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Compassion and War COMPASSION AND WAR A CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF THE SOCIAL PRACTICE OF VOLUNTARY COMMUNITY SERVICE IN CONTEMPORARY AMERICA SHANTICHANDRAN SAND ARAN Thesis submitted in part fulfilment of the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY CARDIFF UNIVERSITY JANUARY 2008 UMI Number: U584309 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U584309 Published by ProQuest LLC 2013. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 CANDIDATE’S ID NUMBER 0227758 CANDIDATE’S LAST NAME SANDARAN CANDIDATE’S FIRST NAME(S) SHANTI CHANDRAN DECLARATION This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree. * Signed ............................................. (candidate) Date: 31 “ Jan 2008 STATEMENT 1 This thesis is being submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of PhD. Signed ....................fTf. Y...................... (candidate) Date: 31 “ Jan 2008 STATEMENT 2 This thesis is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references. Signed .................. /../■?...7.T.....7 .^ .................. (candidate) Date: 31“ Jan 2008 STATEMENT 3 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for interlibrary loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organizations. Signed .................................................... (candidate) Date: 31 “ Jan 2008 STATEMENT 4 - BAR ON ACCESS APPOROVED I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for interlibrary loan after exoirv of a bar on access approved bv the Graduate Development Committee. Signed ................f i . ........................................... (candidate) Date: 31 “ Jan 2008 ABSTRACT This study undertakes a critical investigation of the ideology underpinning the social practice of voluntary community service (VCS) in contemporary America. VCS is described as a hegemonic practice promoted by the Bush government, with the aim of social regulation and control of the people. The study combines Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) with Michel Foucault’s theorising of the practices of modem government, for its methodological and analytical procedures. It incorporates Wodak’s Discourse Historical Approach and Van Leeuwen’s discourse analytical approach, i.e. recontextualisation, representation of social actors and social action, and legitimation. Two sets of data are analysed: political discourse which comprise four key speeches by G.W. Bush between 2001 and 2002, and data from an ethnographic study of a group of grassroots practitioners of VCS in the state of Oklahoma. The analyses of Bush’s speeches centre on his attempts to mobilise the American people in VCS through the launching of a national service program - ‘the USA Freedom Corps’. The thesis compares Bush’s 2001 Inaugural Address and the 2002 State of the Union Address, of which only the latter appears to have succeeded in getting more people to volunteer. The analyses reveal a discursive shift in Bush’s strategy from the pre- and post- September 11 period, whereby the latter speech appeals not only to the nation’s patriotic feelings but also represents VCS as a ‘wartime effort’ in connection with the September 11 attacks and the subsequent ‘War On Terror’. The analyses show the discursive deployment of the right-wing Christian ideology underpinning Bush’s service initiative that is part of his political philosophy - ‘compassionate conservatism’, and its policy for welfare reform - the Faith Based Initiative. The ethnographic study of the grassroots level practice of VCS demonstrates how this dominant ideology is adopted and naturalised amongst the VCS practitioners. The USA Freedom Corps and the Faith Based Initiative are discussed as programs of conduct that steer its practitioners (the American people) to adopt the preferred attitudes, beliefs, practices and lifestyles. It is argued that the social practice of voluntary community service in contemporary America has become a hegemonic practice that aims for moral regulation and social control. - Dedication - To Dharma: ‘For true compassion in mankind* Table of Contents Abstract i Acknowledgements ii Dedication iii Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Setting the Scene 1 1.1.1 General Aims of the Study 4 1.2 Volunteerism and National Service in America 5 1.2.1 National Service Programs of the American Governments 5 1.2.2 The USA Freedom Corps as a Wartime Initiative to Mobilise the People 9 1.2.3 Linking the Civic Revival to Bush’s Call for Service, the USA Freedom Corps, September 11 and the War On Terror 11 1.3 The Specific Aims and Approach of the Study 16 1.4 Data and Methodology 22 1.4.1 Political Speeches 22 1.4.2 Case Study: Rosberg High’s Service Learning Community 23 1.5 Plan of the Thesis 25 Chapter 2 : Critical Discourse Analysis and Foucault’s ‘Governmentality’: Approaches for the Analysis of Ideology 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 Critical Linguistics (CL) and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) 32 2.3 Discourse 39 2.4 Ideology 45 2.5 Orders of Discourse: Linking Discourse, Ideology 51 And Social Practice 2.6 Commonsensical Practices, Hegemony, and the 54 Naturalisation of Ideology 2.7 ‘Governmentality’ and Social Control 60 2.7.1 ‘Government’ 63 2.7.2 ‘Rationality’ 65 2.7.3 ‘Govemmentality’ and Power 67 2.8 Technologies of Contemporary Governments for the Formation of Alliance between State and Society 71 2.8.1 Governing at a Distance/ Action at a Distance 74 2.8.2 Government through community 76 2.9 Summary and Conclusions 80 Chapter 3: Analytical Tools for the Study of Discourse and Ideology 3.1 Introduction 83 3.2 The Discourse Historical Approach for the Study 85 of the Context of VCS 3.2.1 Hyatt’s Model for the Analysis of the Temporal Context of VCS 90 3.3 Social Practices as Discursive Representations 96 3.3.1 Recontextualisation 99 3.3.2 Constructing and Representing Reality 112 3.4 Legitimation 131 3.5 Summary and Conclusions 136 Chapter 4: The Temporal Contextual Elements of the Social Practice of VCS in Contemporary America 4.1 Introduction 137 4.2 Immediate Socio-Political Context 141 4.2.1 The Aftermath of September 11 141 4.3 Medium term socio-political context 147 4.3.1 Compassionate Conservative Rhetoric and September 11 147 4.3.2 Socio-economic-political Perspectives on Welfare Reform and Poverty 151 4.4 Contemporary Socio-political Individuals 156 Organisations and Structures 4.4.1 Marvin Olasky and Compassionate Conservatism 157 4.5 Epoch 159 4.5.1 The Construction of September 11 as Timing 160 4.6 Summary and Conclusions 162 Chapter 5: Legitimating the Social Practice of VCS via C om passion 5.1 Introduction 163 5.2 Representing Authority and Power of the President 166 5.3 Representing Government through Its Role 170 5.4 Representing the People of America a Civic 171 Community 5.5 Representing the People in Need as ‘Others9 177 5.6 Representing VCS via Citizenship and Communitarianism 179 5.7 Representing Voluntary Service via a Moral 182 Discourse 5.8 Legitimating Voluntary Service as a Moralised 186 and Moralising Social Practice 5.9 Summary and Conclusions 195 Chapter 6: Legitimating the Social Practice of VCS via W ar 6.1 Introduction 200 6.2 Representing Authority and Power of the President 203 6.2.1 Repetition of ‘War’ and ‘September 11 ’ 209 6.2.2 Repetition of the American Core Value - ‘Freedom’ 212 6.3 Discourses of Authority, War and Nationalism for 216 the Legitimation of VCS 6.3.1 Authoritarian Discourse 216 vi 6.3.2 Discourse of War 217 6.3.3 Discourse of Nationalism 219 6.4 Representing VCS via the Discourses of War and 227 Nationalism 6.4.1 Representation of the People of America as a National Community 227 6.4.2 Representation of the People in Need as the ‘Other’ 232 6.4.3 Representing VCS as Part of War and Nationalism 235 6.5 Representing September 11 as Authority 239 6.6 Summary and Conclusions 242 Chapter 7: Legitimating Conservative Ideology for Welfare Reform through ‘Community9 and Voluntary Community Service 7.1 Introduction 249 7.2 Bush’s New Approach to Fight Poverty via 254 ‘Community’ 7.3 Constructing and Reinforcing Conservative Ideology 267 through the Discourse of Social Exclusion 7.3.1 Poverty and the Discourse of Social Exclusion 268 7.3.2 Constructing and Representing ‘People in Poverty’ versus ‘Service Providers’ 273 7.3.3 Representing the Social Reality of Poverty and Welfare 285 7.3.4 Legitimating the Faith Based Agenda through the Moral Underclass Discourse 289 7.4 Summary and Conclusions 290 Chapter 8: Legitimating and Naturalising Government Ideology via Voluntary Community Service 8.1 Introduction 297 8.2 The Social Structure of the Social Practice of VCS in the Post September 11 Era 302 8.3 Student-Volunteers: Developing the Self Through VCS 312 vii 8.3.1 Rebuilding Together Mr. McClellan’s Home and Life 314 8.3.2 Being Role Models for Underprivileged Kids 324 8.4 SL Teacher: Styling the Discourses
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