea16. India's supplier of military equipment, weapons and military training to Videsh Ltd has announced that it is continuing to extend its oil Vietnam. Thus, India has increasingly contributed significantly to exploration off the coast of Vietnam as tensions intensify, that is the national defence development of Vietnam. During the visit of the definitive sign of India's support to Vietnam. This decision, Indian President Mukherjee to Vietanm (2014), India signed not just for economic purposes, but was certainly backed by the several defense agreements with Vietnam; and agreed to grant Indian government in the prism of the Act East Policy. Vietnam a $ 100 million credit line to buy four offshore patrol

230 231 Huynh Thanh Loan Vietnam's Foreign Policy: Role of India in South China Sea of the Times of India, S.D. Pradhan complained that the “Chinese More than half a month after China withdrawed its drilling rig policy of aggrandizement in its neighbouring areas” is “raising from the waters of Vietnam, on 5 August 2014, Indian stealth the serious risk of a conflict in the South China Sea.” He frigate INS Shivalik paid a visit to Hai Phong Port; this event contended that China's “aggressive behaviour towards Vietnam” reconfirmed the consistency of India's Act East Policy, affirming was part of a “grand strategy” directed against Japan and India India-Vietnam relations will not be interrupted before any and advocated India “join hands” with the “US, Japan, ASEAN, pressure. Indeed, after the HD-981 oil rig was located illegally in Russia, [and] Australia … in pressurising China to give up its Vietnam waters, relations between Vietnam and India has aggressive policies in the neighbouring countries”. “They should became closer with a series of cooperation projects in the fields of be prepared”, Pradhan said, “to impose consequences on China economy, oil and gas exploitation, national defense and security. 14 when it violates international laws and norms” . In the interview with reporter of the Vietnam News Agency, Furthermore, during the time when the drilling rig of HD -981 Secretary (East) of the Ministry of External Affairs Mrs. Preeti was located in the East Sea, on May 7, 2015, the Oil and Natural Saran confirmed that “Our position on the East Sea has been Gas Corporation of India (ONGC) made concrete moves to consistent. As can be seen in the Joint Statement issued during the Prime support Vietnam's position in the competition with China in the Minister Modi's visit to Vietnam in September 2016, we reiterated our East Sea. The Economic Times (7 May 2014) reported that desire and determination to work together with Vietnam to maintain 17 “Sources in the Indian government expressed surprise over the peace, stability, growth and prosperity in Asia and beyond” . Chinese move in Vietnam's territorial waters. They are Receiving positive feedbacks from India, Vietnam has attached particularly surprised as China made the move after ONGC great importance to promoting her foreign policy regarding to the decided to increase its presence in Vietnam”, And, “It may be East Sea issue with India, with the following main priorities: recalled that China had earlier opposed Indian presence in Vietnam's oil blocks in the South China Sea region. But Delhi First, Vietnam would work more closely with India and make ignored such reservation and OVL continues to maintain greater efforts to maritime and aviation security in the East Sea. presence in Vietnam whose strategic partnership with India is India's voice on maritime and aviation safety and security in the growing”15. East Sea has neither been very strong, nor commensurated with the role of the major country with legitimate interests here, nor A member of the Board of Directors of Videsh Ltd said “the firmly assured the Act East policy that India has declared. decision to extend exploration for both commercial purposes and Therefore, India needs to increase the quality in her voices over strategic purposes”. Alka Acharya, Director of the Institute of the disputes in the East Sea. Chinese Studies in New Delhi (India), commented that Videsh's extension of exploration of block 128 was a “strategic” decision Second, Vietnam wishes to strengthen defense cooperation with because withdrawing from Block128 would create a feeling that India to enhance Vietnam's defense capabilities. India is a India yielded to the pressure China made in the East Sea16. India's supplier of military equipment, weapons and military training to Videsh Ltd has announced that it is continuing to extend its oil Vietnam. Thus, India has increasingly contributed significantly to exploration off the coast of Vietnam as tensions intensify, that is the national defence development of Vietnam. During the visit of the definitive sign of India's support to Vietnam. This decision, Indian President Mukherjee to Vietanm (2014), India signed not just for economic purposes, but was certainly backed by the several defense agreements with Vietnam; and agreed to grant Indian government in the prism of the Act East Policy. Vietnam a $ 100 million credit line to buy four offshore patrol

230 231 Huynh Thanh Loan Vietnam's Foreign Policy: Role of India in South China Sea vessels. Although the $100 million credit line is not that great, it independence, self-reliance, openness, promotion of sends a message of India's defense cooperation. multilateralization, diversification. Vietnam maintains its foreign In September 2016, Prime Minister Nadrenra Modi announced a policy, being flexible in strategies, and ensuring sovereignty and new credit line of $ 500 million to Vietnam to further strengthen national interests. defense cooperation between the two sides. Vietnam identifies the strategic partnership with India as a Strengthening defense cooperation with India is also part of the priority in its foreign policy. Vietnam attaches great importance to continuously strengthen and deepen traditional friendship and policy of increasing investment in defense equipments, 20 combining weapons of different origins to enhance defensive comprehensive cooperation with India . Indian stance on the East strength. India will emerge as a leading partner in supporting the Sea is very important to Vietnam and Vietnam appreciated Indian defense potentials of Vietnam. In addition to supplies from positive cooperation with Vietnam regarding the East Sea issue in Russia, Vietnam will have additional arms supplies from Israel, particular and in diplomatic, security defense relations in general. the Netherlands, France, the US, Japan, Belarus, etc. The issue is Vietnam considers India a reliable partner who can accompany that how Vietnam coordinates weapons of different origins to with Vietnam to overcome challenges and Indian support to create national synergy to defend the homeland. The rich strengthen the capabilities of Vietnam's defense is of great experience from India will help Vietnam answer that question. significant. Those are the reasons why Vietnam regards the relationship with Vietnam is a priority in its foreign policy. Third, Vietnam maintains supporting India to continue her exploration and exploitation of oil and gas in Vietnam's exclusive economic zone and continental shelf. This is a clear policy of the Government of Vietnam when Prime Minister Nguyen Xuan Phuc emphasized this in the reception of Mr. Vijay Kumar Singh References: on 21st April 2017, claiming that “the Vietnamese government 1. Truong Tan Sang. “Phát huy sức mạnh toàn dân, bảo vệ lợi ích quốc gia, dân tộc” supports India's continued exploration and exploitation of oil and [Promoting the strength of the entire nation to safeguard the nation and people], gas in Vietnam's exclusive economic zone and continental The Socialist Republic of Vietnam Online Newspaper Government (VGP News), shelf”18. 01 January 2015. Accessed at: http://baodientu.chinhphu.vn/Hoat-dong-cua- lanh-dao-Dang-Nha-nuoc/Phat-huy-suc-manh-cua-toan-dan-bao-ve-loi-ich- So far, facing China's threat over Vietnam's territorial quoc-gia-dan-toc/217403.vgp sovereignty, besides implementing multilateral diplomacy, 2. http://www.mofahcm.gov.vn/en/mofa/cs_doingoai/cs/ns040823162938 Vietnam aimed at fostering its ties with India, urging India to play 3. Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs Pham Binh Minh, the a more active role in dealing with the issue and Vietnam is in “the Guideline of Foreign Affairs in the 11th Congress and important development in hope that India, as a regional power, will actively support the thought of foreign affairs of the Party, Ministry of Foreignn Affairs, accessed at 19 http://www.mofahcm.gov.vn/vi/mofa/cs_doingoai/nr070523093001/ns110520 parties concerned in resolving the disputes peacefully” . 170239 Conclusion 4. Vietnam Ministry of National Defense (2009), Vietnam's National Defense, p.19. Vietnam always recognizes the strategic position of the East Sea 5. Principle of Peaceful Coexistence was set at the 7th National Congress. and places it in the relations between countries inside and outside 6. Pham Binh Minh (2010), The Guideline of Vietnam's Foreign Affairs to 2020, the region. Vietnam is fully aware of the foreign policy of National Politics Publishing House, p.44.

232 233 Huynh Thanh Loan Vietnam's Foreign Policy: Role of India in South China Sea vessels. Although the $100 million credit line is not that great, it independence, self-reliance, openness, promotion of sends a message of India's defense cooperation. multilateralization, diversification. Vietnam maintains its foreign In September 2016, Prime Minister Nadrenra Modi announced a policy, being flexible in strategies, and ensuring sovereignty and new credit line of $ 500 million to Vietnam to further strengthen national interests. defense cooperation between the two sides. Vietnam identifies the strategic partnership with India as a Strengthening defense cooperation with India is also part of the priority in its foreign policy. Vietnam attaches great importance to continuously strengthen and deepen traditional friendship and policy of increasing investment in defense equipments, 20 combining weapons of different origins to enhance defensive comprehensive cooperation with India . Indian stance on the East strength. India will emerge as a leading partner in supporting the Sea is very important to Vietnam and Vietnam appreciated Indian defense potentials of Vietnam. In addition to supplies from positive cooperation with Vietnam regarding the East Sea issue in Russia, Vietnam will have additional arms supplies from Israel, particular and in diplomatic, security defense relations in general. the Netherlands, France, the US, Japan, Belarus, etc. The issue is Vietnam considers India a reliable partner who can accompany that how Vietnam coordinates weapons of different origins to with Vietnam to overcome challenges and Indian support to create national synergy to defend the homeland. The rich strengthen the capabilities of Vietnam's defense is of great experience from India will help Vietnam answer that question. significant. Those are the reasons why Vietnam regards the relationship with Vietnam is a priority in its foreign policy. Third, Vietnam maintains supporting India to continue her exploration and exploitation of oil and gas in Vietnam's exclusive economic zone and continental shelf. This is a clear policy of the Government of Vietnam when Prime Minister Nguyen Xuan Phuc emphasized this in the reception of Mr. Vijay Kumar Singh References: on 21st April 2017, claiming that “the Vietnamese government 1. Truong Tan Sang. “Phát huy sức mạnh toàn dân, bảo vệ lợi ích quốc gia, dân tộc” supports India's continued exploration and exploitation of oil and [Promoting the strength of the entire nation to safeguard the nation and people], gas in Vietnam's exclusive economic zone and continental The Socialist Republic of Vietnam Online Newspaper Government (VGP News), shelf”18. 01 January 2015. Accessed at: http://baodientu.chinhphu.vn/Hoat-dong-cua- lanh-dao-Dang-Nha-nuoc/Phat-huy-suc-manh-cua-toan-dan-bao-ve-loi-ich- So far, facing China's threat over Vietnam's territorial quoc-gia-dan-toc/217403.vgp sovereignty, besides implementing multilateral diplomacy, 2. http://www.mofahcm.gov.vn/en/mofa/cs_doingoai/cs/ns040823162938 Vietnam aimed at fostering its ties with India, urging India to play 3. Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs Pham Binh Minh, the a more active role in dealing with the issue and Vietnam is in “the Guideline of Foreign Affairs in the 11th Congress and important development in hope that India, as a regional power, will actively support the thought of foreign affairs of the Party, Ministry of Foreignn Affairs, accessed at 19 http://www.mofahcm.gov.vn/vi/mofa/cs_doingoai/nr070523093001/ns110520 parties concerned in resolving the disputes peacefully” . 170239 Conclusion 4. Vietnam Ministry of National Defense (2009), Vietnam's National Defense, p.19. Vietnam always recognizes the strategic position of the East Sea 5. Principle of Peaceful Coexistence was set at the 7th National Congress. and places it in the relations between countries inside and outside 6. Pham Binh Minh (2010), The Guideline of Vietnam's Foreign Affairs to 2020, the region. Vietnam is fully aware of the foreign policy of National Politics Publishing House, p.44.

232 233 Huynh Thanh Loan Vietnam's Foreign Policy: Role of India in South China Sea

7. Ibid., pp.45-46. http://vpcp.chinhphu.vn/Home/Thu-tuong-tiep-khach-quoc-te-ngay- 214/20174/21493.vgp 8. Tran Van Thanh, “Vietnam's External Activities during and after the HD-981 oil rig crisis”, International Studies, http://nghiencuuquocte.org/2014/12/08/hoat- 19. Tran Nam Tien (2016), India with Southeast Asia in the new international dong-doi-ngoai-cua-vn-trong-va-sau-khung-hoang-gian-khoan-981/ context, The Culture and Art Piblishing House, Ho Chi Minh City, p.133. 9. Voice of Vietnam, “Tổng Bí thư: Việt Nam luôn coi trọng quan hệ hữu nghị với 20. Vietnam Embassy in Hungary, Vietnam India Relations keep on growing, Ấn Độ” [ Party General Secretary: Vietnam always respects the friendship with (http://www.vietnamembassy-hungary.org). India], 3 September 2016, http://vov.vn/chinh-tri/tong-bi-thu-viet-nam-luon- coi-trong-quan-he-huu-nghi-voi-an-do-546719.vov 10. “Di bat bien, ung van bien” is a special term in Ho Chi Minh's thought. This term means that we respond to the variables but do not get far away or lose the Bibliography: invariants that are the core values. Absolutely, we can not exchange the Truong Tan Sang. “Phát huy sức mạnh toàn dân, bảo vệ lợi ích quốc gia, dân tộc” invariants. Circumstances change, and the life is always changing, and our [Promoting the strength of the entire nation to safeguard the nation and people], responses are flexible. But no matter how flexible our responses are, we will The Socialist Republic of Vietnam Online Newspaper Government (VGP News), never forget the final goal. In this sense, the invariant is the sovereignty of 01 January 2015. Accessed at: http://baodientu.chinhphu.vn/Hoat-dong-cua- Vietnam. lanh-dao-Dang-Nha-nuoc/Phat-huy-suc-manh-cua-toan-dan-bao-ve-loi-ich- 11. Trịnh Thị Hoa, “The strategic position of the East Sea Effect to the Act East quoc-gia-dan-toc/217403.vgp Policy of India”, International Conference Proceedings: Vietnam - India: New Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs Pham Binh Minh, the Guideline Context, New Vision, Center for Indian Studies, Vietnam, 2016, p.324. of Foreign Affairs in the 11th Congress and important development in thought of 12. “South China Sea Spat: China Ups Soverignty Stakes: India Voices Concern, foreign affairs of the Party, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, accessed at IndanWrites, http://www.indiawrites.org/south-china-sea-spat-china-ups- http://www.mofahcm.gov.vn/vi/mofa/cs_doingoai/nr070523093001/ns110520 sovereignty-stakes-india-voices-concern/ 170239 13. Deepal Jayasekera (2014), India signals support for Vietnam in South China Sea Vietnam Ministry of National Defense (2009), Vietnam's National Defense, p.19. dispute, The International Committee of the Fourth International (ICFI), https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2014/05/13/indi-m13.html Pham Binh Minh (2010), The Guideline of Vietnam's Foreign Affairs to 2020, National Politics Publishing House, p.44. 14. S.D. Pradhan (2014), Chinese expansionism continues unabated, The times of I n d i a , 7 M a y 2 0 1 4 . Tran Van Thanh, “Vietnam's External Activities during and after the HD-981 oil rig http://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/ChanakyaCode/chinese- crisis”, International Studies, http://nghiencuuquocte.org/2014/12/08/hoat- expansionism-continues-unabated/ dong-doi-ngoai-cua-vn-trong-va-sau-khung-hoang-gian-khoan-981/ 15. Dipanjan Roy Chaudhury (2014), ONGC's presence in South China Sea: Beijing Voice of Vietnam, “Tổng Bí thư: Việt Nam luôn coi trọng quan hệ hữu nghị với sets up oil rig to reinforce its territorial claims, The Economic Times, Ấn Độ” [ Party General Secretary: Vietnam always respects the h t t p : / / a r t i c l e s . e c o n o m i c t i m e s . i n d i a t i m e s . c o m / 2 0 1 4 - 0 5 - , http://vov.vn/chinh-tri/tong-bi- 07/news/49689745_1_petrovietnam-oil-blocks-south-china-sea friendship with India], 3 September 2016 thu-viet-nam-luon-coi-trong-quan-he-huu-nghi-voi-an-do-546719.vov 16. Minh Thái (2014) (tổng hợp), Phớt lờ Trung Quốc, Ấn Độ tăng hợp tác dầu khí với Trịnh Thị Hoa, “The strategic position of the East Sea Effect to the Act East Policy of Việt Nam [Ignoring China, India continues cooperating with Vietnam], Báo điện India”, International Conference Proceedings: Vietnam - India: New Context, tử Đất Việt. http://baodatviet.vn/the-gioi/tin-tuc-24h/phot-trung-quoc-an-do- New Vision, Center for Indian Studies, Vietnam, 2016, p.324. tang-hop-tac-dau-khi-voi-vn-3040767 “South China Sea Spat: China Ups Soverignty Stakes: India Voices Concern, 17. Secretart Preeti Saran's interview with Vietnam News Agency, Vietnam greatly IndanWrites, http://www.indiawrites.org/south-china-sea-spat-china-ups- values relations with India, 2 April, 2017, http://english.vov.vn/politics/india- sovereignty-stakes-india-voices-concern/ greatly-values-relations-with-vietnam-342775.vov Deepal Jayasekera (2014), India signals support for Vietnam in South China Sea 18. Government Office, “Thủ tướng tiếp khách quốc tế ngày 21/4” [Prime Minister dispute, The International Committee of the Fourth International (ICFI), receive guest on 21 April], 21 April 2014, accessed at https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2014/05/13/indi-m13.html

234 235 Huynh Thanh Loan Vietnam's Foreign Policy: Role of India in South China Sea

7. Ibid., pp.45-46. http://vpcp.chinhphu.vn/Home/Thu-tuong-tiep-khach-quoc-te-ngay- 214/20174/21493.vgp 8. Tran Van Thanh, “Vietnam's External Activities during and after the HD-981 oil rig crisis”, International Studies, http://nghiencuuquocte.org/2014/12/08/hoat- 19. Tran Nam Tien (2016), India with Southeast Asia in the new international dong-doi-ngoai-cua-vn-trong-va-sau-khung-hoang-gian-khoan-981/ context, The Culture and Art Piblishing House, Ho Chi Minh City, p.133. 9. Voice of Vietnam, “Tổng Bí thư: Việt Nam luôn coi trọng quan hệ hữu nghị với 20. Vietnam Embassy in Hungary, Vietnam India Relations keep on growing, Ấn Độ” [ Party General Secretary: Vietnam always respects the friendship with (http://www.vietnamembassy-hungary.org). India], 3 September 2016, http://vov.vn/chinh-tri/tong-bi-thu-viet-nam-luon- coi-trong-quan-he-huu-nghi-voi-an-do-546719.vov 10. “Di bat bien, ung van bien” is a special term in Ho Chi Minh's thought. This term means that we respond to the variables but do not get far away or lose the Bibliography: invariants that are the core values. Absolutely, we can not exchange the Truong Tan Sang. “Phát huy sức mạnh toàn dân, bảo vệ lợi ích quốc gia, dân tộc” invariants. Circumstances change, and the life is always changing, and our [Promoting the strength of the entire nation to safeguard the nation and people], responses are flexible. But no matter how flexible our responses are, we will The Socialist Republic of Vietnam Online Newspaper Government (VGP News), never forget the final goal. In this sense, the invariant is the sovereignty of 01 January 2015. Accessed at: http://baodientu.chinhphu.vn/Hoat-dong-cua- Vietnam. lanh-dao-Dang-Nha-nuoc/Phat-huy-suc-manh-cua-toan-dan-bao-ve-loi-ich- 11. Trịnh Thị Hoa, “The strategic position of the East Sea Effect to the Act East quoc-gia-dan-toc/217403.vgp Policy of India”, International Conference Proceedings: Vietnam - India: New Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs Pham Binh Minh, the Guideline Context, New Vision, Center for Indian Studies, Vietnam, 2016, p.324. of Foreign Affairs in the 11th Congress and important development in thought of 12. “South China Sea Spat: China Ups Soverignty Stakes: India Voices Concern, foreign affairs of the Party, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, accessed at IndanWrites, http://www.indiawrites.org/south-china-sea-spat-china-ups- http://www.mofahcm.gov.vn/vi/mofa/cs_doingoai/nr070523093001/ns110520 sovereignty-stakes-india-voices-concern/ 170239 13. Deepal Jayasekera (2014), India signals support for Vietnam in South China Sea Vietnam Ministry of National Defense (2009), Vietnam's National Defense, p.19. dispute, The International Committee of the Fourth International (ICFI), https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2014/05/13/indi-m13.html Pham Binh Minh (2010), The Guideline of Vietnam's Foreign Affairs to 2020, National Politics Publishing House, p.44. 14. S.D. Pradhan (2014), Chinese expansionism continues unabated, The times of I n d i a , 7 M a y 2 0 1 4 . Tran Van Thanh, “Vietnam's External Activities during and after the HD-981 oil rig http://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/ChanakyaCode/chinese- crisis”, International Studies, http://nghiencuuquocte.org/2014/12/08/hoat- expansionism-continues-unabated/ dong-doi-ngoai-cua-vn-trong-va-sau-khung-hoang-gian-khoan-981/ 15. Dipanjan Roy Chaudhury (2014), ONGC's presence in South China Sea: Beijing Voice of Vietnam, “Tổng Bí thư: Việt Nam luôn coi trọng quan hệ hữu nghị với sets up oil rig to reinforce its territorial claims, The Economic Times, Ấn Độ” [ Party General Secretary: Vietnam always respects the h t t p : / / a r t i c l e s . e c o n o m i c t i m e s . i n d i a t i m e s . c o m / 2 0 1 4 - 0 5 - , http://vov.vn/chinh-tri/tong-bi- 07/news/49689745_1_petrovietnam-oil-blocks-south-china-sea friendship with India], 3 September 2016 thu-viet-nam-luon-coi-trong-quan-he-huu-nghi-voi-an-do-546719.vov 16. Minh Thái (2014) (tổng hợp), Phớt lờ Trung Quốc, Ấn Độ tăng hợp tác dầu khí với Trịnh Thị Hoa, “The strategic position of the East Sea Effect to the Act East Policy of Việt Nam [Ignoring China, India continues cooperating with Vietnam], Báo điện India”, International Conference Proceedings: Vietnam - India: New Context, tử Đất Việt. http://baodatviet.vn/the-gioi/tin-tuc-24h/phot-trung-quoc-an-do- New Vision, Center for Indian Studies, Vietnam, 2016, p.324. tang-hop-tac-dau-khi-voi-vn-3040767 “South China Sea Spat: China Ups Soverignty Stakes: India Voices Concern, 17. Secretart Preeti Saran's interview with Vietnam News Agency, Vietnam greatly IndanWrites, http://www.indiawrites.org/south-china-sea-spat-china-ups- values relations with India, 2 April, 2017, http://english.vov.vn/politics/india- sovereignty-stakes-india-voices-concern/ greatly-values-relations-with-vietnam-342775.vov Deepal Jayasekera (2014), India signals support for Vietnam in South China Sea 18. Government Office, “Thủ tướng tiếp khách quốc tế ngày 21/4” [Prime Minister dispute, The International Committee of the Fourth International (ICFI), receive guest on 21 April], 21 April 2014, accessed at https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2014/05/13/indi-m13.html

234 235 Huynh Thanh Loan India-ASEAN Relationship: With Special S.D. Pradhan (2014), Chinese expansionism continues unabated, The times of India, Reference to Vietnam 7 May2014. http://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/ChanakyaCode/chinese- expansionism-continues-unabated/ S. Manivasakan* and Rayeesunisa** Dipanjan Roy Chaudhury (2014), ONGC's presence in South China Sea: Beijing sets *Professor and Director, UGC up oil rig to reinforce its territorial claims, The Economic Times, Centre for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Madras, Chennai. h t t p : / / a r t i c l e s . e c o n o m i c t i m e s . i n d i a t i m e s . c o m / 2 0 1 4 - 0 5 - **Assistant Professor, Department of Commerce 07/news/49689745_1_petrovietnam-oil-blocks-south-china-sea Justice Basheer Ahmed Sayeed College for Women, Chennai Minh Thái (2014) (tổng hợp), Phớt lờ Trung Quốc, Ấn Độ tăng hợp tác dầu khí với Việt Nam [Ignoring China, India continues cooperating with Vietnam], Báo điện tử Đất Việt. http://baodatviet.vn/the-gioi/tin-tuc-24h/phot-trung-quoc-an-do- South and Southeast Asia have had intensive historical, political, tang-hop-tac-dau-khi-voi-vn-3040767 economic, social and cultural interfaces and relations from Government Office, “Thủ tướng tiếp khách quốc tế ngày 21/4” [Prime Minister ancient times. Goods, ideas, religions and cultures moved across receive guest on 21 April], 21 April 2014, accessed at nations in Asia, and India has had strong cultural influence upon http://vpcp.chinhphu.vn/Home/Thu-tuong-tiep-khach-quoc-te-ngay- Southeast Asia. Indeed, prior to the popularization of the term 214/20174/21493.vgp “Southeast Asia”, the region was often referred to as “Greater Tran Nam Tien (2016), India with Southeast Asia in the new international context, India”, reflecting the close ties between these two regions. The The Culture and Art Piblishing House, Ho Chi Minh City, p.133. long and deep historical relations can be traced in: Vietnam Embassy in Hungary, Vietnam India Relations keep on growing, (http://www.vietnamembassy-hungary.org). Large-scale migrant people from the Indian Secretart Preeti Saran's interview with Vietnam News Agency, Vietnam greatly subcontinent settled down in Southeast Asia such as values relations with India, 2 April, 2017, http://english.vov.vn/politics/india- Singapore, Malaysia, and Indonesia; geographical greatly-values-relations-with-vietnam-342775.vov proximity between the two regions facilitated the spread of Indian culture and religion; certain Indian elements, such as Sanskrit language, the Hindu-Buddhist cults, and Indian-style royalty were essential features of early states of Southeast Asia; historic and cultural exchanges over several centuries have shaped a distinct identity in Asia; in the 13th century, the Silk Road facilitated vibrant flows of goods, services, people, capital, information and knowledge across Asia; and in the 19th century, western powers introduced new industrial technologies and helped expand Asia's trade opportunities.1 The early exchanges between India and Vietnam took place peacefully through trading on the sea. Lured by the attraction of Suvarnnabhumi and spices in Southeast Asia, many Indian traders sailed to sea with monks on board to offer prayers in case of natural disasters. They usually brought along statues of Dipamkara, the Boddhisa Uva Avalokitecvara, famed for

236 237 Huynh Thanh Loan India-ASEAN Relationship: With Special S.D. Pradhan (2014), Chinese expansionism continues unabated, The times of India, Reference to Vietnam 7 May2014. http://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/ChanakyaCode/chinese- expansionism-continues-unabated/ S. Manivasakan* and Rayeesunisa** Dipanjan Roy Chaudhury (2014), ONGC's presence in South China Sea: Beijing sets *Professor and Director, UGC up oil rig to reinforce its territorial claims, The Economic Times, Centre for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Madras, Chennai. h t t p : / / a r t i c l e s . e c o n o m i c t i m e s . i n d i a t i m e s . c o m / 2 0 1 4 - 0 5 - **Assistant Professor, Department of Commerce 07/news/49689745_1_petrovietnam-oil-blocks-south-china-sea Justice Basheer Ahmed Sayeed College for Women, Chennai Minh Thái (2014) (tổng hợp), Phớt lờ Trung Quốc, Ấn Độ tăng hợp tác dầu khí với Việt Nam [Ignoring China, India continues cooperating with Vietnam], Báo điện tử Đất Việt. http://baodatviet.vn/the-gioi/tin-tuc-24h/phot-trung-quoc-an-do- South and Southeast Asia have had intensive historical, political, tang-hop-tac-dau-khi-voi-vn-3040767 economic, social and cultural interfaces and relations from Government Office, “Thủ tướng tiếp khách quốc tế ngày 21/4” [Prime Minister ancient times. Goods, ideas, religions and cultures moved across receive guest on 21 April], 21 April 2014, accessed at nations in Asia, and India has had strong cultural influence upon http://vpcp.chinhphu.vn/Home/Thu-tuong-tiep-khach-quoc-te-ngay- Southeast Asia. Indeed, prior to the popularization of the term 214/20174/21493.vgp “Southeast Asia”, the region was often referred to as “Greater Tran Nam Tien (2016), India with Southeast Asia in the new international context, India”, reflecting the close ties between these two regions. The The Culture and Art Piblishing House, Ho Chi Minh City, p.133. long and deep historical relations can be traced in: Vietnam Embassy in Hungary, Vietnam India Relations keep on growing, (http://www.vietnamembassy-hungary.org). Large-scale migrant people from the Indian Secretart Preeti Saran's interview with Vietnam News Agency, Vietnam greatly subcontinent settled down in Southeast Asia such as values relations with India, 2 April, 2017, http://english.vov.vn/politics/india- Singapore, Malaysia, and Indonesia; geographical greatly-values-relations-with-vietnam-342775.vov proximity between the two regions facilitated the spread of Indian culture and religion; certain Indian elements, such as Sanskrit language, the Hindu-Buddhist cults, and Indian-style royalty were essential features of early states of Southeast Asia; historic and cultural exchanges over several centuries have shaped a distinct identity in Asia; in the 13th century, the Silk Road facilitated vibrant flows of goods, services, people, capital, information and knowledge across Asia; and in the 19th century, western powers introduced new industrial technologies and helped expand Asia's trade opportunities.1 The early exchanges between India and Vietnam took place peacefully through trading on the sea. Lured by the attraction of Suvarnnabhumi and spices in Southeast Asia, many Indian traders sailed to sea with monks on board to offer prayers in case of natural disasters. They usually brought along statues of Dipamkara, the Boddhisa Uva Avalokitecvara, famed for

236 237 S. Manivasakan and Rayeesunisa India-ASEAN Relationship: With Special Reference to Vietnam merciful rescues, a Bodhisattva, worthy of note of the Mahayana investment since 1993. In 2003, both nations promulgated a Joint and Pure land teachings. Indian monks during the first few Declaration on Comprehensive Cooperation, when the General centuries could have come to Vietnam from Middle India on land Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam Mr. Nong Duc through Three Pagodas Pass to come to Menam Chao Phaya Manh visited India.3 delta, cross the Mekong into Lao PDR and then climb the Truong In 2007, a fresh joint declaration was issued during the state visit Son mountains into the provinces of Thanh Hoa, Nghe An and of the Prime Minister of Vietnam Mr. Nguyen Tan Dung. Bilateral Hue. As such, since the beginning, Indian culture had spread trade has increased rapidly since the liberalisation of the peacefully to Vietnam through three branches - Zen, Pure land economies of both Vietnam and India. India is the 13th largest and Tantrism. A mentality of peace and friendship is the crucial exporter to Vietnam, with exports growing steadily from US$ 11.5 basis in cultural exchanges to achieve the desired cultural 2 million in 1985-86 to US$ 395.68 million by 2003. Vietnam's diversity seen in Vietnam's history. exports to India rose to US$ 180 million, including agricultural In different periods of history, the relations between the two products, handicrafts, textiles, electronics and other goods. countries have got different characteristics and levels. The Between 2001 and 2006, the volume of bilateral trade expanded at relations between India and Vietnam in the modern time began in 20-30 per cent per annum to reach US$ 1 billion by 2006. 1927, when President Ho Chi Minh and Prime Minister Continuing the rapid pace of growth, bilateral trade is expected to Jawaharlal Nehru met each other in The League against rise to US$ 2 billion by 2008, two years ahead of the official target. Imperialism Conference in the Egmont Palace in Brussels, India and Vietnam have also expanded cooperation in Belgium, on February 10, 1927, in the presence of 175 delegates, information technology, education and collaboration of the along which 107 came from thirty seven countries under colonial respective national space programmes. Direct air-links and lax rule. After Dien Bien Phu Victory, the first foreign leader who visa regulations have been established to bolster tourism.4 came to Vietnam within a few weeks to congratulate and support One of the most important expectations of our partnership is was Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. Throughout the time business to business relationships. During Vietnamese President Vietnam struggled for independence, it was India who Truong Tan Sang's official visit to India in October 2011, leaders of continually supported both in spirit and material for Vietnam. the two countries reemphasised economic and trade cooperation When Vietnam had a close door policy, it was India who was the are the core of the bilateral cooperation, and that the two countries door for Vietnam to English speaking world. will try to increase bilateral trade. Thus, the two sides always In 2007, India and Vietnam signed the 'Strategic Partnership' hope for the most favourable conditions to have more Indian Agreement, which was very important, with the aim of taking our companies invest in Vietnam, as well as encourage Vietnamese relationship to higher level than before. To date, Vietnam and companies look for business opportunities in India. Many Indian India have strongly cooperated in many fields of politics, national companies have established representative offices in Vietnam, in defense, security, trade and investment, culture, education and various sectors, including agriculture, rubber, coffee, cashew nut, capacity building. India granted the “Most Favoured Nation” carbon black and etc. India also has a US$ 5 billion steel plant status to Vietnam in 1975 and both nations signed a bilateral trade project by Tata Steel in the province of Can Tho.5 agreement in 1978 and the Bilateral Investment Promotion and In the year of friendship 2012, the Vietnam India Business Forum Protection Agreement (BIPPA) on March 8, 1997. The Indo- was set-up by Vietnam Chamber of Commerce and Industry Vietnam Joint Business Council has worked to promote trade and (VCCI), the Indian Embassy and Indian Chambers of Commerce

238 239 S. Manivasakan and Rayeesunisa India-ASEAN Relationship: With Special Reference to Vietnam merciful rescues, a Bodhisattva, worthy of note of the Mahayana investment since 1993. In 2003, both nations promulgated a Joint and Pure land teachings. Indian monks during the first few Declaration on Comprehensive Cooperation, when the General centuries could have come to Vietnam from Middle India on land Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam Mr. Nong Duc through Three Pagodas Pass to come to Menam Chao Phaya Manh visited India.3 delta, cross the Mekong into Lao PDR and then climb the Truong In 2007, a fresh joint declaration was issued during the state visit Son mountains into the provinces of Thanh Hoa, Nghe An and of the Prime Minister of Vietnam Mr. Nguyen Tan Dung. Bilateral Hue. As such, since the beginning, Indian culture had spread trade has increased rapidly since the liberalisation of the peacefully to Vietnam through three branches - Zen, Pure land economies of both Vietnam and India. India is the 13th largest and Tantrism. A mentality of peace and friendship is the crucial exporter to Vietnam, with exports growing steadily from US$ 11.5 basis in cultural exchanges to achieve the desired cultural 2 million in 1985-86 to US$ 395.68 million by 2003. Vietnam's diversity seen in Vietnam's history. exports to India rose to US$ 180 million, including agricultural In different periods of history, the relations between the two products, handicrafts, textiles, electronics and other goods. countries have got different characteristics and levels. The Between 2001 and 2006, the volume of bilateral trade expanded at relations between India and Vietnam in the modern time began in 20-30 per cent per annum to reach US$ 1 billion by 2006. 1927, when President Ho Chi Minh and Prime Minister Continuing the rapid pace of growth, bilateral trade is expected to Jawaharlal Nehru met each other in The League against rise to US$ 2 billion by 2008, two years ahead of the official target. Imperialism Conference in the Egmont Palace in Brussels, India and Vietnam have also expanded cooperation in Belgium, on February 10, 1927, in the presence of 175 delegates, information technology, education and collaboration of the along which 107 came from thirty seven countries under colonial respective national space programmes. Direct air-links and lax rule. After Dien Bien Phu Victory, the first foreign leader who visa regulations have been established to bolster tourism.4 came to Vietnam within a few weeks to congratulate and support One of the most important expectations of our partnership is was Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. Throughout the time business to business relationships. During Vietnamese President Vietnam struggled for independence, it was India who Truong Tan Sang's official visit to India in October 2011, leaders of continually supported both in spirit and material for Vietnam. the two countries reemphasised economic and trade cooperation When Vietnam had a close door policy, it was India who was the are the core of the bilateral cooperation, and that the two countries door for Vietnam to English speaking world. will try to increase bilateral trade. Thus, the two sides always In 2007, India and Vietnam signed the 'Strategic Partnership' hope for the most favourable conditions to have more Indian Agreement, which was very important, with the aim of taking our companies invest in Vietnam, as well as encourage Vietnamese relationship to higher level than before. To date, Vietnam and companies look for business opportunities in India. Many Indian India have strongly cooperated in many fields of politics, national companies have established representative offices in Vietnam, in defense, security, trade and investment, culture, education and various sectors, including agriculture, rubber, coffee, cashew nut, capacity building. India granted the “Most Favoured Nation” carbon black and etc. India also has a US$ 5 billion steel plant status to Vietnam in 1975 and both nations signed a bilateral trade project by Tata Steel in the province of Can Tho.5 agreement in 1978 and the Bilateral Investment Promotion and In the year of friendship 2012, the Vietnam India Business Forum Protection Agreement (BIPPA) on March 8, 1997. The Indo- was set-up by Vietnam Chamber of Commerce and Industry Vietnam Joint Business Council has worked to promote trade and (VCCI), the Indian Embassy and Indian Chambers of Commerce

238 239 S. Manivasakan and Rayeesunisa India-ASEAN Relationship: With Special Reference to Vietnam in Vietnam, with the aim of creating an active mechanism for Asia becomes the engine for the growth of the global economy, further cooperation and enhancing the mutual prosperity, ASEAN and India must capitalize on their partnership through development and friendship. Also, it will be a bridge to exchange enhanced connectivity to reap the benefit. The key elements of general information for businesses and other concerned agencies ASEAN Connectivity include: on both sides. In terms of trade, the two-way trade turnover Physical connectivity; Transport: Information and reached US$ 4 billion in 2012 and is expected to hit US$ 7 billion by Communications Technology (ICT); Energy. 2015. Vietnam's economic policies have brought great opportunities to Indian investors in taking advantages of Institutional connectivity; Trade liberalization and developing markets of both Vietnam and ASEAN, and exporting facilitation; Investment and services; liberalisation and their goods to other countries. Both countries businesses should facilitation; Mutual recognition agreements / arrangements; actively exploit each other's market place given the great Regional transport agreements; Cross-border procedures; potential, especially when the ASEAN - India Free Trade Capacity building programmes. 6 Agreement come to effect. People-to-people connectivity; Education and Culture; Connectivity Tourism. Infrastructure plays an important role in promoting rapid Connectivity in ASEAN refers to the physical, institutional and economic growth and making this growth more inclusive by people-to-people linkages that comprise the foundational sharing the benefits of growth with poorer groups and support and facilitative mean to achieve the economic, political - communities, particularly in remote 'isolated areas' and small and security and socio cultural pillars towards realising the vision of landlocked countries. Infrastructure facilitates the access of the an integrated ASEAN Community. The concept of ASEAN poor to basic services and helps increase their income generating Connectivity is not only relevant but also critical to India and capacity. Physical connectivity through Cross-Border ASEAN India Partnership. With the geographical proximity, the Infrastructure (CBI) development is crucial for enhanced regional physical infrastructure linkages land, maritime, air, information cooperation and economic integration. Broadly defined, and communication Technology (ICT), energy - are crucial, and infrastructure can be categorized into hard and soft they need to be supported by the peoples' interaction to sustain infrastructure. The former refers to physical structures or facilities and substance comprehensive ASEAN India partnership.8 that support the society and economy, such as transport, energy, Road Connectivity telecommunications, and basic utilities. The latter refers to non- tangible aspects supporting the development and operation of There has been a series of initiatives to support the realization of hard infrastructure, such as policy, regulatory, governance, improved land connectivity between South Asia and Southeast institutional frameworks and mechanisms. Cross - border or Asia. They are the India Myanmar - Thailand Trilateral Highway regional infrastructure may be defined as infrastructure that Project, the Mekong - India Economic Corridor (MIEC), the connects two or more countries, as well as national infrastructure Kaladan Multimodal Transit Transport Project, and the Delhi - that has a significant cross-border impact. Therefore, a large Hanoi Railway Link. The corridors defined below are consistent portion of national infrastructure, such as airports, ports, roads, with these initiatives. On the South Asia side all corridors and railways, can be considered as CBI and is the building block originate from the Gulf of Bengal ports, Kolkata and Chittagong. 7 On the Southeast Asia side, road corridors typically follow for cross - border or regional connectivity. existing Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) corridors with the

240 241 S. Manivasakan and Rayeesunisa India-ASEAN Relationship: With Special Reference to Vietnam in Vietnam, with the aim of creating an active mechanism for Asia becomes the engine for the growth of the global economy, further cooperation and enhancing the mutual prosperity, ASEAN and India must capitalize on their partnership through development and friendship. Also, it will be a bridge to exchange enhanced connectivity to reap the benefit. The key elements of general information for businesses and other concerned agencies ASEAN Connectivity include: on both sides. In terms of trade, the two-way trade turnover Physical connectivity; Transport: Information and reached US$ 4 billion in 2012 and is expected to hit US$ 7 billion by Communications Technology (ICT); Energy. 2015. Vietnam's economic policies have brought great opportunities to Indian investors in taking advantages of Institutional connectivity; Trade liberalization and developing markets of both Vietnam and ASEAN, and exporting facilitation; Investment and services; liberalisation and their goods to other countries. Both countries businesses should facilitation; Mutual recognition agreements / arrangements; actively exploit each other's market place given the great Regional transport agreements; Cross-border procedures; potential, especially when the ASEAN - India Free Trade Capacity building programmes. 6 Agreement come to effect. People-to-people connectivity; Education and Culture; Connectivity Tourism. Infrastructure plays an important role in promoting rapid Connectivity in ASEAN refers to the physical, institutional and economic growth and making this growth more inclusive by people-to-people linkages that comprise the foundational sharing the benefits of growth with poorer groups and support and facilitative mean to achieve the economic, political - communities, particularly in remote 'isolated areas' and small and security and socio cultural pillars towards realising the vision of landlocked countries. Infrastructure facilitates the access of the an integrated ASEAN Community. The concept of ASEAN poor to basic services and helps increase their income generating Connectivity is not only relevant but also critical to India and capacity. Physical connectivity through Cross-Border ASEAN India Partnership. With the geographical proximity, the Infrastructure (CBI) development is crucial for enhanced regional physical infrastructure linkages land, maritime, air, information cooperation and economic integration. Broadly defined, and communication Technology (ICT), energy - are crucial, and infrastructure can be categorized into hard and soft they need to be supported by the peoples' interaction to sustain infrastructure. The former refers to physical structures or facilities and substance comprehensive ASEAN India partnership.8 that support the society and economy, such as transport, energy, Road Connectivity telecommunications, and basic utilities. The latter refers to non- tangible aspects supporting the development and operation of There has been a series of initiatives to support the realization of hard infrastructure, such as policy, regulatory, governance, improved land connectivity between South Asia and Southeast institutional frameworks and mechanisms. Cross - border or Asia. They are the India Myanmar - Thailand Trilateral Highway regional infrastructure may be defined as infrastructure that Project, the Mekong - India Economic Corridor (MIEC), the connects two or more countries, as well as national infrastructure Kaladan Multimodal Transit Transport Project, and the Delhi - that has a significant cross-border impact. Therefore, a large Hanoi Railway Link. The corridors defined below are consistent portion of national infrastructure, such as airports, ports, roads, with these initiatives. On the South Asia side all corridors and railways, can be considered as CBI and is the building block originate from the Gulf of Bengal ports, Kolkata and Chittagong. 7 On the Southeast Asia side, road corridors typically follow for cross - border or regional connectivity. existing Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) corridors with the

240 241 S. Manivasakan and Rayeesunisa India-ASEAN Relationship: With Special Reference to Vietnam eastern gateway port in the Mekong Delta being Ho Chi Minh City - Vung Tau (Vietnam) or Bangkok - Siem Reap City (HCMC) or Saigon Port, though Danang and Haiphong are (Cambodia) - Sung Treng (Cambodia) - Quy Nhon (Vietnam); also gateway ports that are included. As mentioned before, road and corridors leading to South Asia will be GMS corridors. Western Corridor: Border of Myanmar and India Traditionally Saigon Port / Ho Chi Minh City have been the (Tamu)Naypyitaw (Myanmar) -Mawlamyine (Myanmar). gateway port, Road corridors originating from the port leading to South Asia are easy to choose. The choice of optimal routing is, The India-sponsored multimodal Kaladan project was mentioned however, more difficult if, in addition to Saigon Port, Haiphong is before under the South Asia corridors, and its counterpart road added as a gateway port. section in Myanmar. There are two possible routes to connect Ho

9 Chi Minh City / Saigon Port to Dawei in Myanmar. The first and The nine GMS road corridors are the following: more common is the GMS South Coastal Corridor through Northern Corridor: Border of Myanmar and India (Tamu) - Phnom Penh and Bangkok, with the second one being through the Kunming (Yunnan Province, PRC) - Nanning, Fancheng Mekong Delta along the GMS South Coastal Corridor. The (Guangxi, PRC); development of a deep sea port in Dawei with an adjacent special NorthSouth Corridor: Kunming - Tachilek (Myanmar) economic zone is presented as the key element to foster trade Chiang Rai (Thailand) - Bangkok (Thailand) or Kunming - between Chennai Port and Southeast Asia and this is viewed as a 13 Boten (Lao People's Democratic Republic [Lao PDR]) - promising maritime corridor. Chiang Khong (Thailand) - Chiang Rai (Thailand) - Bangkok; The Hanoi / HaiphongIndia corridors as mentioned by Indian Eastern Corridor: Kunming - Hanoi - Ho Chi Minh City- Ca and Myanmar authorities are two options which could be Mau (Viet Nam) or Nanning - Hanoi or Fangcheng considered, through Luang Prabang and Vinh or through Dien Haiphong - Hanoi; Bien Phu. Both routes would be convoluted and major road rehabilitation and construction of missing links would be needed Northeastern Corridor: Bangkok - Luang Phrabang (Lao along the corridors and especially in Lao PDR. The option PDR) - Than Hoa (Viet Nam); through Dien Bien Phu is the one preferred by GMS Central Corridor: Sattahip / Laem Chabang (Thailand) - administration. This is confirmed by the updating and Vientiane (Lao PDR) - Boten (Lao PDR) or Sihanoukville Enhancement of the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral (Cambodia) - Phnom Penh (Cambodia) - Pakse (Lao PDR) - Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) Transport Vientiane (Lao PDR) - Boten (Lao PDR); infrastructure and logistics study, Myanmar section. East West EastWest Corridor: Mawlamyine (Myanmar, Adaman Sea) - Economic Corridor (EWEC) has not reached the expected Khon Kaen (Thailand) - Mukdahan (Thailand) - Savannakhet potential. There are many reasons for this with the most obvious (Lao PDR) - Dong Ha (Vietnam) - Danang (Viet Nam); being the fact that Danang Port still remains a small port compared to Saigon and Haiphong. 10 Southern Coastal Corridor: Bangkok - Trat (Thailand) - Sihanoukville (Cambodia) - Ha Tien (Vietnam) - Nam Cam Rail Connectivity (Vietnam); Railway operations are facing a series of serious challenges both in South Asia and Southeast Asia: decreasing freight and Southern Corridor: Dawei (Myanmar, Adaman Sea) passenger traffic, poorly maintained rail tracks, rolling stock Bangkok - Phnom Penh - Bavet (Cambodia) - Ho Chi Minh

242 243 S. Manivasakan and Rayeesunisa India-ASEAN Relationship: With Special Reference to Vietnam eastern gateway port in the Mekong Delta being Ho Chi Minh City - Vung Tau (Vietnam) or Bangkok - Siem Reap City (HCMC) or Saigon Port, though Danang and Haiphong are (Cambodia) - Sung Treng (Cambodia) - Quy Nhon (Vietnam); also gateway ports that are included. As mentioned before, road and corridors leading to South Asia will be GMS corridors. Western Corridor: Border of Myanmar and India Traditionally Saigon Port / Ho Chi Minh City have been the (Tamu)Naypyitaw (Myanmar) -Mawlamyine (Myanmar). gateway port, Road corridors originating from the port leading to South Asia are easy to choose. The choice of optimal routing is, The India-sponsored multimodal Kaladan project was mentioned however, more difficult if, in addition to Saigon Port, Haiphong is before under the South Asia corridors, and its counterpart road added as a gateway port. section in Myanmar. There are two possible routes to connect Ho

9 Chi Minh City / Saigon Port to Dawei in Myanmar. The first and The nine GMS road corridors are the following: more common is the GMS South Coastal Corridor through Northern Corridor: Border of Myanmar and India (Tamu) - Phnom Penh and Bangkok, with the second one being through the Kunming (Yunnan Province, PRC) - Nanning, Fancheng Mekong Delta along the GMS South Coastal Corridor. The (Guangxi, PRC); development of a deep sea port in Dawei with an adjacent special NorthSouth Corridor: Kunming - Tachilek (Myanmar) economic zone is presented as the key element to foster trade Chiang Rai (Thailand) - Bangkok (Thailand) or Kunming - between Chennai Port and Southeast Asia and this is viewed as a 13 Boten (Lao People's Democratic Republic [Lao PDR]) - promising maritime corridor. Chiang Khong (Thailand) - Chiang Rai (Thailand) - Bangkok; The Hanoi / HaiphongIndia corridors as mentioned by Indian Eastern Corridor: Kunming - Hanoi - Ho Chi Minh City- Ca and Myanmar authorities are two options which could be Mau (Viet Nam) or Nanning - Hanoi or Fangcheng considered, through Luang Prabang and Vinh or through Dien Haiphong - Hanoi; Bien Phu. Both routes would be convoluted and major road rehabilitation and construction of missing links would be needed Northeastern Corridor: Bangkok - Luang Phrabang (Lao along the corridors and especially in Lao PDR. The option PDR) - Than Hoa (Viet Nam); through Dien Bien Phu is the one preferred by GMS Central Corridor: Sattahip / Laem Chabang (Thailand) - administration. This is confirmed by the updating and Vientiane (Lao PDR) - Boten (Lao PDR) or Sihanoukville Enhancement of the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral (Cambodia) - Phnom Penh (Cambodia) - Pakse (Lao PDR) - Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) Transport Vientiane (Lao PDR) - Boten (Lao PDR); infrastructure and logistics study, Myanmar section. East West EastWest Corridor: Mawlamyine (Myanmar, Adaman Sea) - Economic Corridor (EWEC) has not reached the expected Khon Kaen (Thailand) - Mukdahan (Thailand) - Savannakhet potential. There are many reasons for this with the most obvious (Lao PDR) - Dong Ha (Vietnam) - Danang (Viet Nam); being the fact that Danang Port still remains a small port compared to Saigon and Haiphong. 10 Southern Coastal Corridor: Bangkok - Trat (Thailand) - Sihanoukville (Cambodia) - Ha Tien (Vietnam) - Nam Cam Rail Connectivity (Vietnam); Railway operations are facing a series of serious challenges both in South Asia and Southeast Asia: decreasing freight and Southern Corridor: Dawei (Myanmar, Adaman Sea) passenger traffic, poorly maintained rail tracks, rolling stock Bangkok - Phnom Penh - Bavet (Cambodia) - Ho Chi Minh

242 243 S. Manivasakan and Rayeesunisa India-ASEAN Relationship: With Special Reference to Vietnam needing replacement, and chronic budget deficits taxing scarce From the South Asia Southeast Asia connectivity perspective government resources. The situations for rail corridors are quite only, alternatives 1 and 3 are attractive and have inspired the different from that of road corridors. Firstly, there is currently no design of corridors. A total of five possible rail corridors offering rail connectivity between South and Southeast Asia. Secondly, links with South Asia are outlined. To reach South Asia from there is also not yet connectivity within the GMS and only limited Haiphong, three corridors were reviewed: a) through Vientiane, connectivity within South Asia. There are, however, plans to b) through Savannakhet, and c) through Yunnan. The construct missing links within the GMS and South Asia and also Savannakhet option is the longest one and the Yunnan option is to connect the two regions. The rail corridors described below are more than one thousand kilometer shorter than any route based on these plans. It should be noted that providing full rail through Lao PDR and Thailand. (There are two possible links connectivity would be very costly and no reliable time schedule between Thailand and Myanmar, one through the three Pagodas for implementation are available as yet. International and a shorter route to Dawei Port). development partners have studied the sustainability persist. Finally, which road and rail corridors should be retained in order ASEAN and GMS are optimistically talking of 2017 for the to evaluate and prioritize the transport cross-border investments. completion of the Singapore Kunming Rail Line (SKRL), which First connecting South Asia to Haiphong in Vietnam through would have a direct impact on future South Asia - Southeast Asia 11 Yunnan presents attractive advantages. The railway rail connectivity. infrastructure in Yunnan is either complete or under completion. India's “Look East” policy was to reach dynamic Southeast Asia Therefore building the missing link, Lashio - Ruili, from ports, namely Bangkok / Laem Chabang, Ho Chi Minh City, and Myanmar to Yunnan presents clear advantages. South Asia - PRC Hanoi (Haiphong). Asian Development Bank (ADB) reviewed connectivity, and therefore this corridor has less importance even the alternatives under the SKRL and proposed four alternatives: 12 if the Lashio - Ruili missing link in Myanmar is constructed before the other missing links. Also, providing that Dawei becomes a Alternative - 1 (CambodiaVietnam corridor): this was the reality, building a rail connection to the future port could be route considered and selected originally by ASEAN, considered. This connection would be cheaper and easier to requiring connection from Phnom Penh to Loc Ninth construct than the three Pagodas rail link between Thailand and (Vietnam) and then to Ho Chi Minh City. The overall updated Myanmar, and could in fact be considered as a suitable cost of constructing the two missing links was estimated at alternative.13 $1.1 billion. All corridors over time can become seamless transport corridors. Alternative - 2 (Yunnan - Lao PDR corridor): this is the PRC However, to make them effective and efficient requires a vast proposal to connect Yunnan to Vientiane. ADB (2010) series of road and railroad improvements at a cost of several estimates a cost of $5.3 billion, with the current figure quoted billion dollars. In this context, it is important to prioritize the by Lao PDR being 7 billion. corridors in order to channel financial resources in an optimum Alternative - 3 (Vientiane - Vung Ang [Vietnam] corridor): this way. Prioritization uses a set of criteria based on cost and benefit would be along alignment of RN 8 in Lao PDR with the concepts. The net transport cost of a twenty - foot container (or a estimated cost being $ 2.3 billion. fifteen - ton loaded truck) would be the ideal cost criterion. The 14 Alternative - 4 (North ThailandLao PDRYunnan corridor): following criteria can be used as proxies for cost: this would need extensive new rail construction with an estimated cost of $ 6.3 billion.

244 245 S. Manivasakan and Rayeesunisa India-ASEAN Relationship: With Special Reference to Vietnam needing replacement, and chronic budget deficits taxing scarce From the South Asia Southeast Asia connectivity perspective government resources. The situations for rail corridors are quite only, alternatives 1 and 3 are attractive and have inspired the different from that of road corridors. Firstly, there is currently no design of corridors. A total of five possible rail corridors offering rail connectivity between South and Southeast Asia. Secondly, links with South Asia are outlined. To reach South Asia from there is also not yet connectivity within the GMS and only limited Haiphong, three corridors were reviewed: a) through Vientiane, connectivity within South Asia. There are, however, plans to b) through Savannakhet, and c) through Yunnan. The construct missing links within the GMS and South Asia and also Savannakhet option is the longest one and the Yunnan option is to connect the two regions. The rail corridors described below are more than one thousand kilometer shorter than any route based on these plans. It should be noted that providing full rail through Lao PDR and Thailand. (There are two possible links connectivity would be very costly and no reliable time schedule between Thailand and Myanmar, one through the three Pagodas for implementation are available as yet. International and a shorter route to Dawei Port). development partners have studied the sustainability persist. Finally, which road and rail corridors should be retained in order ASEAN and GMS are optimistically talking of 2017 for the to evaluate and prioritize the transport cross-border investments. completion of the Singapore Kunming Rail Line (SKRL), which First connecting South Asia to Haiphong in Vietnam through would have a direct impact on future South Asia - Southeast Asia 11 Yunnan presents attractive advantages. The railway rail connectivity. infrastructure in Yunnan is either complete or under completion. India's “Look East” policy was to reach dynamic Southeast Asia Therefore building the missing link, Lashio - Ruili, from ports, namely Bangkok / Laem Chabang, Ho Chi Minh City, and Myanmar to Yunnan presents clear advantages. South Asia - PRC Hanoi (Haiphong). Asian Development Bank (ADB) reviewed connectivity, and therefore this corridor has less importance even the alternatives under the SKRL and proposed four alternatives: 12 if the Lashio - Ruili missing link in Myanmar is constructed before the other missing links. Also, providing that Dawei becomes a Alternative - 1 (CambodiaVietnam corridor): this was the reality, building a rail connection to the future port could be route considered and selected originally by ASEAN, considered. This connection would be cheaper and easier to requiring connection from Phnom Penh to Loc Ninth construct than the three Pagodas rail link between Thailand and (Vietnam) and then to Ho Chi Minh City. The overall updated Myanmar, and could in fact be considered as a suitable cost of constructing the two missing links was estimated at alternative.13 $1.1 billion. All corridors over time can become seamless transport corridors. Alternative - 2 (Yunnan - Lao PDR corridor): this is the PRC However, to make them effective and efficient requires a vast proposal to connect Yunnan to Vientiane. ADB (2010) series of road and railroad improvements at a cost of several estimates a cost of $5.3 billion, with the current figure quoted billion dollars. In this context, it is important to prioritize the by Lao PDR being 7 billion. corridors in order to channel financial resources in an optimum Alternative - 3 (Vientiane - Vung Ang [Vietnam] corridor): this way. Prioritization uses a set of criteria based on cost and benefit would be along alignment of RN 8 in Lao PDR with the concepts. The net transport cost of a twenty - foot container (or a estimated cost being $ 2.3 billion. fifteen - ton loaded truck) would be the ideal cost criterion. The 14 Alternative - 4 (North ThailandLao PDRYunnan corridor): following criteria can be used as proxies for cost: this would need extensive new rail construction with an estimated cost of $ 6.3 billion.

244 245 S. Manivasakan and Rayeesunisa India-ASEAN Relationship: With Special Reference to Vietnam

The total distance (in km) from gateway port to gateway port, cent) were engaged in coastal trade and the remaining 349 vessels since fuel consumption and delivery time vary with distance with 9.43 million GT in overseas trade. Thus, the tonnage for The number of Border Crossing Points (BCPs) crossed, since overseas trade is ninety percent of India's GT, compared to only these impose delays, costs, and often transshipments ten percent of the tonnage used for the coastal trade. The Indian shipping tonnage was stagnant between six and seven million GT The overall quality of road infrastructure, as poor or till June 2004, but later increased to 10.45 million GT in March congested roads increase vehicle operating costs 2011. India's GT of ships with selected Southeast and East Asian The level of security, as this has an impact on transport costs countries majority of the Indian tonnage was carried by the (due to delays, the need to travel in convoys, and the risk of Shipping Corporation of India (SCI) with a share of 33.3 per cent high jacking) and benefits (missed trade opportunities). This (3.15 million GT with 83 ships).16 refers to the presence of insurgency in Northeast Indian states The structural gap in terms of maritime and shipping and in Myanmar infrastructure is quite visible within ASEAN as well as between The volume of resettlement and land acquisition problems, as India and Vietnam. Within ASEAN, the Cambodia, Lao's, these affect construction costs and cause delays in Myanmar and Vietnam (CLMV) countries rank far behind the implementation other tonnage (See Table). Predominant ports in ASEAN are The overall cost of road improvements, as this reflects the located in the developing parts of ASEAN and have been growing importance of budget constraints. faster than those located in CLMV or Mekong Sub region. The total improvement cost is the sum of all the costs of the In containerised cargo segment, out of world's top twenty five required projects along the corridor. For quantitative estimates, ports, seven ports come from ASEAN and one from India, among scores were assigned according to statistical distribution around which Vietnam with 5.19 million TwTEU's in 2012 occupies 17th the mean value. For non-quantitative criteria, scores are the position in the world. Whereas India's Jawaharlal Nehru Port author's estimates based on information from ADB reports and with 4.26 million TEU's ranks 21st in the world. recent BIMSTEC reports. Maritime Profile of India and Vietnam Container port traffic Maritime Connectivity Coastline Number of Number of Gross Tonnage Country 2011 [Million Twenty Shipping plays an important role in transport sector of India and (Km) Seaports Container ports of shipping,2010 equivalent units (TEUs)] ASEAN. Most of the merchandise trade by volume is moved by sea. India has one of the largest merchant fleets in the developing Vietnam 3444 15 6 6.32 579 world and in terms of gross tonnage under the flag, the country India 7517 212 16 9.98 340 occupies 16th rank in the world. Indian maritime sector facilitates Source: Based on ASEAN Secretariat Statistics, available at http:/ www.asean.org/resources not only transportation of national and international goods, but category/asean-statistics (2014).ASEAN India maritime connectivity Report.p-37 also offers a variety of the other services such as cargo handling, India has signed a bilateral agreement with Vietnam to provide shipbuilding and ship repairing, freight forwarding, light-house the latter with weaponry and military training. Growing defence facilities and training of naval staff.15 links between India and Vietnam have witnessed an agreement India had fleet of 1071 ships with 10.45 million GT as on March signed by both countries for Vietnam to train Indian troops in 2011. Of these, 722 ships (67 per cent) with 1.02 million GT (9.8 per

246 247 S. Manivasakan and Rayeesunisa India-ASEAN Relationship: With Special Reference to Vietnam

The total distance (in km) from gateway port to gateway port, cent) were engaged in coastal trade and the remaining 349 vessels since fuel consumption and delivery time vary with distance with 9.43 million GT in overseas trade. Thus, the tonnage for The number of Border Crossing Points (BCPs) crossed, since overseas trade is ninety percent of India's GT, compared to only these impose delays, costs, and often transshipments ten percent of the tonnage used for the coastal trade. The Indian shipping tonnage was stagnant between six and seven million GT The overall quality of road infrastructure, as poor or till June 2004, but later increased to 10.45 million GT in March congested roads increase vehicle operating costs 2011. India's GT of ships with selected Southeast and East Asian The level of security, as this has an impact on transport costs countries majority of the Indian tonnage was carried by the (due to delays, the need to travel in convoys, and the risk of Shipping Corporation of India (SCI) with a share of 33.3 per cent high jacking) and benefits (missed trade opportunities). This (3.15 million GT with 83 ships).16 refers to the presence of insurgency in Northeast Indian states The structural gap in terms of maritime and shipping and in Myanmar infrastructure is quite visible within ASEAN as well as between The volume of resettlement and land acquisition problems, as India and Vietnam. Within ASEAN, the Cambodia, Lao's, these affect construction costs and cause delays in Myanmar and Vietnam (CLMV) countries rank far behind the implementation other tonnage (See Table). Predominant ports in ASEAN are The overall cost of road improvements, as this reflects the located in the developing parts of ASEAN and have been growing importance of budget constraints. faster than those located in CLMV or Mekong Sub region. The total improvement cost is the sum of all the costs of the In containerised cargo segment, out of world's top twenty five required projects along the corridor. For quantitative estimates, ports, seven ports come from ASEAN and one from India, among scores were assigned according to statistical distribution around which Vietnam with 5.19 million TwTEU's in 2012 occupies 17th the mean value. For non-quantitative criteria, scores are the position in the world. Whereas India's Jawaharlal Nehru Port author's estimates based on information from ADB reports and with 4.26 million TEU's ranks 21st in the world. recent BIMSTEC reports. Maritime Profile of India and Vietnam Container port traffic Maritime Connectivity Coastline Number of Number of Gross Tonnage Country 2011 [Million Twenty Shipping plays an important role in transport sector of India and (Km) Seaports Container ports of shipping,2010 equivalent units (TEUs)] ASEAN. Most of the merchandise trade by volume is moved by sea. India has one of the largest merchant fleets in the developing Vietnam 3444 15 6 6.32 579 world and in terms of gross tonnage under the flag, the country India 7517 212 16 9.98 340 occupies 16th rank in the world. Indian maritime sector facilitates Source: Based on ASEAN Secretariat Statistics, available at http:/ www.asean.org/resources not only transportation of national and international goods, but category/asean-statistics (2014).ASEAN India maritime connectivity Report.p-37 also offers a variety of the other services such as cargo handling, India has signed a bilateral agreement with Vietnam to provide shipbuilding and ship repairing, freight forwarding, light-house the latter with weaponry and military training. Growing defence facilities and training of naval staff.15 links between India and Vietnam have witnessed an agreement India had fleet of 1071 ships with 10.45 million GT as on March signed by both countries for Vietnam to train Indian troops in 2011. Of these, 722 ships (67 per cent) with 1.02 million GT (9.8 per

246 247 S. Manivasakan and Rayeesunisa India-ASEAN Relationship: With Special Reference to Vietnam jungle warfare and counter-insurgency operations. “This and harnessing the film world, print and digital media and the agreement was reached during the visit of former Indian External private sector.18 Affairs Minister George Fernandes to Vietnam in March 2000. In Cultural and economic links between India and Vietnam date return, India is to repair and overhaul MIG aircrafts belonging to back 2000 years ago. The Indic Champa Kingdom had a profound the Vietnamese air force, train its pilots, and assist Vietnam to impact on Vietnamese art and architecture even now. Many other establish its defence industry to manufacture weapons. In similarities may be recounted as proof of the cultural exchange addition, Vietnamese naval officers are also to receive training at between India and Vietnam that has taken place in an atmosphere the National Defence College in India and at the army's of peace and have helped diversify Vietnamese culture. These Pachmarhi language training facility”. India also stands ready to similarities can stem from the sacred - the core of all religions and supply Vietnam with Petia - Class boats for its navy for promoting 17 faiths - in life. The sacred speaks of the relationship, on the one maritime economy. hand among people, individuals and the community with People to People Connectivity supernatural powers, and, on the other hand, between people, People to people links provide enormous opportunities for peace individuals and the community. It is the sacred that has linked and stability as well as deeper and broader economic integration. Indian and Vietnamese cultures and created the foundations for 19 People to people connectivity would ensure more commitment, relation between the two since the beginning. longevity and sincerity. Attention should be paid to Economic Cooperation contemporary socio - cultural linkages such as increasing direct The importance of economic cooperation has become a significant flights, introducing visa on arrival schemes, establishing South part of emerging consensus on recent development discourse as Asian studies and language programmes in ASEAN universities ASEAN and India have experienced economic growth and and Southeast Asian studies in Indian universities, opening achieved significant improvements in income equality, poverty Indian Cultural Centre's and encouraging academic exchanges, alleviation and other socio-economic goals. Implementation of business fairs and tourism. ASEAN and India need to speed up the ASEAN - India Free Trade Agreement (AIFTA) has received implementation of the aforesaid people to people driven positive response from the business community as indicated by initiatives. the significant increase of total between ASEAN and India. There Generation and development of contemporary ideas and further are many challenges in economic cooperation. There is no direct in depth work and action are required for India to gain a firm flight between Cambodia, Lao PDR, Vietnam (CLV) and India, footing in the Southeast Asian region and vice - versa. The more particularly between Lao PDR and India, resulting in high ideational interaction is one of the new frontiers for ASEAN - costs of transportation between India and Mekong sub region. India partnership, and should be driven by demands in the The high cost of trading, cumbersome customs procedure, market place (private and civil society), not just by the unfriendly rules of origin and several other trade protectionism government initiatives. Some avenues to explore the generation are the key barriers to Economic integration between Vietnam of ideas include utilisation of educational institutions of and India. A large number of Small and Medium Enterprise excellence targeting scientific and the technological needs; joint (SME's) in the region are not familiarised with tariff preferences. centers of excellence for development of political and economic The intensity of bilateral and multilateral cooperation on tourism, ideas emulation of successful institutions patterns and models; trade and banking system between India and ASEAN are still low, compared with potentials.20

248 249 S. Manivasakan and Rayeesunisa India-ASEAN Relationship: With Special Reference to Vietnam jungle warfare and counter-insurgency operations. “This and harnessing the film world, print and digital media and the agreement was reached during the visit of former Indian External private sector.18 Affairs Minister George Fernandes to Vietnam in March 2000. In Cultural and economic links between India and Vietnam date return, India is to repair and overhaul MIG aircrafts belonging to back 2000 years ago. The Indic Champa Kingdom had a profound the Vietnamese air force, train its pilots, and assist Vietnam to impact on Vietnamese art and architecture even now. Many other establish its defence industry to manufacture weapons. In similarities may be recounted as proof of the cultural exchange addition, Vietnamese naval officers are also to receive training at between India and Vietnam that has taken place in an atmosphere the National Defence College in India and at the army's of peace and have helped diversify Vietnamese culture. These Pachmarhi language training facility”. India also stands ready to similarities can stem from the sacred - the core of all religions and supply Vietnam with Petia - Class boats for its navy for promoting 17 faiths - in life. The sacred speaks of the relationship, on the one maritime economy. hand among people, individuals and the community with People to People Connectivity supernatural powers, and, on the other hand, between people, People to people links provide enormous opportunities for peace individuals and the community. It is the sacred that has linked and stability as well as deeper and broader economic integration. Indian and Vietnamese cultures and created the foundations for 19 People to people connectivity would ensure more commitment, relation between the two since the beginning. longevity and sincerity. Attention should be paid to Economic Cooperation contemporary socio - cultural linkages such as increasing direct The importance of economic cooperation has become a significant flights, introducing visa on arrival schemes, establishing South part of emerging consensus on recent development discourse as Asian studies and language programmes in ASEAN universities ASEAN and India have experienced economic growth and and Southeast Asian studies in Indian universities, opening achieved significant improvements in income equality, poverty Indian Cultural Centre's and encouraging academic exchanges, alleviation and other socio-economic goals. Implementation of business fairs and tourism. ASEAN and India need to speed up the ASEAN - India Free Trade Agreement (AIFTA) has received implementation of the aforesaid people to people driven positive response from the business community as indicated by initiatives. the significant increase of total between ASEAN and India. There Generation and development of contemporary ideas and further are many challenges in economic cooperation. There is no direct in depth work and action are required for India to gain a firm flight between Cambodia, Lao PDR, Vietnam (CLV) and India, footing in the Southeast Asian region and vice - versa. The more particularly between Lao PDR and India, resulting in high ideational interaction is one of the new frontiers for ASEAN - costs of transportation between India and Mekong sub region. India partnership, and should be driven by demands in the The high cost of trading, cumbersome customs procedure, market place (private and civil society), not just by the unfriendly rules of origin and several other trade protectionism government initiatives. Some avenues to explore the generation are the key barriers to Economic integration between Vietnam of ideas include utilisation of educational institutions of and India. A large number of Small and Medium Enterprise excellence targeting scientific and the technological needs; joint (SME's) in the region are not familiarised with tariff preferences. centers of excellence for development of political and economic The intensity of bilateral and multilateral cooperation on tourism, ideas emulation of successful institutions patterns and models; trade and banking system between India and ASEAN are still low, compared with potentials.20

248 249 S. Manivasakan and Rayeesunisa India-ASEAN Relationship: With Special Reference to Vietnam

India and Vietnam is member of the Mekong - Ganga in October 2011. And in 2013, Vice President Mohammad Hamid Cooperation, created to enhance close ties between India and Ansari's four-day official visit to Vietnam manifested vividly the nations of Southeast Asia. Vietnam has supported India's bid to cordial relationship between the two nations.23 become a permanent member of the UN Security council and join Educational the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). In the 2003 declaration, India and Vietnam envisaged creating an “Arc of Education and training had been fruitful with the establishment Advantage Prosperity” in Southeast Asia; to this end, Vietnam of a high quality information and communication technology has backed a more important relationship and role between India human resource centre (ARC-leT) funded by the Indian and ASEAN and its negotiation of an lndo - ASEAN free trade government in Hanoi, English language training centers in Hanoi agreement. India and Vietnam have also built strategic and Da Nang city and a vocational training centre in Ho Chi Minh partnerships, including extensive cooperation on developing City. India has helped Vietnam to train Information Technology nuclear power, enhancing regional security and fighting (IT) programmers in order to export software's abroad and M.A. terrorism, transnational crime and drug trafficking. Vietnam has degree holders in the same field in the last fifteen years. India also welcomed Indian Navy ships in their region, which would gives Vietnam about hundred scholarships to train students in enhance India and Vietnam military relations. Various significant such fields as history, philosophy, literature, IT, national defence, achievements in the last two years have contributed to the biology, agriculture, journalism, political science, MBA, and strengthening of the bilateral relations of friendship and some scholarships for post-graduates, researchers and cooperation.21 apprentices. The rate of Vietnamese students in India is getting higher and higher and the scales are more and more widened. These have been reflected by a number of exchanges of high level visit, especially the State visit to Vietnam by H.E. Mrs. P. Patil, Indian government has decided to double the number of President of India in 2008 and the visits to India by H.E. scholarships that they offer through the Indian Technical and Ms.Nguyen Thi Doan, Vice President in 2009, by H.E. Mr. Economic Cooperation (TEC) Programmes. These scholarships Nguyen Phu Trong, President of the National Assembly in 2010 are for short and medium term courses in various sectors like and by President Mr. Nguyen Minh Triet in 2012 and the dialogue finance, banking, management, information technology, many channels have been maintained. The relations among mass engineering and water management related Issues. India has already set-up the Entrepreneurship Development Centre (EDC) organisations have been further consolidated. Our cooperation in 24 international and regional for continues to be strengthened and in Hanoi. developed. Taking the “Look East Policy” to new heights, former Besides, the two governments have built up good relations in President of India Mrs. Pratibha Patil embarked on a 10-day visit culture. Cultural exchanges between the two nations have been to Vietnam and Indonesia in 2008 to further expand India's maintained for a long time and Indian arts such as film, music and bilateral ties with India's ASEAN neighbours.22 dance are popular in Vietnam. The Indian Government has also Vietnam also had a great pleasure to welcome H.E. Mr. Atal Bihari announced plans to open a cultural centre in Hanoi, aiming to Vajpayee, former Prime Minister of India in Hanoi in November promote Indian culture and education activities in Vietnam. In 2012, Vietnam Academy of Social Scheme (VASS) established the 2001 and January 2011; H.E. Dr. Manmohan Singh, Prime 25 Minister of India during his visit to Vietnam to participate in the Institute of Indian and South West Asian Studies. ASEAN-Indian Summit and East Asia Summit meetings in Hanoi

250 251 S. Manivasakan and Rayeesunisa India-ASEAN Relationship: With Special Reference to Vietnam

India and Vietnam is member of the Mekong - Ganga in October 2011. And in 2013, Vice President Mohammad Hamid Cooperation, created to enhance close ties between India and Ansari's four-day official visit to Vietnam manifested vividly the nations of Southeast Asia. Vietnam has supported India's bid to cordial relationship between the two nations.23 become a permanent member of the UN Security council and join Educational the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). In the 2003 declaration, India and Vietnam envisaged creating an “Arc of Education and training had been fruitful with the establishment Advantage Prosperity” in Southeast Asia; to this end, Vietnam of a high quality information and communication technology has backed a more important relationship and role between India human resource centre (ARC-leT) funded by the Indian and ASEAN and its negotiation of an lndo - ASEAN free trade government in Hanoi, English language training centers in Hanoi agreement. India and Vietnam have also built strategic and Da Nang city and a vocational training centre in Ho Chi Minh partnerships, including extensive cooperation on developing City. India has helped Vietnam to train Information Technology nuclear power, enhancing regional security and fighting (IT) programmers in order to export software's abroad and M.A. terrorism, transnational crime and drug trafficking. Vietnam has degree holders in the same field in the last fifteen years. India also welcomed Indian Navy ships in their region, which would gives Vietnam about hundred scholarships to train students in enhance India and Vietnam military relations. Various significant such fields as history, philosophy, literature, IT, national defence, achievements in the last two years have contributed to the biology, agriculture, journalism, political science, MBA, and strengthening of the bilateral relations of friendship and some scholarships for post-graduates, researchers and cooperation.21 apprentices. The rate of Vietnamese students in India is getting higher and higher and the scales are more and more widened. These have been reflected by a number of exchanges of high level visit, especially the State visit to Vietnam by H.E. Mrs. P. Patil, Indian government has decided to double the number of President of India in 2008 and the visits to India by H.E. scholarships that they offer through the Indian Technical and Ms.Nguyen Thi Doan, Vice President in 2009, by H.E. Mr. Economic Cooperation (TEC) Programmes. These scholarships Nguyen Phu Trong, President of the National Assembly in 2010 are for short and medium term courses in various sectors like and by President Mr. Nguyen Minh Triet in 2012 and the dialogue finance, banking, management, information technology, many channels have been maintained. The relations among mass engineering and water management related Issues. India has already set-up the Entrepreneurship Development Centre (EDC) organisations have been further consolidated. Our cooperation in 24 international and regional for continues to be strengthened and in Hanoi. developed. Taking the “Look East Policy” to new heights, former Besides, the two governments have built up good relations in President of India Mrs. Pratibha Patil embarked on a 10-day visit culture. Cultural exchanges between the two nations have been to Vietnam and Indonesia in 2008 to further expand India's maintained for a long time and Indian arts such as film, music and bilateral ties with India's ASEAN neighbours.22 dance are popular in Vietnam. The Indian Government has also Vietnam also had a great pleasure to welcome H.E. Mr. Atal Bihari announced plans to open a cultural centre in Hanoi, aiming to Vajpayee, former Prime Minister of India in Hanoi in November promote Indian culture and education activities in Vietnam. In 2012, Vietnam Academy of Social Scheme (VASS) established the 2001 and January 2011; H.E. Dr. Manmohan Singh, Prime 25 Minister of India during his visit to Vietnam to participate in the Institute of Indian and South West Asian Studies. ASEAN-Indian Summit and East Asia Summit meetings in Hanoi

250 251 S. Manivasakan and Rayeesunisa India-ASEAN Relationship: With Special Reference to Vietnam

Challenges varying levels of countries' technical and operational The importance of connectivity is indicated by the fact that all capacities, knowledge, technology, and governance. ASEAN countries and India have established state agencies to asymmetric distribution of regional infrastructure costs and tackle various aspects of connectivity. However, the multiplicities benefits across participating countries. of the state agencies often create problems of co-ordination and governance, particularly, in case of financial support for need for proper assessment and management of financing implementation of the highway projects. Building an inclusive costs, and for mobilising finances for infrastructure projects, strategy is important for solving these problems. The different particularly from the private sector through Public Private stages of development also create gaps in the implementation of Partnerships (PPPs), to meet massive financing requirements. connectivity projects. Relatively developed countries such as need for proper assessment of potential costs and India and older ASEAN countries generally have a better maximisation of potential benefits for participating countries, connectivity system in place, where as the developing countries, including estimates to changes in travel time, transport and due to their limitations, usually have a less developed trade costs, traffic flows, trade and economic activities, connectivity systems. There are other factors such as tourism, standards of living, agglomeration effects, scale government's commitment and approach that shape the economies, and labour mobility. implementation of connectivity policies. Cooperation between all need for proper assessment and management of negative factors in various aspects, including technical assistance and socio-economic and environ- mental impacts such as financial support, would be beneficial for supporting the displacement of people, forced migration, human trafficking, implementation of the regional connectivity. The following are communicable diseases, smuggling, road accidents, the some of the major challenges. pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions. The effective development of CBI is crucial to achieving the lack of standards, regulatory policies, legal frameworks, and ASEAN Economic Community. According to the ASEAN plan, harmonized customs procedures in the areas of cross - border the main focus is to integrate energy, transport, and trade, investment, transport, energy, private sector communication networks. However, accelerating infrastructure participation, and environmental protection. development as well as integration is hampered by a number of issues and challenges such as:26 need for effective coordination among various stakeholder at provincial, national, sub regional and regional levels. no direct Physical Connectivity between CLV and India, causing high cost transportation. need for the synchronisation of national and sub regional infrastructure planning and financing. shortage of financial resources and human resources delay connectivity projects. Conclusion geographical diversity and the presence of archipelagos such In the current competitive dynamic of power partnerships are as Indonesia and the Philippines. evolving and each country is embarked on a struggle for economic leadership of the dawning Asian Century, India can different levels of, and gaps in, economic and infrastructure play more positive role, taking in to account the issues of concern development. of partners. There is a strong need to strengthen institutions in the region with think - tanks performing the role as an early warning

252 253 S. Manivasakan and Rayeesunisa India-ASEAN Relationship: With Special Reference to Vietnam

Challenges varying levels of countries' technical and operational The importance of connectivity is indicated by the fact that all capacities, knowledge, technology, and governance. ASEAN countries and India have established state agencies to asymmetric distribution of regional infrastructure costs and tackle various aspects of connectivity. However, the multiplicities benefits across participating countries. of the state agencies often create problems of co-ordination and governance, particularly, in case of financial support for need for proper assessment and management of financing implementation of the highway projects. Building an inclusive costs, and for mobilising finances for infrastructure projects, strategy is important for solving these problems. The different particularly from the private sector through Public Private stages of development also create gaps in the implementation of Partnerships (PPPs), to meet massive financing requirements. connectivity projects. Relatively developed countries such as need for proper assessment of potential costs and India and older ASEAN countries generally have a better maximisation of potential benefits for participating countries, connectivity system in place, where as the developing countries, including estimates to changes in travel time, transport and due to their limitations, usually have a less developed trade costs, traffic flows, trade and economic activities, connectivity systems. There are other factors such as tourism, standards of living, agglomeration effects, scale government's commitment and approach that shape the economies, and labour mobility. implementation of connectivity policies. Cooperation between all need for proper assessment and management of negative factors in various aspects, including technical assistance and socio-economic and environ- mental impacts such as financial support, would be beneficial for supporting the displacement of people, forced migration, human trafficking, implementation of the regional connectivity. The following are communicable diseases, smuggling, road accidents, the some of the major challenges. pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions. The effective development of CBI is crucial to achieving the lack of standards, regulatory policies, legal frameworks, and ASEAN Economic Community. According to the ASEAN plan, harmonized customs procedures in the areas of cross - border the main focus is to integrate energy, transport, and trade, investment, transport, energy, private sector communication networks. However, accelerating infrastructure participation, and environmental protection. development as well as integration is hampered by a number of issues and challenges such as:26 need for effective coordination among various stakeholder at provincial, national, sub regional and regional levels. no direct Physical Connectivity between CLV and India, causing high cost transportation. need for the synchronisation of national and sub regional infrastructure planning and financing. shortage of financial resources and human resources delay connectivity projects. Conclusion geographical diversity and the presence of archipelagos such In the current competitive dynamic of power partnerships are as Indonesia and the Philippines. evolving and each country is embarked on a struggle for economic leadership of the dawning Asian Century, India can different levels of, and gaps in, economic and infrastructure play more positive role, taking in to account the issues of concern development. of partners. There is a strong need to strengthen institutions in the region with think - tanks performing the role as an early warning

252 253 S. Manivasakan and Rayeesunisa India-ASEAN Relationship: With Special Reference to Vietnam system to see how things are shaping or moving in order to inform Pachmarhi language training facility.” India also stands ready to governments or regional institutions so as to avoid mistakes. In supply Vietnam with Petia-class boats for its navy. terms of connectivity and partnership, where funding for Vietnam is also keen to develop its nuclear research industry to infrastructure project is an issue. ASEAN and Indian government support its nuclear energy sector. Vietnam envisages that it could look in to the possibility of establishing a regional would have to depend on nuclear power as its main energy source infrastructure bank or fund with collaboration under ASEAN - by 2050 because its fossil fuel resources would be depleted by that India Strategic partnership. India's financial expertise could be time. Vietnam plans to have its first nuclear reactor supplying used to ensure that available resources to carry out infrastructure electricity by 2017. India has agreed to supply Vietnam with projects are not tied with other major powers or international laboratory equipment for its nuclear research institute in Dalat financial institutions. (Southern Vietnam) and to train up to thirty Vietnamese nuclear The economic and scientific collaboration between India and scientists at Indian facilities dealing with various aspects of Vietnam reflects a multifaceted approach to the bilateral nuclear energy. Prime Minister Vajpayee said that, “science and relationship between both countries. India has also offered technology, including frontier sciences, are the backbone of a Vietnam assistance to develop its physical infrastructure. modernising society and India is pleased to assist Vietnam in this According to Prime Minister Vajpayee, India would be ready to direction.” In the year 1998 a Memorandum of Understanding assist with requisite capital to develop transportation, (MoU) was signed between India's Department of Atomic Energy telecommunications, railways, water supply, and power and the Vietnamese Science Ministry. generation in Vietnam. Prime Minister Vajpayee added that Vietnamese Prime Minister Phan Van Khai said, “Over the past Vietnam is a “critical element” in India's plans to forge stronger years, India has recorded important achievements in the course of ties with ASEAN, and pivotal for India's “Look East” policy. reform and economic development and thus enhanced people's During Vajpayee's official visit to Vietnam in January 2001, living standards”. Echoing the need to improve living standards, several agreements. Vajpayee announced that apart from a US$5 million credit offered India's security co-operation with ASEAN member-states such as to Vietnam in December 1999 to establish two centres for software Vietnam also extends beyond co-operation on the high seas. India and human resource development, India would add a further has signed a bilateral agreement with Vietnam to provide the US$12-15 million grant for a software and training centre. latter with weaponry and military training. Growing defence Vietnam, a leading fisheries exporter in Southeast Asia, is also links between India and Vietnam have witnessed an agreement interested in co-operating with China and India to establish an signed by both countries for Vietnam to train Indian troops in ASEAN plus two alliances in a bid to boost fisheries exports. jungle warfare and counter - insurgency operations. “This Thailand's fisheries exporters and the Vietnam Association of agreement was reached during the visit of former Indian External Seafood Exporters and Processors explained that ASEAN, India Affairs Minister George Fernandes to Vietnam in March 2000. In and Vietnam has a much greater capacity to be competitive and its return, India is to repair and overhaul MIG aircrafts belonging to economic growth and structural transformation are bringing it the Vietnamese air force, train its pilots, and assist Vietnam to much closer to the developed ASEAN countries. Vietnam is also establish its defence industry to manufacture weapons. In quite competitive in the plantation sector, rice exports, will addition, Vietnamese naval officers are also to receive training at become an important location for software development and the National Defence College in India and at the army's outsourcing. India should thus regard Vietnam in the same manner as other more developed ASEAN countries.

254 255 S. Manivasakan and Rayeesunisa India-ASEAN Relationship: With Special Reference to Vietnam system to see how things are shaping or moving in order to inform Pachmarhi language training facility.” India also stands ready to governments or regional institutions so as to avoid mistakes. In supply Vietnam with Petia-class boats for its navy. terms of connectivity and partnership, where funding for Vietnam is also keen to develop its nuclear research industry to infrastructure project is an issue. ASEAN and Indian government support its nuclear energy sector. Vietnam envisages that it could look in to the possibility of establishing a regional would have to depend on nuclear power as its main energy source infrastructure bank or fund with collaboration under ASEAN - by 2050 because its fossil fuel resources would be depleted by that India Strategic partnership. India's financial expertise could be time. Vietnam plans to have its first nuclear reactor supplying used to ensure that available resources to carry out infrastructure electricity by 2017. India has agreed to supply Vietnam with projects are not tied with other major powers or international laboratory equipment for its nuclear research institute in Dalat financial institutions. (Southern Vietnam) and to train up to thirty Vietnamese nuclear The economic and scientific collaboration between India and scientists at Indian facilities dealing with various aspects of Vietnam reflects a multifaceted approach to the bilateral nuclear energy. Prime Minister Vajpayee said that, “science and relationship between both countries. India has also offered technology, including frontier sciences, are the backbone of a Vietnam assistance to develop its physical infrastructure. modernising society and India is pleased to assist Vietnam in this According to Prime Minister Vajpayee, India would be ready to direction.” In the year 1998 a Memorandum of Understanding assist with requisite capital to develop transportation, (MoU) was signed between India's Department of Atomic Energy telecommunications, railways, water supply, and power and the Vietnamese Science Ministry. generation in Vietnam. Prime Minister Vajpayee added that Vietnamese Prime Minister Phan Van Khai said, “Over the past Vietnam is a “critical element” in India's plans to forge stronger years, India has recorded important achievements in the course of ties with ASEAN, and pivotal for India's “Look East” policy. reform and economic development and thus enhanced people's During Vajpayee's official visit to Vietnam in January 2001, living standards”. Echoing the need to improve living standards, several agreements. Vajpayee announced that apart from a US$5 million credit offered India's security co-operation with ASEAN member-states such as to Vietnam in December 1999 to establish two centres for software Vietnam also extends beyond co-operation on the high seas. India and human resource development, India would add a further has signed a bilateral agreement with Vietnam to provide the US$12-15 million grant for a software and training centre. latter with weaponry and military training. Growing defence Vietnam, a leading fisheries exporter in Southeast Asia, is also links between India and Vietnam have witnessed an agreement interested in co-operating with China and India to establish an signed by both countries for Vietnam to train Indian troops in ASEAN plus two alliances in a bid to boost fisheries exports. jungle warfare and counter - insurgency operations. “This Thailand's fisheries exporters and the Vietnam Association of agreement was reached during the visit of former Indian External Seafood Exporters and Processors explained that ASEAN, India Affairs Minister George Fernandes to Vietnam in March 2000. In and Vietnam has a much greater capacity to be competitive and its return, India is to repair and overhaul MIG aircrafts belonging to economic growth and structural transformation are bringing it the Vietnamese air force, train its pilots, and assist Vietnam to much closer to the developed ASEAN countries. Vietnam is also establish its defence industry to manufacture weapons. In quite competitive in the plantation sector, rice exports, will addition, Vietnamese naval officers are also to receive training at become an important location for software development and the National Defence College in India and at the army's outsourcing. India should thus regard Vietnam in the same manner as other more developed ASEAN countries.

254 255 S. Manivasakan and Rayeesunisa India-ASEAN Relationship: With Special Reference to Vietnam

References: 15. Ibid. pp 14-15 1. Ministry of External Affairs.(2013). Dynamics of ASEAN-INDIA 16. A Report. (2014).ASEAN-India Maritime Connectivity Report. Strategic Partnership proceedings of the second Round table on ASEAN- .www.asean.org/resources category / asean-statistics. pp.35-37 India Network of Think-Tanks (AINTT). New Delhi: Research and 17. Ibid. pp.39 45 Information System for developing countries. p.89 18. Collin, Koh Swee Lean,.(2013). ASEAN perspectives on Naval Cooperation 2. Ha Do Thu. (2013).cultural and Educational Exchange between India and with India: Singapore and Vietnam. In Ajaya kumar Das (Ed.). India- Vietnam. Dynamics of ASEAN-INDIA Strategic Partnership, ASEAN Defence Relations monograph No.28.Singapore: Rajaratnam Proceedings of the second round table Conference on ASEAN-INDIA School of International Studies.12 (3), pp. 281 - 299 Network of Think-Tanks(AINTT) Vientiane, Lao PDR. New Delhi: AIC at RIS. pp.84 19. Retrieved from www.mea.gov.in/in-focus- article.htm? 23947/India+amp+vietnam+old+friends+new+vistas 3. Ibid.pp.85-86 20. Ha Do Thu.(2013). Cultural and Educational Exchange between India 4. ASEAN SECRETARIAT. (2013). ASEAN-INDIA STRATEGIC and Vietnam. In Dynamics of ASEAN-INDIA Strategic Partnership, PARTNERSHI: Perspectives from the ASEAN-INDIA Network of Think- Proceedings of the second round table Conference on ASEAN-INDIA Tanks. New Delhi: Research and Information System for Developing Network of Think-Tanks (AINTT) Vientiane, Lao PDR. New Delhi: AIC Countries. P20 at RIS. P.85 5. Ha Do Thu.(2013). Cultural and Educational Exchange between India and 21. Hidayat, Agus Syarip.(2013). ASEAN India FTA and Design of Future Vietnam. Dynamics of ASEAN-INDIA Strategic Partnership, Proceedings of Regional Trading Architecture. In Dynamics of ASEAN-INDIA Strategic the second round table Conference on ASEAN-INDIA Network of Partnership proceedings of the Second Round Table on ASEAN-India Think-Tanks(AINTT) Vientiane, Lao PDR. New Delhi: AIC at RIS. P.87 Network of Think-Tanks (AINTT).New Delhi: AIC at RIS.P.29 6. Ibid.p.89 22. Ha Do Thu.(2013). Cultural and Educational Exchange between India 7. Biswa Nath Bhattacharyay (2010). Infrastructure for ASEAN and Vietnam. In Dynamics of ASEAN-INDIA Strategic Partnership, Connectivity and integration. ASEAN Economic Bulletin. 27 (2). p. 201 Proceedings of the second round table Conference on ASEAN-INDIA Network of Think-Tanks (AINTT) Vientiane, Lao PDR. New Delhi: AIC 8. ASEAN Secretariat.(2013). ASEAN-India Strategic Partnership: at RIS. P.87 Perspectives from the ASEAN-India Network of Think Tanks. New Delhi : Research and Information System for developing Countries.P.24 23. Retrieved from http://mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/Vietnam_ May_2017.pdf 9. Jean-Francios Gautrin. (2014). Connecting South Asia to Southeast Asia: Border Infrastructure Investment. ADBI working paper, No.483 Japan. P.4 24. Ha Do Thu.(2013).cultural and Educational Exchange between India and Vietnam. In Dynamics of ASEAN-INDIA Strategic Partnership, 10. Ibid. pp.7-8 Proceedings of the second round table Conference on ASEAN-INDIA 11. Ibid. p.17 Network of Think-Tanks (AINTT) Vientiane, Lao PDR. New Delhi: AIC at RIS. P.88-89. 12. Bhattacharyay, Biswa Nath. (2009). Infrastructure development for ASEAN Economic Integration. Working paper no.138.Japan: Asian 25. Ibid . pp.89-90. Development Bank Institute. P.12 26. Bhattacharyay, Biswa Nath,.(2010). Infrastructure for ASEAN 13. Jean-Francios Gautrin. (2014). Connecting South Asia to Southeast Asia: Connectivity and Integration. ASEAN Economic Bulletin.27 (2). P 210. Border Infrastructure Investment. ADBI working paper, No.483 Japan. P.12 14. Ibid. p.18

256 257 S. Manivasakan and Rayeesunisa India-ASEAN Relationship: With Special Reference to Vietnam

References: 15. Ibid. pp 14-15 1. Ministry of External Affairs.(2013). Dynamics of ASEAN-INDIA 16. A Report. (2014).ASEAN-India Maritime Connectivity Report. Strategic Partnership proceedings of the second Round table on ASEAN- .www.asean.org/resources category / asean-statistics. pp.35-37 India Network of Think-Tanks (AINTT). New Delhi: Research and 17. Ibid. pp.39 45 Information System for developing countries. p.89 18. Collin, Koh Swee Lean,.(2013). ASEAN perspectives on Naval Cooperation 2. Ha Do Thu. (2013).cultural and Educational Exchange between India and with India: Singapore and Vietnam. In Ajaya kumar Das (Ed.). India- Vietnam. Dynamics of ASEAN-INDIA Strategic Partnership, ASEAN Defence Relations monograph No.28.Singapore: Rajaratnam Proceedings of the second round table Conference on ASEAN-INDIA School of International Studies.12 (3), pp. 281 - 299 Network of Think-Tanks(AINTT) Vientiane, Lao PDR. New Delhi: AIC at RIS. pp.84 19. Retrieved from www.mea.gov.in/in-focus- article.htm? 23947/India+amp+vietnam+old+friends+new+vistas 3. Ibid.pp.85-86 20. Ha Do Thu.(2013). Cultural and Educational Exchange between India 4. ASEAN SECRETARIAT. (2013). ASEAN-INDIA STRATEGIC and Vietnam. In Dynamics of ASEAN-INDIA Strategic Partnership, PARTNERSHI: Perspectives from the ASEAN-INDIA Network of Think- Proceedings of the second round table Conference on ASEAN-INDIA Tanks. New Delhi: Research and Information System for Developing Network of Think-Tanks (AINTT) Vientiane, Lao PDR. New Delhi: AIC Countries. P20 at RIS. P.85 5. Ha Do Thu.(2013). Cultural and Educational Exchange between India and 21. Hidayat, Agus Syarip.(2013). ASEAN India FTA and Design of Future Vietnam. Dynamics of ASEAN-INDIA Strategic Partnership, Proceedings of Regional Trading Architecture. In Dynamics of ASEAN-INDIA Strategic the second round table Conference on ASEAN-INDIA Network of Partnership proceedings of the Second Round Table on ASEAN-India Think-Tanks(AINTT) Vientiane, Lao PDR. New Delhi: AIC at RIS. P.87 Network of Think-Tanks (AINTT).New Delhi: AIC at RIS.P.29 6. Ibid.p.89 22. Ha Do Thu.(2013). Cultural and Educational Exchange between India 7. Biswa Nath Bhattacharyay (2010). Infrastructure for ASEAN and Vietnam. In Dynamics of ASEAN-INDIA Strategic Partnership, Connectivity and integration. ASEAN Economic Bulletin. 27 (2). p. 201 Proceedings of the second round table Conference on ASEAN-INDIA Network of Think-Tanks (AINTT) Vientiane, Lao PDR. New Delhi: AIC 8. ASEAN Secretariat.(2013). ASEAN-India Strategic Partnership: at RIS. P.87 Perspectives from the ASEAN-India Network of Think Tanks. New Delhi : Research and Information System for developing Countries.P.24 23. Retrieved from http://mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/Vietnam_ May_2017.pdf 9. Jean-Francios Gautrin. (2014). Connecting South Asia to Southeast Asia: Border Infrastructure Investment. ADBI working paper, No.483 Japan. P.4 24. Ha Do Thu.(2013).cultural and Educational Exchange between India and Vietnam. In Dynamics of ASEAN-INDIA Strategic Partnership, 10. Ibid. pp.7-8 Proceedings of the second round table Conference on ASEAN-INDIA 11. Ibid. p.17 Network of Think-Tanks (AINTT) Vientiane, Lao PDR. New Delhi: AIC at RIS. P.88-89. 12. Bhattacharyay, Biswa Nath. (2009). Infrastructure development for ASEAN Economic Integration. Working paper no.138.Japan: Asian 25. Ibid . pp.89-90. Development Bank Institute. P.12 26. Bhattacharyay, Biswa Nath,.(2010). Infrastructure for ASEAN 13. Jean-Francios Gautrin. (2014). Connecting South Asia to Southeast Asia: Connectivity and Integration. ASEAN Economic Bulletin.27 (2). P 210. Border Infrastructure Investment. ADBI working paper, No.483 Japan. P.12 14. Ibid. p.18

256 257 ASEAN Regional Security: Political and Military Dimensions ASEAN Regional Security: Political and Military Dimensions successful diplomatic and military community. Though in the ASEAN Bangkok Declaration, 1967, economic and cultural I. Hiller Armstrong objectives were given priority, immediate objective of ASEAN Assistant Professor, Centre for South and Southeast Asian Studies was political cooperation to institutionalise the end of University of Madras Email: [email protected] confrontation between Indonesia and Malaysia. Economic cooperation was taken up much later by the ASEAN states. ASEAN has evolved into a 'security community', conflict and differences of perceptions do exist among member states but they The waning tensions of the Cold War have coincided with rising stop short of jeopardizing the Association. War seems to be highly concerns over a variety of non-military threats to security. unlikely option of resolving conflicts among the member states. However it does not mean that political and military threats have ASEAN has followed and developed a set of principles and a code vanished. Military security remains a crucial factor in the overall of conduct to manage the regional as well as extra-regional affairs. security of states. During the Cold War period the regional These tenets are so ingrained in ASEAN that any digression or security in terms of politico-military dimension in Southeast Asia attempt to fundamentally alter them would be tantamount to was determined by the intense competitive patterns of great disturbing the applecart seriously. These cardinal principles have powers the US, the former USSR and China. Great power been viewed as the foundation and driving force behind ASEAN, intervention internationalised local conflicts and fuelled regional contributing enormously to its emergence as the most successful rivalry. Cold War directly contributed to the ideological and attempt at regional cooperation in the developing world. ASEAN political polarization of non-communist Association of Southeast has further emerged as a successful diplomatic community Asian Nation (ASEAN) and communist Indochina. Fear of great especially during the Indochina crisis. Since its initial response to power rivalry and uncertain security guarantees contributed to the Kampuchean invasion, ASEAN has displayed remarkable ASEAN notion of regional security based on the Zone of Peace, political coherency and diplomatic solidarity in insisting on a Freedom and Neutrality (ZOPFAN). Thus emphasis on regional comprehensive political settlement of the Kampuchean issue on autonomy and self-reliance are an important part of ASEAN's its terms the ASEAN states have effectively functioned in regional security approach. multilateral forum as an eminently successful diplomatic caucus With the end of the Cold War, though regional conflicts like in that has mobilized sustained support in the global international Indochina were settled, it created strategic uncertainties. A community for its position. ASEAN is not a defence organization possible scramble by China and Japan seeking to step into the or alliance. It is recognised as an association to be reckoned with. vacuum left by departing superpowers has emerged as a Michael Leifer writes, ASEAN's performance in security conflictual issue among ASEAN members. ASEAN also has to cooperation has had its most visible impact beyond its walls in work for a new security identity embracing all the Southeast collective dealings with regional and extra regional states. Asian states. The past reluctance of ASEAN states to engage in Through an evolving practice of political cooperation whereby military security deliberations at the regional level has been shed five and then six governments have spoken most of the time with with the formation of ASEAN Regional Forum which also one voice on regional issues, ASEAN has established itself as a involves extra regional states in the security dialogue process. In recognised international actor. fact, it is in the political aspect that ASEAN has emerged as a

258 259 ASEAN Regional Security: Political and Military Dimensions ASEAN Regional Security: Political and Military Dimensions successful diplomatic and military community. Though in the ASEAN Bangkok Declaration, 1967, economic and cultural I. Hiller Armstrong objectives were given priority, immediate objective of ASEAN Assistant Professor, Centre for South and Southeast Asian Studies was political cooperation to institutionalise the end of University of Madras Email: [email protected] confrontation between Indonesia and Malaysia. Economic cooperation was taken up much later by the ASEAN states. ASEAN has evolved into a 'security community', conflict and differences of perceptions do exist among member states but they The waning tensions of the Cold War have coincided with rising stop short of jeopardizing the Association. War seems to be highly concerns over a variety of non-military threats to security. unlikely option of resolving conflicts among the member states. However it does not mean that political and military threats have ASEAN has followed and developed a set of principles and a code vanished. Military security remains a crucial factor in the overall of conduct to manage the regional as well as extra-regional affairs. security of states. During the Cold War period the regional These tenets are so ingrained in ASEAN that any digression or security in terms of politico-military dimension in Southeast Asia attempt to fundamentally alter them would be tantamount to was determined by the intense competitive patterns of great disturbing the applecart seriously. These cardinal principles have powers the US, the former USSR and China. Great power been viewed as the foundation and driving force behind ASEAN, intervention internationalised local conflicts and fuelled regional contributing enormously to its emergence as the most successful rivalry. Cold War directly contributed to the ideological and attempt at regional cooperation in the developing world. ASEAN political polarization of non-communist Association of Southeast has further emerged as a successful diplomatic community Asian Nation (ASEAN) and communist Indochina. Fear of great especially during the Indochina crisis. Since its initial response to power rivalry and uncertain security guarantees contributed to the Kampuchean invasion, ASEAN has displayed remarkable ASEAN notion of regional security based on the Zone of Peace, political coherency and diplomatic solidarity in insisting on a Freedom and Neutrality (ZOPFAN). Thus emphasis on regional comprehensive political settlement of the Kampuchean issue on autonomy and self-reliance are an important part of ASEAN's its terms the ASEAN states have effectively functioned in regional security approach. multilateral forum as an eminently successful diplomatic caucus With the end of the Cold War, though regional conflicts like in that has mobilized sustained support in the global international Indochina were settled, it created strategic uncertainties. A community for its position. ASEAN is not a defence organization possible scramble by China and Japan seeking to step into the or alliance. It is recognised as an association to be reckoned with. vacuum left by departing superpowers has emerged as a Michael Leifer writes, ASEAN's performance in security conflictual issue among ASEAN members. ASEAN also has to cooperation has had its most visible impact beyond its walls in work for a new security identity embracing all the Southeast collective dealings with regional and extra regional states. Asian states. The past reluctance of ASEAN states to engage in Through an evolving practice of political cooperation whereby military security deliberations at the regional level has been shed five and then six governments have spoken most of the time with with the formation of ASEAN Regional Forum which also one voice on regional issues, ASEAN has established itself as a involves extra regional states in the security dialogue process. In recognised international actor. fact, it is in the political aspect that ASEAN has emerged as a

258 259 I. Hiller Armstrong ASEAN Regional Security: Political and Military Dimensions

On the ASEAN front, when the association came into being, every The ASEAN nations were reluctant to replicate the European. state was involved in a conflict of one nature or another. Thus They argued that what worked in Europe could not be ASEAN members were looking for political stability and transplanted in Asia. But at the same time ASEAN members also economic development leading to “national resilience” which realised that a consensus is building in favour of a multilateral would in turn result in “regional resilience”. Thus during the security framework in Asia and they risked being marginalised. initial years of the association, the progress was too slow. Armed clashes between China and Vietnam in the South China However, during this time a close rapport was developed among Sea and Chinese declaration of sovereignty over all the islands in the ruling elites of the member states. Moreover member states the South China Sea expedited the debate on a security forum for were aware of the crucial 'implementation' part of any the Asian-Pacific region. Moreover, it seems that the US was cooperative nature. Thus an official network was worked out unwilling to commit large number of troops is the post-Cold War from top to the bottom level. Though economic and cultural era. The American decision to close down its largest overseas base objectives were given priority in the Bangkok Declaration the facilities in Subic Bay in the Philippines after failing to secure the immediate objective of ASEAN was to institutionalise the end of renewal from the Philippines created fears of power vacuum and confrontation between Indonesia and Malaysia. ASEAN decided resultant competition among the other powers to fill the void. to sideline all the bilateral disputes like the one between the There was gep.eral agreement across the region that ASEAN's Philippines and Malaysia over Sabah for the sake of successful lead in the creation of a new security framework would be the best working of the association. Some confidence building measures arrangement. ASEAN already has a lot of experience in dealing as well as military cooperation efforts were undertaken but at the with the security issues in its own 'Asian way'. Moreover, ASEAN bilateral level. ASEAN members did not want it to be defence or already had a dialogue process with extra regional power military alliance like the earlier South East Asian Treaty through the ASEAN-Post Ministerial Conferences (PMC). During Organization (SEATO), the Five Power Defence Arrangement the 1993 ASEAN Ministerial Meeting, it was decided to establish (FPDA) which were externally sponsored. The ASEAN Bangkok the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) with membership including Declaration put forward one of its aims and purposes as, to ASEAN members, its dialogue partners, China, Papua New promote regional peace and stability through abiding respect for Guinea, Russia, Vietnam and Laos now of course Vietnam and justice and the rule of law in the relationship among countries of Laos are members of ASEAN. ARF'S first meeting was held in the region and adherence to the principles of United Nations 1994. In its second meeting held in Brunei in 1995 a “Concept Charter. Paper” was put forward that spelled out details regarding ARF's approach to security. ARF has to move forward gradually so that ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) the 'comfort level' of different members can be taken into Initially it was Japan which suggested a forum for region-wide consideration. The step was to build trust and confidence among dialogue in the post-Cold War era. Later on Canada and Australia members, to develop a sense of involvement, inculcate the habit advocated something on the lines of Conference on Security of free exchange of views. The 'concept paper' discovered three Cooperation in Europe (CSCE). The US which had till now stages in the evolution of ARF namely promotion of confidence- preferred to manage regional security environment through building measures, development of preventive diplomacy and bilateral relations with Asian states also supported a multilateral development of conflict resolution mechanisms. approach.

260 261 I. Hiller Armstrong ASEAN Regional Security: Political and Military Dimensions

On the ASEAN front, when the association came into being, every The ASEAN nations were reluctant to replicate the European. state was involved in a conflict of one nature or another. Thus They argued that what worked in Europe could not be ASEAN members were looking for political stability and transplanted in Asia. But at the same time ASEAN members also economic development leading to “national resilience” which realised that a consensus is building in favour of a multilateral would in turn result in “regional resilience”. Thus during the security framework in Asia and they risked being marginalised. initial years of the association, the progress was too slow. Armed clashes between China and Vietnam in the South China However, during this time a close rapport was developed among Sea and Chinese declaration of sovereignty over all the islands in the ruling elites of the member states. Moreover member states the South China Sea expedited the debate on a security forum for were aware of the crucial 'implementation' part of any the Asian-Pacific region. Moreover, it seems that the US was cooperative nature. Thus an official network was worked out unwilling to commit large number of troops is the post-Cold War from top to the bottom level. Though economic and cultural era. The American decision to close down its largest overseas base objectives were given priority in the Bangkok Declaration the facilities in Subic Bay in the Philippines after failing to secure the immediate objective of ASEAN was to institutionalise the end of renewal from the Philippines created fears of power vacuum and confrontation between Indonesia and Malaysia. ASEAN decided resultant competition among the other powers to fill the void. to sideline all the bilateral disputes like the one between the There was gep.eral agreement across the region that ASEAN's Philippines and Malaysia over Sabah for the sake of successful lead in the creation of a new security framework would be the best working of the association. Some confidence building measures arrangement. ASEAN already has a lot of experience in dealing as well as military cooperation efforts were undertaken but at the with the security issues in its own 'Asian way'. Moreover, ASEAN bilateral level. ASEAN members did not want it to be defence or already had a dialogue process with extra regional power military alliance like the earlier South East Asian Treaty through the ASEAN-Post Ministerial Conferences (PMC). During Organization (SEATO), the Five Power Defence Arrangement the 1993 ASEAN Ministerial Meeting, it was decided to establish (FPDA) which were externally sponsored. The ASEAN Bangkok the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) with membership including Declaration put forward one of its aims and purposes as, to ASEAN members, its dialogue partners, China, Papua New promote regional peace and stability through abiding respect for Guinea, Russia, Vietnam and Laos now of course Vietnam and justice and the rule of law in the relationship among countries of Laos are members of ASEAN. ARF'S first meeting was held in the region and adherence to the principles of United Nations 1994. In its second meeting held in Brunei in 1995 a “Concept Charter. Paper” was put forward that spelled out details regarding ARF's approach to security. ARF has to move forward gradually so that ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) the 'comfort level' of different members can be taken into Initially it was Japan which suggested a forum for region-wide consideration. The step was to build trust and confidence among dialogue in the post-Cold War era. Later on Canada and Australia members, to develop a sense of involvement, inculcate the habit advocated something on the lines of Conference on Security of free exchange of views. The 'concept paper' discovered three Cooperation in Europe (CSCE). The US which had till now stages in the evolution of ARF namely promotion of confidence- preferred to manage regional security environment through building measures, development of preventive diplomacy and bilateral relations with Asian states also supported a multilateral development of conflict resolution mechanisms. approach.

260 261 I. Hiller Armstrong ASEAN Regional Security: Political and Military Dimensions

Confidence Building Measures (OAS) and Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe CBMS are recognised as significant part of cooperative security. (OSCE). The first volume of the Annual Security Outlook has been The basic thrust of the effectiveness of the CBMs depend on the released containing the voluntary submission of the security issue of transparency especially that of military structure and outlooks of thirteen countries. Till date ARF had discussed doctrine. Most of the ARF members are willing to publish Defence important issues like ZOPFAN Declaration, Southeast Asian White Papers. But there is general reluctance to give too much Nuclear Weapon Free Zone (SEANWFZ) and South China Sea information. The implementation of the CBMs is voluntary. They dispute. The ARF has been created on the basis of what Acharya include dialogue on security perceptions, meetings of Heads of calls “Asian institutionalism”. This form does not focus on National Defence Colleges, voluntary submission of defence “formal legalistic structures of cooperation”, but takes white papers and reporting to the UN Register of Conventional institutional approach as a long-term process of socialization and Arms. consensus-building”. The approach is incremental in nature. The ARF is definitely not a collective defence organization. The Preventive Diplomacy process itself is an extremely important product, since increased Preventive diplomacy refers to certain measures that are adopted dialogue promotes increased understanding which in turn, may to resolve or contain disputes through non-military methods. lead to a reduced risk of conflict. Its aim was to create a These measures are enshrined in Article 33 of the UN Charter. mechanism flexible enough to accommodate divergent opinions. These include, negotiations, inquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement of disputes. ASEAN Treaty of ASEAN and Constructive Engagement Policy Towards Amity and Cooperation (TAC) was accepted as the basis of China regional order during the ARF 1994 meeting. The ASEAN, China has supported communist insurgencies in ASEAN states. specifically Singapore, presented a concept paper to the ARF- In the post Cold War period China has become assertive with its SOM in 2000. The important points are of preventive Diplomacy military modernization. Difference on the question of are: sovereignty over the South China Sea Islands persist. China passed a controversial territorial waters laws in 1992 by which it Preventing severe disputes from arising between states, to claimed virtually the entire South China Sea. Earlier it has also prevent such disputes from escalating into armed fought with Vietnam over Paracel and Spratly islands. It was also confrontation. involved in skirmishes with the Philippine navy in the South Use of diplomatic rather than military means, respect for China Sea. The South China Sea comprises two major Island sovereignty. groups-Paracel and Spratlys. Not only do the Spratly Islands lie An enhanced role for the ARF Chairman-liaison with other astride one of the most important Sea Lines of Communications regional arrangements. (SLOC), but also have potential deposits of oil and natural gas of 17.7 billion tonnes according to the extensive survey carried out Annual security outlook to be published, contributions to this by China's Ministry of Geology and Mineral Resources in the to be voluntary. early 1990s. Apart from China and Taiwan, four other South East The Foreign Minister of Thailand in his capacity as acting Asian states Malaysia, the Philippines, Vietnam and Brunei claim chairman of the ARF has already established informal contacts parts of the island territories. with the United Nation (UN), Organization of American States

262 263 I. Hiller Armstrong ASEAN Regional Security: Political and Military Dimensions

Confidence Building Measures (OAS) and Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe CBMS are recognised as significant part of cooperative security. (OSCE). The first volume of the Annual Security Outlook has been The basic thrust of the effectiveness of the CBMs depend on the released containing the voluntary submission of the security issue of transparency especially that of military structure and outlooks of thirteen countries. Till date ARF had discussed doctrine. Most of the ARF members are willing to publish Defence important issues like ZOPFAN Declaration, Southeast Asian White Papers. But there is general reluctance to give too much Nuclear Weapon Free Zone (SEANWFZ) and South China Sea information. The implementation of the CBMs is voluntary. They dispute. The ARF has been created on the basis of what Acharya include dialogue on security perceptions, meetings of Heads of calls “Asian institutionalism”. This form does not focus on National Defence Colleges, voluntary submission of defence “formal legalistic structures of cooperation”, but takes white papers and reporting to the UN Register of Conventional institutional approach as a long-term process of socialization and Arms. consensus-building”. The approach is incremental in nature. The ARF is definitely not a collective defence organization. The Preventive Diplomacy process itself is an extremely important product, since increased Preventive diplomacy refers to certain measures that are adopted dialogue promotes increased understanding which in turn, may to resolve or contain disputes through non-military methods. lead to a reduced risk of conflict. Its aim was to create a These measures are enshrined in Article 33 of the UN Charter. mechanism flexible enough to accommodate divergent opinions. These include, negotiations, inquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement of disputes. ASEAN Treaty of ASEAN and Constructive Engagement Policy Towards Amity and Cooperation (TAC) was accepted as the basis of China regional order during the ARF 1994 meeting. The ASEAN, China has supported communist insurgencies in ASEAN states. specifically Singapore, presented a concept paper to the ARF- In the post Cold War period China has become assertive with its SOM in 2000. The important points are of preventive Diplomacy military modernization. Difference on the question of are: sovereignty over the South China Sea Islands persist. China passed a controversial territorial waters laws in 1992 by which it Preventing severe disputes from arising between states, to claimed virtually the entire South China Sea. Earlier it has also prevent such disputes from escalating into armed fought with Vietnam over Paracel and Spratly islands. It was also confrontation. involved in skirmishes with the Philippine navy in the South Use of diplomatic rather than military means, respect for China Sea. The South China Sea comprises two major Island sovereignty. groups-Paracel and Spratlys. Not only do the Spratly Islands lie An enhanced role for the ARF Chairman-liaison with other astride one of the most important Sea Lines of Communications regional arrangements. (SLOC), but also have potential deposits of oil and natural gas of 17.7 billion tonnes according to the extensive survey carried out Annual security outlook to be published, contributions to this by China's Ministry of Geology and Mineral Resources in the to be voluntary. early 1990s. Apart from China and Taiwan, four other South East The Foreign Minister of Thailand in his capacity as acting Asian states Malaysia, the Philippines, Vietnam and Brunei claim chairman of the ARF has already established informal contacts parts of the island territories. with the United Nation (UN), Organization of American States

262 263 I. Hiller Armstrong ASEAN Regional Security: Political and Military Dimensions

In the early 1990s, China started re-establishing diplomatic development of state relations or the stability of the region should relations with the South East Asian states. This was followed by be properly solved through peaceful negotiations and institutionalization of the Sino-ASEAN Cooperation. Five consultations, in accordance with common accepted international dialogue mechanisms were created: China-ASEAN Senior laws and modem maritime laws, including the basic principles Leaders' Political Consultations, China-ASEAN Science and and legal systems as prescribed in the UN Convention on the Law Technological Cooperation Committee, China-ASEAN Joint of the Sea. Committee of Economic and Trade Cooperation, ASEAN Beijing The 1998 ASEAN Hanoi Plan of Action also called for efforts to Committee and China-ASEAN Joint Cooperative Council whose establish a regional code of conduct in the South China Sea among function are to coordinate activities of other mechanisms to the parties directly concerned. In July 1999, Senior Officials of facilitate comprehensive cooperation. In July 1992, the ASEAN ASEAN agreed in Singapore to refer to an ASEAN working group Declaration on the South China Sea was adopted emphasizing the a draft regional code of conduct with regard to South China Sea relevance of enunciating and promoting confidence building specially the security and economic aspects of the disputes measures, as well as calling for a peaceful solution to the Spratlys concerning sovereignty over the Spratly islands. The Malaysian disputes. At the informal level Indonesia, took the initiative Foreign Minister Hamid Albar, in November 1999 expressed supported by the Canadian International Development Agency satisfaction over the progress and said, “the most important thing (CIDA) in 1990 to convene a workshop on South China Sea issues was that the ASEAN members have agreed in principle the need among ASEAN countries in Bali. The second workshop was held to have a code of conduct that will govern the relationships in the in Bandung in 1991 and included China, Taiwan, Vietnam and disputed areas”. Informal consultations between ASEAN and Laos. The third workshop in Jakarta in 1992 identified some areas China took place in Thailand in March 2000 and first meeting of for political cooperation. Two technical working groups were the Working Group of the ASEAN China Senior Official established, one on Resources Assessment and Ways of Consultations on the code of conduct took place in May 2000 in Development and one on Marine Scientific Research. Bilateral Kuala Lumpur. The meeting agreed on a consolidated working initiatives have also been taken. China and Vietnam have agreed draft to be the basis for future discussions. The seventh meeting of to use only peaceful means to resolve the Spratlys dispute. It is the the ARF, held in Bangkok in 2000 also welcomed the Informal ASEAN policy of “Constructive engagement” that brought China Workshop on managing potential conflicts in the South China into the multilateral fold. China has finally agreed to talk on a Sea. With the end of the Cold War, a possible scramble by China number of disputes including the South China Sea. It has also and Japan seeking to step into the vacuum left by departing been publishing white paper of defence. 'Unlike the oft-talked superpowers has emerged as a conflictual issue among ASEAN about 'containment' which has a strong tinge of dubious members. With the Chinese assertiveness in the South China Sea connotation, engagement is positive and affirmative. China- and its programme of military modernization ASEAN states too ASEAN Senior Officials Meetings is another mechanism that was embarked on a significant modernisation programme of their Air started to discuss South China Sea disputes. Although the force and Navies. Chinese defence expenditure in US $ bn Defence White Paper of China 1998 fell short of expectations. It increased from $ 21.21 in 1991 to $ 3 9. 80 in 1998 ASEAN states too did mention, disputes on territorial, marine rights and interests experiencing high economic growth till 1998 economic crisis between China and neighbouring countries, are to be solved increased their defence expenditure with Indonesia's defence through consultation by putting the interest of the whole above expenditure being the highest in 1997 at $ 4.80 (US billion dollars) everything else, so that the disputes will not hamper the normal

264 265 I. Hiller Armstrong ASEAN Regional Security: Political and Military Dimensions

In the early 1990s, China started re-establishing diplomatic development of state relations or the stability of the region should relations with the South East Asian states. This was followed by be properly solved through peaceful negotiations and institutionalization of the Sino-ASEAN Cooperation. Five consultations, in accordance with common accepted international dialogue mechanisms were created: China-ASEAN Senior laws and modem maritime laws, including the basic principles Leaders' Political Consultations, China-ASEAN Science and and legal systems as prescribed in the UN Convention on the Law Technological Cooperation Committee, China-ASEAN Joint of the Sea. Committee of Economic and Trade Cooperation, ASEAN Beijing The 1998 ASEAN Hanoi Plan of Action also called for efforts to Committee and China-ASEAN Joint Cooperative Council whose establish a regional code of conduct in the South China Sea among function are to coordinate activities of other mechanisms to the parties directly concerned. In July 1999, Senior Officials of facilitate comprehensive cooperation. In July 1992, the ASEAN ASEAN agreed in Singapore to refer to an ASEAN working group Declaration on the South China Sea was adopted emphasizing the a draft regional code of conduct with regard to South China Sea relevance of enunciating and promoting confidence building specially the security and economic aspects of the disputes measures, as well as calling for a peaceful solution to the Spratlys concerning sovereignty over the Spratly islands. The Malaysian disputes. At the informal level Indonesia, took the initiative Foreign Minister Hamid Albar, in November 1999 expressed supported by the Canadian International Development Agency satisfaction over the progress and said, “the most important thing (CIDA) in 1990 to convene a workshop on South China Sea issues was that the ASEAN members have agreed in principle the need among ASEAN countries in Bali. The second workshop was held to have a code of conduct that will govern the relationships in the in Bandung in 1991 and included China, Taiwan, Vietnam and disputed areas”. Informal consultations between ASEAN and Laos. The third workshop in Jakarta in 1992 identified some areas China took place in Thailand in March 2000 and first meeting of for political cooperation. Two technical working groups were the Working Group of the ASEAN China Senior Official established, one on Resources Assessment and Ways of Consultations on the code of conduct took place in May 2000 in Development and one on Marine Scientific Research. Bilateral Kuala Lumpur. The meeting agreed on a consolidated working initiatives have also been taken. China and Vietnam have agreed draft to be the basis for future discussions. The seventh meeting of to use only peaceful means to resolve the Spratlys dispute. It is the the ARF, held in Bangkok in 2000 also welcomed the Informal ASEAN policy of “Constructive engagement” that brought China Workshop on managing potential conflicts in the South China into the multilateral fold. China has finally agreed to talk on a Sea. With the end of the Cold War, a possible scramble by China number of disputes including the South China Sea. It has also and Japan seeking to step into the vacuum left by departing been publishing white paper of defence. 'Unlike the oft-talked superpowers has emerged as a conflictual issue among ASEAN about 'containment' which has a strong tinge of dubious members. With the Chinese assertiveness in the South China Sea connotation, engagement is positive and affirmative. China- and its programme of military modernization ASEAN states too ASEAN Senior Officials Meetings is another mechanism that was embarked on a significant modernisation programme of their Air started to discuss South China Sea disputes. Although the force and Navies. Chinese defence expenditure in US $ bn Defence White Paper of China 1998 fell short of expectations. It increased from $ 21.21 in 1991 to $ 3 9. 80 in 1998 ASEAN states too did mention, disputes on territorial, marine rights and interests experiencing high economic growth till 1998 economic crisis between China and neighbouring countries, are to be solved increased their defence expenditure with Indonesia's defence through consultation by putting the interest of the whole above expenditure being the highest in 1997 at $ 4.80 (US billion dollars) everything else, so that the disputes will not hamper the normal

264 265 I. Hiller Armstrong ASEAN Regional Security: Political and Military Dimensions followed by Singapore and Thailand with $ 4.10 and $ 3.20 independence. They reaffirm ASEAN'S support for and respectively. Vietnam came first when we compared 1997 defence encourage the international community to remain engaged in the expenditure as percentage of GDP followed by Myanmar. process of reconciliation, rehabilitation and reconstruction that is Singapore with Indonesia occupy the sixth position in ASEAN 10. essential for a peaceful and stable East Timor. the trend of defence expenditure as percentage of GDP among In the joint communique, the Foreign Ministers also reiterated ASEAN states since 1991. Compared over the years Singapore has their continuing support for the sovereignty, territorial integrity shown a marked increase in its per capita defence expenditure and national unity of Indonesia, which includes the Provinces of from US$ 1838 in 1991 to$ 1332.90 in 1997. The countries with the Aceh and Irian Jaya (Papua). The Foreign Ministers reaffirmed largest population are also states with largest defence forces. In that the stability and prosperity of Indonesia would positively the same way countries with comparatively small populations contribute to the peace, stability and prosperity of the Asian tend to have a higher solider- to-citizen ratio. The value of the region as a whole. conventional arms imported by the ASEAN states in 1999. The 'ASEAN WAY' The East Timor Crisis ASEAN countries have also expressed Asian value and belief on a Indonesia invaded East Timor in 1976 and incorporated it in the number of issue contradicting western views-known as Republic of Indonesia. When B.J. Habibie took over the reins after “Asianisation of Asia”. Several ASEAN countries have been Suharto was forced to quit in 1998, he promised to reduce the articulating ideas on issues such as democracy and human rights number of troops in East Timor. He announced a possible and on broader Asian values, which often tend to be contrary to referendum on the future of East Timor in 1999. External pressure Western perceptions, it is for the first time that ASEAN has firmly was mounting on Indonesia and East Timor continued to drain stood ground on Myanmar which has been ostracised because of precious resources with no political or economic returns. The 1999 its poor domestic political record. Unlike the Americans and referendum showed 78.5% of the people opting for many Europeans who have been toying with the idea of imposing independence. ASEAN was reluctant to head the multinational sanctions on military-ruled Myanmar because of human rights presence to stop pro-Jakarta militia violence and implement the violations and a lack of democracy, ASEAN has made it quite wishes of the East Timor people. ASEAN did not want to clear that it would not only not support any sanctions, but would antagonise the biggest state of ASEAN whose support is vital for also engage Myanmar in a big way. In 1998 at the Manila ASEAN the success of ASEAN. Moreover, non-interference in the internal Ministerial Meeting, that Foreign Minister Swin Pitsuwan affairs of each other is one of the cardinal principle of ASEAN. In argued, “The reality is that, as the region becomes more relation to East Timor the concern is about security of small states. interdependent, the dividing line between domestic affairs on the Moreover some analysts have argued that independence of East one hand and external or transnational issues on the other is less Timor would encourage other separatist movements in an clear.” He further added, “Many domestic affairs have obvious ethnically heterogeneous Indonesian society. At the thirty-third external or transnational dimensions, adversely affecting ASEAN ministerial meeting held in Bangkok in 2000, the ASEAN neighbours, the region and the region's relations with others”. foreign ministers commended Indonesia for all its efforts in Thus he suggested “flexible engagement” to avoid any resolving the East Timor issue and noted the key role of the suggestion of interference in each other's affairs. However, on the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor whole this suggestion was not very enthusiastically taken. (UNTAET) in enduring the territory's smooth transition to full

266 267 I. Hiller Armstrong ASEAN Regional Security: Political and Military Dimensions followed by Singapore and Thailand with $ 4.10 and $ 3.20 independence. They reaffirm ASEAN'S support for and respectively. Vietnam came first when we compared 1997 defence encourage the international community to remain engaged in the expenditure as percentage of GDP followed by Myanmar. process of reconciliation, rehabilitation and reconstruction that is Singapore with Indonesia occupy the sixth position in ASEAN 10. essential for a peaceful and stable East Timor. the trend of defence expenditure as percentage of GDP among In the joint communique, the Foreign Ministers also reiterated ASEAN states since 1991. Compared over the years Singapore has their continuing support for the sovereignty, territorial integrity shown a marked increase in its per capita defence expenditure and national unity of Indonesia, which includes the Provinces of from US$ 1838 in 1991 to$ 1332.90 in 1997. The countries with the Aceh and Irian Jaya (Papua). The Foreign Ministers reaffirmed largest population are also states with largest defence forces. In that the stability and prosperity of Indonesia would positively the same way countries with comparatively small populations contribute to the peace, stability and prosperity of the Asian tend to have a higher solider- to-citizen ratio. The value of the region as a whole. conventional arms imported by the ASEAN states in 1999. The 'ASEAN WAY' The East Timor Crisis ASEAN countries have also expressed Asian value and belief on a Indonesia invaded East Timor in 1976 and incorporated it in the number of issue contradicting western views-known as Republic of Indonesia. When B.J. Habibie took over the reins after “Asianisation of Asia”. Several ASEAN countries have been Suharto was forced to quit in 1998, he promised to reduce the articulating ideas on issues such as democracy and human rights number of troops in East Timor. He announced a possible and on broader Asian values, which often tend to be contrary to referendum on the future of East Timor in 1999. External pressure Western perceptions, it is for the first time that ASEAN has firmly was mounting on Indonesia and East Timor continued to drain stood ground on Myanmar which has been ostracised because of precious resources with no political or economic returns. The 1999 its poor domestic political record. Unlike the Americans and referendum showed 78.5% of the people opting for many Europeans who have been toying with the idea of imposing independence. ASEAN was reluctant to head the multinational sanctions on military-ruled Myanmar because of human rights presence to stop pro-Jakarta militia violence and implement the violations and a lack of democracy, ASEAN has made it quite wishes of the East Timor people. ASEAN did not want to clear that it would not only not support any sanctions, but would antagonise the biggest state of ASEAN whose support is vital for also engage Myanmar in a big way. In 1998 at the Manila ASEAN the success of ASEAN. Moreover, non-interference in the internal Ministerial Meeting, that Foreign Minister Swin Pitsuwan affairs of each other is one of the cardinal principle of ASEAN. In argued, “The reality is that, as the region becomes more relation to East Timor the concern is about security of small states. interdependent, the dividing line between domestic affairs on the Moreover some analysts have argued that independence of East one hand and external or transnational issues on the other is less Timor would encourage other separatist movements in an clear.” He further added, “Many domestic affairs have obvious ethnically heterogeneous Indonesian society. At the thirty-third external or transnational dimensions, adversely affecting ASEAN ministerial meeting held in Bangkok in 2000, the ASEAN neighbours, the region and the region's relations with others”. foreign ministers commended Indonesia for all its efforts in Thus he suggested “flexible engagement” to avoid any resolving the East Timor issue and noted the key role of the suggestion of interference in each other's affairs. However, on the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor whole this suggestion was not very enthusiastically taken. (UNTAET) in enduring the territory's smooth transition to full

266 267 I. Hiller Armstrong ASEAN Regional Security: Political and Military Dimensions

Majority of the members did not want to deviate from the well- resolve problems in the region. On the bilateral level, Vietnam established norms and principles of ASEAN. They were not keen shares some military relations with other ASEAN members. It on disturbing the already existing framework of ASEAN maintains military contact with Laos at the highest level. It has functioning. In fact in the Bangkok meeting of ASEAN held in also sought to normalise relations with Cambodia. With May1999, Malaysian Prime Ministers Mahathir Mohamad took Malaysia, it has started joint exploration of petroleum in areas of the president of the Philippines Joseph Estrada to task for his overlapping claims. Vietnam· and Thailand have signed a border alleged interference in the domestic affairs of Kuala Lumpur. It demarcation agreement. was Joseph Estrada's meeting with Mahathir's new political foe, The Five Power Defence Arrangement (PFDA) Ms wan Azizah Ismail in Manila that had enraged Malaysia. Bilateral Military Cooperation and Cooperation with Extra- It binds the South East Asian States of Malaysia and Singapore Regional States. with external states of the UK, Australia and New Zealand. It has contributed to the air defence of Singapore and Malaysia through Bilateral Cooperation and Cooperation with Extra- the Integrated Air Defence System. It has also acted as Confidence Regional States Building Measures (CBM) mechanism between Malaysia and Bilateral disputes to exist among ASEAN states like over Natuna Singapore. They were able to hold joint military exercises along Islands between Indonesia and Vietnam, Celebes Sea Islands with the alliance partners despite their political problems. between Indonesia and Malaysia, Pulau Batu Putih Island Indonesia is not very comfortable with the alliance being between Malaysia and Singapore, overlapping maritime conceived as a deterrent to its regional ambition. ASEAN boundaries between Malaysia and Vietnam, continental shelf maintains that this military relations with the extra-regional claims in the Gulf of Thailand between Thailand and Vietnam, powers in no way means the abandonment of ZOPFAN. Sabah between Malaysia and the Philippines and overlapping Other Cooperative Efforts maritime boundaries between Malaysia and Thailand. These The US-Malaysian Bilateral Training and Consultative Group seem to be far less dangerous flashpoints than the disputes that (BITAC) established in 1984 but its existence not revealed for a exist in South Asia. The Joint Border Commissions facilitate long time. As most of the South East States are apprehensive of conflict management and resolution among ASEAN members; China's military modernization and disputes over South China On 2nd September 1996, the Philippines government and the Sea, they have negotiated military and naval access arrangements Muslim rebels signed a peace pact to end armed conflict in the with the US. The Philippines has Visiting Forces Arrangement to Southern Philippines. It took three years of negotiations between expand military cooperation with the US under which it has the two sides to reach this agreement. Indonesian Foreign provided the US with maintenance of war reserves, ocean Minister Ali Alatas who helped broker the accord also signed the facilities, refuelling and transit arrangements to ensure the US accord. Alatas said, “it will have a profound and positive impact ability to operate militarily in the region. It also conducts joint on the economic stability and progress of South east Asia”. In military exercises with the US. Malaysia supports continued US 1978, Malayasian Prime Minister Hussein had said, “it is the presence in Asia and makes available naval and air maintenance determination of Malaysia and Indonesia .to make efforts to assist and repair facilities. Brunei too had military relations with the US. the Muslims in Southern Philippines and the Philippines Singapore in 1989 offered military facilities to the US. In 1990, it government solve their differences peacefully”. Thus the signed MoU with the US which provided for the deployment of agreement was seen as the capacity of ASEAN to peacefully

268 269 I. Hiller Armstrong ASEAN Regional Security: Political and Military Dimensions

Majority of the members did not want to deviate from the well- resolve problems in the region. On the bilateral level, Vietnam established norms and principles of ASEAN. They were not keen shares some military relations with other ASEAN members. It on disturbing the already existing framework of ASEAN maintains military contact with Laos at the highest level. It has functioning. In fact in the Bangkok meeting of ASEAN held in also sought to normalise relations with Cambodia. With May1999, Malaysian Prime Ministers Mahathir Mohamad took Malaysia, it has started joint exploration of petroleum in areas of the president of the Philippines Joseph Estrada to task for his overlapping claims. Vietnam· and Thailand have signed a border alleged interference in the domestic affairs of Kuala Lumpur. It demarcation agreement. was Joseph Estrada's meeting with Mahathir's new political foe, The Five Power Defence Arrangement (PFDA) Ms wan Azizah Ismail in Manila that had enraged Malaysia. Bilateral Military Cooperation and Cooperation with Extra- It binds the South East Asian States of Malaysia and Singapore Regional States. with external states of the UK, Australia and New Zealand. It has contributed to the air defence of Singapore and Malaysia through Bilateral Cooperation and Cooperation with Extra- the Integrated Air Defence System. It has also acted as Confidence Regional States Building Measures (CBM) mechanism between Malaysia and Bilateral disputes to exist among ASEAN states like over Natuna Singapore. They were able to hold joint military exercises along Islands between Indonesia and Vietnam, Celebes Sea Islands with the alliance partners despite their political problems. between Indonesia and Malaysia, Pulau Batu Putih Island Indonesia is not very comfortable with the alliance being between Malaysia and Singapore, overlapping maritime conceived as a deterrent to its regional ambition. ASEAN boundaries between Malaysia and Vietnam, continental shelf maintains that this military relations with the extra-regional claims in the Gulf of Thailand between Thailand and Vietnam, powers in no way means the abandonment of ZOPFAN. Sabah between Malaysia and the Philippines and overlapping Other Cooperative Efforts maritime boundaries between Malaysia and Thailand. These The US-Malaysian Bilateral Training and Consultative Group seem to be far less dangerous flashpoints than the disputes that (BITAC) established in 1984 but its existence not revealed for a exist in South Asia. The Joint Border Commissions facilitate long time. As most of the South East States are apprehensive of conflict management and resolution among ASEAN members; China's military modernization and disputes over South China On 2nd September 1996, the Philippines government and the Sea, they have negotiated military and naval access arrangements Muslim rebels signed a peace pact to end armed conflict in the with the US. The Philippines has Visiting Forces Arrangement to Southern Philippines. It took three years of negotiations between expand military cooperation with the US under which it has the two sides to reach this agreement. Indonesian Foreign provided the US with maintenance of war reserves, ocean Minister Ali Alatas who helped broker the accord also signed the facilities, refuelling and transit arrangements to ensure the US accord. Alatas said, “it will have a profound and positive impact ability to operate militarily in the region. It also conducts joint on the economic stability and progress of South east Asia”. In military exercises with the US. Malaysia supports continued US 1978, Malayasian Prime Minister Hussein had said, “it is the presence in Asia and makes available naval and air maintenance determination of Malaysia and Indonesia .to make efforts to assist and repair facilities. Brunei too had military relations with the US. the Muslims in Southern Philippines and the Philippines Singapore in 1989 offered military facilities to the US. In 1990, it government solve their differences peacefully”. Thus the signed MoU with the US which provided for the deployment of agreement was seen as the capacity of ASEAN to peacefully

268 269 I. Hiller Armstrong ASEAN Regional Security: Political and Military Dimensions

American aircraft and military personnel in Singapore. In 1992, into the region. Moreover, they also recognised the benefits of two states reached an agreement on the relocation of a major dealing with external powers collectively. While dealing with the naval logistics facility from Subic bay to Singapore. There is also a Indo-China crisis, members did not let their divergent change of perception in Indonesia which has fully agreed to perceptions adversely affect ASEAN solidarity. Singapore offer of military facilities to the US and also to conduct joint exercises with US forces. Singapore in 1998 announced building up of a large naval base which will be available to US naval combatants and includes a pier to accommodate American aircraft carriers. The US is also engaged in low-key military References: diplomacy with Vietnam. China has emerged as the single largest 1. Amitav Acharya. (1999). Realism, Institutionalism and the Asian Economic supplier of military equipment to Pakistan Sri Lanka and Crisis. Contemporary Southeast Asia. No. 21, April. Bangladesh. This is one of the irritating factors in the Sino- Indian 2. ASEAN, Bangkok Declaration, Jakarta, ASEAN Secretariat 1967. relations which have not been very smooth. Some CBMs do exist between India and China. Agreement on the Maintenance of 3. ASEAN, Hanoi Plan of Action. Jakarta: ASEAN Secretariat, 1998. Peace and Tranquillity Along the Line of Actual Control in the 4. ASEAN, Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality Declaration. Kuala Lumpur: India-China Border Areas was signed in 1993. In 1996, limited Jakarta, ASEAN Secretariat, 1971. military CBMs in the form of Agreement on CBM in the Military 5. ASEAN. Joint Communique of the 33 rd ASEAN Ministerial Meeting. Field along the LoC in the India-China Border Areas was signed. Bangkok, This stipulates that military measures would not be resorted to for 6. ASEAN. Joint Statement of the ASEAN Foreign Minister on the Kampuchean solving boundary dispute and a reduction in the number of Problem. Kuala Lumpur: 8 July 1985. surface-to-surface missiles to a level mutually agreed upon. 7. ASEAN. Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia. Bali, 1976, However, even after several rounds of Joint Working Group Jakarta: ASEAN, Secretariat 1976. (JWG) meeting progress are rather slow. 8. Barry Buzan. (1988). The Southeast Asian Security Complex. Contemporary Conclusion Southeast Asia, Vol.10, No. 1. June. ASEAN follows a process of interaction, consultation, 9. Das, K. (1980). The Kuantan Principle. Far Eastern Economic Review. 4 cooperation that has evolved over the years to develop national April. and David Jenkins. (1980). Second Thought on Kuantan. Far Eastern and in turn regional resilience. Thus, the ASEAN way is all about Economic Review, 10 October. containing and managing conflicts. ASEAN has emerged as a 10. Donald D.Weatherbee. (1985). The Diplomacy of Stalemate in Donald E. successful diplomatic community. Conflicts are not allowed to Weatherbee (ed) Southeast Asia Divided: The ASEAN-Indochina Crisis. hinder cooperation in other areas. ASEAN are not only to allow Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. regular contacts among Heads of Governments and officials but 11. Michael Leifer. (1989). ASEAN and the Security of South-East Asia. London: also allows people to people contact, thus creating a 'we feeling' in Routledge. the region. The association tries to accommodate interest of all 12. Micheal Leifer. (1995). Chinese Economic Reform and Security Policy, the members. The process of consensus-building usually takes time South China Sea Convention. Survival. Vol. 37, No.2. but eventually pays off. The ASEAN states realised that intra- 13. Naidu, G.V.C. (1996). India, ASEAN and the ARF. Strategic Analysis, Vol. regional conflicts hamper the progress and draw external powers 19, No.6, September.

270 271 I. Hiller Armstrong ASEAN Regional Security: Political and Military Dimensions

American aircraft and military personnel in Singapore. In 1992, into the region. Moreover, they also recognised the benefits of two states reached an agreement on the relocation of a major dealing with external powers collectively. While dealing with the naval logistics facility from Subic bay to Singapore. There is also a Indo-China crisis, members did not let their divergent change of perception in Indonesia which has fully agreed to perceptions adversely affect ASEAN solidarity. Singapore offer of military facilities to the US and also to conduct joint exercises with US forces. Singapore in 1998 announced building up of a large naval base which will be available to US naval combatants and includes a pier to accommodate American aircraft carriers. The US is also engaged in low-key military References: diplomacy with Vietnam. China has emerged as the single largest 1. Amitav Acharya. (1999). Realism, Institutionalism and the Asian Economic supplier of military equipment to Pakistan Sri Lanka and Crisis. Contemporary Southeast Asia. No. 21, April. Bangladesh. This is one of the irritating factors in the Sino- Indian 2. ASEAN, Bangkok Declaration, Jakarta, ASEAN Secretariat 1967. relations which have not been very smooth. Some CBMs do exist between India and China. Agreement on the Maintenance of 3. ASEAN, Hanoi Plan of Action. Jakarta: ASEAN Secretariat, 1998. Peace and Tranquillity Along the Line of Actual Control in the 4. ASEAN, Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality Declaration. Kuala Lumpur: India-China Border Areas was signed in 1993. In 1996, limited Jakarta, ASEAN Secretariat, 1971. military CBMs in the form of Agreement on CBM in the Military 5. ASEAN. Joint Communique of the 33 rd ASEAN Ministerial Meeting. Field along the LoC in the India-China Border Areas was signed. Bangkok, This stipulates that military measures would not be resorted to for 6. ASEAN. Joint Statement of the ASEAN Foreign Minister on the Kampuchean solving boundary dispute and a reduction in the number of Problem. Kuala Lumpur: 8 July 1985. surface-to-surface missiles to a level mutually agreed upon. 7. ASEAN. Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia. Bali, 1976, However, even after several rounds of Joint Working Group Jakarta: ASEAN, Secretariat 1976. (JWG) meeting progress are rather slow. 8. Barry Buzan. (1988). The Southeast Asian Security Complex. Contemporary Conclusion Southeast Asia, Vol.10, No. 1. June. ASEAN follows a process of interaction, consultation, 9. Das, K. (1980). The Kuantan Principle. Far Eastern Economic Review. 4 cooperation that has evolved over the years to develop national April. and David Jenkins. (1980). Second Thought on Kuantan. Far Eastern and in turn regional resilience. Thus, the ASEAN way is all about Economic Review, 10 October. containing and managing conflicts. ASEAN has emerged as a 10. Donald D.Weatherbee. (1985). The Diplomacy of Stalemate in Donald E. successful diplomatic community. Conflicts are not allowed to Weatherbee (ed) Southeast Asia Divided: The ASEAN-Indochina Crisis. hinder cooperation in other areas. ASEAN are not only to allow Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. regular contacts among Heads of Governments and officials but 11. Michael Leifer. (1989). ASEAN and the Security of South-East Asia. London: also allows people to people contact, thus creating a 'we feeling' in Routledge. the region. The association tries to accommodate interest of all 12. Micheal Leifer. (1995). Chinese Economic Reform and Security Policy, the members. The process of consensus-building usually takes time South China Sea Convention. Survival. Vol. 37, No.2. but eventually pays off. The ASEAN states realised that intra- 13. Naidu, G.V.C. (1996). India, ASEAN and the ARF. Strategic Analysis, Vol. regional conflicts hamper the progress and draw external powers 19, No.6, September.

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14. Naidu, G.V.C. (1998). The Manila ASEAN Meetings and India. Strategic Analysis. Vol. 22, No.8, November. 15. Peoples Republic of China, White Paper on Defence, 1996. 16. Proceedings of seventh ARF Meeting. Bangkok: 2000. 17. Quoted in Maria Consuelo C. Ortuoste. (2000). Reviewing the ASEAN Regional Forum and its Role in Southeast Asian Security. Occasional Paper. Asia-Pacific Centre for Security Studies. 18. Roland D. Palmer and Thomas J. Reckford, (1987). Building ASEAN: 20 Years of Southeast Asian Cooperation. New York: Praeger. 19. Seth, S.P.(1988). ASEAN and Regional Instability. Assess from The Tribune, Newspaper dated on 18 August. 20. Shaun Narine. (1997). ASEAN and the ARF: The Limits of the ASEAN Way. Asian Survey,Vol. 37, No. 10, October. 21. Suryanarayana, P. (1999). Fissures Surgace in ASEAN?. Assess from The Hindu Newspaper dated on 3 May. 22. Suryanarayana, P.S. (1999). Spratlys Dispute: ASEAN Evolves Code. Assess from The Hindu Newspaper dated on 9 November.

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