China’s Confucius Institute in the Discourse of Power in International Relations: A Case Study of the Confucius Institute in Africa Siyuan Li Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Languages, Cultures and Societies Leeds University Business School University of Leeds March 2017 The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no question from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. © 2017 The University of Leeds and Siyuan Li Acknowledgements Thanks must go first and foremost to the people of the Confucius Institute whom I met and listened to during the production of this thesis. In what follows, I have done my very best to do justice to the hospitality and trust that they showed me over the course of my research. This has not been easy and I am not sure that I have succeeded. Thanks also to Dr Kweku Ampiah and Dr Hinrich Voss who have consistently provided first-rate supervision and support over the course of this project. They enlightened me at some critical moments and pushed me to polish and enrich the overall body of this thesis. The debates we had around Foucault and his theories will remain some of the best memories in my life. Finally, thanks to my parents for providing invaluable love and support. As teachers, they have always taught me the importance of education in people’s lives. Thanks must also go to Darren who made my time away from thesis colourful. Special thanks to Ben who took time out from his busy schedule to proofread this thesis. I Abstract More than 30 countries in the world sponsor a Language and Culture Promotion Organisation (LCPO), disseminating their own languages, cultures and other knowledge to people of different nationalities. The Confucius Institute (CI), as one such organisation, was set up by the Chinese government in 2004. This thesis uses the example of the CIs in Africa to examine the role of the CI in a two-dimensional power analytical framework. This framework was built on the key elements of both traditional understanding of power in international relations and Foucault’s conception of power. In the first dimensional analysis, the CI is seen as a concrete entity. The material and strategic support for the construction and operation of this organistion is elaborated. The second dimensional analysis adopts a Foucauldian perspective where the CI is deconstructed. It demonstrates the CI’s power technology, including its power structure, power techniques and power instruments. By examining the power effects produced by the CI’s power technology, the thesis argues that the CI plays a positive role in promoting China’s national interest in Africa and China-Africa relations. II Contents Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………………………..I Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………II List of Tables, Charts and Figures…………………………………………………………………………VII Acronyms and Abbreviations……………………………………………………………………………..VIII Chapter 1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………….1 1.1 Modern China-Africa Relations: Stages and Features……………………………………..1 1.1.1 1950s – 1970s: Political and Ideological Comrades………………………………….4 1.1.2 1980s – 2000: From Ideology to Pragmatism…………………………………………..8 1.1.3 After 2000: Comprehensive and Institutional Development…………………..14 1.2 A Portrait of the Confucius Institute………………………………………………………………22 1.3 The Confucius Institute and Foucault’s Conception of Power………………………..26 1.4 Research Questions and Thesis Outline…………………………………………………………29 1.5 Contributions…………………………………………………………………………………………………34 Chapter 2 Literature Review…………………………………………………………………………………38 2.1 Literature on LCPOs and the CI………………………………………………………………………38 2.1.1 Traditional Understanding of Power……………………………………………………39 2.1.2 LCPO as Cultural Diplomacy Tool…………………………………………………………42 2.1.3 LCPO as Public Diplomacy Tool……………………………………………………………45 2.1.4 LCPO as Soft Power Tool……………………………………………………………………..47 2.1.5 A Notable Gap in Existing Literature……………………………………………………51 2.2 Foucault’s Conception of Power…………………………………………………………………….52 2.2.1 Power and the Body……………………………………………………………………………53 2.2.2 Disciplinary Power and the Subject……………………………………………………..55 2.3.3 The Panopticon and Power Structure………………………………………………….64 2.2.4 The Productivity of Power and the Dynamics of Power/Knowledge…….66 III 2.2.5 An Essentially Dominatory Notion of Power………………………………………..69 2.2.6 Incompatibility of Power and Resistance…………………………………………….72 2.2.7 Searching for Answers to Resistance…………………………………………………..76 2.3 A Two-dimensional Power Analytical Framework………………………………………….79 2.4 Summary……………………………………………………………………………………………………….90 Chapter 3 Methodology……………………………………………………………………………………….93 3.1 Study Design………………………………………………………………………………………………….93 3.1.1 Sampling of Cases…………………………………………………………………………………..96 3.1.2 Interview………………………………………………………………………………………………..98 3.1.2.1 Identify Interviewees……………………………………………………………………….99 3.1.2.2 Recruitment Strategies…………………………………………………………………..102 3.1.2.3 Interview Questions……………………………………………………………………….104 3.1.3 Documentary Data………………………………………………………………………………. 106 3.1.3.1 CI Documents…………………………………………………………………………………107 3.1.3.2 News Articles…………………………………………………………………………………110 3.2 In the Field…………………………………………………………………………………………………..110 3.3 Data Analysis……………………………………………………………………………………………….115 3.4 Validity and Reliability………………………………………………………………………………… 121 3.5 Ethical Issues……………………………………………………………………………………………….123 3.6 Limitations…………………………………………………………………………………………………..125 Chapter 4 The Establishment of the CI……………………………………………………………….128 4.1 Power Intentions of the CI…………………………………………………………………………..129 4.2 Hanban and the CI……………………………………………………………………………………….133 4.3 Material and Strategic Support of the CI in Africa………………………………………..137 4.3.1 Support from Leaders……………………………………………………………………………139 4.3.2 Advertising Effect………………………………………………………………………………….143 4.3.3 A Joint-venture……………………………………………………………………………………..145 4.3.4 A Win-win Spirit……………………………………………………………………………………150 IV 4.3.5 Sufficient Human Resources………………………………………………………………….155 4.3.6 Open to the People……………………………………………………………………………….159 4.3.7 Continuous Incentives…………………………………………………………………………..161 4.4 The Establishment of the CI: Summary………………………………………………………..165 Chapter 5 Power Operations of the CI………………………………………………………………..167 5.1 The Power Structure of the CI……………………………………………………………………..168 5.1.1 The “Central Tower” of the CI……………………………………………………………….169 5.1.2 Distribution of the CI’s Power Space……………………………………………………..173 5.1.3 Hierarchical Observation of the CI…………………………………………………………180 5.1.4 A Spatial Division in the CI’s Power Structure………………………………………..190 5.2 The Normalisation of the CI…………………………………………………………………………197 5.2.1 The Norm of the CI……………………………………………………………………………….198 5.2.2 The Control of Activities in the CI………………………………………………………….206 5.2.3 The Organisation of Time in the CI………………………………………………………..210 5.2.4 The Composition of Forces in the CI………………………………………………………217 5.2.5 The Examination of the CI……………………………………………………………………..223 5.3 Power Operations of the CI: Summary…………………………………………………………231 Chapter 6 Power Effects of the CI……………………………………………………………………….234 6.1 The Dynamics of Power/Knowledge in the CI………………………………………………235 6.2 The Subjects of the CI………………………………………………………………………………….247 6.2.1 The Subjects and Their Usefulness……………………………………..………………...248 6.2.2 The Formation of a Community with Common Destiny…………………………255 6.2.3 Subjects in Favour of China……………………………………………………………………258 6.3 Power Effects of the CI: Summary………………………………………………………………..265 Chapter 7 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………268 7.1 A Summary of the Findings………………………………………………………………………….268 7.1.1 Why and how the CI was set up?..............................................................269 V 7.1.2 How does the CI operate?........................................................................ 271 7.1.3 What power effects has the CI produced? ………………………………………….. 273 7.2 Limitations…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 275 References…………………………………………………………………………………………………………278 Appendices………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 289 VI List of Tables, Charts and Figures Table 1.1 Stages of Modern China-Africa Relations……………………………………………………4 Table 1.2 Educational Cooperation and Exchange Measures in FOCAC Action Plans..19 Chart 2.1 the Logic of the Two-Dimensional Power Analytical Framework………………82 Chart 2.2 Area B of the Two-Dimensional Power Analytical Framework Axes………….90 Table 3.1: Confucius Institutes in Sub-Sahara Africa (as of 31/12/2016)………………….94 Figure 3.1: Confucius Institutes in Sub-Sahara Africa (as of 31/12/2016)…………………96 Table 3.2: CIs and Other LCPOs Visited During Fieldwork………………………………………..97 Table 3.3: Relevance between Interviewees and Research Issues………………………… 100 Table 3.4: Core interview questions for CI directors………………………………………………104 Table 3.5: Core interview questions for administrative staff………………………………….105 Table 3.6: Core interview questions for teachers…………………………………………………..105 Table 3.7: Core interview questions for students…………………………………………………..105 Table 3.8: Core interview questions for CI Chinese partner’s officials……………………105 Table 3.9: Core interview questions for Chinese scholars………………………………………106 Table 3.10: Numbers of documents collected from CIs………………………………………….107 Table 3.11: Relevance between Key Issues