Understanding the Astrophysical Origin of Silver, Palladium and Other Neutron-Capture Elements

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Understanding the Astrophysical Origin of Silver, Palladium and Other Neutron-Capture Elements Understanding the astrophysical origin of silver, palladium and other neutron-capture elements Camilla Juul Hansen M¨unchen 2010 Understanding the astrophysical origin of silver, palladium and other neutron-capture elements Camilla Juul Hansen Dissertation an der Fakult¨at f¨ur Physik der Ludwig–Maximilians–Universit¨at M¨unchen vorgelegt von Camilla Juul Hansen aus Lillehammer, Norwegen M¨unchen, den 20/12/2010 Erstgutachter: Achim Weiss Zweitgutachter: Joseph Mohr Tag der m¨undlichen Pr¨ufung: 22 M¨arz 2011 Contents 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Evolutionoftheformationprocesses . ..... 2 1.2 Neutron-capture processes: The historical perspective............ 5 1.3 Features and description of the neutron-capture processes.......... 7 1.4 Whatisknownfromobservations? . .. 9 1.5 Why study palladium and silver? . .. 15 1.6 Abiggerpicture................................. 16 2 Data - Sample and Data Reduction 19 2.1 Compositionofthesample . 19 2.1.1 Samplebiases .............................. 21 2.2 Datareduction ................................. 22 2.2.1 Fromrawtoreducedspectra. 22 2.2.2 IRAF versus UVES pipeline . 25 2.3 Merging ..................................... 26 2.3.1 Radialvelocityshift .......................... 27 3 Stellar Parameters 29 3.1 Methods for determining stellar parameters . ........ 29 3.2 Temperature................................... 30 3.2.1 Comparingtemperaturescales . 32 3.3 Gravity ..................................... 34 3.4 Metallicity.................................... 35 3.5 Microturbulence velocity, ξ ........................... 35 3.6 Errorestimation ................................ 38 4 Abundance Analysis 43 4.1 Thetools:MOOGandMARCS . .. .. 43 4.2 Stellar atmospheres and terminology . ..... 43 4.3 Compilingalinelist .............................. 45 4.4 Calibratingthelinelist. ... 49 4.4.1 Determiningabundances . 52 4.4.2 How Abundances and Stellar Parameters relate . .... 58 vi Zusammenfassung 4.5 Errorpropagationfortheabundances . ..... 60 4.6 Fromcolourtoabundances–arecipe . ... 61 5 Results 67 5.1 Abundances ................................... 67 5.2 Abundancetrends................................ 75 5.3 Discussion.................................... 86 5.4 Summary .................................... 89 6 The r-process site 95 6.1 Comparison to supernova wind model predictions . ....... 95 6.2 Comparing to low mass SN yield predictions . ..... 103 6.3 Summary .................................... 110 7 Discussion and Conclusion 113 7.1 Future ...................................... 117 Acknowledgements 120 A Appendix 123 Zusammenfassung vii Zusammenfassung Hauptinhalt der Arbeit ist die Untersuchung von schwersten Elementen im Kosmos. Beson- ders ihr Ursprung ist von großem Interesse. Elemente, die schwerer als Eisen sind, entste- hen in der Regel bei so genannten Neutroneneinfang-Prozessen, die bis heute noch nicht vollst¨andig erforscht sind. Trotzdem wurden in den letzten Jahren große Fortschritte im Verst¨andnis dieser Prozesse erzielt. Vor allem die Fragen nach dem Entstehungsort und Produktionsablauf schwerer Elemente stehen im Vordergrund dieser Forschungen. Abh¨angig von der Neutronendichte in ihrer Umgebung lassen sich Neutroneneinfangprozesse in zwei Arten unterteilen. Ist diese Dichte hoch, kann der Prozess dementsprechend schnell ablaufen und man spricht von einem r-Prozess (aus dem engl. rapid). Das Gegenst¨uck stellt der s-Prozess dar (engl. slow), der wiederum in zwei Unterprozesse aufgeteilt werden kann. Im ”Hauptprozess” werden schwere Isotope (wie z.B. Barium; 90 ≤A≤209) gebildet, w¨ahrend der ”schwache Prozess” die leichteren Isotope (z. B. Strontium; 56 ≤A≤90) pro- duziert. Diese s-Prozesse laufen haupts¨achlich in Sternen ab, die sich im Hertzsprung- Russell Diagramm auf dem Asymptotischen Riesenast befinden. Durch die detaillierte Untersuchung der Elemente Pd und Ag in der vorliegende Arbeit finden sich auch f¨ur den r-Prozess Hinweise auf zwei Unterprozesse. Im Gegensatz zu leichteren Elementen wie Sauerstoff oder Magnesium waren Silber und Palladium vorher kaum untersucht worden, und stellten daher neben vielen anderen schweren Elementen nach wie vor weiße Flecken im Periodensystem dar. Diese Arbeit versucht nun erstmals ein paar dieser Fragen zu beantworten und das Verst¨andnis des r-Prozesses zu verbessern. Um detaillierte Informa- tionen der Elementh¨aufigkeiten in Sternen der Elemente Silber und Palladium zu erhalten, wurden hochaufgel¨oste Spektren mit hohem Signal-zu-Rauschverh¨altniss f¨ur Sterne in ver- schiedenen Entwicklungsstadien gewonnen. Die Spektren, aufgenommen mit UVES, einem Echelle Spektrograf im ultravioletten und sichtbaren Wellenl¨angenbereich, sowie mit dem hochaufl¨osendem Echelle Spektrograf HIRES, wurden sorgf¨altig reduziert, so dass die stel- laren Parameter und die Elementh¨aufigkeiten mit großer Genauigkeit bestimmt werden konnten. Dies geschah durch Anwendung von 1D Modelatmosph¨aren in Verbindung mit synthetischen Spektren unter der Annahme lokalen thermodynamischen Gleichgewichts. Vergleicht man nun beide Elemente, kann man aus ihrem Verh¨altnis zueinander Schl¨usse ¨uber ihre Entstehungsprozesse ziehen. Sind die Elemente miteinander korreliert, so be- deutet dies, dass sie aus dem gleichen Prozess hervorgehen. Eine Antikorrelation hingegen deutet auf verschiedene Entstehungsprozesse der beiden Elemente hin. Mit diesen Infor- mationen ist es m¨oglich, die Bildungsprozesse aller Elemente von Interesse (Strontium (Sr), Yttrium (Y), Zirconium (Zr), Palladium (Pd), Silber (Ag), Barium (Ba) and Europium (Eu)) zu analysieren. Der Vergleich der H¨aufigkeiten mittels Vorhersagen von nukleosyn- thetischen Modellen erlaubt es, die Vielzahl m¨oglicher Entstehungsorte dieser Elemente einzud¨ammen und zu verstehen. Die Modelle beschr¨anken sich auf zwei vorgeschlagene Szenarien: starke Winde nach Supernova Typ II Explosionen und massearme (schwache) Kernkollaps-Supernovae. Durch Untersuchung von Sternen mit nur einem Promille des Eisenanteils der Sonne bis hin zu den Sternen, deren Eisenvorkommen dem der Sonne sehr ¨ahnlich ist, konnte die Entwicklung der schweren Elemente gut verfolgt werden. W¨ahrend viii Zusammenfassung der Analyse dieser unterschiedlichen Sterne wurden vier verschiedene Neutroneneinfang- prozesse identifiziert. Des Weiteren wurde nachgewiesen, dass ein zweiter schwacher r- Prozess ben¨otigt wird, um die Menge an beobachtetem Ag und Pd zu erkl¨aren. Dennoch m¨ussen noch weitere metallarme Sterne untersucht werden, um diese Aussage zu festigen und sie auf die fr¨uhen Entwicklungsphasen der Milchstrße ausweiten zu k¨onnen. Der Ver- gleich der Elementh¨aufigkeiten mit den Vorhersagen von Modellen hat außerdem gezeigt, dass entweder die astrophysikalischen Objekten z.B. sehr verschiedene Entropien haben m¨ussen, oder dass zwei verschiedene Entstehungsorte f¨ur schwere Elemente existieren. Zusammenfassung ix Abstract Understanding the creation of the heaviest elements is the focus of this work. Elements heavier than iron are produced by the yet not fully understood neutron-capture processes. However, in recent years significant progress in understanding how and where these pro- cesses take place has been achieved. The neutron-capture processes are comprised of two different mechanisms, namely the slow and rapid neutron-capture process (the s- and r-process, respectively) which reflect both the duration and the neutron density of the processes. The s-process is subdivided into two channels, a main and a weak process, each responsible for creating heavy (90 ≤A≤209) and light (56 ≤A≤90) isotopes respec- tively (Heil et al. 2009). They are tied to asymptotic and red giant branch stars. For the r-process, there exists some observational proof of such a branching into main and weak processes. Detailed abundance analysis of elements like silver and palladium confirmed this. Until now these elements have not been studied in as much detail as many of the lighter elements (such as oxygen and magnesium). Silver and palladium together with many of the very heavy elements remain unknown ’gaps’ in our understanding of the Pe- riodic Table. The aim of my study is to shed light on these holes in our knowledge of the heavy elements. In order to accomplish this, we need information from stellar abundances of the ele- ments in question. This requires a detailed, high-resolution and high signal-to-noise stellar spectral abundance study of stars at different evolutionary stages. Our sample of stars was defined by stars spanning a broad range of stellar parameters. The stellar spectra ob- served with the Ultraviolet and Visual Echelle Spectrograph (UVES, Dekker et al. 2000) by Primas (2010) and the HIgh Resolution Echelle Spectrometer (HIRES, Vogt et al. 1994) required careful reduction to obtain the highest possible spectral quality. The stellar pa- rameters were determined and the stellar abundances derived. This was carried out with 1D model atmospheres (MARCS, Gustafsson et al. 2008) and synthetic spectrum code (MOOG, Sneden 1973, v. 2009) under the assumption of local thermodynamic equilib- rium. By comparing the elemental abundances to each other, their pairwise correlation can be determined, which in turn provides the confirmation that the two elements originate from a similar process, or an anti-correlation predicting different formation processes of the elements. This will be used to map the formation processes of the seven heavy element under study (strontium (Sr), yttrium (Y), zirconium (Zr), palladium (Pd), silver (Ag), barium (Ba) and europium (Eu)). Comparing
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