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Choice of Attractions, Expenditure and Satisfaction of International Tourists to Kenya /Pius Odunga Phd-Thesis, Wageningen University

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Choice of Attractions, Expenditure and Satisfaction of International Tourists to Kenya /Pius Odunga Phd-Thesis, Wageningen University Choice of Attractions, Expenditure and Satisfaction of International Tourists to Kenya Pius Ongoro Odunga Promotor: prof. dr. H. Folmer Hoogleraar in de Algemene Economie Wageningen Universiteit, Nederland prof. dr. G. Antonides Hoogleraar in de Economie van Consumenten en Huishoudens Wageningen Universiteit, Nederland Co-promotor: prof. dr. W.J.M. Heijman Hoogleraar in de Regionale Economie Wageningen Universiteit, Nederland Promotiecommissie: prof. dr. J. Lengkeek, Wageningen Universiteit dr. J.H.L. Oud, Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen prof. dr. A.F. Mkenda, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania prof. dr. A. Meister, Massey University, Nieuw Zeeland Dit onderzoek is uitgevoerd binnen de onderzoekschool Mansholt Graduate School of Social Sciences Choice of Attractions, Expenditure and Satisfaction of International Tourists to Kenya Pius Ongoro Odunga Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor op gezag van de rector magnificus van Wageningen Universiteit, Prof.dr.ir. L. Speelman, in het openbaar te verdedigen op dinsdag 28 juni 2005 des namiddags te half twee in de Aula ISBN: 90-8504-291-0 Odunga, Pius Choice of Attractions, Expenditure and Satisfaction of International Tourists to Kenya /Pius Odunga PhD-thesis, Wageningen University. – With ref. – With summary in Dutch Acknowledgements I have been supported by many people in my academic life and this has enabled me to come this far. Besides these people, I thank my brains, my thoughts, my hands, and my corporal body for they are always helpful to me. I now have the opportunity to thank some of those people, who have contributed towards this achievement. The research project leading to this thesis was funded by the MHO-TOURISM project (under the auspices of NUFFIC): Strengthening the Teaching and Research Capacity of the Department of Tourism. The Dutch government through the Joint Financing Programme for Cooperation in Higher Education (MHO) and the Kenya Government through Moi University facilitated the implementation of this project. I am indebted to all my promoters and supervisors who made contributions at different stages of the thesis. Special thanks to Prof. dr. Henk Folmer who inducted me into the whole process, sustained me in it and saw me through it. He promoted me into the academic fraternity, whereby simultaneous and systematic thinking was the order of the day. Prof. dr. Gerrit Antonides helped re-enforce these virtues during the crucial final stretch. Prof. dr. Wim Heijman kept me on track. Dr Stu Cottrell made sure I did not give up during the first lap of the race. I salute the staff at the Hucht for having given me ‘soft landing’ in the Netherlands: Rene van der Duim for logistical support and the translation of my thesis summary into Dutch language, Carla van Zwaaij for arranging finances in time and Jan Philipsen for the introduction to the Dutch way of life. I convey special gratitude to Annelies Coppelmans and Margaret van Wissen for making sure that I had pleasant working environment. I appreciate the company of other staff members at my study place in the Netherlands (Dr Pierre van Mouche, Dr Rein Haagsma, Dr Jan Rouwendal, Dr Johan van Ophem). Kudos to my fellow doctoral colleagues: Judith Cornelisse (Netherlands), Kofi Asiedu (Ghana), Subrata Dutta (India), Morteza Chalak (Iran), Muyeye Chambwera (Zimbabwe), Hoang Huy Nguyen (Vietnam), Romanus Dimoso (Tanzania), Leonie Cramer (Netherlands), Masayo Igata (Japan) and to Afaf Rahim (Sudan) and Beatrice Salasya (Kenya) from the neighbouring departments. The Kenyan and African students’ communities at Wageningen University provided the missing link. v Special thanks to my colleagues at the department of Tourism Management, Moi University in Kenya (Wishitemi, Akama, Musyoki, Kiage, Ongaro, Kibicho and Kieti). I single out Prof Bob Wishitemi for logistical and administrative support and Prof John Akama for supervisory role during my frequent sojourns in Kenya. I recognize the support from my field assistants during the research period in Kenya: Dan Muoki and Linus Muli; and the enumerators who did the ground work and the tourists who provided the information that made this study possible. Institutional support from Kenya Tourist Board and Kenya Airports Authority during this period is highly appreciated. I extend my sincere gratitude to all those who helped in data compilation (especially Mr Orori), and the proof-reading and type-setting of the final thesis: Joy Kearney, Vivienne Oguya and Sascha Herzberg. Special acknowledgement go to my family members: my wife, Judith, for making sure I kept appointments with respect to my studies, my son (Francis) for organizing my notes in computer folders, my daughter (Valerie) for keeping my study diary updated, my son (Evans) for keeping the home library in order and my daughter (Joan) for tidying the study room. Many thanks to friends, relatives and in particular my parents, brothers and sisters: my father (Gaetano) for instilling courage, my mother (Emmah) for moral support, my brothers (Paul, Patrick, Robert, Godfrey, Peter, Nobert and Sebby) for encouragement and my sisters (Pauline and Maggy) for showing concern. Above all, all praises to the Almighty Pius Odunga Wageningen, 28th June, 2005. vi Abstract In this thesis, we examine the impact of tour packaging on preference, expenditure and satisfaction among the international tourists visiting Kenya for holidays. The declining average per capita earnings from tourism, for instance from US $544 in 1990 to US$ 307 in 2000, necessitated the need to examine the preferences and expenditure levels of tourists. Choices of attractions visited were reputedly influenced by preferences and in turn these choices determine the expenditure patterns and levels. The reduction in the length of stay (for instance from 13.3 days in 1996 to 8.4 days in 2001) motivated the necessity to assess the satisfaction of tourists. With increased competition from other destinations in a region, tourists are likely to allocate a smaller proportion of their holiday-durations to those destinations where they have low expectations in terms of holiday experiences. Policies encouraging mass (packaged travel) and alternative forms (independent travel) of tourism have been adopted interchangeably or jointly over the last few decades. The levels of earnings appear to be related to the policy options pursued during given periods, whereby mass travel is associated with low earnings per tourist while alternative forms of travel result in higher earnings. Neighbouring countries of Tanzania and Uganda have consistently pursued the alternative forms of tourism and consequently their earnings from tourism have shown trends contrary to those of Kenya. While the receipts per tourist arrivals were falling in the case of Kenya, those for Uganda were rising from US $145 in 1990 to US $803 in 2000 and US $909 in 1995 to US$1610 in 2000 for Tanzania. Given this scenario, we argue that the form of travel adopted affects preferences and hence choices of attractions visited and facilities utilized, expenditure and satisfaction levels of tourists. This study was undertaken within the conceptual framework of consumer behaviour whereby choice, expenditure and satisfaction theories with respect to tourists were adopted. These theories were used to identify the determinants of preferences, expenditure and satisfaction, and to determine their measurements and structural relationships. Various personal and trip attributes were considered. A linear structural relationship (LISREL) approach was applied in order to estimate the structural equation systems by using its maximum likelihood estimator. This approach vii checks for simultaneity bias in the model and simultaneously estimates the latent and observable variables in the measurement and structural models. Using data from 1,566 tourists who had completed their holidays in Kenya, we found that various forms of travel based on packaging do not significantly affect the preferences, expenditure levels and satisfaction of tourists. However, tourists’ characteristics and their trip attributes have significant effects on these variables. Advanced age, higher socio-economic status, larger group size and shorter length of stay are associated with higher preference for wildlife viewing. Advanced age, longer length of stay, lower socio-economic status and smaller group size leads to higher preference for beach tourism. Gender and income were found to be insignificant in influencing preferences for wildlife and beach tourism. Higher socio-economic status and larger group size enhances preference for cultural tourism. Age, gender, income, and length of stay were insignificant in the case of cultural tourism. Higher socio- economic status, less advanced age, male, larger group size and shorter length of stay result in higher expenditure per tourist per day. In addition, higher preferences for wildlife-viewing and cultural tourism result in higher levels of expenditure. Beach tourism and income did not significantly influence expenditure. Tourist satisfaction is positively associated with the importance of attractions to tourists and the value put on facilities utilized in the tourism industry. Concerns by tourists before and during travel have converse effects. The only tourist characteristics and trip variables that influence satisfaction were gender, group size and income. Female tourists reported greater satisfaction than their male counterparts. Higher levels of satisfaction were also reported among tourists travelling
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