Climate and Energy Action Plan
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Content
DECISIONS OF THE CITY COUNCIL ON 20 SEPTEMBER 2010 5 SUMMARY 6
1 ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY – “PUT YOUR OWN HOUSE IN ORDER FIRST ” – MEASURES IN THE MUNICIPALITY’S OWN OPERATIONS 15 1.1 Environmental policy for Bergen Municipality ...... 15
2 OBJECTIVES AND BACKGROUND 16 2.1 Background...... 16 2.2.1 Climate and energy targets for Bergen...... 16 2.1.2 Previous plans and decisions concerning greenhouse gas emissions...... 18 2.1.3 The greenhouse effect and greenhouse gases...... 20 2.2 National development and national objectives...... 22 2.3 Ongoing plans and reports that are important for the Action Plan ...... 24 2.4 Organisation of the work on the Action Plan ...... 27
3 STATUS OF ENERGY USE AND GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS 28 3.1 Status of energy use ...... 28 3.1.1 Stationary energy use...... 28 3.1.2 Mobile energy use ...... 30 3.2 Status of greenhouse gas emissions ...... 30 3.2.1 Development of greenhouse gas emissions in Norway...... 30 3.2.2 Development of greenhouse gas emissions in Bergen ...... 31 3.3 What do the different measurements mean?...... 33
4 STRUCTURE OF THE ACTION PLAN 35
5 MOBILE ENERGY USE AND GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS 37 5.1 Status and future development ...... 37 5.1.1 Road traffic development...... 37 5.1.2 Emissions from road traffic must be seen in a regional context ...... 37 5.1.3 Aviation and sea transport...... 38 5.1.4 Greenhouse gas emissions from mobile sources...... 38 5.1.5 Existing plans ...... 39 5.1.6 Future development...... 39 5.2 Target setting for mobile emissions ...... 40 5.3 The interrelationship between mobile emissions, the environment and the economy...... 41 5.4 Policy instruments...... 42 5.4.1 Main features...... 42 5.4.2 Cities of the Future ...... 43 5.4.3 Land use and urban development...... 43 5.4.4 Enhance public transport...... 45 5.4.5 Enhancing pedestrian and cycle traffic...... 48 5.4.6 Regulate car traffic ...... 49 5.4.7 Reduce emissions from each vehicle ...... 52 5.4.8 Other sources of mobile emissions ...... 54 5.4.9 Packages of measures and effects up to 2030 ...... 55
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5.4.10 Car sharing...... 55 5.4.11 First put your own house in order...... 55 5.4.12 Emissions from road transport...... 56 5.4.13 Emissions from other mobile sources...... 57 5.4.14 Summary of measures and effects of technological gains ...... 57 5.4.15 Nil emissions from the transport sector? ...... 59
6 STATIONARY ENERGY USE AND GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS 66 6.1 Status and future development ...... 66 6.1.1 Stationary energy use in Bergen ...... 66 6.1.2 The present situation...... 67 6.1.3 Current plans and activities ...... 67 6.1.4 Targets and development...... 68 6.1.5 Relationship between energy, environment and economy...... 70 6.2 District Heating...... 70 6.3 Energy efficient buildings ...... 71 6.4 Putting our own house in order first ...... 72 6.4.1 Energy management and energy efficiency improvement in municipal activities....72 6.4.2 Energy efficient buildings in the Municipality...... 72 6.4.3 Energy labelling of buildings...... 73 6.5 Policy instruments...... 73 6.5.1 Regulatory instruments, legislative changes, taxes etc...... 73 6.5.2 Grants and subsidies...... 74 6.5.3 Cities of the Future ...... 74 6.5.4 Reduction in energy use...... 75 6.5.5 District heating...... 75 6.5.6 Alternative energy sources...... 75 6.5.7 Expertise, knowledge and attitude creation work ...... 76 6.5.8 Other policy instruments...... 76 6.6 Proposals for measures and effects...... 77 6.6.1 Climate, Environment and Energy Fund...... 77 6.6.2 Determined measures in the Municipality’s own activities...... 77 6.6.3 Proposals for measures...... 77 6.6.4 Calculation and assumptions for the extent of incentives and measures...... 78 6.6.5 Consolidated presentation of measures and effects ...... 78 6.6.6 Portfolio of measures...... 79 6.6.7 Short-term measures 2010-2014...... 79 6.6.8 Long-term measures 2015-2030 ...... 85
7 WASTE AND CONSUMPTION PATTERN 93 7.1 Status and future development ...... 93 7.1.1 The present waste situation...... 93 7.1.2 Existing plans and anticipated development ...... 94 7.2 Objectives and targets for waste and consumption ...... 96 7.2.1 Principal objectives...... 96 7.2.2 Objectives and targets for consumption pattern and waste minimisation...... 96 7.2.3 Objectives and targets for treating household waste...... 97 7.2.4 Objectives and targets for treating waste from commercial activity and institutions 97 7.3 Relationships between waste, consumption and greenhouse gas emissions ...... 97 7.4 Policy instruments and legal authorities for waste and consumption pattern measures...... 98 7.4.1 Waste minimisation ...... 98
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7.4.2 Attitude creation work...... 98 7.4.3 Better treatment of household waste...... 99 7.4.4 Measures at the landfill sites ...... 99 7.4.5 Better handling of commercial waste...... 100 7.5 Proposals for measures and effects...... 100 7.5.1 Work processes...... 100 7.5.2 Prospects for landfill gas emissions ...... 100 7.5.3 Prospects in other areas...... 101 7.5.4 How the summary is built up ...... 101 7.5.5 Comparison of the effects of the measures...... 102 7.5.6 Summary of proposed measures with descriptions and consequences...... 103 7.5.7 Summary of measures with costs and effects at key points in time ...... 114
8 ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE 117 8.1 Introduction ...... 117 8.2 Challenges posed by climate change ...... 117 8.3 Local adaptation to climate change...... 117 8.4 Further work on climate adaptation and land use planning...... 122
9 SUMMARY AND FURTHER WORK 124 9.1 Ambitious targets require powerful measures...... 124 9.2 Projection of the basic forecast - baseline scenario without measures...... 124 9.3 Effect of the packages of measures...... 124 9.3.1 Overall achievement of targets...... 125 9.3.2 Climate-neutral Bergen?...... 126 9.3.3 Adaptation to climate change ...... 127 9.4 The way ahead...... 127
10 REFERENCES 129
ENCLOSURE 1. ORGANISATION OF THE WORK 132
ENCLOSURE 2. OPTIONS FOR BETTER CONTROL AND EXPLOITATION OF LANDFILL GAS 134
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Decisions of the City Council on 20 September 2010
Bergen City Council discussed the Proposition in meeting 200910 under Proposition 212-10 (Archive item 200708299) and made the following decision: The City Council approves:
1. The Climate and Energy Action Plan for Bergen covering the following areas of operation: • Land use and transport • Stationary energy • Consumption patterns and waste • Adaptation to climate change
2. The basis of the plan is that projects already started and planned in the Municipality shall be seen in a climate political context and that there must be consistency between the Climate and Energy Action Plan and other municipal plans prepared in the areas of land use, transport, energy, consumption patterns and waste.
3. The existing climate fund will be developed further into a climate, environment and energy fund.
4. Bergen Municipality wants the Norwegian Government to change its policy with regard to the car industry so that it becomes worthwhile to renew the car population. Newer cars have lower emissions than older cars and Norway has an older car population than the countries with which we like to compare ourselves.
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Summary
Bergen Municipality aims to lead the way, by ensuring that the Bergen region is a region that takes the climate challenges seriously.
In many areas the Municipality has been pro-active in facing climate challenges. Bergen was the first municipality in the country to prepare its own climate plan. In 2008 a Climate Section was established, which coordinates the work on climate, environment and energy.
Bergen Municipality has carried out a risk and sensitivity analysis that is unique in a national context. The Municipality has very good knowledge about the risk of flooding, high winds, high water levels, large waves, extreme precipitation and landslide dangers as a result of extreme weather and climate change. This knowledge will be used to reduce the risk of accidents and catastrophes and to ameliorate the consequences.
These elements have led to there being extensive involvement in the city about what we as an urban community can do about climate challenges.
Bergen Municipality’s first Climate Action Plan was adopted by the City Council as early as 28 February 2000 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 30 percent and CO 2 emissions by 20 percent, from 1991 to 2005. In 2002 a report was prepared about the greenhouse gas emissions status in Bergen for the period 1991-2001. The report was based on the most recent official figures from Statistics Norway. The result showed that the total greenhouse gas emissions in Bergen had increased by 7 percent from 1991 to 1999. This equates to emissions 34 percent higher than the target set in the Climate Action Plan.
The matter of following up the Climate Action Plan was submitted to the City Council on 18 April 2005 (Proposition 85/05). A review was carried out here of the status of the measures associated with the Climate Action Plan from 2000. The City Council then made the following decisions: • “The report “Follow-up of the Climate Action Plan for Bergen, 17 December 2004” is noted. • Greenhouse gas emissions in Bergen shall be reduced by three percent up to 2008- 2012, using 1990 as the basis. This will be used as the starting point for setting new local greenhouse gas targets. • The quantity of greenhouse gas emissions will be used as the basic indicator to provide visibility of trends. • “Klimahandlingsplan for Bergen med bystyrets vedtak februar 2000" (‘The Climate Action Plan for Bergen with the City Council’s decisions of February 2000’) is to be continued and implemented during the work on the Municipal Plan as explained in this proposition. • Bergen Municipality will take the initiative in regional collaboration to reduce greenhouse gases. • Local and national research and development bodies in relevant fields will be more heavily involved in the work going forward. • Use of heating oil results in large greenhouse gas emissions. Switching to fossil gas will not achieve sufficient reduction in emissions. Phasing out of oil heating in municipal buildings must therefore take place by converting to bio-energy. • It must be an objective to set up a municipal scrap deposit scheme for heating stoves and furnaces."
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The decision has been followed up through a range of different measures.
In 2007, environment and energy measures were implemented in the Land Use Part of the Municipal Plan and adopted by the City Council on 25 June 2007 (Proposition 162/0). Reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and in energy use is thus incorporated as a basis for the Municipality’s land use and transport policy. In connection with this it was decided to prepare a new climate and energy action plan for Bergen. The proposal for a new climate and energy action plan is integrated with the guidance in the Land Use Part of the Municipal Plan.
The proposal for a new climate and energy action plan contains the following main points: • Status • Strategies and aims • Subject areas – Mobile energy use and greenhouse gas emissions – Stationary energy use – Consumption, waste and process • Measures, effects and costs associated with the various measures and scenarios as to how to become climate neutral by 2030 • Climate adaptation
Bergen is making good progress with sustainable urban development Around 50 projects are under way as part of the programme ‘Cities of the Future’. Read more about the projects here: https://www.bergen.kommune.no/framtidensbyer
Some examples: The building of the Light Railway is one of the most important elements in Bergen’s climate and environmental work. This is a comprehensive environmental project, primarily because the Light Railway is a very environmentally friendly means of transport. In addition, the Light Railway is leading to extensive investment in concentrating building along its route, so that many more people can make use of the existing infrastructure. The overall result is therefore lower energy use and large environmental gains for Bergen.
To avoid very dispersed land use, to make use of the existing infrastructure and build up the trunk routes within the public transport network, the relevant municipal plan is set up so that 60% of the new buildings in the plan period will be built in prioritised concentrated population areas (50%) and other building zones (10%). During the work of rolling over the Land Use Part of the Municipal Plan it is proposed to enhance the concentration policy and carry out more work on clarifying the concentration potential within the building zone.
Environmental management is now being introduced into all municipal units. Environmental management involves environmental considerations being systematically taken care of and reported through a special environmental control system. These will be various measureable parameters such as energy, waste, transport and working environment. The parameters give an overview of the environmental impact of the Municipality’s own operations. By carrying out simple environmental measures the Municipality will achieve both environmental gains and cost savings.
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Greenhouse gas emissions in Bergen Municipality Bergen’s adopted target is a 50% reduction in emissions compared to the 1991 figures. This means that the emission level must be reduced to 322,700 tonnes in 2030. Compared to the 2007 figures this involves a reduction of 43 percent.
In the period from 1991 to 2007 the total greenhouse gas emissions in Bergen increased by slightly more than 17 percent to an annual emission in 2007 of 755,900 tonnes of CO 2 equivalents.
Process emissions, including emissions from waste disposal sites, reduced during this period, while emissions from stationary energy use have increased by a little over 6 percent. Emissions from mobile sources, mainly road transport, have increased by nearly 50% in the period and now account for 68 percent of Bergen’s total greenhouse gas emissions.
Without measures and technological gains the emissions in 2030 may be 42 percent higher than in 1991 Based on forecasts of population growth, anticipated long term economic development and growth in consumption, a basic prognosis has been extrapolated up to 2030, excluding measures and expected gains from developments in technology and fuel. In total, this gives a prognosis of 42 percent higher emissions than in 1991. This is a moderate projection with growth at a slower pace than that experienced up to now.
Road traffic – dependent on technology development to reach the targets Road traffic dominates mobile emissions in Bergen. Despite increased greenhouse gas emissions from road traffic, the data from the Bergen Programme for Transportation, Urban development and the Environment 1 shows that the number of cars driven into the city centre reduced between 2004 and 2008. From 2007 to 2008 we have had a marked reduction in car traffic into the centre, of around nine percent. In the same period an increase in public transport has been recorded.
Local measures in land use and transport planning can contribute significantly to subduing the effect of the increased traffic demand up to the year 2030. If road transport is to play its part in the reduction in order to achieve, for example, a target of 50 percent reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, we depend upon national and international targets for reduced emissions per km driven being attained. Increasing electrification of the vehicle population and greater utilisation of climate-neutral fuel will also be necessary. If the total mobile emissions, not just from road transport, are to contribute to reaching national and international emissions targets, arrangements must be made for further phasing out of vehicles powered by fossil fuels and these must be replaced to a greater extent with electric cars, bio-based fuel or hydrogen.
Regardless of what technological perspectives are assumed, continued integration of land use and transport policy is necessary both to reduce travel distances and lessen the need for transport, as is the offering of more attractive public transport to assume a greater share of the daily travelling requirement. Municipal policy instruments may also be used to facilitate the switch to rechargeable cars by arranging for charging points
1 See bergensprogrammet.no
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and by municipal operations themselves leading the way by setting a good example, through their own vehicle fleets.
The transition to rechargeable vehicles used as a basis for the planning proposal will lead to increased electricity consumption. In 2020 consumption for this purpose might amount to three percent of current electricity usage.
Stationary energy use can be climate neutral Stationary energy consumption in Bergen has grown steadily during the last ten years. Households are the greatest consumer category in Bergen with around 46 percent of total consumption in 2006. Private and public service provision and industry come next. A part of the stationary energy requirement is served by district heating. District heating is relatively new in Bergen; it has experienced steady growth in recent years and has had a stabilising effect on the other energy carriers.
14% of Bergen’s greenhouse gas emissions result from oil-based heating of dwellings and industrial buildings. The emissions from one oil stove are equivalent to the greenhouse gas emissions from one year’s car use. The scrap deposit scheme for old wood-burning stoves also includes oil furnaces and stoves from 1 January 2009. Replacing old oil stoves will improve air quality as well as reducing emissions of greenhouse gases. The grant scheme for replacing old wood-burning stoves backs up the “oil-free” project “oljefri.no”.
It is easier and more cost-effective to achieve reductions in stationary emissions than in mobile emissions. To reach the target of 50 percent reduction of CO 2 emissions by 2030, preparations should be made for a greater reduction from stationary energy consumption than from the other emission sectors. The following targets are taken as the basis for the measures: • Circa 80 percent reduction of oil consumption and 30 percent reduction of gas consumption in 2020 and no emissions whatsoever in 2030. • The general energy consumption per inhabitant is lowered in step with the expected population growth of 1.3 percent per annum.
The measures described in this plan will mean that total energy use is held at the present level both in 2020 and 2030.
Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from stationary energy use can be achieved by converting to CO 2-neutral replacement products such as wood chippings, pellets and bio-oils, plus a massive transition to heat pumps. After a comprehensive transition to these solutions some consumption will remain that for purely technical reasons is more difficult to convert. This includes reserve supply during especially cold periods. It will take longer to phase out this consumption and it will probably have to be combined with political or financial measures to reach the target by 2030.
The transition from fossil fuels to heat pumps will contribute to increased electricity consumption if other measures are not implemented in parallel. To counter this increase, efficiency measures must be initiated in other aspects of building structures in addition to heat pumps and bio-energy. In this way one can contain the total energy use at today’s level through to 2030, with the year 2020 as a milestone on the way towards the overall objective.
It is recommended that a new Climate, Environment and Energy Fund be built up. Such a fund can be accumulated using both central government and municipal means, including applying to utilise sources of finance such as Enova and Transnova.
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The Municipality is a substantial user of stationary energy and wants to act as a role model in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. In the municipal sector it is proposed that all worthwhile energy efficiency measures be implemented.
Through the measures in the action plan energy use per inhabitant will go down. Population growth will nevertheless cause the total energy consumption to be stabilised at the current level. Because of the measures that phase out fossil heating sources a considerable reduction in greenhouse gas emissions will be achieved. It is technically possible to make stationary energy use in Bergen carbon neutral by 2030.
Waste In total, processing emissions have been decreasing since 1991. According to Statistics Norway’s figures processing emissions fell by 45 percent between 2007 and 1991. The greater part of this reduction is associated with waste disposal sites and reduced methane emissions.
Measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions fall into the following main categories: • Waste reduction and environmentally friendly consumption patterns. The measures are aimed at reducing waste generation. These will be long term measures focusing on sustainable consumption patterns and treatment. • Better waste treatment. The measures are orientated towards the most sustainable and climate-friendly treatment of household waste that can be achieved, with re-use and material recycling prioritised. An important measure will be a biogas plant exploiting household food waste to produce energy. Included here are both short and long term measures. • Improvement of waste disposal sites. This includes upgrading/expansion of existing disposal site gas plants to extract more gas, combined with use of the gas energy and measures at the sites to give fewer residual emissions. These measures are probably most cost effective and should be implemented as soon as possible. • Improved treatment of industrial waste. The measures are aimed at the most sustainable and climate-friendly treatment that can be achieved for this waste as well. This is separated out as a special group of measures, as initiatives in a free market will be different from those for household waste. Included here are also both short and long term measures.
Together these measures should give a 90 percent reduction from the 1991 level.
They will lead to direct consequences locally. If we include saving of production resources nationally and internationally because of waste reduction and material recycling in the Municipality, an equally large effect will be achieved outside Bergen’s city limits. Taken as a whole, measures directed at the consumption pattern can thus give a net reduction in global greenhouse gas emissions.
Proposals for a new waste plan in 2010-2015 will be submitted to the City Council in the autumn of 2010.
A target of 50 percent reduction from 1991 can be reached If all suggested measures are carried out as planned and the assumed technological development in the transport sector is realised, greenhouse gas emissions in Bergen in 2030 can be reduced by a total of 72 percent compared with 1991. In that case, the target will have been exceeded by 50 percent. However, it must be stressed that it presupposes comprehensive measures and some optimistic assumptions about technology in transport and climate-neutral fuel. With a somewhat lower share of rechargeable vehicles, moderate technological development and continuance of some stationary emissions, the 50 percent reduction by 2030 will still be an ambitious target.
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Climate neutral Bergen?
An assessment has been carried out of what needs to be done if Bergen is to become climate-neutral, corresponding to the national objective for 2030. A review of the measures within stationary emissions shows it to be technically possible to remove virtually all stationary emissions of greenhouse gases. It will be possible to make very significant reductions in processing emissions as well. However, some emissions will have to remain, especially residual emissions from old waste disposal sites, where experience has shown that total capture cannot be achieved.
Land use and transport policy needs to continue to be focused on climate, if Bergen is to become climate-neutral. A completely climate-neutral transport sector can only be achieved through fossil fuels giving way to electricity and bio-fuels and, over time, hydrogen as well. This is dependent on developments in the production and price of bio-fuel and hydrogen making it possible. As there is considerable traffic across the municipal boundaries this means that corresponding development must also take place within the daily commuting area surrounding Bergen and that national development trends in the transport sector must be in line with this.
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Development of greenhouse gas emissions in Bergen, baseline scenario and with measures up to 2014, 2020 og 2030 ’000 tonnes Change from 2007 Change from 1991 2014 2020 2030 2014 2020 2030 2014 2020 2030 Baseline without measures and
efficiency improvements - Mobile emissions 552 585 633 8 % 14 % 23 % 60 % 70 % 84 % - Stationary emm’ns 176 189 213 9 % 17 % 32 % 16 % 24 % 40 % - Process emissions 91 79 70 - 17 % - 28 % - 36 % - 39 % - 47 % - 53 % Total emissions 819 853 916 5 % 9 % 17 % 27 % 32 % 42 % Emissions after measures and
efficiency improvements - Mobile emissions 445 340 173 - 13 % - 34 % - 66 % 29 % - 1 % - 50 % - Stationary emm’ns 110 54 0 - 32 % - 67 % - 100 % - 28 % - 64 % - 100 % - Process emissions 9 5 7 - 92 % - 95 % - 94 % - 94 % - 97 % - 95 %
Total emissions 564 399 180 - 28 % - 49 % - 77 % - 13 % - 38 % - 72 %
Historical development and extrapolation of greenhouse gas emissions excluding measures and including measures and development trends stated in the action plan.
A completely climate-neutral municipality in 2030 is therefore an ambitious target. Underlying the target for a climate-neutral Norway in 2030 is continued purchase of greenhouse gas emissions allowances (climate credits) and various measures abroad within a regulatory framework provided through the Kyoto Protocol. To achieve a climate-neutral Bergen, in line with the national objective for 2030, it will be necessary
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to have both an ambitious local climate policy and measures that include buying climate credits, for example.
Bergen Municipality’s aim is to become a climate-neutral city, primarily by “ putting our own house in order first” and taking steps in the city. But the Municipality will also purchase climate credits in a specific project that citizens, school pupils and others can follow as the years go by.
Adaptation to climate change As well as measures to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases it is important to prevent undesirable incidents as a result of climate change. It is uncertain what consequences climate change will have for Bergen. Development in the form of, inter alia, land use planning and various preparatory and preventative measures will also have an influence on how climate change affects us. Bergen Municipality has taken on the role of being an important driving force in the work of preventing, and adapting to, the effects of climate change. This applies both through land use planning, where the Municipality has a special responsibility, and through various measures intended to make the community more robust in the face of more extreme weather situations.
Climate adaptation projects that are being worked on include:
• Research on sea level rise. This involves developing prognoses/scenarios for the way in which the sea level may rise in Bergen. The project will have great value for future planning of new infrastructure along the whole shoreline in Bergen Municipality. The Municipality has already started a pre-project to consider the handling of buildings in exposed locations in areas at risk of floods.
• NORADAPT – national project. This focuses on Bryggen and the historical areas around the bay, and the large development areas along the sea front in the centre.
• MARE - Managing Adaptive Responses to Changing Flood Risk in the North Sea Region – international project including the risk of flooding. The aim is to develop new sustainable approaches for handling flood risk and remedial measures, including preparing future basic principles for dimensioning the surface water system and improvements in waterways. This international project is supported by Interreg IVB and by partners in Dordrecht (Holland), Sheffield, Hannover and Seattle. The Municipality will scale down global climate models in cooperation with the Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research in order to obtain a better basis for assessment of the local and regional effects.
• Water supply and effects of climate change. Reinforce water treatment safety and develop better indicators for monitoring sources and water treatment.
• Sewage management and effects of climate adaptation. Carry out modelling of the whole sewage network in order to identify critical points and areas with a view to establishing new open solutions or re-opening former streams.
Follow-up measures Work on follow-up measures has been initiated in the areas below:
• Implementation in the Land Use Part of the Municipal Plan • Clear allocation of responsibilities. Energy and greenhouse gas emissions are cross- sector themes involving many participants. • Annual follow-up and monitoring. There are really no statistics for municipal emissions of greenhouse gases. The figures published by Statistics Norway are calculations based on a range of data sources, partly municipal figures and partly
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statistics at a regional and national level broken down to municipal level. This means that some local circumstances and municipality-specific variations are not captured. Therefore it is necessary to develop a set of local indicators to monitor development closely. Work on this is in progress in Bergen Municipality, through the project ‘Sustainable Control in the Municipal Sector’. This management tool, being piloted by Bergen Municipality, is a systems solution to underpin the municipalities’ work on climate among other things. Plans and measures implemented will be documented and the effect of the various measures will be analysed and reported upon.
Implementation requires resources – proposal for a new climate, environment and energy fund The Climate and Energy Action Plan has a long time horizon. The action plan cannot therefore clarify in detail the financing of the measures, which will, inter alia, depend on Bergen Municipality’s financial development over many years. Moreover, some measures may be financed using external funds, some will be included in the normal work of the operational entities without the addition of special funds, while others can only be realised through new budget appropriations. The specific level of ambition for the measures must therefore be clarified through the annual roll-over of the budget and financial plan.
Assistance with financing must be applied for from the Government, for example from schemes such as Enova, Transnova, Husbanken (The Housing Bank) the Climate and Pollution Agency and others.
Some of the measures have already been started and the effect documented. An example of this is the project oljefri.no (“Oil-free”) where Bergen Municipality in collaboration with Friends of the Earth Norway helps private individuals and firms to replace oil-fired heating with environmentally friendly alternatives.
Other measures in the plan will not be a charge to the municipal budget, but the Municipality will have a responsibility in respect of execution. For example, this applies to measures associated with waste minimisation, where The Bergen Area's Inter Municipal Waste Handling Company Ltd finances the measures.
Government arrangements and incentives are of great importance in order to contribute to increased climate efforts on the part of the municipalities. This is particularly topical in connection with renewing the car population, and in regulatory requirements for energy in new buildings and on renovation.
It is proposed that a climate, environment and energy fund be established, to which funds will have to be provided as time goes by. The fund’s primary purpose will be to serve the market using a set of policy instruments including support for investments in prioritised measures (in addition to Government incentives), support with researching measures and building up expertise.
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1 Environmental policy – “Put your own house in order first ” – measures in the Municipality’s own operations
1.1 Environmental policy for Bergen Municipality As part of introducing environmental management, Bergen Municipality has developed an environmental policy for its own operations. This shows first and foremost that the Municipality starts by putting its own house in order.
Environmental Policy
Bergen Municipality shall be a pioneer municipality within environment, sustainable development, and adaptation to climate change. Consideration for the environment shall be an overriding principle in all activity and planning.
This is to be achieved by continuous improvement as follows: • Reduce the Municipality’s own environmental impact by environmental certification of all municipal units • Prevent loss of biodiversity, protect open air life, health and well-being • Meet municipal and statutory requirements associated with environmental influences • Prevent pollution
In accordance with decisions made in connection with the land use section of the Municipal Plan 2007, the Climate and Energy Action Plan shall set specific objectives for greenhouse gas emissions and energy use and show how Bergen can achieve 50% fewer emissions of greenhouse gases in the period 1991-2030. In addition Bergen Municipality wants the Climate and Energy Action Plan to show what has to be done for Bergen to be climate-neutral in 2030.
Principal objective : The reduction in emissions of greenhouse gases is to be 50% in the period 1991 to 2030
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2 Objectives and background
2.1 Background The climate plan for Bergen was implemented in the Land Use Part of the Municipal Plan in 2007 and the City Council decided that a climate and energy action plan for Bergen should be prepared (Proposition 162/07).
This action plan explains how the Municipality, in cooperation with its inhabitants and business/industry, can reduce energy consumption and reduce emissions of greenhouse gases.
The City Council adopted the Land Use Part of the Municipal Plan 2006-2017 on 25 June 2007. The following principal objective is formulated in the Municipal Plan:
“Bergen shall have good living conditions for all of the city’s inhabitants, within the framework of environmentally friendly development”.
In the paragraphs below the most important sub-objectives within the various areas relevant to this Climate and Energy Action Plan are discussed.
2.2.1 Climate and energy targets for Bergen Greenhouse gas emissions The most important greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. Emissions of human-caused greenhouse gases will lead to the so-called greenhouse effect in that the earth’s temperature will increase over time. Emission of these gases is thus a global problem. Statistics prepared by Statistics Norway show that emissions of greenhouse gases in Bergen have increased. The most important sources of emissions in Bergen are road traffic, domestic heating and waste disposal sites.
In accordance with the land use section of the Municipal Plan, the Energy and Climate Plan shall set specific objectives for greenhouse gas emissions and energy use and show how Bergen can achieve 50% fewer emissions of greenhouse gases in the period 1991- 2030.
The Energy and Climate Plan shall contain an action programme. The plan will also illustrate how greenhouse gases from mobile sources may be reduced and how the use of environmentally friendly energy solutions can be promoted in new and existing buildings. It will also explain the relationship between land use policy and development patterns on the one hand, and emissions, energy use and the influence on climate on the other.
In addition Bergen Municipality wants the Climate and Energy Action Plan to show what has to be done for Bergen to be climate-neutral in 2030.
The climate targets for Bergen are ambitious in relation the anticipated growth in the city's population (projected to 317,600 inhabitants in 2030 according to Statistics Norway's medium growth alternative) and the expected growth in purchasing power and consumption.
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Principal climate objective for Bergen: The reduction in emissions of greenhouse gases is to be 50% in the period 1991 to 2030
Energy Current energy sources influence emissions into the air of greenhouse gases and other locally polluting gases to varying degrees. The Land Use Part of the Municipal Plan therefore sets out a requirement for a new and comprehensive discussion about which energy strategies shall be developed for the future. The plan emphasises that the Municipality ought to have a more central role in this area than it has today and the work should culminate in a new energy plan where the strategies for energy, urban development and transport are closely connected.
The Land Use Part of the Municipal Plan recommends that the following objectives and main strategies should be used as the basis for Bergen Municipality’s energy policy: • Arrange for district heating in concentrated populated areas • District heating shall replace oil-fired heating • The Municipality must prioritise and stimulate the use of district heating, heat pumps, bio-fuel and other renewable energy sources ahead of energy from fossil sources • Reduced energy growth • Create the conditions and means of exerting pressure to attain a larger proportion of new and renovated buildings with low energy use and Passive House standards. • Design buildings for least energy consumption • Energy considerations must be included in land use planning and when considering planning applications • Bergen shall stand out as a pioneer city concerning the use of gas in vehicles • The Municipality’s own buildings must be used to demonstrate the available technology
Indicators It is recommended that various indicators be used to monitor development in a number of aspects of the Municipality’s environmental control work. The indicators use publicly available statistics. Table 2.1 shows some environmental indicators mentioned, inter alia, in the Land Use Part of the Municipal Plan and which are relevant in the context of the Climate and Energy Action Plan.
Table 2.1 Relevant indicators for monitoring the development in energy use and emissions of greenhouse gases
Subject area: Target/Vision: Indicator:
Greenhouse gas Greenhouse gas shall be Emissions by the tonne of emissions reduced by 3% from 1990 CO 2 equivalents for Bergen to 2008-12 (Kyoto per annum. Protocol). Reduction by 50% cf 1991 Stationary energy use To reduce the use of Stationary energy use in stationary energy. public buildings, dwellings and commercial/industrial buildings divided by the energy source in GWH Transport To reduce the use of Traffic development on the transport and fossil fuels road network.
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Number of cars in total and distribution by fuel type. Turnover of petrol and auto diesel Private consumption Reduce the quantity of Kilos of household waste waste per inhabitant.
2.1.2 Previous plans and decisions concerning greenhouse gas emissions Bergen City Council decided as early as 1996 to adopt a target of a 20 percent reduction in CO 2 emissions from the city’s 1991 level, by 2005. This was a much higher target than national obligations pursuant to the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, which requires greenhouse gas emissions in Norway to be not more than one percent higher in 2008- 2012 than in 1990. A report, “CO 2 in Bergen - Assessment of the Prospects for Reducing CO 2 Emissions”, was prepared. In the report strong growth in CO 2 emissions was anticipated. Drastic measures would be necessary to be able to reach the target of a 20 percent reduction. The City Council decided that the target should be maintained and that a range of measures should be worked on to reduce CO 2 emissions.
Energy Report in 1998 The Energy Report for Bergen 1998-2015 presented forecasts, strategies, environmental consequences and measures for environmentally friendly energy supply for stationary purposes. Measures were also suggested here for achieving the targets for greenhouse gas emissions. The Energy Report 1998-2015 was discussed and adopted by the City Council on 25 May 1998. In the report it was assumed that energy use in the Municipality’s own buildings should be reduced by 20 GWH by 2005 and by a further 20 GWH by 2015. Based on a starting point of energy use in 1999, the result in 2006 was a total saving in energy use of 33 GWH. With an average price per KWH of NOK 0.65, this gives a saving of NOK 21.5 million and a significant environmental gain. The saving equates to the annual energy consumption of 1,650 detached houses.
Air pollution in Bergen – assessment of measures for the winter of 1997/1998 When it considered the report “Air Pollution in Bergen – Assessment of Measures for the Winter of 1997/1998”, the City Council adopted a range of measures against air pollution caused by transport and stationary energy use. These measures may also contribute to a reduction of the greenhouse gas CO 2.
Climate Action Plan for Bergen (2000) The first Climate Action Plan was adopted by the City Council on 28 February 2000 with a target of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 30 percent and CO 2 emissions by 20 percent, from 1991 up to 2005. In 2002 a report was prepared about the status of greenhouse gas emissions in Bergen for the period 1991-2001. The report was based on the most recent official figures from Statistics Norway. The result showed that the total greenhouse gas emissions in Bergen had increased by 7 percent between 1991 and 1999. This equates to emissions 34 percent higher than the target set in the Climate Action Plan.
Follow up of the Climate Action Plan was adopted by the City Council, Proposition 85-05. A review was carried out here of the status of the measures connected with the Climate Action Plan 2000, and the following was decided:
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“The report “Follow up of the Climate Action Plan for Bergen, 17 December 2004” is noted. • Greenhouse gas emissions in Bergen shall be reduced by three percent up to 2008- 2012 using 1990 as the basis. Thisis established as the new local greenhouse gas target. • To demonstrate the trend the quantity of greenhouse gas emissions will be used as the basic indicator. • “The Climate Action Plan for Bergen with the City Council decision of February 2000” is continued and will be implemented during the work on the Municipal Plan as explained in this proposition. • Bergen Municipality will take the initiative in a regional collaboration to reduce greenhouse gases. • Local and national research and development bodies in relevant fields will be more heavily involved in the work going forward. • Use of heating oil results in large greenhouse gas emissions. Switching to fossil gas will not achieve sufficient reduction in emissions. Phasing out of oil heating in municipal buildings must therefore take place by converting to bio-energy. • It must be an objective to set up a municipal scrap deposit scheme for heating stoves and furnaces."
Many proposed measures have begun, such as for example energy management in municipal buildings, development of the Light Railway and environmental certification of the Municipality’s operational units. Bergen Municipality can also point to results from this investment. Measurements made by the Norwegian Public Roads Administration in 2008 show a substantial reduction in the number of cars driving into the centre between 2007 and 2008. Through the project Oljefri.no the number of oil stoves in private households has reduced and been replaced by alternative environmentally friendly heating. The Municipality’s investment in developing district heating has also produced results. Inter alia, the district warming investment in the centre has contributed to the phasing out of oil-fired heating in industrial and municipal buildings. Furthermore, in cooperation with local businesses, the Municipality has made major efforts in environmental certification and in 2009 the number of environmentally certified firms has doubled.
In 2007, environment and energy were implemented in the Land Use Part of the Municipal Plan and adopted by the City Council on 25 June 2007 (Proposition 162/0). The target for a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and in energy use is thus incorporated as a basis for the Municipality’s land use and transport policy. In connection with this it was decided to prepare a climate and energy action plan for Bergen.
Action plan for better air in Bergen Measurements in Bergen have shown that the air quality has improved in comparison with the middle of the 1990s.
In May 2008 the City Council adopted a revision of the action plan for better air in Bergen (Proposition 91/08). The main strategy is that measures shall be directed toward the reasons for air pollution, not the symptoms. Various appropriate measures for reducing NO x and suspended dust (PM 10 ) are considered. The action plan includes an execution time schedule for the specialist departments. The schedule includes: • Special measures for improving the air quality in Danmarksplass; this is being carried out at present. • Shore power to ships. BKK is the project manager and the measure has been studied. (BKK – ’Bergenshalvøens Kommunale Kraftselskap’ – Bergen Peninsula Municipal Power Company). It is possible to start up a pilot project. The Municipality is working on the matter in liaison with the Government authorities.
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• Low emission zones. Bergen will be the pilot municipality. The draft legislation is being considered by the Ministry of Transport and Communications. • Report on congestion charging. The report has been completed.
For 2010 it is clear that there will be very large overruns of nitrogen dioxide.
The high pressure systems over South Norway that came at the end of December 2009 and lasted through the whole of January 2010 cooled the ground down and created a tropospheric winter inversion. Bergen was sheltered from the east wind by the mountains. The wind was too light to blow away the cold air down in the Bergen valley and created instead an inversion lid, so that the temperature was up to 10 degrees warmer at Ulriken than down in the Bergen valley. The lid built itself up day by day and prevented both vertical and horizontal outflow of polluted air.
Regarding the studded tyre charge in Bergen: in 2008 the stud-free share was 90.1%; in 2009 it was 86%.
Between 1999 and 2009 grants were paid out for replacing around 5,500 fireplaces. This comprises a reduction of approx 67 tonnes of suspended dust.
In addition around 2,000 clean-combustion wood-burning stoves were installed annually. Around 30,000 clean-combustion wood-burning stoves have now been installed since 1997, out of 55,000 dwelling units that have the option of burning wood in Bergen. Therefore there are still 25,000 old wood-burning stoves and calculations show that these emit approx 335 tonnes of suspended dust per annum.
Bergen Municipality has appropriated NOK 7 million for replacing wood-burning and oil stoves in 2010, leading to a further 1,390 fireplaces being replaced in 2010.
2.1.3 The greenhouse effect and greenhouse gases Human-caused greenhouse gases – Global Warming In addition to oxygen and nitrogen the Earth’s atmosphere contains small quantities of other gases. Some of these gases contribute to allowing the sun’s energy to penetrate down to Earth, but at the same time they prevent heat radiation out from the Earth. The effect is like a greenhouse and is therefore called the greenhouse effect. This is basically a natural process.
During the last 200 years human activity has caused a great increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, principally because of the use of fossil energy sources. This has influenced the natural process and reinforced the greenhouse effect. The result is an increase in the average temperature on Earth. The proportion of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide has increased from 0.028 percent from the beginning of the industrial revolution to the current level of 0.038 percent. According to prognoses a doubling or quadrupling of the pre-industrial concentration is expected through to the year 2100. The UN’s Climate Panel (IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) says that there is no longer any doubt that the temperature rise since the 1900s is the result of the human-caused increase in greenhouse gases. According to the panel’s latest report it is very likely that a doubling of the greenhouse gas concentration will produce global warming of between 2 and 4.5 °C. Measurements show that the average global ground temperature has increased by between 0.3 and 0.6 °C since the 1900s [1], [2].
Consequences These “small” increases in the average global temperature will disturb the Earth’s natural temperature balance and lead to rising sea levels and changes in precipitation patterns and wind systems.
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Figure 2.1 Global temperature development and global emissions from 1850 up to today. Source: Cicero Center for International Climate and Environmental Research
Oslo [2].
The result may be drought or flooding. The effects of temperature changes and thus climate change are not fully understood, but it may also be expected that problems associated with food supplies, drinking water, health and settlement in heavily populated coastal areas will increase, with migration and social unrest as possible consequences [3]. Clear signs of global warming are the melting of the glaciers and sea ice in the Arctic. The inland ice in Greenland and Antarctica has also been reduced. Combined with the thermal expansion of water because of higher temperatures this has contributed to the sea level increasing by 17 cm during the twentieth century.
In order to reduce human-caused climate change, the proportion of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere must be reduced. It should preferably be reduced to the pre- industrial level. The UN’s Climate Panel has calculated that in order to reduce global warming to between 2.0 and 2.4 °C it is necessary to stabilise greenhouse gases at 350-
400 ppm CO 2 equivalents. The stabilisation level can be achieved with technology that is commercially available now, or that is expected to become so in the forthcoming decades. In order to stabilise the CO2 concentration at 350-400 ppm the general growth in emissions must be turned into a reduction by 2015, and thereafter emissions must be reduced by 50 to 85 percent by 2050 in comparison with the level in 2000. If such large cuts are to be achieved, drastic reductions are required in both industrialised and developing countries.
Types of greenhouse gases A greenhouse (or climate) gas is a gas in the atmosphere that contributes to the greenhouse effect and thus to global warming. Most of these greenhouse gases occur naturally in the atmosphere, except for the chlorofluorocarbons, which are synthetic. Even though these gases occur naturally, human activity has increased the quantities in the atmosphere. The most important greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide (CO 2), which contributes about three quarters of the human-caused global emissions of greenhouse gases and is mainly created by the combustion of fossil fuel. Other important
greenhouse gases are methane (CH 4), nitrous oxide (N 2O) and the chlorofluorocarbons. Emissions of greenhouse gases are converted as a rule to CO 2 equivalents on the basis of the GWP (Global Warming Potential) for the individual gases in relation to the
warming potential for CO 2, which is set equal to 1, see Table 2.2.
Altogether, 82 percent of the Norwegian greenhouse gas emissions in 2007 were carbon dioxide (CO 2). Methane (CH 4), nitrous oxide (N 2O) and gases containing fluorine (PFC, HFC and SF6) had lower emissions in 2007 than in 1990. Since 1990, CO 2 emissions have increased by 29 percent, whilst emissions of gases containing fluorine have reduced by 74 percent in total.
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Table 2.2 Greenhouse gases, warming potential and CO 2 equivalents [4] GWP in CO Gas 2 Important emission sources equivalents
Carbon dioxide (CO 2) 1 Road traffic, heating (using fossil energy sources), oil activity, industrial processes
Methane (CH 4) 21 Landfills (waste disposal sites), Nitrous oxide, laughing 310 livestock and use and production of
gas (N 2O) farmyard manure, heating Hydrofluorocarbons 1300 Refrigeration plant, fire (HFC) extinguishers, plastic foam Perfluorocarbons (PFC) 6500 Aluminium production Sulphur hexafluoride 23900 Magnesium production (SF6)
2.2 National development and national objectives
The UN’s Climate Convention The UN’s summit meeting on the environment and development in Rio de Janiero in 1992 was the first step in the direction of an international climate agreement. Here the nations reached agreement on principles and guidelines for the international work on climate. The UN's Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) the Climate Convention, was adopted. Altogether 189 countries, including Norway, have ratified the Climate Convention. Consequently they have accepted the main objective of stabilising the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at a level that will prevent damaging, human-caused intervention in the climatic system.
The Kyoto Protocol The Kyoto Protocol was adopted at the climate conference in Kyoto in 1997 and it includes quantified and time-delimited reductions in emissions of greenhouse gases in all industrialised countries. The participating countries have committed themselves to reducing total greenhouse gas emissions by at least 5 percent by (the average of) 2008- 2012 compared with the 1990 level.
Greenhouse gas emissions in Norway shall not be more than one percent higher in 2008-2012 than in 1990. Norway’s follow-up of the Kyoto Protocol was laid down in Report to the Storting (Norwegian Parliament) No. 29 (1997-98). This gave Norway the third lowest commitment among the participating countries because of Norway’s special energy supply position, where large parts of the energy supply are already met by renewable energy from water power. Large reductions in Norwegian emissions will therefore be much more expensive per unit than in other countries.
The following methods can be used by the parties to the Climate Convention to ease the implementation [3] and are only a supplement to national measures: • The green development mechanism (CDM – Clean Development Mechanism). Countries party to the Protocol can invest in developing countries who are not parties to it and in this way they can write off some of their own emissions. • Joint implementation. Countries party to the Protocol can invest in other countries who are also parties to it and in this way they can write off some of their own emissions. • International quota trading. Countries that are party to the Protocol have been allocated emissions quotas and can trade these with one another.
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The Climate Report and the Climate Settlement The Norwegian Government has set itself more ambitious objectives than were agreed in the Kyoto Protocol. According to the Government’s Climate Report 2007 and the Climate Settlement in Parliament (2008) the Norwegian emissions shall be reduced by 9% in the period 2008-2012, with 1990 as the starting point.
Norway and the EU now have a principal objective that the mean global temperature shall not rise by more than 2 °C compared with the pre-industrial value. Therefore Norway has set itself the following long term objectives: • Up to 2020, Norway will cut its total emissions of greenhouse gases to equate to 30 percent of the country’s emissions in 1990. • Norway is to be carbon-neutral in 2030.
What does this mean? The Government’s objectives indicate that Norway’s emissions i 2008-2012 must be 45.2 million tonnes against 49.7 million tonnes in 1990. The actual emissions increased from about 50 million tonnes of CO 2 equivalents in 1990 to 55 million in 2007. This is due to growth in the oil and gas industry and increased transport. The emissions from domestic and commercial/industrial heating have changed little, but they fluctuate from year to year because of the relationship between the price of oil and the price of electricity. Moreover emissions from agriculture have been stable, while emissions from waste disposal sites have reduced. Without new measures it is anticipated that emissions will be between 57 and 59 million tonnes of CO 2 equivalents in 2010. Thus the requirement for emission reductions will be 12-14 million tonnes. A large part of this is planned to be achieved by the financing of initiatives in developing countries [5]. Nevertheless two thirds of the cuts must be achieved nationally by 2020 (15-17 million tonnes).
Stationary energy use Stationary energy contributes to a considerable share of greenhouse gas emissions in Norway. In 2001, the Norwegian Parliament established Enova in order to reinforce the work of reorientating energy use and energy production in Norway into a more environmentally friendly direction. At the same time the “Energy Fund” was created. The fund has a target of 18 TWH saved, and produced as new renewable energy, by the end of 2011 and a working target of 40 TWH by 2020.
Emissions from the transport sector Transnova is a recently started Government programme that is to work for more environmentally friendly transport solutions in Norway. The main aim of the programme is to contribute to reducing CO 2 emissions from the transport sector so that the national targets for the transport sector are achieved with an emission reduction of 2.5 – 4 million tonnes in 2020 and the Climate Settlement’s target for climate neutrality by 2030. The measures will first and foremost be directed towards initiatives that make it possible to replace fossil fuel with fuel that gives low CO 2 emissions or none at all. Transnova will also support all measures that reduce CO 2 emissions from transport. This applies to measures that contribute to less fuel consumption per km (energy efficiency), measures that contribute to the use of more environmentally friendly forms of transport and measures that reduce transport volume. The scope of the programme is NOK 50 million per annum.
The EU’s climate objectives Through the EEA Agreement Norway takes part in, and commits itself to, a range of measures and directives formulated by the EU. The EU’s objective-setting is carried out through a series of policy instruments (primarily directives and regulations) to achieve what are known as the 20-20-20 targets by 2020. These involve:
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• 20 percent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions • 20 percent increase in energy efficiency • 20 percent share of energy use to be renewable energy
The municipalities' contribution To be able to achieve national targets, the municipalities must also contribute with a reduction of their local greenhouse gas emissions. In the report ”Betydningen av kommunal klimapolitikk” (‘The Importance of Municipal Climate Policy’) [6] it is pointed out that the municipalities have important climate policy instruments at their disposal and that the potential for local climate work is important. The municipalities play an important role in reducing emissions attached to the choice of dwelling patterns and energy use in buildings, from mobile sources, the waste sector and land use, as well as their own operations. Between 29 and 33 percent of the total Norwegian greenhouse gas emissions are associated with municipal policy instruments and measures. The total potential for reductions is uncertain, but the report comes up with an estimate of 6 million tonnes of CO 2 equivalents based on measures in previous municipal climate plans.
The report also points out that many municipal policy instruments are more important in a longer term perspective. Municipal land use planning is mentioned, as are policy instruments that may contribute to motivating people to change their opinions, behaviour and lifestyle through local information measures and cooperative processes. This may also lead to increased acceptance of Government climate measures, such as for example increased use of tolls and duties linked to greenhouse gas emissions. The report concludes by saying that central government measures and incentives are important contributors to increased climate efforts by the municipalities.
2.3 Ongoing plans and reports that are important for the Action Plan Cities of the Future Bergen Municipality is a participant in the collaborative project “Cities of the Future – towns and cities with the lowest possible greenhouse gas emissions and a good urban environment". It is a cooperative project between the Ministry of the Environment, the Ministry of Petroleum and Energy, the Ministry of Local Government and Regional Development and the Ministry of Transport and Communications and it includes the 13 largest urban municipalities in Norway. The four priority areas in Cities of the Future are: land use and transport; stationary energy; consumption patterns and waste; and adaptation to climate change. The project period is from 2009 to 2014.
On 22 June 2009 the City Council joined the “Action Programme for Cities of the Future”, which commits Bergen to continue to work for environmentally effective urban development and operation.
The Cities of the Future programme also includes giving increased priority to wood – from woodland to production, with the main emphasis on the building industry. The aims of the work are that in 2014 it will be possible to point to: • Reduced greenhouse gas emissions illustrated through model projects. • Increased use of Norwegian timber and value creation locally, from woodland to production. • Many good model projects with wood as the main material and forward-looking energy solutions in modern, climate-friendly architecture. • Model projects with new energy solutions in existing buildings in wood. • Increased use of renewable energy sources generally and for heating and hot water in buildings in particular. • A clearly defined reservoir of competence in the region that offers information and know-how to builders, developers and relevant technical and educational circles.
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The proposal for a new climate and energy action plan is consistent with the Action Programme for Cities of the Future, and continues the strategies on which the programme is based.
The Land Use Part of the Municipal Plan The Land Use Part of the Municipal Plan is the Municipality’s top level control document for land use and transport policy. The period of the plan is 12 years, but the effect of the plan has a longer perspective than this. Bergen Municipality’s environmental plan was integrated with the Land Use Part of the Municipal Plan in 2007, and the environmental policy strategies from the environmental plan were thus incorporated. When the plan is next rolled over this principle will be continued.
The proposed new Climate and Energy Action Plan is consistent with the environmental targets set in the Land Use Part of the Municipal Plan.
The Bergen Programme for Transportation, Urban Development and the Environment (‘the Bergen Programme’) - and its continuation The Bergen Programme is a collaborative project between the Norwegian Public Roads Administration, Bergen Municipality and Hordaland County Authority. Nearly NOK 5.3 billion is to be invested in new public transport and communications projects in Bergen in the period 2002-2015. The Bergen Programme includes new road projects, the Light Railway, public transport measures, pedestrian and cycle routes, environmental projects, improvements in the street network in the city centre and traffic safety measures. Without new measures, the increased traffic volume will lead to more accidents, a longer rush hour and aggravated environmental problems. The objective of the programme is to reverse this trend.
The Bergen Programme lasts until 2015, but Bergen’s requirements within land use and transport policy stretch beyond this period. In 2007, “Transportanalyse for Bergensområdet 2010-2030” (‘Transport Analysis for the Bergen Area 2010-2030’) was submitted as the urban area’s input to the National Transport Plan. This was continued through work on a conceptual choices study commenced in the spring of 2009. This will lay down the framework for further planning of the transport system and the employment of various land use and transport policy instruments in the urban region. Taking into consideration greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector will be an important theme in this work.
The proposed new Climate and Energy Action Plan is consistent with the Bergen Programme’s objectives and strategies.
Cycle Strategy 2010-2019 Cycle Strategy for Bergen 2010-2019 is a roll-over of the previous "Plan for Cycle Strategy 2002-2011” and it gives guidance as to how the arrangements for cycling in Bergen are to be improved in the next 10 years.
The City Council has adopted the objectives and measures in Cycle Strategy for Bergen 2010-2019. A fully developed network of main cycle routes and a cycling share of at least ten percent are among the objectives.
The proposed mobile energy strategies in the Climate and Energy Action Plan are consistent with the Cycle Strategy document.
In the Bergen Programme NOK 200 million are used for pedestrian and cycle route measures in the period 2002-2015. In recent years the following stretches have been developed: • Fjøsangerveien • Natlandsveien, Ibsensgate-Slettebakksveien
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• Lyderhornsvei, Gravdalsveien-Gravdalspollen • Statsminister Michelsensvei • Koengen • Lagunen – Osbanen/Øvre Krohnåsen • Kryssing av Fjøsangerveien. v/ Fabrikkgaten • Kokstad – Flyplassen • Hetlevikstraumen-Håkonsvern • Solheimsgaten sør
Action plan for Better Air in Bergen 2007 Measurements in Bergen have shown that the air quality has improved in comparison with the middle of the 1990s. In May 2008 the action plan for better air from 2004 was revised (Proposition to the City Council 91/08). The main strategy is that measures shall be directed toward the reasons for air pollution, not the symptoms. Various appropriate measures for reducing NO x and suspended dust (PM 10 ) are considered. A 10-point programme in the action plan is under implementation in the specialist departments. The programme includes: • Special measures for improving the air quality in Danmarksplass; this is being carried out at present. • Shore power to ships. BKK is the project manager and the measure has been studied. It is possible to start up a pilot project. The Municipality is working on the matter in liaison with the central government authorities. • Low emission zones. Bergen will be the pilot municipality. The proposition is being considered by the Ministry of Transport and Communications. • Study of congestion charging. The study has been completed. Possible measures are being evaluated in connection with the regional conceptual choices study as a contribution to the next National Transport Plan.
The proposed new Climate and Energy Action Plan is consistent with the action plan for better air in Bergen.
Energy management in municipal buildings In collaboration with Enova, Bergen Municipality has initiated energy efficiency improvements in municipal buildings. The activities are included in the Municipality’s work on environmental management and Balanced Scorecard.
The principles of energy management in municipal buildings correspond with the measures proposed in the Climate and Energy Action Plan.
Sustainability control in the municipal sector Activity management for the sustainability field and a standard for climate and sustainability accounting are to be developed. The preliminary study report is complete and Bergen Municipality is the pilot city.
In broad terms the first version will contain: • Sustainability management - Balanced Scorecard (strategy chart, targets etc) - Key indicators - Indicator hierarchy • Sustainability accounting • Population simulation • Climate accounting • Climate plan generator • Annual report generator • Traffic module
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• Waste module • In-depth analyses concerning energy use (buildings, climate trends and prognoses, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) analyses, etc) • Report generator
An important feature of the solution is that plans and measures carried out are documented and that the effect of the various measures is analysed. Moreover the solution for example for climate accounting can be used to verify the status of, and changes to, the Municipality's contribution to national consolidated climate accounting. It may be crucial to have this in place if, for example, the introduction of further incentive mechanisms for municipalities to reduce emissions is considered. The solution will record other types of measure and effect as well.
The sustainability solution will be capable of documenting the effect of the measures in the Climate and Energy Action Plan.
2.4 Organisation of the work on the Action Plan Organisation In the preparation of the Climate and Energy Action Plan for Bergen, great emphasis was placed on involving relevant participants in the municipal agencies, municipal limited companies, the County Authority, the Government and humanitarian organisations. These participants were invited to join in the process of defining relevant measures to achieve the climate and energy targets that were set. This was organised through three working groups. A summary of the participants is shown in the Enclosure. The groups dealt with the following subjects: • Land use and transport • Stationary energy • Consumption patterns and waste (process)
During the period winter to spring 2009/2010 the working groups formulated, and assessed the efficiency of, existing and new measures for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in Bergen.
In this plan, no new projects are initiated on the topic of Adaptation to climate change, but the ongoing work of adapting to climate change in Bergen Municipality is included.
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3 Status of energy use and greenhouse gas emissions
3.1 Status of energy use
3.1.1 Stationary energy use Population change and energy use Stationary energy consumption in Bergen has been increasing steadily, on average by 1.7 percent per annum, during the period 1996-2006 [1]. In 2005 total consumption was 4,845 GWH, of which around 2,235 GWH (46 percent) was household use. This has happened at the same time as the introduction of district heating has had a restraining effect on the growth of electricity consumption. District heating production has been through a period of extensive growth and expansion. Historical and projected use of energy for stationary consumption purposes in Bergen is shown in Figure 3.1.
GWH Extrapolation of energy consumption by consumer group 6000
5000 District heating Industry 4000 Delivery of private services 3000 Delivery of public services 2000
Households 1000
0 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016
Figure 3.1 Stationary energy consumption by consumer group [1]
It is particularly in the household sector that consumption has increased. This is due in part to an increase in the number of dwellings, increased average area per dwelling and the general increase in purchasing power, which manifests itself in a larger number of household machines and brown goods.
Consumption per household is lower in Bergen than the Norwegian average. Among other reasons, this is due to Bergen having a milder climate than the national average. For greenhouse gas emissions it is the use of fossil fuels that is of interest. Emissions of CO 2 from stationary energy use (cf Paragraph 3.2.2) have had marginal growth in recent years. During the heating season, the emissions vary with outside temperature and price variations, primarily between oil and electricity.
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Table 3.1 Main figures for energy use in Bergen in 2006 [1] Electricity Oil/parafi Gas Bio-fuels Waste, Total [GWH] n [GWH] [GWH] [GWH] coke [GWH] [GWH] Households 1,815.4 181.3 60.8 126.0 2.2 2,185.7 Public service provision 587.2 75.1 54.4 0.0 0.0 716.7 Private service provision 907.7 139.2 4.6 1.7 0.0 1,053.3 Industry 390.8 72.4 23.7 0.0 0.0 486.9 District heating 0,0 22.2 30.9 0.0 309.0 362.2 Other 14.2 5.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 20.0 Total 3,715.3 496.1 174.5 127.8 311.3 4,824.9 KWH per household in 16,287 1,626 546 1,131 20 19,609 the Municipality KWH per household in 18,102 911 386 2,130 13 21,541 the County KWH per household 18,738 1,173 80 3,751 1 23,743 nationally
The energy report for Bergen [1] is based on annual growth in energy consumption for 2006-2016 of 1.2 percent, while according to Statistics Norway’s long term forecast for Bergen (up to 2030) population growth of 1.3 percent is anticipated. By comparison, growth for 2008 amounted to all of 1.75 percent.
Based on projected growth in consumption BKK Nett envisages increases in energy use in the years up to 2016, distributed by energy carrier, as shown in Figure 3.2.
GWH Projected stationary energy use in Bergen distributed by energy carrier 6000
Waste 5000 Bio Gas Oil 4000
3000 Electricity
2000
1000
0 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016
Figure 3.2 Projected stationary energy use in Bergen distributed by energy carrier. [1]
Distributed by energy carrier, a slow increase in the growth of oil consumption is expected on the basis of these projections. This is because the forecast is based on the historic projections from earlier years’ consumption growth, and does not take into account possible changes as a result of changed energy policy.
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3.1.2 Mobile energy use The development in sales of fuel for mobile purposes has shown the same growth as in the rest of the country. All of the growth has come in the form of auto diesel. The split between petrol and diesel was 72/28 in 1991 and 43/57 in 2007.
1000 litres Sales of fuel for mobile consumption
200 Marine diesel Aircraft
150 Diesel
100
50 Petrol
0 1991 1995 2000 2005 2006 2007
Figure 3.3 Sales of fuel in Bergen in ’000s of litres
3.2 Status of greenhouse gas emissions 3.2.1 Development of greenhouse gas emissions in Norway According to the data from Statistics Norway and the Norwegian Pollution Control Authority, Norway's total greenhouse gas emissions for 2007 were 55.1 million tonnes of CO 2 equivalents and thus the highest they have ever been (See Figure 3.4). Emissions were nearly 11 percent higher than in 1990. The increase from 2006 to 2007 was 3 percent caused by, inter alia, large emissions from the new liquid natural gas (LNG) plant on Melkøya. This led to an increase of emissions associated with the oil and gas industry, which rose by 10.5 percent. Continued growth in road traffic, shipping and other mobile sources further contributed to higher emissions on a national basis. Emissions from agriculture increased by 2.1 percent between 2006 and 2007. The reasons were more farm animals and increased use of artificial fertilisers.
In the industry sector, emissions from heating, other stationary combustion and waste decreased from 2006 to 2007. This is due to investment in environmental technology for the production of artificial fertilisers in the industrial sector, and reduced use of oil for heating and better waste management elsewhere. Use of heating oils was went down mainly because of lower electricity prices in 2007 in comparison with 2006, but there is also a trend whereby more and more people use electricity instead of fossil fuels for heating. Emissions from the waste disposal sites went down because less organic waste was deposited.
The numbers also show that nearly 53 percent of Norway’s emissions of greenhouse gases come from process industries and the oil and gas activitiy (primarily as CO 2). The transport sector was responsible for 32 percent of the emissions, with road traffic being the largest source. Emissions from waste disposal sites accounted for 2.5 percent. This is mainly methane, which is created by the biological decomposition of organic waste. Nearly 8 percent of the emissions are attributable to agriculture. Agricultural emissions come from livestock farming and use of artificial fertilisers. Heating and other stationary
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combustion were responsible for around three percent of the emissions in the form of CO 2 and methane [2].
Figure 3.4 Emissions of greenhouse gases in Norway by source 1990-2007 in millions of tonnes of CO 2 equivalents [2] , [3]
3.2.2 Development of greenhouse gas emissions in Bergen Total emissions Total emissions of greenhouse gases in Bergen Municipality were 755,900 tonnes of CO 2 equivalents and were thus around 1.4 percent of Norway's total emissions. In 2007, Bergen's population was 5.2 percent of the total population of Norway. Emissions per person in Bergen were 3.1 tonnes of CO 2 equivalents per annum. In percentage terms, Bergen has much lower emissions from industry and agriculture in comparison with the emission figures for Norway as a whole. The contribution from mobile sources is thus larger in Bergen than in the national statistics. To a great extent this reflects the structure of Bergen’s economy.
The total emissions of greenhouse gases in Bergen Municipality have grown by a little over 17 percent from 1991 to 2007. The population increased by slightly more than 14 percent in the same period.
Mobile sources Emissions from mobile sources, i.e. the combustion of fuel from mobile sources, accounted for nearly 68 percent of all greenhouse gas emissions in Bergen in 2007. This was principally road traffic. Passenger cars make up 62 percent of the road traffic share and vans, trucks and buses account for 28 percent.
‘Other mobile sources’ covers emissions from air traffic and motorised equipment such as construction machinery etc. Together these were responsible for nearly 11 percent of the total emissions. For air traffic, only traffic below 100 metres is included in the statistic. Emissions from Norwegian ships accounted for 1.6 percent of the emissions in
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Table 3.1 Emissions of greenhouse gases in Bergen Municipality, tonnes CO2 equivalents. Source: Statistic Norway [3] 1991 1995 2000 2007 2007 % Stationary combustion 151,816 128,785 136,999 161,578 21.4 % Industry 31,806 32,742 21,622 36,042 4.8 % Other commercial 54,572 56,676 51,401 55,653 7.4 % Households 65,424 39,345 43,040 43,599 5.8 % Other stationary combustion 15 23 20,936 26,285 3.5 % Process emissions 148,963 126,147 100,306 81,336 10.8 % Industry 1,499 1,734 2,562 2,934 0.4 % Waste disposal sites 114,789 90,731 66,125 54,904 7.3 % Agriculture 16,015 14,018 11,992 7,844 1.0 % Other process emissions 16,659 19,665 19,626 15,654 2.1 % Mobile sources 344,620 363,432 390,851 512,938 67.9 % Road traffic 295,480 299,413 322,151 419,374 55.5 % Passenger cars 234,550 228,597 245,581 320,801 42.4 % Trucks and buses 60,929 70,817 76,570 98,573 13.0 % Ships and fishing 9,435 9,766 10,944 12,243 1.6 % Other mobile sources 39,705 54,253 57,756 81,320 10.8 % Total emissions 645,399 618,364 628,155 755,851 100.0 %
2007. The annual increase in emissions from mobile sources has been approximately 2.4 percent per annum since 1991.
Stationary combustion 21.4 percent of the greenhouse gas emissions in Bergen in 2007 come from stationary
combustion. This is principally CO 2 emissions from oil-burning in industry, public and private service provision and industrial buildings. In addition to CO 2 emissions there are some emissions of methane. Emissions from stationary combustion can vary to a relatively great extent from year to year, depending on price developments and consumption from different energy sources. Energy consumption for heating also depends on weather and temperature. The annual increase in emissions from stationary combustion has been about 0.4 percent since 1991.
Process emissions Methane gas from the waste disposal plants accounted for most of the greenhouse gas emissions under 'process emissions', with 7.3 percent of the total emissions in 2007. Landfill was in the main stopped in Bergen in 1996 and the emissions of methane gas are therefore dropping, but methane will still be created from closed landfill sites for many years. By comparison, the landfill sites were responsible for nearly 18 percent of the total emissions for Bergen in 1991. Emissions from other process sources arise from agriculture (methane and nitrous oxide), use of solvents in industry, petrol distribution etc. The emissions together accounted for 3.5 percent of the greenhouse gas emissions in Bergen and are on a downward trend. The annual reduction in emissions from processes has been approximately 3.7 percent per annum since 1991.
Statistics Norway’s emission figures for process emissions in 2007 are probably too low, possibly by as much as 25%, among other reasons because they only take into account to a limited extent new figures for greenhouse gas emissions from handling all types of waste. It is also likely that the quantity of emissions from the main waste disposal site in Rådalen and smaller local sites has been underestimated. In both of these areas there is newly published material that current statistics do not capture adequately
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(discussed later). With the new assumptions it is estimated that process emissions comprised around 109,000 tonnes of CO 2 equivalents in 2007. When considering the future effects, these adjusted figures have been used.
When looking back in time to 1991, the deviation in relation to Statistics Norway’s figures becomes more uncertain, in part because the figures for waste disposal site emissions were calculated as being higher at that time and because the combination of treatment solutions was different then. The choice has therefore been made to use Statistics Norway’s figures for previous years, including 1991.
600
500
Mobile emissions 400
300
200 Stationary combustion Stationary
100
Process emissions 0 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008
Figure 3.5 Development of greenhouse gas emissions in Bergen Municipality 1991-2007 in ‘000s of tonnes of CO 2 equivalents. [2], [3]
3.3 What do the different measurements mean? In Chapter 2 reference is made to Bergen Municipality’s target of 50 percent fewer greenhouse gas emissions in 2030 than in 1991, and also to a desire to consider nil emissions, i.e. a 100 percent reduction of current emissions. This applies to emissions in Bergen Municipality’s area as a whole and no breakdown showing how these targets were to be allocated between different emission sources was carried out. Table 3.2 shows the emission reductions required from 2007 if the targets are, for example, divided equally between the three main emission sources.
The annual emissions must be reduced on average by 20,600 tonnes per annum in the period 2009-2030 to reach the target of 50 percent reduction from 1991, and by nearly 36,000 tonnes per annum to achieve a climate-neutral Bergen. These numbers refer back to the emissions in 2007.
Consequences of population growth As well as the necessary reduction shown above, to achieve the targets the reductions must also compensate for population growth and increased activity levels and consumption. Statistics Norway’s average forecast shows 28 percent population growth in Bergen up to 2030. Despite presumably temporary weaker economic growth caused by the ‘Financial Crisis’ continued economic growth is expected to resume after a while. Experience has shown that population growth and economic development lead to increased activity in the form of traffic and consumption. There is no direct connection between population growth, consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. In some sectors, for example in traffic, the expansion has been considerably greater than the
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population growth, while the growth in stationary emissions has been lower. If on average we use population growth as the basis for increases in emissions going forward, the result is an increase in emissions of nearly 10,000 tonnes per annum up to 2030. In that case this must be added to the emission reductions mentioned above.
These reductions must either be achieved by reductions in Bergen or by buying climate credits. If climate credits were included in the accounts for Bergen, credits bought by individuals and organisations in Bergen should be included in the consolidated accounts - everything from activities embraced by the national quota system to private persons purchasing climate credits for journeys by air. Such accounts do not exist at the municipal level. Purchase of climate credits is not included in the Climate and Energy Action Plan.
Whether and how these targets may be capable of achievement through reduced emissions in Bergen is described in the respective technical chapters, where the effect of the various proposed measures will be explained.
Table 3.2. Reduced greenhouse gas emissions to reach climate policy objectives for Bergen, consolidated and divided by emission sectors if the same targets are to apply to all emissions. Tonnes CO 2-equivalents. Emissions Emissions Reduction Reduction Emissions 2030 2030 Emissions required required Emission source: 1991 Rel to Rel to 2007 for 50% for100% 50% tgt 100% tgt target target Stationary combustion 151,816 75,908 0 161,578 85,670 161,578 Process emissions 148,963 74,481 0 81,336 6,854 81,336 Mobile sources 344,620 172,310 0 512,938 340,628 512,938
Total emissions 645,399 322,699 0 755,851 433,152 755,851
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4 Structure of the Action Plan
The plan is divided into three main chapters, according to the sector to which the greenhouse gas emissions belong. The classification is in line with the system used in official Norwegian statistics for greenhouse gas emissions. This means that the discussion is divided into the following emission sources: • Mobile emissions These include all transport activity on roads, in the air and by ship. For aircraft and ships limits are set for how much of this traffic shall be attributed to municipal emissions. This emissions group also includes building and construction machinery and a wide range of mechanical equipment (see Chapter 5). • Stationary emissions These are emissions from energy use associated with fixed installations such as dwellings, construction sites, installations etc. Stationary energy use also includes energy supplies to the Light Railway, airports and quays, but not the energy used by the actual means of transport such as cars, planes and ships, even if electric cars, for example, are in the "grey zone” (See Chapter 6). • Consumption, waste and process emissions In the context of Statistics Norway these include gas emissions from waste disposal sites, process emissions from industry, natural emissions from agriculture and greenhouse gas emissions from waste handling. In the climate plan these are drawn together under the concept of waste and consumption patterns, waste minimisation, private and public waste treatment, waste disposal site upgrading and better solutions for industrial waste (See Chapter 7).
The discussion of the various subjects follows this main structure: • The status of greenhouse gas emissions and expected development, with and without measures • Target setting for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, divided by sector • The interrelationship between emissions, the environment and the economy • Discussion of policy instruments • Proposed measures and estimates of the effects of the various measures.
There are some special features of the various emission sources that will be dealt with in each chapter. This particularly applies to the mobile emissions, which distinguish themselves from the other in three respects. Firstly, measures directed at the volume of transport, and the relative shares of alternative means of transport, are main themes in other policy areas. The policy instruments directed towards climatic effects are therefore only one of the considerations in this area. This means that the costs cannot be directly related to climate measures either, but to a great extent relate to land use and transport policy aims. Secondly, road traffic distinguishes itself through the greatest effects being associated with technology developments over which local authorities have little influence. Forecasts of future emissions from mobile sources are therefore characterised to a greater extent than in other sectors by scenarios rather than projections, whose assumptions can be controlled. Thirdly, climate-related measures in both land use planning and transport planning usually have long-term horizons and are included in municipal and regional long term strategic planning. Some of the measures are thus of a somewhat more philosophical and all-embracing nature.
All subject areas conclude with a measures table resulting from the discussions and review in the various specialist groups. The measures tables are structured as follows:
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• Measure: Number and name of the measure • Description and policy A short description of the measure is reproduced here instruments: • Consequences: Description of the consequences of the measure • Responsibility: Who is primarily responsible for the implementation of the measure • Time plan: Proposed time plan for the measure. The main effort for the measure should be applied during this period in order to achieve the desired effect. In the main, the years 2011, 2014 and 2030 are adhered to, in line with the target periods. Some of the measures will have a different time perspective. • Measurable effect: Estimated effect of the measure as a quantity of energy (no. of GWH) • Effect in tonnes of CO 2 Estimated effect of the measure as a reduction in equ: tonnes of CO 2 equivalents • Cost/benefit: Cost-benefit relationship is stated as good, medium or poor The evaluation is made on the basis of cost seen in proportion to effect, plus the total potential the measure may possibly be expected to have • Obstacles/Feasibility Description of any obstacles or other factors that influence the feasibility of the measure
Classification of measures The Climate and Energy Action Plan sets up broad packages of measures using the policy instruments available at municipal level. Each package of measures is consolidated by specialisation/sector and is classified in the following time perspectives: • Short-term measures (up to 2014 as this is the time horizon for Cities of the Future) • Long-term measures (up to 2030)
There are also general measures that apply to all specialisms or sectors, for example information and opinion-forming measures. These apply both to the Municipality’s own operations and to the local community. These measures may be about awareness concerning energy use and energy-reducing measures, waste reduction and separation of waste, or other climatic measures for the Municipality, commercial life or the population as whole. The City Council has previously decided that environmental management shall be introduced into Bergen Municipality and that it is to be integrated with the Municipality’s existing management and reporting systems.
Several programmes and projects have been established to increase inter-municipal or regional cooperation, thereby facilitating transfers of skills and expertise in climate and energy related matters.
In Chapter 8 there is a summary of projects associated with climate adaptation. The projects referred to have been started and Bergen Municipality is an important driving force in this work.
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5 Mobile energy use and greenhouse gas emissions
5.1 Status and future development
Mobile emissions include all transport activity on roads, in the air and by ship. This emissions group also includes building and construction machinery and a wide range of mechanical equipment.
5.1.1 Road traffic development There has been steady growth in road traffic in Bergen and especially since 2002 the growth has been substantial. Total growth over the period 1990-2007 has been in excess of 70 percent [1]. The growth in car traffic has been 1.5 times greater than the increase in population in the same period. The downward trend in public transport has been stabilised and turned into a weak upward trend since 2003.
The growth in the number of passenger cars is 62% since 1997. No city has greater growth in car ownership, but the number of cars is still lower than the national average; for example car ownership in Akershus is 16% higher than in Bergen.
180 Road traffic 170 Population
160 Public transport passengers 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Figure 5.1 Relative development of road traffic, population and public transport passengers in Bergen from 1990-2007. Index 1990 = 100. [1]
5.1.2 Emissions from road traffic must be seen in a regional context The traffic growth is due to population growth, increased car ownership and changes in travelling habits, including an increase in work journeys as a result of the common housing and labour markets. In recent years, since 2006, growth in the neighbouring municipalities and outer areas of Bergen has been particularly large. Up to 2005, growth was much the same in all parts of the Municipality. But from then on growth in traffic
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across the municipal boundaries increased greatly in the outer parts of Bergen. Total traffic across the municipal boundaries increased by nearly 30 percent, while traffic in central parts of Bergen (at the Nygårdstangen crossing) increased by ten percent in the same period. The main reason for this was that tolls ceased on the Askøy and Nordhordland bridges, but traffic growth across the municipal boundaries was considerable notwithstanding.
The growth is an expression of Bergen and the neighbouring municipalities being to an increasing extent integrated into a common functional region, where the urban area stretches out beyond Bergen’s municipal boundaries. This manifests itself in stronger regional traffic growth, where for example mobile emissions in Bergen must be seen in a regional context, so that climate measures to combat emissions from road traffic are looked at beyond the boundaries of Bergen Municipality.
5.1.3 Aviation and sea transport Air traffic through Bergen Airport, expressed as the number of passengers passing through the terminal, increased by 35% between 2000 and 2007. However, emissions from air traffic are linked to the number of aircraft movements. These have not increased as much as the number of passengers. The number of aircraft movements has been relatively stable and there were only three percent more of these in 2007 than in 2000 [29].
In 2009 the number of passengers through the terminal dropped by 3.8% and there was also a small reduction in the number of aircraft movements.
Comparable statistics do not exist for ship arrivals in Bergen, but for the ports in Bergen and its surrounding area, which includes a sizeable area around Bergen, there has been steady development with between 3,000 and 3,500 arrivals each year [30].
5.1.4 Greenhouse gas emissions from mobile sources In the period 1991-2007 greenhouse gas emissions from mobile sources increased by nearly 50 percent. Three quarters of this growth (76 percent) was due to increased emissions from road traffic. Road traffic is responsible for 76 percent mobile emissions in Bergen and for 25 percent of the total emissions in the Municipality. 1000 tonn CO2-ekv Emissions from air and sea transport were 450 almost unchanged during the period, with an increase of two percent each. Sea 400 transport accounts for two percent of the emissions and aviation for four percent.
350 Only inland air and sea transport are considered to be sources of local emissions.
300 By contrast, the increase in “other mobile emissions” is 21 percent. These emissions 250 Veitrafikk comprise more than shipping and aviation Annet combined. Other mobile emissions include 200 Luftfart small boats, various motorised equipment, Skip og båter agricultural machinery, construction plant 150 etc. The emissions from this collective category amount to ten percent of 100 emissions, but are not usually given much attention in climate planning work. The 50 growth in this category has gradually risen to such an extent that measures to counter 0 these emissions may be just as important
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 as measures associated with air and sea
Figure 5.2 Mobile emissions in Bergen 1991 -2007 38
transport. However, the emissions are spread across many sources and activities and are difficult to deal with on a consolidated basis.
5.1.5 Existing plans A range of plans exists for transport and land use in Bergen. The most important ones that deal with long-term development are: • The Bergen Programme for Transportation, Urban Development and the Environment. A programme for the use of road tolls for investment and environmental measures in Bergen. • Transport Analysis for the Bergen Area 2010-2030. Input to the National Transport Plan (NTP) 2010-2019. • Conceptual Choices Study for the Bergen Regional Package. Regional cooperation concerning the basis for a continution of the Bergen Programme. Completion expected in the spring of 2010. • Strategy for Public Transport in Bergen. Formulates Bergen’s aims and strategies for the development of public transport in the Municipality. • The Land Use Part of the Municipal Plan 2006-2017 (2025). • Public Transport in the Bergen Area. Aims, strategies and route structure, Hordaland County Authority, 2008. • Cycle Strategy for Bergen 2010-2019.
5.1.6 Future development No official and up to date prognoses for traffic development in Bergen exist. In connection with NTP 2010-2019 forecasts were made for counties. The bases for these include population growth, economic development and changes in travelling habits. For Hordaland these forecasts show growth in kilometres driven of just 40 percent from 2006 to 2030. The forecast is based on a population prognosis of 29 percent growth in the same period. If we take as a starting point corresponding figures for Bergen, which has a somewhat larger expected population growth than the rest of the county and has considerable traffic across its municipal boundaries, an estimate of traffic growth would be around 40 percent, reckoned in the number of km driven by car. This may also be used as a baseline scenario from 2006 for greenhouse gas emissions from mobile sources if measures are not implemented and there are no technological gains leading to reduced emissions per vehicle kilometre.
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Figure 5.4 Recorded and forecast traffic growth in Bergen up to 2030. Based on data from [1] and [2]. Index 1990 = 100.
Large growth in air traffic is also expected. The number of aircraft movements is however dependent on changes in aircraft size and changes in the average number of passengers per flight. The contribution to local emissions from aircraft is small in proportion to total emissions, which makes the development trends less important.
For shipping, the NTP does not reckon on significant changes in the volume of transport.
5.2 Target setting for mobile emissions National targets for emissions of greenhouse gases for various sectors are set out in both the Climate Report and Report to the Norwegian Parliament No. 16 (2008-2009) concerning the National Transport plan. For land transport and aviation, emission reductions of 2.5 – 4 million tonnes of CO 2 equivalents are to be achieved for the country as a whole, compared with a baseline scenario up to 2020. This involves a reduction of 17 and 24 percent respectively. If Bergen were to have taken its share of this reduction in proportion to population, it would have to achieve a reduction of between of around 130,000 – 200,000 tonnes, i.e. a volume that equates to between 25 and 40 percent of current emissions in the Municipality. Without further consideration, it is not correct to break down the national figures in this way and there is no national policy that requires it, but it nevertheless shows that ambitions for reducing emissions from the transport sector are large.
Cities of the Future is a collaborative project between the Government and the 13 largest cities and towns in Norway to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and make them better places to live. Towns and cities are now home to half of the world’s population. They are already unquestionably the greatest consumer of energy and account for 80% of all greenhouse gas emissions in the world. In Norway nearly 80 percent of the population lives in cities, towns and small towns/villages. In other words, if the towns manage to reduce their emissions, it will make a big difference.
If Bergen’s target of reducing 50 percent of the 1991 emissions by 2030 were to apply equally to all sectors, including transport, it would mean emissions 172,000 tonnes
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lower than in 1991 and 210,000 tonnes lower than in 2007. This shows that the aspirations in local targets are no less ambitious than the national ones.
Oslo - Akershus 500 Drammen Skien - Porsgrunn
Stavanger – Sandnes (nord-Jæren)
Bergen 400 Trondheim
Kristiansand
300
200
100
0 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Figure 5.5 Passenger cars per 1,000 inhabitants 1990-2008. Source: Statistics Norway [30]
5.3 The interrelationship between mobile emissions, the environment and the economy
There are a number of driving forces in society that contribute to traffic development. These include changes in the settlement pattern regionally and locally, changes in travelling habits and increased access to cars and car use. In addition to population growth, general economic development and increased purchasing power will especially have the effect of increasing activity levels, mobility and consumption. These manifest themselves directly in the number of cars. Car ownership in Bergen has historically been lower than in other parts of the country, but since 1996 there has been a large increase in car ownership. Car ownership in Bergen is now more extensive than in Stavanger-Sandnes, Trondheim and Oslo. But it is still less than in Akershus, for example. If car ownership in Bergen were to rise to the Akershus level that in itself would lead to there being 16 percent more cars.
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Looking ahead towards 2030, the growth in car ownership is dependent on the development of the economy and the population's purchasing power. The financial crisis appears to have slowed down car sales to some extent. However, the long-term perspectives for the Norwegian economy show considerable growth. The forecasting assumptions given by the Ministry of Finance as the basis for the traffic prognoses in the NTP are based on growth in real disposable household income of 95% by 2030 [2]. There is much uncertainty in such long-term forecasts, but they nevertheless express an expectation of considerable growth that will also manifest itself in increased travel demand.
There is no direct relationship between traffic growth and increased greenhouse gas emissions. This is a consequence of transport having become more energy efficient. In turn, this has contributed to the use of energy for transport, especially on the roads, not having risen as much as the growth in traffic. The countervailing force has been that up to 2007 heavier and heavier vehicles with larger engines were being purchased.
However the road tax changes in 2007, whereby higher charges for cars with large CO 2 emissions were introduced, led to a marked fall in average emissions from new cars from 177 g/km in 2006 to 159 g/km in 2007 [3].
5.4 Policy instruments 5.4.1 Main features The transport and climate pyramid in Figure 5.6 has been developed by the Western Region of the Norwegian Public Roads Administration in consultation with Transportøkonomisk Institutt (‘the Norwegian Institute of Transport Economics’) while preparing a strategy for the Roads Administration’s work on reducing greenhouse gas emissions from transport [4]. The pyramid shows a step-by-step and hierarchical approach to a climate strategy in four priority areas. The first and most fundamental policy instruments involve reducing transport requirements and journey lengths through land use. These will set the long-term framework for transport demand in the community. After that transport facilities are designed so that transportation is carried out in the most environmentally friendly way possible, i.e. by public transport, on foot and by bicycle. Beyond this it may be necessary to regulate car traffic so that the arrangements for alternative means of transport will have the desired effect. Finally, motorised traffic will need to be as efficient as possible in respect of energy use and emissions. The discussion below builds on these steps.
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Figure 5.6 Key categories of measures for reducing the amount of transport and greenhouse gas emissions [4]
5.4.2 Cities of the Future Targets and strategies for land use and transport comprise one of the priority areas in the urban collaborative project ‘Cities of the Future’. Bergen Municipality’s action plan launches a range of measures that are brought together under the heading of policy instruments and measures within land use and transport. Directly related to measures in the Climate and Energy Action Plan the following prioritised projects for the period 2009-2014 [5] apply:
• Planning and further development of the Light Railway network • Concentration along the Light Railway and developing the city centre • Parking • Study congestion charging • Low emission zones • Cycle routes • Pedestrian precincts and universal design • Information strategy for increased use of local recreation facilities • Shore power to ships in harbour
5.4.3 Land use and urban development Land use and transport requirements – two sides of the same question Land use and the geographical distribution of activities and functions have an important effect on the extent of the daily journeys that are necessary for the population and the commercial sector to be able to meet their needs and carry out their tasks. Land use and urban development also lay out an important framework for the means of transport that people use. There is therefore a close interrelationship between land use, transport requirements and energy use, and thus greenhouse gas emissions as well.
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Strong driving forces for urban sprawl – but also development trends towards denser urban structure Land use policy is important not only in respect of climate, but also to create good quality dwellings, economic use of space, demand for investment in, and operation of, infrastructure and as the basis for rational organisation of various community activities. The various objectives for land use development coincide in the main with targets for reduced emissions of greenhouse gases. But there are important exceptions. The desire for low development costs and the avoidance of conflict with the existing urban structure, municipalities’ desire to attract population growth in order, inter alia, to maintain the population in every small community; these are factors that contribute to urban sprawl, resulting in car-dependent land use and a weak basis for public transport. Many people's preference for where they want to live pulls in the direction of sprawl, but at the same time the experience of both Bergen and the surrounding municipalities is that there is a significant market for dwellings in the centre. It is thus probable that it is more the lack of dwellings for sale and the price level, rather than individual location preferences, which restricts more concentrated urban development.
Large variations in energy use in different localities within the urban structure Studies both in Bergen and elsewhere show that there can be large variations in energy use for transport in different residential areas and workplace locations within an urban area. Examples from Bergen show, inter alia, that those living in city district centres with good public services and those who live in the central area have 30-40 percent lower emissions in connection with their daily journeys than, for example, residents in the outer districts of the city [27]. Many studies also show that businesses located centrally contribute to lower mobile emissions than businesses further out in the urban structure [28].
The long-term view is important and the guiding principles must be established now In the short term the main features of the urban structure remain fixed and the opportunities to change total emissions through land use policy are limited. Because present development and location choices are irreversible, it is important to make long- term perspectives the basis for urban development and to lay down the guiding principles for such development over the longer term, including influencing the desired end result in terms of jobs, workplaces and service facilities. There is in addition a mutual dependency between transport and land use, which means that new urban development can also create the basis for changes and improvements in public transport provision, to the benefit of existing urban districts as well.
Effects of changes in land use If we take as our starting point the forecast of 28% population growth by 2030 in line with Statistics Norway’s average prognosis for Bergen, and this increase in population has the same location and travelling patterns as the average for the current population, the outcome will be growth in transport and emissions equal to the population growth. If land use development were to channel new development in towards concentration and transformation areas with good public services and shorter travelling distances, the growth in the volume of transport and greenhouse gas emissions could be curbed.
In the report on future development of the Light Railway network in Bergen a study was made of the potential for urban development within the catchment area of a future extension of the railway. This shows that there is land use potential through population concentration, transport hub development and urban transformation that can cover the whole of the future requirement for new dwellings up to 2030 in areas located centrally within the urban structure and with good public transport cover [6].
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The Land Use Part of the Municipal Plan for Bergen already contains a land use strategy with the development of transport hubs around the Light Railway in the southern part of the city. Exploitation of the urban development potential in new Light Railway corridors also implies an extension and expansion of this land use strategy in the rest of the Municpality. The full effect of urban development with low transport demand and good public provision also implies that further large residential areas around the outer edges of the city ought not to be created and urban development should be channelled “inwards" within the urban structure.
Implementing urban development of this nature can give new growth in the city with about 30 percent lower mobile greenhouse gas emissions per dwelling than the current average. In total this gives emissions 8 percentage points lower than a population growth of 28 percent would indicate on its own.
If this new urban development also influences the scope of travel of, for example, 10 percent of the existing population through better public transport facilities and shorter travelling distances, with 30 percent lower emissions per dwelling, the total will be 11 percentage points lower than the population growth.
Even though this is a favourable land use development in respect of public transport and lower mobile emissions, there are also forces pushing in the opposite direction. A more realistic estimate of the effects of urban development will therefore lie between 5 and 10 percentage points’ reduction in mobile emissions from people transport. The effects of urban development have less impact on other transport than on private car use. As private car transport comprises around 65 percent of total mobile emissions, the collective effect will lie between three and six percent, as an isolated effect on mobile emissions.
Summary Land use policy is a municipal area of responsibility and the Municipality has legislation and policy instruments on its side to direct land use development. In a regional context, where the requirement is to view urban development across the municipal boundaries, there is no mutual coordination of land use and transport policy. The most important policy instruments for evolving land use and urban development with lower greenhouse gas emissions from transport are:
• Concentration of transport hubs where there is good public transport cover and good access to local services • Location policies where firms with large volumes of visitors are channelled towards public transport hubs located centrally within the urban structure • Delay or abandon house building plans in the outer city that lead to urban sprawl • Coordination of land use policy and regional housing policy in respect of public transport cover and local services
5.4.4 Enhance public transport The most important policy instruments for enhancing public transport are: • The Bergen Programme and following this up with planning work and a decision to extend the Light Railway • The action programme – Public Transport Strategy for Bergen 2007-2010. Adopted by Bergen City Council on 26 May 2008 in Proposition 93-08 • Follow-up of "Forward Bergen” – a proposal for accessibility measures for buses in Bergen. Proposition 92-08 adopted by Bergen City Council on 26 May 2008 and the County Authority Committee on 22 May 2008 under item 38/08. • Park and ride, adopted by Bergen City Council on 26 May 2008.
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A bus emits four to five times as much CO 2 per km as a passenger car, but is nevertheless more emissions-friendly because it carries more passengers. In city traffic there need be no more than five passengers in the bus before the emissions per person are in line with a passenger car. No published figures exist for average passenger numbers in the buses in Bergen, but it is probably somewhere in excess of 20 people. In Bergen emissions per person using buses are about one quarter in comparison with passenger cars. There is thus great potential for reducing greenhouse gas by transferring journeys from passenger cars to buses, and to walking and cycling.
Kristiansand
Stavanger / Sandnes Trondheim Oslo
Tromsø Bergen
Figure 5.7 Number of public transport journeys per inhabitant 1990-2006, by city. Index, 1990=1. [11]
Public transport is exposed to a very tough competition climate. [7]. Thus it is a big challenge to achieve a significant transfer from cars to public transport using only positive policy instruments for public transport. A combination of persuasion and compulsion must be employed if a significant transfer is to be achieved [8]. There are many instances where experience has shown that despite considerable investment in improved public transport facilities the effects are limited without restrictions on cars. The experimental and development programme “Experimental Scheme for Public Transport” [9] shows that increased use public transport can be achieved with better facilities, but also that barely half of the increase comes from motorists, the rest comes from people who formerly walked, cycled or did not travel at all.
Table 5.1 Public transport in Bergen – bus passengers. Source: Tide Buss AS
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Figure 5.8 Percentage increase in bus journeys in Bergen measured against 2005 Sources: Norwegian Public Roads Administration, bus company Tide Buss AS and Statistics Norway
Figure 5.9 Growth in vehicle journeys, bus passengers and population in Bergen Sources: Norwegian Public Roads Administration, bus company Tide Buss AS and Statistics Norway
In the ongoing Reward Scheme for Public Transport that was introduced in 2004 [10], the effects of various stimulation measures for public transport are reviewed and evaluated. Some increase in public transport has been recorded, but no trend change in the distribution of means of transport. This is partly due to the scope of the extra measures, but first and foremost to restrictions in car traffic not being introduced [11].
One of the reasons for car traffic only being recorded as reducing to a limited extent when investment is made in public transport is that the public transport share is low to start with (12 percent in Bergen), while the proportion of cars is high (64 percent car drivers and passengers [12]). Furthermore, increased public transport traffic as a result of investing in public transport alone will come from all road users and not just from car traffic. If the measures to enhance public transport achieved a 50 percent increase in
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the traffic, and half of this came from car traffic, the number of car journeys would reduce by 3 percent. If the reduced car journeys were of the average length in Bergen, it would give a corresponding reduction in emissions.
The number of public transport passengers has gone down by 1.9% from 2008 to 2009. But seen in relation to 2004, the growth is 9.2%.
Light Railway – further extension By 2030 the Light Railway in Bergen will be extended beyond the first stage of construction to Nesttun. Continued development will provide a basis for more efficient and attractive public transport with potential for transfer from cars to public transport. The efficiency of the Light Railway stems from it having secure accessibility as it runs on its own track and is prioritised in relation to other traffic, and has regular services and good capacity. It is important for accessibility for buses to be improved before the Light Railway is established on the routes in question, as well as on routes that will not be served by the railway. As a part of the Bergen Programme a summary of measures that contribute to better accessibility for public transport has been prepared through the project “Bergen Forward” [32]. A range of measures is analysed and is considered to give 20 percent faster public transport on the main lines to the South and via Landås, and between 5 and 10 percent on other lines.
A comprehensive light railway network will be very important for enhancing the total public transport system in the Bergen area. A start has been made on studies and planning of routes for further extension of the Light Railway, in collaboration with Hordaland County Authority and the Public Roads Administration.
The Light Railway is also a very good climate and environmental project, on the basis that it runs on electricity and will thus be almost emission-free, both in respect of greenhouse gas emissions and emissions to the air.
5.4.5 Enhancing pedestrian and cycle traffic Traffic on foot, but first and foremost cycle traffic, have a significant potential to increase their share of journeys in Bergen. Seen in total for the whole urban region the cycle share is a little above three percent. In certain connections and in some groups of road users the cycle share is higher. With the low share there is considerable potential for increased cycle traffic.
Very few cycle further than five kilometres. The bicycle is also most relevant for the youngest and fittest part of the population. The bicycle is therefore to a greater extent an alternative to journeys on foot and by public transport, than it is an alternative to the car. Pedestrian and cycle journeys may be seen as part of public travel. Better conditions for pedestrians and cyclists in towards, and at, public transport stops are thus a part of the total public transport offer, and thereby contribute to its attractiveness. On the other hand, the total scope of measures for pedestrian and cycle traffic in the form of reduced motorised traffic and emissions of greenhouse gases is modest, but must be included as a collective component in a range of measures.
In Cycle Strategy for Bergen 2010-2019 it is pointed out that the potential for a larger share for cycling is especially great in the most central parts of Bergen and Bergensdalen southwards towards Fana and Ytrebygda. Analyses show that 40 percent of all workers in Bergen live less than 5 km from their places of work and 70 percent live within 10 km [30]. The Cycle Strategy states as a target that the cycling share in Bergen will be increased from today’s three percent to ten percent. If we assume that half of the increase comes from car drivers and take into consideration that the car journeys replaced are less than 10 minutes, this gives a reduction in emissions of nearly
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three percent of mobile emissions and almost two percent of total emissions of greenhouse gases in the Municipality.
The main targets, measures and policy instruments set out in Cycle Strategy for Bergen (adopted by the City Council on 26 April 2010) are:
Main objectives for cycling • In Bergen cycling shall be attractive and safe for everyone • By 2019 the cycling share in Bergen shall increase to at least 10% of all journeys • The main cycle route network is to be fully developed by 2019
The main stratagems for achieving the targets are: • Focus on a coherent and comprehensive main cycle routes network • Separate pedestrians and cyclists – safer and more efficient for all • Provide for cycling at high speed – to achieve a competitive advantage over cars • Establish 1,500 new bicycle parking spaces in the city centre • Increase the focus on the urban districts
Measures and policy instruments: To reach the targets there is a need for a broad spectrum of measures and policy instruments. The strategy has divided these into eight categories: 1. Coherent cycle route network – main routes and urban district routes 2. Prioritising cycle traffic ahead of car traffic 3. Increased focus on bicycle parking 4. Land use planning that lays the groundwork for increased use of bicycles 5. Higher standard of operation and maintenance 6. Vision Zero is used as the baseline for road safety 7. Transfer between different means of transport 8. Information and mobility measures
Action plan The strategy will be followed up by a 4-year action plan that will be submitted before the summer of 2010 and will deal with both long and short term measures.
5.4.6 Regulate car traffic No individual measure exists that on its own can reduce the volume of traffic and skew the distribution of means of transport in the direction of fewer emissions. It is the combination of measures that will determine whether the transport policy is successful, both as regards being more environmentally friendly and covering the transport requirement in the urban area. It is the reciprocal relationship in a unified policy over a long time that will be decisive for reaching both the environmental and transport policy aims that are set. In addition to the positive policy instruments that are presented above, this also applies to incentives that motivate and lay the foundations for reduced use of cars. If restriction and regulation of car use is to work as intended and not have a negative effect on mobility and accessibility in the urban area, alternatives must be in position. Seen like this, large-capacity and efficient public transport facilities are interlinked with measures that regulate car traffic directly.
In the main there are two effective ways to regulate car traffic – financial policy instruments to control demand, and the amount of road capacity offered.
Road tolls are best for greenhouse gas emissions – congestion pricing is best for local pollution and traffic efficiency The Institute of Transport Economics has carried out a study of the possible effects of congestion pricing in Bergen and Trondheim with a congestion charge that varies
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throughout the 24 hours, costing NOK 40 to access the central urban districts in peak hours [13]. This gives a traffic reduction of 10 percent in Bergen and 15 percent in Trondheim 2. Congestion pricing is primarily intended as a policy instrument for restraining the traffic loading in areas and at times where queues and accessibility problems are at their worst. This is therefore most effective for ensuring better flow and for reducing local environmental problems along the road network.
Road tolls, which operate on a 24-hour basis and catch traffic further out in the urban structure as well, may have greater impact in terms of regulating total car use and thus total emissions of greenhouse gases. This is illustrated by experience from Stockholm after the introduction of ‘Trengselsskatten’ (congestion tax) for parts of each 24-hour period for car traffic into the centre. The measure gave 22-24 percent less traffic across the sections paid for and 14 percent less emissions in the inner city. Greenhouse gas emissions for the whole region were reduced by 2.5 percent as the congestion charge was a measure aimed purely at the central urban district and only seven percent of travellers in the region are affected by the charge [14].
Parking Parking facilities have considerable importance for car use. There is a close relationship between the number of cars on the road and the number of parking spaces. Even if there is a certain amount of driving around looking for places, the big picture is that the number of cars can be controlled by the availability of parking. In the main, parking is a free benefit and it is generally only in the central areas that access is regulated. The effect of parking restrictions as an instrument of public policy is restricted by the large number of private spaces.
As part of laying the groundwork for a transfer from cars to public transport, park and ride may be a valid policy instrument. If this is to have a significant effect on the volume of transport and emissions, it must be as part of moving parking from central districts to places with good contact with public transport routes further out in the urban structure. If park and ride is not combined with restrictions in central urban districts, the net effect may be increased car use (cf Paragraph 3.1 in [15] Figure 6).
There is no authority to control the use of parking beyond those spaces that are at the disposition of the public authorities. In NTP 2010-2019 notice is given of a forthcoming judicial review and possible changes in the law to give the municipalities the facility to exercise greater control over private parking as well.
The Municipality has prepared a range of plans in this field and implementation has been started.
The current parking policy for Bergen was taken by Bergen City Council in March 2004, Proposition no 50-04. The City Council made the following decisions:
1. Objective for the Municipality's parking policy: Bergen Municipality shall practise a long-term parking policy that is coordinated with the needs for value creation in commercial and cultural life and at the same time provides for and satisfies an environmentally orientated land use and
2 The effect is lower in Bergen because there is already a road toll of NOK 15. The effect of congestion charging is assessed in comparison with this road toll.
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transport policy. The parking policy must contribute to good accessibility in the centre of Bergen.
2. The following strategies shall be used as the basis for policy instruments for parking measures: 2.1. Pricing of parking 2.2. Reduction of surface parking 2.3. Environmental improvements 2.4. Work for coordinated access that provides good traffic solutions for public transport, commercial transport, car traffic, pedestrian and cycle traffic. 2.5. Develop measures aimed at firms and individuals (known as Mobility Management).
The following appears in KMBY [Environment and Urban Development Committee] Proposition 103/10, the consultative statement for the reward application:
“To further enhance the application the City Government will consider reserving up to 200 of the existing parking meter spaces in the centre to provide parking for electric cars and deliveries/service driving/work tasks.
Moreover the parking norms that are to be applied for new buildings, conversions or changes of use and that are the basis for designing development plans, will be reviewed in 2010 with the purpose of reducing the requirement for parking provision.
The Municpality will also undertake a survey of the number of privately owned parking spaces in the centre, which are presumed to be used for long-term parking, to obtain a picture of the traffic these spaces may be assumed to create.”
Concerning park and ride, the following measures are being implemented: Nesttun: • Old Nesttun station, 70 parking spaces • Along Sandalsvegen, 47 spaces • Nesttunhalsen, 19 spaces • Plan a new parking installation on the site by the petrol station, 200 spaces. This will be complete in the summer of 2010
Lagunen: • 70 spaces
Fyllingsdalen: • Hjalmar Brantingsveg at Oasen, 100 spaces • Skarphaugen, 150 spaces
Storavannet: • 100 spaces
Åsane: • 280 spaces • Possibilities are being investigated for quickly building up 900 park and ride spaces on Area C.
In addition to the above, bicycle stands will also be established at Light Railway stops and at the most important park and ride car parks.
Low emission zones In the light of its action plan against local air pollution, Bergen Municipality has taken the initiative and established low emission zones where heavy, polluting traffic is
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charged for driving in a designated zone in central Bergen. This is a measure that is primarily effective for improving local air quality. The effects on greenhouse gas emissions will not be large.
Summary of measures Many of the driving forces behind car use are outside local influence. Car use is closely related to the population’s income growth and willingness to pay. However, the Municipality has control over the use, regulation and public disposition of parking spaces and, by making the necessary arrangements, park and ride. Nevertheless the most important thing is that tolls and congestion charging can only happen with the consent of the local population. The formal permissions come from the central authorities. From the Government point of view clear signals have been given that congestion charging is seen as useful policy instrument, but it is equally clear that this must come as a local initiative (cf Paragraph 9.4.2 about congestion charging in [3]).
Bergen Municipality’s most important policy instruments for regulating car use are: • Road tolls • Acting as the planning authority in connection with new road construction • Disposition of road investments by extending the Bergen Programme.
Total package of measures As emphasised in the introduction to this section it is the totality of policy instruments that must be put into effect if emissions from road transport are to be influenced significantly. In the work on the Transport Analysis for the Bergen Region in 2010-2030 an analysis of policy instruments was carried out where several instruments were looked at in relation to one another. One option was a 20 percent increase in the frequency of public transport, 20 percent better area coverage, a fare freeze, Light Railway to Åsane and Flesland, moderate development of the road network and ten percent reduction in parking spaces in the city centre up to 2030 [16,17]. The analysis concludes that this will turn a slowly declining trend for public transport into a growth of 30 percent more public transport journeys per person. The effect on car traffic is more modest, but instead of a growth trend of eight percent more car journeys per person, the results gave nil growth.
5.4.7 Reduce emissions from each vehicle In addition to reduced emissions achieved through measures that reduce the volume of transport, there is also significant potential for reduced emissions from each individual vehicle. Reduced emissions from vehicles can be associated with driving patterns and engine technology.
Driving style and driving pattern Achievement of significant savings in road traffic fuel consumption may be ascribed to driving style, known as “Eco-driving” or economy driving. A gain of 12-17 percent in reduced fuel consumption is reported [18, 19]. There is also a range of measures attached to the vehicles, such as correct tyre pressures, the removal of ski racks and roof boxes when they are not in use, engine warming before cold starting etc, which taken together can reduce energy demand and emissions by several percent. Speed and the extent of traffic queues also affect emissions per km.
Improving the energy efficiency of vehicles The greatest effect is linked to changes in specific emissions per km driven. The EU has decided that by 2012 new passenger cars shall not emit more that 130 grams of CO 2 per km, and that through other additional measures a further 10 g reduction shall be achieved for new vehicles. The EU’s long-term target is that emissions from new vehicles shall be 95 g/km in 2020 [20]. Norwegian emissions targets for the vehicle
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population are also set up to achieve a target of 120 grams of CO 2 per km for new vehicles by 2012. This will be achieved, inter alia, by changing the CO 2 component in the Vehicle Import Duty to motivate people to buy vehicles with lower emissions.
Vehicles that emit more than 250 g/km of CO 2 are also subject to higher duty. In comparison with current average CO 2 emissions, this means that emissions per km in 2030 can be reduced by a third when the whole vehicle population has been replaced and emissions are in line with the new requirements.
No corresponding requirements exist for heavier vehicles; the focus there has primarily been directed at emissions that are significant for local air pollution. Nevertheless, development of engine technology with lower fuel consumption and emissions must be anticipated.
Electrification of road transport Most of the potential for improving the efficiency of engines based on fossil fuel will probably have been exploited by 2020. Further reduction attributable to technology lies in more extensive phasing-in of climate neutral fuels. As part of this a resource group appointed by the Ministry of Transport and Communications has produced a package of measures to achieve 10 percent rechargeable vehicles (electric vehicles and hybrids) by 2020 [21].
Most probably we will see a two-phase introduction of rechargeable vehicles. The first, introductory, phase will last until rechargeable vehicles are readily available and price- competitive and a sufficient number of charging points and service functions have been developed. After some time this phase will give way to a commercial phase where rechargeable vehicles compete on equal terms with other vehicle technologies. Measures taken by public authorities will mainly be linked to the first phase.
The weightiest policy instruments for realising electrification of the vehicle population lie with the national authorities, but municipal authorities must also contribute through measures and policy instruments that are controlled locally: • Building, and supporting the building, of charging points (Bergen Municipality has received support with this from Transnova) • Experiments with residents' parking for rechargeable vehicles • Purchasing rechargeable vehicles for the Municipality’s own use and setting requirements for rechargeable vehicles to be used, when procuring services. Kilde: SSB 160
140
120
100
80
60
40
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0 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Figure 5.8 Number of electric vehicles in Bergen since 1998. In proportion to the population Askøy has the most electric vehicles. This is because electric vehicles do not pay tolls. Since the tolls on the Askøy Bridge were discontinued, the number of electric vehicles has gone down. There are now only half as many electric vehicles on Askøy as there were five years ago [30].
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Biofuels and hydrogen Large cuts in greenhouse gas emissions can be achieved by using biologically based energy carriers. These can be used directly as fuel in combustion engines, or they can be blended with petrol or diesel. Various types of biofuels exist, primarily biodiesel and ethanol. These types of fuel are expensive to produce and some biodiesel production can be problematical from a sustainability perspective. There are great expectations for second generation biodiesel, which is cheaper to manufacture and can be produce in large quantities. In the medium term hydrogen will also contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector.
Second generation biodiesel and hydrogen need time for development and to become commercially available. The theoretical potential for reduction of greenhouse gases by transferring to bioenergy and biofuel is 100 percent in the long term. In practice the EU's target of replacing 20 percent of the fossil fuel consumption with alternative energy carriers by 2020 is an optimistic scenario. (cf, inter alia, [22, 23, 24, 25])
Further development of biofuel and hydrogen depends on national and international development work, and the policy instruments are very limited at the local level. In Norway, Transnova was established to advance the transfer to environmentally friendly fuels in the transport sector, including support for setting up charging stations. Only when these technologies are sufficiently available may it become practicable to take steps to increase the use of, and transfer to, new energy carriers.
Figure 5.9 Reduction using various measures compared with the Climate and Pollution Agency's baseline scenario for emissions from road traffic. [21]
5.4.8 Other sources of mobile emissions Aircraft A considerable increase in air travel is expected up to 2030. Nevertheless the aviation sector has estimated that, through a variety of measures, emissions from domestic flights will be down by between 10 and 22 percent on 2007. This will be achieved through a range of measures whereby aircraft technical and operating initiatives, plus the use of new types of fuels, will make large contributions to reducing emissions. [26]
Land use planning is a policy instrument for Bergen Municipality with regard to making arrangements for air transport. Otherwise the municipal authorities have little or no influence on aviation emissions and the authorities’ responsibility for following up measures falls mainly to Avinor.
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Sea transport Sea transport comprises two percent of mobile emissions in Bergen, and represents little potential for reductions. Local authorities have little influence on emissions from ships in motion. The responsibility for measures within sea transport lies with Norwegian Coastal Administration and the Norwegian Maritime Directorate. Local authorities have a greater responsibility for ships lying alongside. Bergen Municipality’s work with offering shore power for ships in port for longer periods is a contribution both to reduced greenhouse gas emissions and better local air quality.
Bergen Municipality is working at putting in place shore power in the port of Bergen, in collaboration with the Bergen Port Authority and municipal power company BKK. The measure will have a beneficial effect on both greenhouse gas emissions and air quality. The project has uncovered a range of challenges, including lack of standardisation, lack of support schemes and inadequate legislation.
Bergen Municipality has therefore decided to be a partner in a group of applicants for an Interreg IVB project in the North Sea Region Programme financed by the EU. The project “Clean North Sea Shipping” deals mainly with reducing pollution from ships in harbour and adjacent areas through establishing common standards and systems for handling and reducing emissions from ships.
Hordaland County Authority has taken on the role of project manager.
5.4.9 Packages of measures and effects up to 2030 Assessment of packages of measures and technological gains is divided between road traffic and other mobile sources. This is done because within mobile emissions it is road traffic where local climate policy is most meaningful. Road traffic is also dominant within mobile emissions. For the other emissions it is to a greater extent the national authorities who own the policy instruments. National authorities also possess important policy instruments for emissions from road traffic, but here many of the important measures depend on local implementation and must be anchored in local policies.
Therefore a special assessment is made of the measures necessary to reach a target for reduction of emissions from road traffic to 50 percent of the 1991 level. A corresponding assessment is made of the total mobile emissions.
5.4.10 Car sharing Car sharing is used in many cities, including Bergen. The report “Large-scale car sharing – Smart Share” on the effects of car sharing in Oslo shows that car sharing can give a 5% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions for Oslo. It also shows that members of car sharing schemes reduce the number of kilometres driven by 2,000 - 4,000 km annually and that a car sharing car replaces four to ten private cars. Moreover, it points out that car sharing contributes to reducing the number of cars in the city and gives better utilisation of the cars that exist.
Bergen Municipality takes a positive view of car sharing and encourages its use.
5.4.11 First put your own house in order
Bergen Municipality has a vehicle policy with a target for reduction of CO 2 from the Municipality’s own vehicles (City Government Proposition 1166/07). It is also determined here that Bergen Municipality shall be a local driving force in order to ensure that the market provides an increased offer of environmentally friendly vehicle services in our area.
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Targets for the Municipality’s own vehicles
CO 2 emissions from the vehicle fleet are to be reduced by: • 25 % by 1 January 2011 • 50 % by 1 January 2015
When replacing the vehicle fleet Bergen Municipality will choose solutions that
contribute to reducing the CO 2 emissions from its own new vehicles by 5% per annum compared with rest of the fleet.
5.4.12 Emissions from road transport If emissions from road transport in 2030 are to be half to the emissions in 1991, this means that the emissions in the baseline scenario up to 2030 must go down by 74 percent and down by 65 percent in comparison with 2007. To reach this target a package of measures has been put together containing the following elements.
There should be heavy emphasis on climate considerations when formulating land use and transport policy. This involves developing a concentrated urban structure that reduces the need for transport, and a coordinated regional land use policy that gives good conditions for public transport. Utilisation of the potential for concentration along current and future Light Railway corridors will be one of the most important elements in the land use policy. It will also be necessary to have road tolls or congestion charging to switch more of the journeys over to public transport, walking and cycling.
Making the vehicle population more energy efficient There a considerable potential for improving the energy efficiency of petrol and diesel engines. Through the policy on taxes, rates and dues a significant reduction in CO 2 emissions per km driven has already been achieved. In the estimates for Bergen it is assumed that national targets for new vehicles not to emit more than 120 g/km will be achieved. After 2012 a further reduction to an average of 105 g/km in 2030 is assumed.
Large electric vehicle component In local climate accounting, emissions from running electric vehicles are not taken into account. If the electricity comes from water power this is also true globally. Replacement of vehicles with combustion engines with electric vehicles will therefore make large contributions to the local climate accounts. It is assumed that 10 percent of the vehicle population in Bergen in 2020 are electric vehicles and that this share will increase to 20 percent in 2030. This is an optimistic assumption and requires both a market for, and a supply of, electric vehicles.
Introduction of hybrid vehicles The proportion of electric vehicles in the previous paragraph is not sufficient to reach the 50 percent target for road transport. Either the proportion of electric vehicles must be increased, or hybrid cars must be introduced gradually. It is assumed that the proportion of hybrid vehicles will be phased in with a total share of 50% of non-electric vehicles in 2030. It is assumed that these run 60 percent on electricity. If more biofuels come on to the market, especially second generation biodiesel, this may mean that the proportion of hybrid vehicles or electric vehicles will not have to be as large as assumed here to achieve the targets.
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Increased electricity consumption A larger transition to rechargeable vehicles will lead to increased electricity consumption. The efficiency factor is considerably greater for electric vehicles than for vehicles with combustion engines. Between 80 and 95 percent of energy supplied is utilised for propulsion in an electric car, while the corresponding figure for a petrol driven car is around 15 percent. Rechargeable vehicles will both turn the use of energy away from fossil fuel to electricity and be more energy efficient. The extent of rechargeable vehicles input to the forecasts for Bergen will lead to increased electricity consumption of around 110 GWH in 2020 and 220 GWH in 2030. This is equivalent to 3 to 6 percent of Bergen's electricity consumption in 2006.
5.4.13 Emissions from other mobile sources Road transport is the dominant source of mobile emissions. The emissions from other sources make up 16 percent and must also be drawn into the local climate accounts. The following factors are taken as the basis for development of these sources: • The emissions targets estimated by the aviation industry of a 20 percent reduction in 2030, compared with 2007. • There will be no increase in emissions from sea transport, which will remain at the same level up to 2030. Any increase in maritime traffic is therefore assumed to be compensated by greenhouse gas emission reduction measures. • The recent years’ increase from the sum of various other emissions will be reduced gradually to the level around 2000. This is assumed to be satisfied through a range of small measures, use of electric motors, more climate neutral fuel and efficiency improvements.
5.4.14 Summary of measures and effects of technological gains Future emissions from mobile sources are to a large extent dependent upon technology development and replacement of the current vehicle population with models that emit less CO 2 per km. Local authorities have limited policy instruments that they can use to influence this directly. Local means of influence lie first and foremost in land use and transport policy. Local authorities can nevertheless exert pressure on national authorities to start using policy instruments that promote more environmentally friendly transport technology and motivate, and lay the groundwork for, more environmentally friendly vehicles being taken into use. Bergen Municipality can also lead the way and set the example through its own vehicle fleet.
Provided in the measures table at the end on this Chapter is an overview of mobile emissions measures over which local authorities have most influence. The measures in land use and transport are divided into AT1 – Concentrated Land Use, AT2 – Enhance Public Transport, AT3 Enhance Pedestrian and Cycle Traffic, AT4 - Restrict Car Traffic.
In Table 5.2 below is an overview of the effects that these can have, along with the development trend that is necessary if Bergen’s target of 50 percent reduction compared with 1991 is to be valid for mobile emissions. On a consolidated basis it is estimated that measures over which local authorities have rights of disposition may give
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a reduction of around 116,000 tons of CO 2 equivalents in 2030, compared with a development path without measures and with today's technology and energy efficiency. This is far from sufficient to reach the targets for 50 percent reduction compared to 1991. Calculations have therefore been made showing what technological gains, in the form of electrification of the vehicle population and use of climate neutral fuel, must be achieved to reach the targets.
Table 5.2 Effects of measures and technology development on mobile emissions in Bergen
1000 tonnes CO 2 equ. Year 2014 2020 2030 Baseline scenarios for mobile emissions Consolidated mobile emissions without measures and 546 583 633 energy effects From road transport without measures and energy 469 515 579 efficiency improvements
Effects of measures and technology within road traffic • Measures within land use and transport policy that -31 -60 -116 local authorities are entitled to use • Technology gains that must come in addition to local policy instruments. These must come as national and international development trends
− Improving energy efficiency in road transport -21 -87 -199 Lower emissions per km from combustion engines. New vehicles with max 120 g CO2/km from 2010 and development in the direction of the EU's long-term target of 95 g/km in 2020. Average in Bergen in 2030: 105 g/km.
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-17 -37 -53 − Electrification of the vehicle population
10% electric vehicles in Bergen in 2020
20% electric vehicles in 2030
− Hybrid vehicles -7 -41 -63 Proportion of petrol and diesel vehicles replaced by hybrids with 60% electric power, phased in from 2010 and with a share of 50% of non- electric vehicles in 2030. -76 -225 -431 Total reduction within land use and transport measures, together with energy efficiency and alternative fuels Emissions from road transport with measures 393 290 148 and energy effects Change from 1991 (=297,000 tonnes) 32 % -2 % -50 %
Effects within other mobile emissions Various measures within domestic aviation, sea -5 -9 -14 transport and other mobile emissions Second generation biofuels in the transport sector and gradually hydrogen to achieve 50% reduction in total 0 0 -15 mobile emissions compared with 1991 Total reduction in other emissions excl road transport -5 -9 -29
Total reduction in all mobile emissions -81 -234 -460 Consolidated mobile emissions with measures and 465 349 172 energy effects Change from 1991 (=345,000 tonnes) 35 % 1 % -50 %
As local influence is greatest over road traffic and because road traffic is the dominant source of mobile emissions, road traffic emissions are treated as a separate special category and the measures that must be employed if 50% reduction is to be achieved from road traffic in isolation are shown. The total effects for mobile emissions are also shown.
To reach the total reduction of 50% compared with the emissions in 1991, extra measures need to be introduced or there must be greater use of rechargeable vehicles and climate neutral fuel. Second generation biofuels and perhaps hydrogen in the time just before 2030 may contribute to this. The effect will apply across the whole transport sector. These sources of reduced emissions will need to make up about three percent of total reductions to reach a total level in 2030 that is 50 percent of the1991 emissions.
5.4.15 Nil emissions from the transport sector? Even with ambitious measures and a considerable transfer to electric and hybrid vehicles, there may still be emissions from mobile sources of 172,000 tonnes of CO 2 equivalents in 2030. If Bergen is to be climate neutral, this transport activity and the volumes of energy that it represents must be reduced and replaced with carbon neutral fuels. Expectations vary about how and how quickly the transport sector may become energy neutral through technology development and new fuels. There are both protagonists of prohibiting petrol cars within 5 to 10 years and others who prefer to wait and see how the international car industry will meet the requirement for nil- emissions vehicles and how quickly this may happen.
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In principle, all vehicles may run on electricity, biofuels or hydrogen in the long term. The conditions for this are that these alternatives are technologically and commercially available. In that case this is a development that must happen both internationally and nationally if Bergen is to be carbon neutral within the transport sector.
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Table 5.3. Local measures directed at mobile emissions (An estimate of technology gains beyond this is shown in Table 5.2) Effect in AT Measures ‘000s Land Use and Description Consequences Responsibility Time plan of tonnes Costs Transport CO 2 equ in 2030 Concentrated land use (AT1) - 35 1.1 Concentration at Cf project 1.2 in Cities of the Future and the Reduced transport Bergen 2009-2030 None beyond plan public transport hubs land use strategies in the Land Use Part of requirement. Municipality input.
the Municipal Plan and the work on rolling More public transport. over the land use part. 1.2 Exploit land use Study of the concentration potential shows Reduced transport Bergen 2009-2030 None beyond plan potential along that there is physical space for urban requirement. Municipality input. current and future development in these areas which covers Larger proportion of the
Light Railway population growth for 25-30 years. Worked in population near the Light corridors with rolling over the Land Use Part of the Railway facility. Municipal Plan. 1.3 Transport Ensure that firms with many workers and Reduced requirement for Bergen 2009-2030 None beyond plan considerations in heavy visitor traffic are located with good private cars for work Municipality input and plan locating industry accessibility to a high frequency public journeys and visitors. management. transport facility 1.4 Reduce urban Restrictive land use policy for development in Less car dependence and Bergen 2009-2030 None beyond plan sprawl areas with poor public transport provision more efficient public Municipality input and plan and contribute to regionally coordinated transport provision. Hordaland County management.
siting of residential areas. Authority Neighbouring municipalities 1.5 Climate General focus on reducing the transport Contributes to developers Bergen 2009-2030 None beyond plan considerations when requirement and securing urban development following up climate Municipality, input and planning hearing planning with good public transport cover when friendly intentions in planning and and building control applications dealing with individual cases. urban development. building control management. 1.6 Location of Locating municipal services and offices in Contributes to public Bergen 2009-2030 municipal services relation to good public transport availability offices and services being Municipality
for employees and visitors. accessible using public transport and increased
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Effect in AT Measures ‘000s Land Use and Description Consequences Responsibility Time plan of tonnes Costs Transport CO 2 equ in 2030 public transport share of work journeys. Enhance public transport (AT2) - 15 2.1 Further Cf Project 1.1 in Cities of the Future. Enables a greater Bergen 2009 To start with, no development of the The development plan for extension to transfer to public Municipality cost beyond plan Light Railway network Flesland, clarification of the layout of the line transport. Norwegian Public 2010-2030 input. to Åsane and the study of the future unified Roads Implementation as
Light Railway network are being carried out Administration part of the Bergen during the course of 2009. This will create Hordaland County Region Package. the basis for further development of the Light Authority Railway. 2.2 Better accessibility Follow-up of the project Bergen Forward Greater regularity and Bergen 2009-2019 Costs for all for public transport about accessibility for public transport. 10-20% faster public Municipality individual measures transport and enhance Norwegian Public are given in “Bergen competitiveness of public Roads Forward”. transport. Administration Hordaland County Authority 2.3 Improving public Continuous assessment of public transport Enhances the Hordaland County 2009-2030 Included in the work transport facilities facilities as regards improved frequency, competitiveness of public Authority and of Skyss, extra costs capacity, fares, information, new ticketing transport. Skyss [Hordaland dependent on system and schedules. public transport measure and services] income. 2.4 Ensure climate Long-term development of public transport Long-term framework for Bergen 2009-2030 To start with, no taken into account in facilities is carried out through the Bergen increased public Municipality cost beyond plan overall transport Programme and its extension. transport share and Norwegian Public input. Implemented planning In the first instance ensure that climate reduced car dependence. Roads as a part of Bergen considerations have a prominent place in Administration Regional Package. proposals for the design of the future Hordaland County transport system through working with the Authority
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Effect in AT Measures ‘000s Land Use and Description Consequences Responsibility Time plan of tonnes Costs Transport CO 2 equ in 2030 Conceptual Choices Study for the Bergen Regional Package in 2009 and 2010. Enhance pedestrian and cycle traffic (AT3) - 6 3.1 Follow-up of Cycle Plan and build at least 50 km missing from Tripling of the cycle Bergen 2009-2019 Estimated as more Stratgegy for Bergen the main cycle network share, but this also Municipality than NOK 100 Prioritise cycle traffic ahead of car traffic depends on other Norwegian Public million in the Cycle Establish 1500 new secure cycle parking measures (Cf Cycle Roads Strategy for Bergen spaces in the city centre Strategy for Bergen). Administration Financing as part of Achieve a higher standard of operation and Hordaland County the Bergen maintenance with a bare road strategy on the Authority Programme and main routes Bergen Regional Vision Zero must be the basis for the traffic Package
safety work Land use planning must lay the groundwork for increased use of bicycles Better transfer facilities between bicycles and other means of transport Bergen Implement information and mobility Municipality measures Mobility Advice Service
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Effect in AT Measures ‘000s Land Use and Description Consequences Responsibility Time plan of tonnes Costs Transport CO 2 equ in 2030 Restrict car traffic (AT4) - 60 4.1 Road Cf Project 1.4 in Cities of the Future. Dependent on the level Bergen 2009 Being studied. tolls/congestion Report on congestion charging will be of charge, location of Municipality charging available in the autumn of 2009. Further charging points and Hordaland County 2010-2030 conclusions await this. variation throughout the Authority 24-hour period. May vary between 5 and 20% reduction in car traffic. 4.2 Parking, parking Parking restrictions in the centre together On its own, park and ride Bergen 2009-2030 Being studied. policy with establishing park and ride in the outer has little effect, but Municipality areas. NOK 40 million has been appropriated combined with Hordaland County
already for development of park and ride and restrictions elsewhere, it Authority ensuring that park and ride parking spaces will have a direct effect will be used for public transport travellers. on the car traffic. 4.3 Harmonised Avoid development of new road capacity that Influences the car/public Bergen 2010-2030 Will be included as development of road creates new traffic and worsens the situation transport competition Municipality part of Bergen capacity for public transport. relationship and thus the Norwegian Public Regional Package public transport share. Roads and in the Land Use Administration Part of the Municipal Hordaland County Plan. Authority 4.4 Mobility advice Continuation of Bergen Municipality’s mobility Restricts car use, furthers Bergen 2010-2030 No costs beyond advisory service in order to change travelling alternative forms of Municipality administrative habits. This includes commercially orientated transport. Mobility Advice resources. and personal travel advice to persuade more Service in people to travel by environmentally friendly means, plus various campaigns such as the Mobility Week and other measures and events that advance environmentally friendly transport. The Municipality’s own activities
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Effect in AT Measures ‘000s Land Use and Description Consequences Responsibility Time plan of tonnes Costs Transport CO 2 equ in 2030 and employees will be subject to special focus. 4.5 Energy efficiency Effect dep on improvements and tech devt and use of rechargeable market for cars fuel and cars. 4.6 Information and Offer of training in EcoDriving both externally Fewer emissions per car Bergen 2009-2020 No costs beyond training in fuel-saving and in own activities. journey. Municipality administrative driving style Mobility Advice resources. Service 4.7 Requirement for Requirement for suppliers with a large local Fewer emissions per Bergen 2009-2020 No costs. suppliers to use low transport need to use rechargeable vehicles. vehicle journey. Municipality, emission vehicles Purchasing Department 4.8 Low emission Use of rechargeable vehicles in municipal Fewer emissions per Bergen 2009-2020 No costs. vehicles in own activities. vehicle journey. Municipality activities 4.9 Establish charging Establish and provide support for new Increases availability of Bergen 2009-2020 NOK 7-9,000 per points charging points for electric cars. The charging facilities and Municipality point. Any digging Transnova support scheme will be utilised. contributes to increased costs come in
use of rechargeable cars. addition. Financed pro tem by Transnova. 4.10 Experiments in Experiments with residents’ parking for Increases availability of Bergen 2009-2020 As above. areas with residents’ rechargeable cars in areas with common charging facilities and Municipality parking parking and residential zone parking contributes to increased use of rechargeable cars.
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Table 6.1 Principal figures for stationary energy use in GWH, Bergen 2006 [1] Waste, Electricit Oil / Gas Biofuel coke, Total y parafin coal Households 1,815 181 61 126 2 2,186 Public service 587 75 54 0 0 717 provision Private service 908 139 5 2 0 1,053 provision Industry 391 72 24 0 0 487 District heating 0 22 31 0 309 362 Other 14 6 0 0 0 20 Total 3,715 496 174 128 311 4,825
6 Stationary energy use and greenhouse gas emissions
6.1 Status and future development
Stationary energy use includes all use of energy associated with fixed installations such as dwellings, buildings, installations etc. Stationary energy use also includes energy supplies to the Light Railway, airports and quays, but not the energy used by the actual means of transport such as vehicles, planes and ships, even if electric vehicles and trams, for example, are in the "grey zone”.
This chapter will deal with both the use of energy for stationary purposes and the greenhouse gas emissions that result from such energy use, and targets will be put forward for both. The debate about how one works out CO2 emissions from electricity will not be taken up here and CO2 emissions from the use of electrical power are not considered.
6.1.1 Stationary energy use in Bergen Stationary energy use in Bergen has been increasing steadily, on average by 1.7 percent per annum, during the period 1996-2006 [1]. Households indisputably comprise the largest category in Bergen with around 45 percent (2,186 GWH) of the total consumption in 2006 (4,825 GWH). Next come private and public service provision, industry and district heating. District heating is relatively new in Bergen, but has experienced steady growth in recent years and appears to have had a stabilising effect on the other energy carriers.
If these figures are broken down between the various energy carriers it can be seen that electricity is the dominant resource, see Table 6.1. Next come fossil fuels in the form of oil/paraffin and gas. With the introduction of district heating, waste as a resource has gained increasing importance in the city’s energy supplies.
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Total stationary use distributed by consumption category in Bergen 2006
District heating Other 8 % 0,4 %
Industry 10 %
Households 45 %
Private service provision 22 %
Public service provision
15 %
Figure 6.1 Distribution of stationary energy use by consumption categories, Bergen 2006 [1]
6.1.2 The present situation Apart from the development of district heating in Bergen there have been no big changes in the supply of energy to the city in recent years. To be sure, fossil gas arrived just after the millennium, primarily for industrial purposes and to cover peak loads in district heating. At the same time it can be observed that a range of detached houses have had heat pumps installed for heating purposes, although there are no adequate statistics about this. Furthermore, the scheme for replacing old oil boilers and wood stoves has been under way for a number of years.
The emissions of greenhouse gases have varied somewhat, showing a weak growth trend after the year 2000, mainly because of increased use of fossil gas. Based on experience, use of oil will also vary to some extent, depending upon the price relationship between oil and electricity. The fluctuations are relatively small and difficult to track in the statistics available.
6.1.3 Current plans and activities In recent years the municipal strategy and action documents in the field have mainly been about greenhouse gas emissions and have touched on ordinary energy supply to a lesser extent. True, the latest edition of the Local Energy Report for Bergen [1], prepared by energy grid company BKK Nett AS at the direction of the Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate (NVE), discusses a number of matters in connection with electricity supply and other current development projects.
In the further development of district heating BKK Varme aims to increase the capacity from today’s 150 GWH to approx 250 GWH in 2015. However, this growth depends on a number of larger developments of residential and commercial properties and areas, and on these being developed with waterborne heating. BKK Varme AS is also planning
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district heating satellites and has applied for a concession for an area in Åsane, and plans to apply for an area in Bergen Vest.
During the planning process Bergen tomteselskap AS (the municipally owned land development company Land Developer Ltd) has provided information about a number of projects that would impact on stationary energy use depending on when and how they are realised. • Nøttvedt in Fana • Ulset Vest in Åsane • Hetlevikåsen in Laksevåg • Almåshaugane in Åsane • Torvmyra in Laksevåg
In these areas it will be possible to have interfaces with district heating, either directly or in connection with establishing district heating satellites.
Moreover, the Light Railway will start operations soon. This involves an increase in energy consumption, but simultaneously there will be a limited reduction in diesel used by buses as a result of the total increase in public transport provision. Similarly, in collaboration with BOH and BKK, Bergen Municipality has works in hand to try to establish shore power, and a project to establish charging stations for electric vehicles is in progress.
The collaboration with Friends of the Earth Norway in the project “oljefri.no”, which was established in 2008, was continued during 2009 and 2010 on an annual basis. The purpose of the project is to lower the barrier for exchanging oil boilers for more environmentally friendly heating alternatives, for both households and businesses.
Cooperation with Stavanger and Kristiansand has been established to develop clusters of businesses in the energy sector and collaboration is taking place under the auspices of Cities of the Future (the Project for Cities and Large Towns - EnergiMiljø i Sørvest – [Energy Environment South West]).
6.1.4 Targets and development
Targets for use of fossil energy for heating: 80 percent reduction in use of oil and 30 percent reduction in use of gas in 2020 and no emissions from fossil heating sources in 2030.
Targets for reduction of energy use: Total energy use will be at today’s level in 2020 and in 2030. Incorporated in this is a reduction of approx 20 percent in comparison to current consumption per inhabitant.
Based on future population growth and a general increase in purchasing power there will be significant growth in energy use unless measures are put in place. On the basis of prognoses from Statistics Norway and assuming the growth stated in the Local Energy Report for 2007, energy use will increase by in excess of 34 percent up to 2030. [1]
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Reducing CO 2 emissions is much simpler and normally more cost effective within stationary energy use than in the transport sector. To be able to reach the principal objective of 50 percent reduction in CO 2 emissions by 2030, even stricter numerical targets should therefore be set for stationary energy use than for the other sectors.
Thus it is planned to reduce consumption of oil by 80 percent and use of fossil gas by 30 percent in 2020, with no emissions at all in 2030.
The general energy consumption per inhabitant is lowered in step with the expected population growth of 1.3 percent per annum, or approximately 20 percent calculated on the basis of current consumption.
This will involve total energy use being held at today’s level in 2020 and 2030, whilst at the same time achieving a significant reduction in consumption of around 20 percent per inhabitant.
The year 2020 is used as a target with a view to comparability with the EU's targets for
2020, to which Norway is expected to adhere. The target for CO 2 emissions from stationary energy use is shown in Figure 6.2 below. The result of the two targets, reduction in use of fossil fuels and a general reduction in electricity use respectively, is stated both in GWH and corresponding thousands of tonnes of CO 2 in the table below.
Table 6.2 Target figures for development in CO 2 (‘000s of tonnes) and energy consumption (GWH) for stationary energy use
2006-2020 2020-2030
GWH CO 2 GWH CO 2 CO 2/Oil and gas measures 443 118 228 54 Improving energy efficiency 540 - 461 -
Targets for reduction of emissions from oil and gas
for stationary energy consumption, ‘000s tonnes CO 2 equ 160
140 Oil 120 Gas
100
80
60
40
20
0 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Figure 6.2 Targets for development of emissions from use of fossil fuels for stationary purposes 2006-2030
Phasing out of fossil fuels within stationary energy use is both easy to carry out from the technical point of view and at the same time the measure places only modest cost pressure on the end user. This is because part of the phasing-out will be achievable using cost-effective heat pumps and bio-boiler solutions. The challenge lies in informing
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the user. In connection with shorter sharp cold periods there is a need for alternative heating, but this represents only a small volume and therefore limited costs even if the unit price may be somewhat higher. Replacement solutions for present day oil and fossil gas usage are on offer mainly through district heating, heat pumps, wood, pellets, bio-oil and biogas.
6.1.5 Relationship between energy, environment and economy Energy-improving measures are often financially worthwhile, both commercially and in socio-economic terms. As a consequence of the introduction of new technology, experience will show that yesterday's solutions are no longer optimal in many contexts. Detailed charting of these factors will enable major savings potential. Improving the efficiency of energy use in buildings may reduce energy use by 10 percent within a payback period of 2-3 years without any adverse effect on comfort etc - rather the opposite. A 20 percent reduction in energy use is often achieved within a payback period of 3-7 years. Such measures will then also involve a reduction in the use of fossil fuels as well as electricity. Typical examples of this are the introduction of heat pumps, clean-burning wood stoves, automatic control systems for heating and ventilation, replacing lighting etc. For example, a change to more energy efficient lighting enables reduced energy consumption, the utilisation of light sources made of less harmful substances, and better light quality for the user. In 2008, Bergen Municipal Buildings Agency (BKB) carried out energy improvement measures at nine schools and nursing homes for NOK 5 million with a payback period of 5 years. For example Lynghaug School has had a heat pump installed in the gymnasium, whilst Varden School has had a control unit installed to control and monitor the operation of heat and ventilation.
6.2 District Heating
Target for district heating in Bergen: District heating will be used in all new buildings and major renovations within the concession area for district heating
In 1999, Bergen Municipality decided to develop a waste incineration plant and in 2003 the district heating installation in Bergen commenced operation. In 2006 the concession area for district heating was expanded to include the whole of the city centre and large parts of Laksevåg. Then, in 2010, a further combustion line was added to the waste incineration plant in Rådalen. At present 150 GWH of district heating is delivered to the city’s population and businesses and approx 10,000 tonnes of oil have been replaced by this means.
It is an objective that all large buildings within the concession area for district heating shall be built with waterborne systems where district heating can be used for space heating, ventilation air and domestic hot water.
A significantly increased degree of waste recycling and use of bioenergy has been achieved by establishing a district heating centre in Rådalen. BKK Varme is looking at various types of renewable energy for the district heating network and plans to develop district heating satellites in Åsane and Loddefjord, where it is planned to use waste wood.
Use of district heating demands comprehensive infrastructure development, but will give great flexibility in the choice of energy carriers in the long term. New and more
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environmentally friendly alternatives can easily be greatly expanded through the use of district heating.
A special proposition about district heating will be prepared in the autumn of 2010.
6.3 Energy efficient buildings As far as energy efficient buildings are concerned, development proceeds rapidly. The Low Emissions Committee reported in the autumn of 2009, showing that there is great potential for reducing energy use in the building sector through building energy efficient buildings. No new assessment has been carried out of possible reductions in energy use in Bergen based on this, but it is proposed that there should be increased focus on this area to stay abreast of developments. Through the work with Cities of the Future, attention is being paid to increasing expertise in constructing energy efficient buildings in Bergen and erecting prototypes. It is important to increase expertise in the industry and improve administrative procedures.
Up to 2030, the building regulations will be made progressively more rigorous in the direction of passive houses and zero emissions, to reduce energy use in buildings. The Low Emissions Committee has made a proposal showing how this extra rigour can occur. Building requirements in 2017 will be at the Passive House level. The target for Bergen Municipality’s own buildings is in the section headed “Putting our own house in order first".
Figure 6.3 Schematic portrayal of the Proposal as to how the energy regulations may progressively be made more rigorous from the TEK07 level to a zero energy level in 2027 (Low Emissions Committee 2009)
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6.4 Putting our own house in order first
Targets for energy efficiency in new and renovated buildings All new buildings under the auspices of Bergen Municipality will be built to the passive house standard or better.
All buildings renovated under the auspices of Bergen Municipality will be built approximately to the passive house standard i.e. they will use passive house components.
It is a basic principle that the proportion of buildings that satisfy the passive house standard will increase in the coming years until the target of 100 % is reached from 2014.
Target for energy use in municipal buildings: Bergen Municipality will introduce energy management in all municipal buildings, whether the Municipality owns or hires the building.
6.4.1 Energy management and energy efficiency improvement in municipal activities In collaboration with Enova, Bergen Municipality has carried out the energy management project, installing energy saving measures in 65% of the building stock. During the project, from 2002-2008, NOK 17 million was used on energy efficiency measures. This investment has given a cumulative saving during the period of 43 GWH. At an average price of 80 øre/KWH that equates to NOK 34.4 million. Continuing this work is therefore important and will save the Municipality money.
One of the challenges when carrying out this type of project is that investment and savings fall under different budgets and in different departments. It is therefore proposed to look at how to institute good incentives for energy efficiency within the department whilst also facilitating investments that lead to savings in other departments and budgets. This is partially being done in the ongoing work on environmental management, but must be enhanced beyond this.
In 2007, Bergen Municipality established the requirement for all municipal units to be Eco-Lighthouse certified. This work was started in 2008. Introduction of environmental management will, inter alia, enhance the energy management project that started in 2006.
6.4.2 Energy efficient buildings in the Municipality The field of energy effective buildings is developing very rapidly and it is important for Bergen Municipality to lead and show the way. This is being achieved in part through the Cities of the Future programme.
The target for all municipal buildings to have the Passive House standard after 2014 is not included in the financial calculations. Such a decision will not generate new costs, but will mean that costs move from operations to investment. As the Municipality largely also operates its own buildings this will in time become a win-win situation.
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6.4.3 Energy labelling of buildings Energy labelling of all municipal buildings larger than 1,000 m2 will be completed by the end of 2011.
6.5 Policy instruments
In the aftermath of the oil crisis in the 1970s significant resources were applied to developing policy instruments whose purpose was to restrict energy use and render consumers less dependent upon fossil energy sources. In recent years there has been further focus on reducing CO 2 in particular. In the wake of this, important experience has been built up in various countries and regions with the different measures that were implemented.
It is entirely possible to phase out all CO 2 emissions associated with stationary purposes using current technology. Moreover, a set of solutions is available today that is known to have the desired effect. In this way development can be steered in the right direction. A range of these policy instruments will not in themselves increase the total energy costs for the consumer, but may require financial stimuli in the form of simplified access to loans. There will also be a need for grants to increase the pace and target the activity.
For example, heating oil can be replaced with bio-oil recovered from waste, for example fish waste, and in that respect the initiative will not lay claim to cultivated land. BKK Varme is to study the use of bio-oil for its incinerators.
6.5.1 Regulatory instruments, legislative changes, taxes etc Denmark introduced a special energy tax on electricity for households at an early stage. By means of a significant increase in energy costs to the extent of almost doubling them, a large reduction in consumption has been achieved over time. In addition, there has been redistribution towards more district heating, bioenergy, heat pumps and other renewable energy such as sun and wind, the latter especially in agricultural households.
In recent years the EU has implemented a range of measures (directives) covering various priority areas, including a labelling scheme for goods, with associated prohibitions and phasing out the least efficient technologies; more rigorous building regulations; energy certificates for buildings etc.
In Norway we made an early start with the “new Norwegian Energy Act” in connection with deregulation of the market for selling electric power. This has led to free price creation and not the underpriced electricity that certain municipalities enjoyed prior to the Act.
Today the most important drivers for more efficient energy development in Norway are mainly associated with the introduction of the EU's directives on energy labelling of buildings (the Energy Certificate), new building regulations (TEK 07) and more rigorous minimum requirements for various energy consuming products (EuP). The Norwegian consumer tax on electricity is set at a restricted level and certain sectors are exempted, thus it has little impact on energy use.
Bergen Municipality cooperates closely with the municipally owned Bergen tomteselskap AS (Bergen Land Developer Ltd.). By controlling the activities of the land development company it can contractually ensure energy efficient building. If 200 houses are built with low energy standards per annum, 100 dwellings with Passive House standards and 100 ordinary houses, the annual consumption of the dwellings will be 2 GWH less than with current building solutions.
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6.5.2 Grants and subsidies As far as grants for energy efficiency improvement measures are concerned, Norway is far ahead in both the European and international contexts. With the establishment of the Energy Efficiency Fund in Oslo in the 1980s, today at a level of nearly NOK 600 million, and the establishment of the Energy Fund administered by Enova in 2001, which now has a capital base of nearly NOK 20 billion, there exists a very wide-ranging policy instrument both for Oslo in particular and the country in general.
Enova makes grants both for energy efficiency improvement measures, and for initiatives to convert from oil and electricity to using alternative energy sources for heating. In recent years Enova has entered into agreements involving savings of the order of 400-450 GWH per annum (NOK 150-200 million per annum including the subsidy scheme for dwellings).
Enova’s new grant programmes are developed in cooperation with market participants and those who establish the framework. The new Enova programmes are structured as shown below:
1. Grant for preliminary work on Passive House planning
2. New buildings and comprehensive renovation: a. Advice on building ‘passive’ buildings b. Investment grant Passive House standard c. Investment grant low energy standard
3. Existing buildings:
Investment grant for specified measures in buildings
In Germany the world’s most comprehensive wind energy and solar cell installations have been established, using a high level of subsidy in the form of guaranteed prices for energy delivered to the grid by these energy producers. In Greece the result of similar solutions has been that a very high proportion of hot water heating now takes place using solar collectors at reasonable cost.
In Denmark the Energy Saving Fund (‘Elsparefonden’), and in Sweden the Climate Investment Programme (‘Klimp’), have had good results with special grant programmes for phasing out electric panel radiators etc.
Bergen Municipality established a climate fund of NOK 10 million in 2007 (City Council decision of 6 July 2007, Proposition 1397/07). The fund is used for establishing energy management in municipal activities etc. This action plan includes proposals for this fund to be expanded into a new Climate, Environment and Energy Fund. See Section 5.5.1.
6.5.3 Cities of the Future Stationary energy is an important priority area in “Cities of the Future”. The programme shows what can be done through building ‘passive’ buildings, zero emissions buildings and building in wood –known as prototype projects. The programme provides for
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knowledge transfer in the industry, which will thus be able to make use of new information more quickly so that a larger number of new and rehabilitated buildings will have Passive House standards or better. According to the Norwegian State Housing Bank (Husbanken) in Bergen it will be possible to reduce the annual energy consumption by 10 GWH if 600 existing dwellings are renovated to the Passive House standard every year.
In collaboration with Hordaland County Authority, Bergen University College, the Housing Bank and the building industry the Municipality will build up a knowledge centre for energy efficient building in the Bergen Region.
6.5.4 Reduction in energy use All energy use affects the environment. The expression “ The cleanest energy is the energy we don’t use ”, tells us something about this. Unused energy does not require any infrastructure, administration or other cost-generating intermediary links either. There should therefore be heavy emphasis on improving the efficiency of current energy use before alternatives and new supplementary solutions are sought.
To achieve the principal objectives it is important to aim the measures at the most cost effective and environmentally rewarding solutions: 1) Reduction of fossil fuels is highly prioritised. For larger installations the phasing-out should happen through improving energy efficiency, introducing alternative supplies and only as a last resort using today's oil boilers to relieve peak loading for a few days/hours during the year, and then preferably based on bio-oil.
2) Thereafter work should be directed towards general efficiency improvements and reducing electricity consumption. In certain cases a transfer to district heating and/or local heating installations will be a good solution, but not until an attempt has been made to release the potential for efficiency improvements. A relatively large proportion of current fossil energy use will be replaced by heat pumps, which will in turn lead to increased electricity consumption. This must then be compensated for if the growth is to be constrained.
Even if today's old, polluting and ineffective wood-burning stoves do not give direct CO 2 emissions, the new stoves are much more energy efficient, reduce the demand for firewood and contribute to a marked reduction in emissions into the air. The coincidence between heating using firewood, and cold periods with cold air masses (inversion) in parts of the town, makes it important to reduce these emissions as they are injurious to health.
6.5.5 District heating District heating based on waste incineration is a good means of reducing the use of fossil energy for heating in central areas. In the long term this energy carrier may be even more environmentally friendly because it will be easy to distribute heat from new energy sources widely. See Section 6.2 for more information about district heating.
6.5.6 Alternative energy sources In order to reduce the use of oil and electricity for heating it is important to make greater use of alternative sources of energy.
Gas, solar heat, bio pellets, coke and coal make up a small part of the energy use in Norway. Wind as a local energy source is not currently used on a large scale. This also applies to solar cells, which in Norway are used almost exclusively for holiday homes and which have a limited scope. But solar cell technology is developing quickly, which
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means that solar collectors for heating domestic hot water and for space heating may become increasingly important in Norway as well.
In our climate the following alternative energy sources are most relevant: • Heat pumps based on heat from the ground, sea or air • District heating based on renewable energy • Bio energy in refined form, such as wood chips, pellets, briquettes etc. • Biogas • Electricity production from bioenergy-based combined heat and power in combination with district heating • Solar heating
A significantly increased degree of waste recycling and use of bioenergy has been achieved by establishing a district heating centre in Rådalen. True, the district heating network in Bergen does not yet use heat pumps, which are normal in a range of other towns in the country. BKK Varme is looking at such exploitation in collaboration with the Agency for Water and Sewerage Works.
6.5.7 Expertise, knowledge and attitude creation work Over the years a range of countries and environments have committed significant resources to building up good consumer habits through information, education and campaigns. Good results have been achieved in changing people’s habits in respect of source separation of waste to a significant extent, for example in Germany. Many nations now have an extensive programme for building up knowledge about improving energy efficiency, directed at kindergartens, schools and universities. In Norway the Ministry of Petroleum and Energy has had a substantial offer of courses and simple training in efficient energy use. The Housing Bank also achieved very good results in the 70s and 80s with the “City Renewal Programme” which also included building up expertise. In recent years the Housing Bank has received some resources intended to promote low energy and ‘passive’ housing, but these allocations have fallen away in recent years and the expertise is in danger of disappearing. Many of the educational institutions have nevertheless shown interest in this specialist field and some universities run their own courses aimed at energy use.
In 2008, Bergen Municipality established a new post of Climate Manager, managing the Climate Section. The Section coordinates the Municipality's climate, environmental and energy projects and also works on raising visibility and reinforcing the work in the energy field generally.
In 2008 the collaborative scheme “oljefri.no” was established with Friends of the Earth Norway for phasing out oil heating installations in households. There is also close cooperation with various local market participants in this project.
In connection with the work in Cities of the Future, cooperation has also been set up with other actors in the city with the aim of establishing an expertise centre in Bergen for energy efficient building. See 5.4.3.
6.5.8 Other policy instruments Beyond the three most common instruments there is a range of other cross-sector and more or less comprehensive solutions. Included here is work on national standards (Norwegian Standards), environmental labels, standard forms of contract, purchasing schemes etc. For example, requirements for life cycle cost assessments (LCC) have been made statutory in some countries, while in other countries these are included in voluntary schemes. Requirements for climate accounting are also being seen as a new tool, for example in connection with planning applications and public purchasing.
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In addition initiatives on demonstration projects, research, environmental management and financial charging practices etc, are policy instruments that may have local roots and have great impact locally.
6.6 Proposals for measures and effects The various policy instruments will be more or less relevant to the Municipality, vis-a-vis for example central government responsibility. Some instruments may be capable of active use at a local level, others not. The following two main policy instruments are suggested for Bergen in order to be able to achieve the targets set: • Expanded mandate and area of application for the new Energy, Environment and Energy Fund (builds on the existing Climate Fund) • Determined measures in the municipal sector
6.6.1 Climate, Environment and Energy Fund It is proposed that a Climate, Environment and Energy Fund be established, to which adequate funds should be allocated. The Fund’s main task will be to serve the market with a set of policy instruments including support for investments in prioritised measures (in addition to central government incentives), to support charting of measures and building up expertise.
In the long term the Fund will be important in relation to reaching targets in the Climate and Energy Action Plan. The Fund can be built up gradually.
6.6.2 Determined measures in the Municipality’s own activities A collective action plan is being established for municipal activities and municipal enterprises. The plan involves allocating responsibilities to the individual agencies and activities. If the measures in question do not demonstrate sufficient returns, or they require increased liquid funding, the actitivity area concerned must forward proposals in this regard. The activity areas will also make use of central government incentives and funding schemes, and also possibly the Municipality’s Climate, Environment and Energy Fund.
In the attached table of measures, firm targets are set for each individual activity. The list is not exhaustive. With few exceptions the action plan will not demand further financing, but in some instances there will be increased demands for funds.
6.6.3 Proposals for measures - Monitoring of the Norwegian Planning and Building Act (‘PBL – plan- og bygningsloven’)in connection with land use and development plans - Active use of life cycle cost assessments (LCC) when purchasing - Energy labelling of municipal buildings - Environmental requirements in connection with municipal purchases and hire contracts - The Passive Building standard will become a key strategy in the years to come - Show the way by establishing demonstration installations e.g. ‘passive’ houses - Facilitate third party financing - Energy Saving Companies (ESCOs) - Use ownership of various organisations and activities, including the waste, energy, transport and land developer companies in a purposeful way - Utilise certification schemes such as Eco-Lighthouse, the Swan Eco-label and LEED etc. - Establish climate accounting for the Municipality
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- Establish demonstration projects/signal buildings - Build up expertise in the Municipality’s own fields of activity - Check to ensure that current energy requirements (TEK) are being observed in the public and private sectors for new buildings and major renovations - Ensure district heating is provided for concentration areas and that the obligation to connect is fulfilled in concession areas. Any applications for exceptions will be dealt with individually - Increase the proportion of renewable energy in district heating - Use solar cells (PV) or solar collectors in municipal buildings, primarily for heating water
6.6.4 Calculation and assumptions for the extent of incentives and measures In order to calculate the scope of a new Climate and Energy Fund the following assumptions are used: • That Bergen achieves its percentage share (by head of population) of Enova’s funding support • That Bergen supplements this with targeted policy instruments so that specific targets are achieved • That Bergen ensures progress by means of considerable information and expertise- building activity • That Bergen implements measures in its own activities at least in line with other energy users
Statistics from the Energy Efficiency Fund in Oslo and Enova, among others, show that incentives of the order of NOK 0.30 to 1.00 per KWH saved are required. The level of grant will depend on the payback periods for the measures and the target group for the grant. If one makes a presumption of NOK 0.50/KWH, then a reduction of one GWH will depend on NOK 500,000 in grant support. If a target number for the period 2011-2020 of just below 1,000 GWH is taken as the starting point, the respective incentives will amount to NOK 500 million, or around NOK 50 million per annum over a 10-year period. At the current activity level, Enova will contribute approx NOK 25 million of this.
6.6.5 Consolidated presentation of measures and effects To reach the principal objectives estimates have been made for various policy instruments. Here it is necessary to distinguish between active instruments for reducing today’s consumption, and laying the groundwork for reducing the effect of the future growth in population and living standards.
Plans have been made for grasping the following main issues: • Phasing-out fossil fuels by converting to other energy sources • Measures to compensate for the growth in other energy sources that this conversion involves • Reducing consumption per inhabitant at the same pace as the growth in population (stabilising consumption)
Conversion from fossil fuels to district heating, electricity and bioenergy is assumed, expressed in net GWH supplied. The estimate is made on the basis of the following assumptions: • Fossil gas is replaced with 1/3 heat pumps and 2/3 biogas or district heating • Oil is replaced with 2/3 heat pumps/district heating and 1/3 bio in the form of firewood, pellets and bio oil
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Because heat pumps deliver three times their own consumption (fetching 2/3 from the ground, air or sea) this conversion will involve an overall reduction in “bought” energy, despite some increase in electricity consumption. On the other hand, when fossil gas and oil are replaced with bioenergy the energy consumption is unaltered. Phasing-out and converting oil and fossil gas consumption will cause electricity consumption as such to rise, while fossil fuels go down. This is shown in Figure 6.4. Population increase and growth in energy demand are not taken into account in the figure.
Figure 6.5 shows the general expected increase in consumption of 1.2 percent per annum, inter alia because of increased population [1]. The figure also shows the extent of energy efficiency improvement measures necessary to be able to attain the objective of stabilising the consumption increase at today’s level. This will comprise 540 GWH for the period 2006-2020 and a further 461 GWH for the period 2020 to 2030.
6.6.6 Portfolio of measures The portfolio of measures is divided into two main sections. The short-term measures have already been partly initiated and a range of these is included in the work on the Cities of the Future programme. These measures are stated with effects only to a limited extent, as in the main they are development projects. The longer term measures are stated with effects based on the policy instruments concerned. The real investment needs of the owner of the measure are only stated to a limited extent here. Positive local spin-off effects of these comprehensive investments are not quantified in this context either.
6.6.7 Short-term measures 2010-2014 The list of short-term measures as described in the action plan for Cities of the Future is shown in Table 6.5 on the next page. Estimates have not been made of the effects of these measures. The measures are grouped into the following areas. EK1 – Energy efficiency improvements, EK2 – Conversion/reduced use of fossil energy sources, EK3 – District heating, EK4 - New renewable energy, EK5 - Energy efficient buildings.
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Measures that come under the category “Putting our own house in order first” come last in the list.
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Table 6.5 Short-term measures that correspond with the commitments in Cities of the Future up to 2014 [In tables 6.5 and 6.6 organisations not previously defined in text are: BK = Bergen Municipality, BKK = Bergen and Peninsula power co, BBB = Municipal Undertaking for Housing and Redevelopment, BKB = Municipal Buildings Agency] Measure: Description Consequ Responsibilit Time Effect Effect Cost Cost/ Comm ences: y frame GWH Tonnes s benef ents
CO 2 equ it: Improving energy efficiency (EK1) 1.1 Scrap deposit scheme Replace old wood-burning stoves with clean BK, Bergen 2010- burning wood-burning stoves Fire Brigade 2014 Conversion/reduced use of fossil energy sources (EK2) 2.1 Oljefri.no Fossil energy will be phased out by replacing oil- Friends of the burning boilers Earth Norway, BKK and Urban 2010- Devt Ctee 2014 2.2 Electrification of the Establish shore power for ships in the Port of BKK Nett and 2010- port Bergen BK 2014 District heating (EK3) 3.1 Expansion of district Expansion of district heating in Bergen 2010- heating in Bergen BKK Varme 2014 3.2 Local district heating Local district heating networks including bioenergy 2010- networks BKK Varme 2014 New renewable energy production (EK4) 4.1 New renewable New renewable energy production Water and energy production Sewerage 2010- Agency 2014 4.2 Biogas Production of biogas from effluent sludge Water and Sewerage 2010- Agency 2014 Energy efficient buildings (EK5) 5.1 Energy efficient Guidelines for energy efficient buildings in new Climate 2010- buildings in new development areas sections 2014
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Measure: Description Consequ Responsibilit Time Effect Effect Cost Cost/ Comm ences: y frame GWH Tonnes s benef ents
CO 2 equ it: development areas 5.2 Passive house Prototype buildings in Cities of the Future building Building of Passive House buildings – both dwellings and commercial buildings Private 2010- Private developers developers 2014 5.3 Hordaland County Building of new swimming baths and upper The County Authority secondary school with future-orientated energy Authority and solutions Municipal Buildings 2010- Agency 2014 5.4 Renovation to Passive Prototype buildings in Cities of the Future House standard Renovation of dwellings and commercial buildings to Passive House standard Private 2010- Private owners, for example housing associations developers 2014 5.5 Time for Wood Commitment to wood in Bergen. Use of biomass Urban Devt associated with wood-based industries, such as Ctee pellets, firewood, timber, construction waste etc.
The basis is that forests bind and store CO 2. Part of 2010- the prototype projects in Cities of the Future 2014 5.6 Municipal dwellings Municipal dwellings with Passive House standard with Passive House for the disadvantaged 2010- standard BBB 2014 5.7 New Søreide school New Søreide school 2010- BKB 2014 5.8 New Krohnborg New Krohnborg school – a new local centre with Plan og 2010- school energy and environmental aspirations Geodata 2014 5.9 Renovation of Renovation of municipal dwellings 2010- municipal dwellings BBB 2014
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Measure: Description Consequ Responsibilit Time Effect Effect Cost Cost/ Comm ences: y frame GWH Tonnes s benef ents
CO 2 equ it: PUTTING OUR OWN HOUSE IN ORDER FIRST Improving energy efficiency (EK1 contd) 1.2 Energy management Work started on energy management in 2006 and and environmental continues, coordinated with the introduction of Urban Devt 2010- management environmental management in all municipal units. Ctee/BKB 2014 1.3 Energy solutions in Energy efficiency improvement and alternative BKB 2010- municipal buildings energy sources in the municipal building stock 2014 1.4 Earth Hour Bergen Municipality and as many as possible public and private buildings will switch off their lights for Urban Devt 2010- one hour on a given date and time every year. Ctee 2014 Conversion/reduced use of fossil energy sources (EK2 contd) 2.3 Replacing oil-burning Replacing oil-burning boilers in municipal buildings 2010- boilers outside the concession area for district heating BKB 2014 2.4 Renewable energy The City Government has decided to exercise an Purchasing option in the agreement with Fjordkraft AS that ensures Bergen Municipality buys only power that 2010- comes from renewable resources. 2014 2.5 Non-use of fossil fuel Bergen Municipality will not make plans for the use BKB 2010- of fossil gas in municipal buildings. 2014 Energy efficient buildings (EK5 contd) 5.6 Municipal dwellings Municipal dwellings with Passive House standard with Passive House for the disadvantaged 2010- standard BBB 2014 5.7 New Søreide school New Søreide school 2010- BKB 2014 5.8 New Krohnborg New Krohnborg school – a new local centre with Plan og 2010- school energy and environmental aspirations Geodata 2014 5.9 Renovation of Renovation of municipal dwellings BBB 2010-
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Measure: Description Consequ Responsibilit Time Effect Effect Cost Cost/ Comm ences: y frame GWH Tonnes s benef ents
CO 2 equ it: municipal dwellings 2014
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6.6.8 Long-term measures 2015-2030 Table 6.6 shows the list of long-term measures. These measures are divided into the following areas. EL1 – Energy efficiency improvements, EL2 – Conversion/reduced use of fossil energy sources, EL3 – District heating, EL4 - New renewable energy, EL5 - Energy efficient buildings. This list is also split according to responsibility for the measures. Those measures that are to be carried out in Bergen Municipality’s own activity areas are listed under “Putting our own house in order first”.
The total effect is estimated to be 1,672 GWH in energy efficiency improvements and 173,000 tonnes of CO 2. The table states cost/benefit as Good, Medium or Poor. Measures with poor cost/benefit have not been included. The evaluation between good and medium is made on the basis of cost seen in proportion to effect, plus the total potential the measure may possibly be expected to have.
Not all measures are set up with effects. However, this does not mean that they may not have any effect, but that the scope and arrangements have not been processed.
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Table 6.6 Long-term measures up to the target in 2030
Measure: Description Consequence Responsib Time Effect Effect Cost Cost/ Comme s ility frame GWH tonnes s benef nts
CO 2 equ it:
PUTTING OUR OWN HOUSE IN ORDER FIRST Improving energy efficiency (EL1) 1.1 Reduced energy use in Measures in the building stock, 250 BKB 2010-2030 50 Good municipal buildings GWH per annum 1.2 Reduced energy use in Optimise operation of pumps, UV WS agency 2010-2020 6 Good treatment plants treatment and ventilation 1.3 Production of electricity Pressure reduction in water feed WS Agency 2010-2030 Good Estimates from waterworks lacking 1.4 Reduced energy use Optimisation of lighting/dimming RT Agency 2010-2020 1 Good for road lighting LDA Agency 1.5 Energy efficiency Model energy project BK (BKB) 2010-2014 1 Good improvement in Bergen City Hall 1.6 Improve efficiency, PCs Choose energy efficient products BK IT 2010-2020 Good and servers when purchasing and focus on efficient night operation 1.7 Reduced energy use in During purchasing and operation, BBB 2010-2030 5 Mediu rented and council housing white goods, lighting etc m 1.8 Urban renewal Renovation BKB 2010-2030 Good 1.9 Reduced energy use Energy review of planned new Transport 2010-2020 1 Good Light Railway infrastructure installations/operation 1.10 Reduced energy use Optimisation of lighting/dimming Bergen Port 2010-2020 0,5 Good for lighting 1.11 Reduced energy use Development regulations BK 2010-2030 5 Good Commerce/industry
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Measure: Description Consequence Responsib Time Effect Effect Cost Cost/ Comme s ility frame GWH tonnes s benef nts
CO 2 equ it:
1.12 Reduced energy use Development regulations BK 2010-2030 2 Good Dwellings 1.13 Reduced energy use Voluntary agreements BBB 2010-2030 5 Good Dwellings 1.14 Reduced energy use Voluntary agreements Bergen 2010-2030 20 Good Dwellings Land Developer 1.15 Reduced energy use Energy labelling of municipal BK 2010-2030 5 Good Buildings buildings 1.16 Requirements for EE Active use of Life Cycle Assessment BK 2010-2020 Good and NFE when purchasing (LCA) and Life Cycle Costing (LCC) material and office equpt 1.17 Requirement for Sustainable purchasing BK 2010-2020 Good supplier’s CO 2 footprint 1.18 Passive house New municipal buildings with Passive BK, 2010-2030 Mediu building – new construction House standard or better Housing m Bank, Bergen UC 1.19 Passive house Renovation will be carried out as BK, 2010-2030 Mediu building – renovation close to Passive House standard as Housing m possible Bank, Bergen UC Conversion/reduced use of fossil energy sources (EL2) 2.1 Replace oil and gas Replace fossil fuels, 7 GWH per BKB 2010-2020 7 2 Good with alternative energy annum sources
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Measure: Description Consequence Responsib Time Effect Effect Cost Cost/ Comme s ility frame GWH tonnes s benef nts
CO 2 equ it:
2.2 Replacement of old Scrap deposit scheme – change to BK, Fire 2010-2020 0 0 Good wood-burning stoves new clean burning wood-burning Brigade stoves District heating (EL3) 3.1 Heat pump based on Use effluent to produce heat for the BK 2014 5 Mediu effluent district heating network Varme/WS m Agency 3.2 Simple waterborne Increase use of simple waterborne BKK Varme 2010-2020 1 Good heating solutions in solutions buildings New renewable energy (EL4) 4.1 Production of electricity Use biogas from treatment plants WS Agency 2010-2020 Mediu Estimates from biogas m lacking 4.2 Introduction of bio- Internal training Supplier, 2010-2030 Mediu pellets/solar cells in new BK m buildings 4.3 Introduction of solar Internal training Supplier, 2010-2030 30 Mediu cells for domestic hot BK m water in new buildings 4.4 Purchase shares in City 2010-2030 Mediu offshore wind Governmen m t OTHERS Improving energy efficiency (EL1 contd) 1.20 Reduced energy use Heat and lighting management in Bergen 2010-2020 1,5 Good in churches and chapels churches and chapels Diocesan Council
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Measure: Description Consequence Responsib Time Effect Effect Cost Cost/ Comme s ility frame GWH tonnes s benef nts
CO 2 equ it:
1.21 Reduced energy use Energy efficient distribution BKK Nett 2010-2030 19 Good Reduced in the transmission system transformers no-load losses when purchasin g new 1.22 Reduced energy use Through voluntary agreements Housing 2010-2030 Good Dwellings assns & co- ops 1.23 Reduced energy use Through voluntary agreements County 2010-2030 5 Good schools Authority 1.24 Take part in network Covenant of Mayors City 2010-2020 Mediu Governmen m t Conversion/reduced use of fossil energy sources (EL2 contd) 2.3 Replace use of oil and Replace fossil fuels Bergen 2010-2020 0,1 Mediu gas with alternative energy Diocesan m sources Council 2.4 Oljefri.no Continue the project Oljefri.no. Friends of 2010-2030 181 46 Good Replacement of old oil-burning the Earth boilers Norway/ BK and BKK District heating (EL3 contd) 3.3 District heating Growth of district heating in Bergen BKK Varme 2009-2015 90 27 Good from 2008-2015 3.4 District heating Growth of district heating in Bergen BKK Varme 2016-2030 50 15 Good from 2016-2020
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Measure: Description Consequence Responsib Time Effect Effect Cost Cost/ Comme s ility frame GWH tonnes s benef nts
CO 2 equ it:
3.5 New local heating Convert oil – district heating BKK Varme 2010-2020 22 7 Good installations 3.6 Convert fossil gas – Further market work BKK Varme 2010-2020 Good district heating 3.7 District heating in Use renewable energy in the local BKK Varme 2011-2015 30 9 Good Åsane district heating network in Åsane 3.8 District heating in Use renewable energy in the local BKK Varme 2012-2015 25 8 Good Loddefjord district heating network in Loddefjord 3.9 Phase out fossil peak Study use of bio-oil as reserve BKK Varme 2011 10 Mediu loading reserves energy m PROJECTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE CLIMATE AND ENERGY FUND Improving energy efficiency (EL1 contd) 1.25 Reduced energy use Heat pumps replace direct electricity Climate and 2010-2030 446 Good in dwellings and smaller Energy commercial buildings Fund 1.26 Reduced energy use Supplementary insulation, better Climate and 2010-2030 100 Good in dwellings and smaller windows Energy commercial buildings Fund 1.27 Reduced energy use Courses/information/training Climate and 2010-2030 52 Good in private dwellings Energy Fund 1.28 Reduced energy use Subsidies/courses/information Climate and 2010-2030 118 Good Commerce Energy Fund
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Measure: Description Consequence Responsib Time Effect Effect Cost Cost/ Comme s ility frame GWH tonnes s benef nts
CO 2 equ it:
1.29 Reduced energy use Voluntary agreements Climate and 2010-2030 59 Good Industry Energy Fund 1.30 Reduced energy use Simplified heating solutions, Climate and 2010-2030 10 Good Commerce/dwellings improved accessibility for customers Energy Fund Conversion/reduced use of fossil energy sources (EL2 contd) 2.5 Convert from use of Transfer from using gas Climate and 2010-2020 Good gas in commerce/industry, Energy dwellings and public Fund service provision 2.6 Convert from use of oil Transfer from using oil Climate and 2010-2020 218 60 Good in commerce, industry, Energy public and private service Fund provision 2.7 Convert from use of Transfer from using gas Climate and 2010-2020 Good gas in commercial Energy buildings, dwellings and Fund public service provision MEASURES DEPENDENT ON CENTRAL GOVERNMENT POLICY INSTRUMENTS Improving energy efficiency (EL1 contd) 1.31 Reduced energy use New EU regulations/prohibitions Central 2010-2014 50 Good by replacement of all government filament bulbs policy instrument
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Measure: Description Consequence Responsib Time Effect Effect Cost Cost/ Comme s ility frame GWH tonnes s benef nts
CO 2 equ it:
1.32 Reduced energy use Through voluntary agreements Central 2010-2030 40 Good Central Government government buildings agencies
Total measures 1 672 173
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7 Waste and consumption pattern
7.1 Status and future development
Greenhouse gas emissions from waste and the consumption pattern fit into the statistics under the area known as process emissions. These include gas emissions from landfill sites, process emissions from industry, natural emissions from agriculture and greenhouse gas emissions from waste handling. It is gas emissions from waste disposal sites and waste handling that are discussed here. Measures for reducing greenhouse gases from agriculture are also included. Waste and consumption pattern really deals with much more and includes a large proportion of indirect emissions. In the main, this action plan only addresses direct emissions.
7.1.1 The present waste situation The present consumption pattern and the waste problem to which it gives rise are the source of significant greenhouse gas emissions. Previously this was an extra large problem, to which the main solution was landfill. Since 1999 Bergen has has had a well developed and future-oriented waste disposal system where continuous improvement is sought.
All handling of household waste is dealt with by The Bergen Area’s Inter-municipal Waste Handling Company Ltd (subsequently referred to as ‘BIR AS/BIR Privat AS’) in line with current regulations. BIR AS is an inter-municipal waste company with Bergen Municipality as the largest participant. Handling of commercial waste from institutions and private undertakings is based on free competition for collection, transport and treatment as long as the legislation is complied with. Therefore several companies handle commercial waste in the Municipality.
The quantities of household waste that were handled by BIR rose considerably over a period of several years, from around 99,000 tonnes in 1996 to 133,000 tonnes in 2002 [3]. A levelling-out has taken place since 2003 in Bergen, so that there was only a modest increase to 139,000 tonnes in 2007. Today’s waste handling may be summarised as follows [4]: • Schemes have been established to collect paper/cardboard, drink cartons and plastic packaging from subscribing households. • For metal and glass a network of around 300 minor return points has been established, where subscribers can deliver these items. A number of return points also accept textiles. • Three major recycling stations have been established in Bergen, where the inhabitants can deliver all material fractions, residual waste, garden waste and hazardous waste. • Bergen has a large incineration plant that burns the Municipality’s residual waste and wet organic waste from households. The incineration plant is being extended in 2010, from a handling capacity of 105,000 tonnes per annum to 221,000 tonnes. The district heating network coupled to the plant is being expanded continuously. • There is no landfill site in operation in Bergen Municipality, but the site in Rådalen (and to some extent in a number of minor landfills) will continue to emit a considerable amount of methane, even if quantities are on the decline. The landfill gas installation in Rådalen is now only partly in operation.
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• An underground waste suction plant has been established in the heart of the city centre and this will be expanded in the years to come so that the whole city centre will gradually be covered. The plant will primarily deal with household waste, but commercial customers are also encouraged to use the facility. • In total 105,000 tonnes of household waste were generated in 2007. 50 percent of this was incinerated, about 38 percent went to material recycling and approx 15 percent to landfill. • 70 kg of paper/cardboard, 10 kg of glass/metal and just below 1 kg of plastic are recycled per inhabitant, per annum. • In addition, based on national statistics and population headcount in Bergen, 60,000 tonnes of waste are generated annually by commercial services, plus about 40-50,000 tonnes of lighter industrial waste and circa 40-50,000 tonnes of construction and plant waste, so that the annual total in Bergen is around 250,000 tonnes.
Figure 7.1 shows waste handling in Bergen compared with national figures [1]. Seen in the round Bergen is in a good position as regards waste handling at a high level. Material recycling is at the national average and incineration and recycling together account for 85 percent compared with 71 percent nationally.
If no new measures are implemented, the estimated total emissions are about 99,000 tonnes of CO 2 equivalents per annum in 2011, 91,000 tonnes in 2014, 79,000 tonnes in 2020 and 70,000 tonnes in 2030.
7.1.2 Existing plans and anticipated development After a long period of growth, there has been a reduction in household waste per inhabitant since 2003. The future quantities per inhabitant are difficult to predict as this will be bound up with developments in the standard of living, product changes, consumption patterns, attitudes etc.
It is expected that the treatment of waste will continue in the main as it is today, as the city has a reasonably well developed system. It may be expected that there will be increased commitment to biological treatment for suitable fractions. It is also anticipated that increased attention will be paid to sound treatment of all types of commercial waste, on a par with household waste.
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The waste suction system will be expanded and the heart of the city will thus have a collection system that places few demands on resources. On the other hand waste suction may pose a number of challenges if the system is further developed for source separation. Selective depositing to the waste suction system will be combined with deposits to underground containers for selected types of source separated waste.
As part of the Cities of the Future planning, Bergen Municipality has pointed out a number of important measures within the Consumption and Waste section for the period 2009-2014, which has recently been revised [2]:
3.1. New waste plan – increased source separation 3.2. Return points – quality in city spaces. Design competition. 3.3. Source separation and recycling internally in the Municipality. 3.4. Social responsibility in Bergen Municipality’s procurement 3.5. Exploit resources – new trends – new jobs. 3.6. Source separation in schools and kindergartens 3.7. Introduction of environmental management in Bergen Municipality 3.8. Bossnett (network for collecting waste through a piped system) 3.9. Environmental monitoring of the municipal travel policy 3.10. Exploit resources – new trends – new jobs. 3.11 Invert junk mail opt-out 3.1.2. Tax system to reward good habits
These have been included in the further work.
BIR will contribute to the owner municipality’s climate targets In Bergen it is the inter-municipal waste company BIR that is responsible for handling household waste. Therefore their plans are important for the Municipality. BIR Privat AS has a waste plan with a range of measures that cover a 5-year period. The preliminary conclusions of this plan have been reviewed [4]. The existing waste plan applied to 2004-2008. This is now under consideration in respect of achieving targets and a new plan for 2010-2015 was adopted by the City Council (Proposition 247/10) on 25 October 2010. The preliminary results of this work are picked up in the assessments of climate measures.
BIR’s objectives • Environmentally friendly measures that support local plans for climate measures • Energy exploitation of residual waste and wood • Ensure local waste treatment through establishing the company’s own plants • Influence national waste policy.
Specific plans for exploitation of energy Development of district heating will continue to cover a significant proportion of the city centre. The system will gradually be connected to various new renewable energy sources, such as biofuel plants, biogas plants etc. These will give the system good flexibility and reserve capacity and reduce the need for fossil energy.
BIR Bedrift (BIR Business) and BKK Varme are collaborating to study the building of two biofuel plants with associated district heating networks, initially one in Åsane and then one in Loddefjord. The fuel will be waste wood that is currently partly deposited in landfills and partly sent to Sweden. Each plant is being planned with a capacity of around 10,000 tonnes of wood chippings per annum and can deliver up to approx 28 GWH.
Bergen Municipality plans to establish a biogas plant based on de-watered effluent sludge and food waste from commercial activity, which will generate about 17 GWH of
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gross energy from the gas. Exploitation of the biogas energy has not been clarified, though fuelling buses and using it for the district heating system have been considered. It is asserted that if this plant is successful, consideration will also be given to an installation for wet organic household waste.
7.2 Objectives and targets for waste and consumption 7.2.1 Principal objectives Bergen will be one of the leading municipalities in the development towards a society that is sustainable in respect of waste and consumption. A natural consequence of this will be to take the initiative and play a leading role in national arrangements and campaigns, but also to carry out the Municipality’s own development and pilot projects, which others can use as examples and models.
Bergen Municipality will generally follow the main national strategy in working to solve the problems with waste, using the following series of priorities for selecting solutions (known as the waste pyramid): 1. Waste reduction – prevent waste from arising. 2. Re-use. 3. Material recycling including biological treatment. 4. Incineration with energy utilisation. 5. Landfill.
Taking Statistics Norway’s statistics for Bergen as the starting point, so-called process emissions where waste is the primary source have reduced from 149,000 tonnes of
CO 2 per annum in 1991 to approx 81,000 tonnes of CO 2 per annum in 2007, i.e. 54 percent of the original tonnage. (As mentioned above the real emissions figure for 2007 was about 109,000 tonnes of CO2 equivalents per annum). This is mainly due to the closure of the landfill sites. Thus the requirement for a 50 percent reduction has in reality practically been achieved already. As it can be difficult to achieve the target of 50 percent reduction when all sectors are consolidated, it follows naturally that waste and consumption measures should contribute more than their "share". A natural objective in this sector will thus be to strive to achieve as big a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions as is practical, realistic and financially possible (beyond 50 percent). It is probably possible to achieve close to zero emissions in the sector by 2030, because: • Methane emissions from Rådalen and other landfills will be much reduced in the longer term, although for technical and practical reasons it would be very difficult to remove them completely. • Material recycling of many fractions has increased greatly since 1990 and material recycling gives significant net gains in respect of greenhouse gas emissions. • There will always be a certain proportion of plastic and other fractions that are regarded as fuel for the incinerator. However, the proportion can be very low.
These will be estimated retrospectively when the measures and their effects are assessed.
7.2.2 Objectives and targets for consumption pattern and waste minimisation After many years of increases, Bergen was among the first to achieve reduced generation of waste per household (from 2003 inclusive). It is therefore natural to target further reductions in the quantity of household waste generated per inhabitant in comparison with 2007; by 3 percent in 2011, 7 percent in 2015 and 20 percent in
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2030. Also targeted is the achievement of a considerable reduction in the generation of commercial waste. In relation to the 2007 figure the targets are 7 percent in 2015 and 20 percent in 2030 (In 2011 a reduction is assumed in any case, because the effects of the current financial crisis will still be noticeable).
Indicators here will be kg of household waste and commercial waste per inhabitant.
7.2.3 Objectives and targets for treating household waste There is an objective for as much household waste as possible to be dealt with at the highest possible level in the waste pyramid (with re-use at the top and landfill at the bottom). The next objective is for the treatment plants that are, or will be, in operation to put Bergen into a leading position nationally and internationally as regards sustainable and environmentally friendly waste treatment.
Indicators here will be percentage re-used, material recycled and energy recycled as a proportion of the total quantity, and the same treatment methods expressed in kg per inhabitant. These figures can be built up first and foremost for household waste.
7.2.4 Objectives and targets for treating waste from commercial activity and institutions As for households, there is an objective that as much commercial waste as possible will be dealt with at the highest possible level in the waste pyramid. Stimulation will be provided through mandatory requirements, municipal monitoring and incentives so that Bergen also attains a leading position in respect of waste reduction and sustainable and environmentally friendly treatment of commercial waste.
Here the indicators will be percentage re-use, material recycled and energy recycled in proportion to the total quantity.
7.3 Relationships between waste, consumption and greenhouse gas emissions
Production and transport of all goods involves consumption of natural resources and energy at all stages. Reduction in consumption and increased re-use of products avoid resources having to be used for the production, transport, distribution and waste handling of new products. CO 2 contribution varies widely from product to product, for example production and distribution of 1 kg of plastic bags gives approx 8 kg of CO 2 emissions (1 kg pure PE plastic 2kg CO 2 emissions), while 1kg of paper bags gives around 2 kg of CO 2 emissions, 1 kg of meat gives about 16 kg of CO 2 emissions, I kg of fruit/vegetables give about 1 kg of CO 2 emissions and 1 kg of shoe leather gives approx 4 kg of CO 2 emissions. It is estimated that on average this gives 2-3 kg of CO 2 emissions per kg of product, which is saved if consumption is reduced.
All these are indirect emissions that originate only to a small extent in the Bergen area. The saving of resources that is achieved through waste reduction, re-use and material recycling is not captured by the existing emissions statistics from Statistics Norway. When measures with consequences are listed, an attempt is made to distinguish between such reductions in indirect emissions and direct reductions in Bergen.
Less generation of waste also gives lower emissions from the whole handling chain - collection, transport, treatment and final disposal. Here it is estimated that total waste handling in Norway in 2006 of around 2.6 million tonnes of waste per annum, produced emissions of approx 353,000 tonnes of CO 2, i.e. 136 kg of CO 2 per tonne of
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waste on average. This comes in addition to production resources saved by reducing waste.
Another concept is climate benefit, where a climate benefit of 1.5 x means that when 1 tonne of waste goes to material recycling, the environment is spared 1.5 tonnes of
CO 2 emissions. For some material fractions the following may be suggested: paper: 1.5 x, plastic: 1.5-2.0 x, glass: 0.6 x, steel: 1.0-1.3 x, aluminium: 10 x and copper nearly 20 x.
There is a clear relationship between greenhouse gas emissions and various forms of waste treatment, which is discussed in a recent report produced for Waste Management Norway (‘Avfall Norge’) by Østfold Research (‘Østfold forskning’) [5]. This report shows figures that are a mixture of direct and indirect emission reductions. Figure 7.2 shows a published summary of greenhouse gas emissions and various treatment methods for important material fractions. As illustrated, it is normally an advantage in climate terms to go as high up as possible on the treatment pyramid.
7.4 Policy instruments and legal authorities for waste and consumption pattern measures
7.4.1 Waste minimisation There are several existing policy instruments that will contribute to reducing the quantity of waste, as described inter alia in Official Norwegian Report 2002:19: “Waste Prevention – a Vision about Quality of Life, Consumer Awareness and Life Cycle Thinking”.
Households are a considerable challenge. To achieve waste minimisation in this group requires, inter alia, behavioural change and this depends on a range of factors. Many policy instruments have to be initiated at the national level, as they have to fit in with national circumstances and operators.
Economic policy instruments, be they “carrots” or “sticks”, are important for generating less waste. They may take the form of rewarding waste reduction through reduced charges or by providing financial advantages for products and consumption patterns that produce less waste. It is also natural to “punish” actions or products etc that give increased quantities of waste.
Attitude creation activity is perhaps the most important policy instrument the authorities have in this area. These may be directed at the whole population or at selected sectors such as children and young people. They may consist of public campaigns or activities in local working groups. The task may be of a national character or of a local nature, down to city districts.
7.4.2 Attitude creation work Significant resources have been committed nationally and locally to building up good habits in consumption, waste reduction and handling of household waste through information and campaigns. Good results have been achieved in changing people’s habits to a significant extent in respect of source separation of waste. BIR Privat AS currently has a comprehensive programme of information and motivation directed at kindergartens, schools and the public generally.
General experience clearly shows that it is important to use both targeted campaigns and continuous activities for providing information, motivating people and creating attitudes.
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7.4.3 Better treatment of household waste The landfill prohibition that was imposed in July 2009 will be an important policy instrument, especially for achieving better treatment of commercial waste, as very little household waste goes to landfill nowadays. There are national requirements for energy exploitation through waste incineration, which constitute a good policy instrument with regard to having energy sources that supply the most possible heat energy to the city through the district heating system.
The established materials companies have strict requirements for recycling their respective material fractions, and these are important policy instruments and incentives in Bergen as well. The requirement for recycling of plastics at present is 30-40 percent material recycling and most of the rest goes for incineration and energy recycling.
7.4.4 Measures at the landfill sites New requirements for sites currently in operation and larger, closed landfill sites are on the way from the county governors’ environmental departments. First and foremost these will include the landfill site in Rådalen. The Agency for Landscape Design and Agriculture in Bergen Municipality has recently carried out a survey and assessment of environmental emissions from the landfill site in Rådalen [6] and the conclusions may lead to constraints on further re-equipment here. At present, energy exploitation from landfill gas may receive Enova grant support of up to 30 percent of the investment. In addition, a so-called feed-in subsidy has been introduced, which subsidises power
Greenhouse gas emissions per kilo of waste due to waste treatment
Figure7.2 Greenhouse gas emissions for different types of treatment of important material fractions [5]
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delivered from biogas by the KWH. At the moment it is NOK 0.10/KWH, which is very low in a European context (NOK 0.30 to 1.00/KWH is the normal range of rates).
Other, smaller landfill sites must probably be taken care of through municipal initiatives based on environmental considerations, as these do not come in under other national programmes.
Plans now exist about new initiatives in the field of waste from the Climate and Pollution Agency through the Climate Cuts program, but at the moment it is not known what concrete constraints and policy instruments will be promoted here.
7.4.5 Better handling of commercial waste Although handling commercial waste is not the Municipality’s responsibility it is nevertheless a requirement that collection, transport and treatment is in compliance with the relevant rules and regulations for waste handling in Norway. Included in these is the new landfill prohibition, a new policy instrument that results in it no longer being allowable to deposit residual waste with organic content privately or in municipal landfill sites in other municipalities.
As commercial waste is handled in a free, private market, financial policy instruments will be important. At present, environmental charges assist in ensuring that waste is treated as far up the waste pyramid as possible. It is also possible to introduce local financial incentives and penalties to ensure that waste is handled in the required way.
The waste regulations now pave the way for the municipalities to supervise that waste handling in firms and institutions takes place as planned and in accordance with regulations, and that the supervision can be financed by charging those who are supervised. At present, Bergen does not make use of this instrument.
7.5 Proposals for measures and effects 7.5.1 Work processes The measures have emerged in a process based on the existing objectives, policy instruments, waste situation and waste plans and on the measures listed in the Municipality’s work on Cities of the Future. The process has been pursued on a collaborative basis, in meetings with important participants in the field such as the Municipality’s administrative services, BIR Privat AS, Friends of the Earth Norway, the Agency for Landscape Design and Agriculture and many other organisations etc.
Based on the measures that have emerged during this process a further assessment and description of these measures has been prepared, together with an appraisal of responsibilities, costs, progress, direct consequences and consequences converted to greenhouse gas emissions where possible.
7.5.2 Prospects for landfill gas emissions The landfill site in Rådalen The largest component of greenhouse gas emissions linked to waste is clearly the landfill gas emissions at Rådalen. At present gas extraction runs at minimum output without extensive follow-up of operations. The ongoing study [6] gives a description and some operational history of the existing extraction plant. An estimate has also been made of possible extraction going forward, but not of total emissions. The study says little about what can be done with the gas and how the controlled extraction can be increased. In the work on the Energy and Climate Plan a short supplementary
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assessment has therefore been made of the upgrading possibilities and potential landfill gas emissions. The basis and evaluations are described in Enclosure 2.
These measures are included as an upgrading package, which gives an estimated increase from today’s output (2007) of around 1 million Nm 3 per annum to approx 4.5 million Nm 3 per annum in 2010. Over the period up to 2030 it is estimated that the upgrading measures may give an upgraded additional output in the order of 30 million Nm 3. The measures also include upgrading the landfill cover to obtain as good an oxidation effect (biologically oxidising decomposition of methane in the landfill cover) as practically possible. It is estimated that this can increase oxidation by 5 percent of the total emissions.
Upgrading also includes energy exploitation, which is currently based on an engine that is too large for satisfactory, continuous operation. As the site is near the incineration plant it is sensible to asses a transfer of gas to a gas burner in the energy centre there. Another alternative is to install a smaller engine near the district heating pipe and try to obtain best possible utilisation of the heat from the cooling system into the pipe. Regardless of the type of utilisation, measures first have to be carried out in the extraction plant, and their effect has to be observed, before going further. With energy utilisation at around 50 percent on average, upgraded energy exploitation could give 80-100 GWH total renewable energy up to 2030.
Other landfill sites There are 7-8 smaller landfill sites that were run partly in parallel with Rådalen and partly before it. These are generally much smaller and older, so the residual potential is considerably smaller. In all likelihood it will not be practically possible to establish functioning extraction plants at these sites. The main measure at these sites will be to carry out a survey and possibly record and measure the emissions at particular points. If a need is established, supplementary landfill cover will be carried out. It is estimated that it will be possible to reduce the estimated residual emissions of 1-2 million Nm 3 in total by 15% over the period up to 2030, which may give around 0.2 million Nm 3 by way of reduction.
7.5.3 Prospects in other areas There is a range of other possibilities in the whole field of waste and consumption. These are more self-explanatory and recognisable for non-specialists and are listed directly in the measures summary.
7.5.4 How the summary is built up The measures that have emerged during the process are laid out systematically in table form with the following key information in the columns: • Name and number of the measure • Description of the measure and which policy instruments are assumed to be used. • Description of the direct consequences of the measure. • Who will be responsible for implementing the measure. • Time frame for the measures, divided into immediate measures 2009-2011, short- term 2009-2104 and long-term 2009-2030. • Measurable effect where this can be measured directly, compared with emissions without measures in the same year.
• Measurable effect converted to tonnes of CO 2 equivalent compared with emissions without measures in the same year. • Estimated cost of the measure (investment). • Cost/benefit measured in investment per tonne of CO2 equivalent. • Comments/feasibility.
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Separate tables are set up for measures within consumption pattern/waste reduction, better waste treatment, upgrading landfill sites and better solutions for commercial waste respectively.
After the tables with descriptions of the measures a summary table has been set up with costs and emission reductions for the measures at the key points of time 2014, 2020 and 2030.
7.5.5 Comparison of the effects of the measures The reductions in emissions that the proposed measures may give have to be compared with the process emissions if no measures are implemented. This has been done and the results entered in Table 7.1, calculated for the key years 2014, 2020 and 2030. The calculation is based on the assumption that waste generation per inhabitant will cease to increase in any case, but that the quantity of waste increases in step with the population increase. Emissions from the landfill sites without measures are entered as an average of Statistics Norway’s calculation model and Norconsult’s empirical model adapted to local conditions:
Table 7.1. Summary of emission reductions in waste and consumption Year 2007 2014 2020 2030 Inhabitants 242,000 265,000 284,000 318,000 Greenhouse gas - Emissions from 34,000 37, 000 40,000 45,000 emissions waste treatment WITHOUT - Emissions from 65,000 42,000 26,000 10,000 measures in landfill sites tonnes of CO 2 - Agriculture and 11,000 12,000 13,000 15,000 equivalents industry TOTAL 109,000 91,000 79,000 70,000 Direct emission - Consumption reductions in pattern – waste 5,950 8,550 10,350 Bergen WITH minimisation measures in - Better private and tonnes of CO 2 equ public waste 39,300 39,300 39,300 in subareas (see treatment measures tables) - Upgrading landfill 23,400 13,700 1,000 sites - Better solutions for 13,700 13,700 13,700 commercial waste Consolidated direct emission reductions in
Bergen WITH measures in tonnes of CO 2 0 82,000 74,000 63,000 equivalents Net emissions after measures in tonnes 109 ,00 9,000 5,000 7,000 CO 2 equ Emission reduction compared to emissions without measures in the year concerned 0 90 % 94 % 90 % Remaining emissions 100 % 10 % 6 % 10 % Reduction in indirect greenhouse gas emissions from production and transport 97,000 123,000 160,000 of goods and materials Emission reduction compared with 0 75 % 68 % 58 % emissions in 2007 Emission reduction compared with 55 % 50 % 42 % emissions in 1991
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As is evident, the sum of direct and indirect emission reductions may be greater than what is registered in the statistics as emissions. The reason is that existing statistics do not capture resources that are saved by way of new production when measures leading to waste minimisation are implemented (less consumption, less production and less waste). Another factor is that the indirect reductions occur in many producer countries, so that the effect can be difficult to apportion. The choice has been made not to include the indirect emission reductions in the consolidated summaries.
7.5.6 Summary of proposed measures with descriptions and consequences The measures are listed on the following pages in these tables.
Table 5.2 Measure TA1-2 Consumption pattern – waste reduction/minimisation Table 5.3 Measure TA3 Better private and public waste treatment Table 5.4 Measure TA4 Upgrading landfill sites Table 5.5 Measure TA5 Better solutions for commercial waste
Cost/benefit is given as G for Good, M for Medium and P for Poor
And finally a summary of effects in Table 5.6
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Table 5.2. Measure TA1-2 Consumption pattern – waste reduction/minimisation [Tables 5.2 – 5.6. Organisations not previously defined in the text or whose identity and purpose cannot easily be understood in the table: BK = Bergen Kommune, Grønn Etat = Agency for Landscape Design and Agriculture] Measure Description and policy instruments Consequenc Respons Time Measurable Effect in Costs Cost Barriers/ es ibility plan effect in 2030 in /ben Feasibility 2030 tonnes efit: CO 2 equ Direct effects in bold Sustainable consumer society – short and long-term (TA1) 1.1 Voluntary Network building, discussion forums, Change BK and 2009- Stop waste 3,000/yr Info G Challenging: work in the think tanks. Information/motivation consumption local 2030 increase, 20% + campaign Requires change in community for campaign, financial incentives for habits, less public reduction in 52,000/yr 500000 attitudes, sustainable generating less waste. consumption agencies long term Netork consumption and consumption Eco-Lighthouse and Green Flag and waste and 20,000 building partly lifestyle generation. bodies tonnes/yr less 500000 2) reduced waste consumption normally gives less economic growth 1.2 Grønn Introduce and disseminate membership Less BK and 2009- ¼ FTE in G Included in package hverdag (Green of Green Living consumption the public 2014 BK – NOK above Living) and waste who 150K/yr generation, become better waste members separation 1.3 Increased Improve procurement requirements More BK 2009- 20% reduction 300 + Few direct G Must clarify and climate and with increased climate ranking and sustainable purchasin 2030 long-term In 4900/år costs adjust relationship to environmental weighting against financial and other procurement g dept, BK’s waste economy. Introduce weighting in factors. and less waste BIR estimated at more graduation and public Training of purchasers, possibly generation Privat AS approx 10K not just absolute min procurement support from those with special skills tonnes/yr requts. and expertise. Have a portal that pops up before we purchase air tickets that tells us where we have video-conferencing equpt.
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1.4 Stimulate “cleaner” use of materials More waste National 2009- 3% more of a 1,000/yr 1/8 FTE in G (for example plastic- “Cleaner”use of without mixing materials in products for material authoritie 2030 total of 250K + BK – NOK coated paper) materials Initiate and support influencing of recycling s and tonnes/yr to 150,000 75K/yr national operators. operators material /yr recycling in long term. 1.5 Longer Initiative directed at national firms to Less disposal BK, 2009- 2% reduction 700 + 1/8 FTE in G product life encourage better and more durable and less waste Public, 2030 in longer term 12000/år BK – NOK products generation business 5,000 75K/yr tonnes/yr less waste Waste minimisation – immediate measure (TA2) 2.1 Prepare Information/motivation campaign. Reduced BK 2009- 1% reduction 150 + NOK M Easily put into for increased Collaboration with firms and organisation consumption purchasin 2011 in household 3000 400K/yr practice – done in re-use to use the occupationally challenged for and less waste g/materia waste many places. repair and sale for treatment. l dept., Symbolic effect BIR Privat AS 2.2 Fewer Reduce advertisement mailings, reduce Reduced BK, 2009- 50% reduction 700 + Campaign G Approx 200K mailings other mailings and advertising inserts consumption Public, 2014 in quantity 11000/år NOK 150K tonnes/yr advert (telephone catalogues, annual reports and use of business mailed in mailings in Norway. etc). -Invert the opt-out on receiving resources for Friends Bergen Must reckon on adverts (Yes if you want it, otherwise mailings and of the 4-5,000 protests from automatic No) – initiative directed at less waste for Earth tonnes/yr businesses, which central operators and authorities treatment. Norway lose important marketing. 2.3 Reduce Reduce the quantity of paper and plastic Reduced Public, 2009- 20% reduction 4,000/yr Few direct G Simplicity, need a the quantity of single-use bags in waste - production business 2011 in plastic + good many single- single-use information/motivation campaign, and then quantities of 6- 110,000/y use bags for waste. If bags encourage use of shopping bags and incineration or 8, 000 r shopping bags are supply them. land fill tonnes/yr free they must disposal of probably be plastic bags sponsored by adverts (done already)
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2.4 Increased More home composting of wet organic Less waste BK, BIR 2009- 1% reduction 200/yr 1/8 FTE in M home waste, with extra focus on solutions for transport and Privat AS 2011 in household BK – NOK composting housing associations etc. handling, less waste, 1,000 75K/yr Information/motivation campaign, emission. tonnes/yr less Campaign financial incentives, training and subsidy. waste. approx NOK 100K 2.5 Reward Reward waste reduction by the public - Less waste to BK, BIR 2009- 2% reduction 300 + Flexible G/M Under trial based on waste change to charging by weight – new be transported Privat AS, 2014 in household 4700/år collection: flexible collection reduction emptying and container equipment. and treated. Public waste, 2,000 small frequency. Results Smaller charge for smaller quantities tonnes/yr less Weight awaited before going delivered. waste. based: further with many advanced systems. millions of NOK 2.6 Establish Establish an environmental fund that can Introduction of BK, Poss 2009- Unknown Unknown Estimate M Uncertain as long as environment cover good waste projects new BIR 2011 NOK 10M possible projects are fund sustainable not known. solutions.
Table 5.3. Measure TA3 Better private and public waste treatment Measure Description and policy Consequenc Respons Time Measurabl Effect in Costs Cost/ Barriers/ instruments es ibility plan e effect tonnes benefi Feasibility CO 2 equ t: (Direct effect in bold) 3.1 Better offer Offer good solutions for sorting at More waste to BK, BIR 2009- 3% more to 1,000 + Campaign G Educative, motivating for sorting at home – information and possibly an material Privat AS, 2011 material 2,000/yr NOK 250K home offer of suitable sorting equipment - recycling and Friends recycling – information campaign not to of the 1,500 incineration Earth tonnes Norway
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3.2 Improved Offer better solutions for More waste to BK, BIR 2009- 2% more to 500 + NOK 2-3 M BIR Privat AS is looking at sorting accumulating more fractions in material Privat AS, 2011 material 1500/år million this. Spin-off effects solutions for housing associations (larger recycling and Waste recycling – through less litter and housing containers). Evaluate and purchase not to contracto 1,000 more satisfied associations other/new equipment, altered incineration rs tonnes subscribers. collection, encourage better sorting (financial). 3.3 Better Carry out information campaigns - More waste BK, BIR 2009- 2% more to 200 + Info M Including environmental information on about existing reception schemes to recycling Privat AS 2011 material 1800/år campaign effect because more return schemes under the auspices of the industry – recycling – : NOK hazardous waste Survey of industry reception points 1,000 500K delivered. at sales outlets etc. tonnes 3.4 Simplified Reception of plastic and metal that All plastic and BK, BIR, 2009- 2% more to 1000 + NOK M May require national recycling are not packaging - carry out metal is sorted other 2014 material 1000/år 300K/yr adjustments beyond fractions measures that lead to all plastic and recycled. waste recycling – (subsidies industry schemes – so being “plastic” and all metal being More waste to businesse 1,000 ) possible complications. “metal”. Possibly subsidise marginal material s tonnes Plastic beyond plastic plastic. Expanded secondary recycling and packaging not included in sorting/checks. not to national framework incineration agreements and this plastic must therefore be subsidised. 3.5 GIS-based Establish interactive environmental More waste to BK, poss 2009- 0.5% more 500+ NOK 400K M Spin-off effect is good waste and map with key information for the material BIR, FoE 2011 material 500/år information. May provide environmental public and business. recycling and Norway recycling for more treatment being map not to 500 tonnes carried out. incineration 3.6 Better Prepare for and encourage More waste to BK and 2009- 0.5% more 500+ ¼ FTE in G Must in principle be based waste handling standardised, advanced and material municipal 2011 material 500/år BK – NOK on voluntary cooperation. in all municipal sustainable waste arrangements in recycling and institutio recycling – 150K/yr Introduced gradually as and public all public sector activities. not to ns 500 tonnes current agreements activity. Information, instruction and incineration expire. motivation. Coordination. Supplement necessary equpt to municipal activities.
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3.7 Establish Establish an environment fund that Introduction of BK, Poss 2009- Unknown Unknown Estimate M Uncertain as long as Climate and can cover good projects in waste new BIR 2011 NOK 10M possible projects are not Environment treatment. sustainable (in known. A common Fund solutions. common environment fund. with previous table) 3.8 Improved Denser, expanded and standardised More waste to BIR 2009- 0.5% more 300+ 100 * M Perhaps coordinated with return point return point system - more points material Privat AS 2011 material 300/år 10000 = other environmental system and all points to have the same recycling and recycling – NOK 1.0M activities (deposit scheme reception arrangements and design. not to 300 tonnes for small electronic incineration equpt?) 3.9 Improved Establishment and expansion of Better BK, BIR 2009- Better 1,000/yr Many P Expensive beyond the waste collection waste suction system logistics, lower Privat AS 2014 collection millions heart of the city centre. traffic volume and for 10% of Saves traffic loading in and use of Boss-sug waste the heart of the city resources AS volume centre. 3.10 Increased New line of incinerator ovens – More waste to BIR 2009- Estimated 25000/ Under construction – incineration reduced waste to landfill and less oil energy 2011 10,000 år ready in 2010 capacity based supplementary heating. recycling tonnes/yr from landfill to incineration T.11 Biogas Establish separate collection and Wet organic BK, BIR 2009- 37 GWH 6,300/yr NOK M Based on experience from wet biological treatment (with biogas) of waste to Privat AS 2014 gross, of 100M, 5M from, and coordination organic wet organic household waste - resource and which 2/3 in yearly with, planned biogas plant household establishment of collection system energy estimated costs for effluent sludge. waste and central treatment plant. Use of recycling and exploited gas energy in the district heating not to energy i.e. approx system. neutral 25 GWH. incineration.
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3.12 Use of biogas from decomposition of Increased 2009- 12 GWH 3,000/yr NOK 10- M Exploitation of organic waste for running buses energy 2014 extra 20M, biogas instead of using other energy exploitation 0.6M in sources. through the yearly year. Reduced costs use of fossil fuel.
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Table 5.4. Measure TA4 Upgrading of landfill sites Measure Description and policy Consequences Respons Time Measurable Effect in Costs Cost Barriers/ instruments ibility plan effect ‘000s /ben Feasibility tonnes efit CO 2 equ 1) (Direct effect in bold) 4.1 Better Improve, upgrade and if required Reduced Grønn 2009- 30 million 180,000 NOK 5-8 G Based on a number of landfill gas expand extraction plant uncontrolled Etat 2011 Nm3 addl over 20 million estimates. 20-25,000 plant in emissions, less (Agency extraction yrs. tonnes/yr initially, Rådalen methane for landfill gas to gradually reducing to 0 emission Landscap 2030 incl tonnes/yr in 2030. e Design and Agricultur e) 4.2 Better Better covering and specially Reduced Grønn 2009- 5% extra 15,000 NOK 2-3 G Based on a number of landfill cover at adapted landfill cover. uncontrolled Etat 2011 reduction in over 20 million estimates. 1,200 Rådalen site emissions and residual yrs tonnes/yr initially, increased landfill gas gradually reducing to 0 methane emissions of tonnes/yr in 2030. oxidation - less about 50 methane million Nm3 emission to 2030 incl i.e. 2.5 million Nm3. 4.3 Exploitation Full time running of gas boiler or More Grønn 2009- 80-100 GWH 45,000 NOK 2-4 G Approx 11 GWH in 2010, of landfill gas in smaller electric generator located environmentally Etat 2011 can be over 20 million gradually reducing to Rådalen near the incineration plant and friendly heat and delivered to yrs around 0 in 2030. district heating network. possibly 2030 incl. electricity to the grid.
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4.4 Upgrading Better covering and specially Reduced Grønn 2009- 15% redn in 1,200 NOK 2 M Project on TOP CAPPING 6-8 closed adapted landfill cover. uncontrolled Etat 2014 residual over 20 million can provide further info. landfill sites emissions and emissions yrs increased from old sites methane to 2030 incl, oxidation - less approx 0.2 methane million Nm3 emission
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Table 5.5 Measure TA5 Better solutions for commercial waste Measure Description and policy Consequences Responsib Time Measurabl Effect in Costs Cost/ Barriers/ instruments ility plan e effect ‘000s benef Feasibility tonnes it CO 2 equ (Direct effect in bold) 5.1 Better Establish municipal supervision of More to material BK, Poss 2009- 5% more to 2,000 Covers G Carried out in many supervision of handling of commercial waste. recycling BIR 2011 material +13,000/yr own costs other places, incl in commercial Include in municipal regulations. recycling – (charges) ØRAS (waste company waste handling Introduce charges that cover 7,500 in SE Norway) National supervision. tonnes/yr regulations provide authority for the possibility of such supervision. 5.2 Commercial Ensure that commercial firms use Better logistics, BK, 2009- 5% of 700/yr Covers G Saves traffic loading in waste to Boss- Boss-nett (piped waste network less transport business, 2014 quantity to own costs the heart of the city nett company) when available –organise volume and use BIR, Boss- Boss-sug centre. inlets/chutes, collection stations and of resources sug (7,500 charges. tonnes/yr) 5.3 Better Encourage and motivate waste Less energy and BK, 2009- 50% more 4,000/yr Covers G As plastic can be recycling of contractors and waste disposal site oil consumption business, 2014 commercial + 4,000 own costs deposited to landfill in plastics from owners to use material recycling in for new plastic neighbourin plastic to accordance with commercial preference to landfill and incineration and reduced g landfills recycling – regulations, authority sector – collaboration across the region – plastic to 2,000 basis is complicated. have high reception charges for incineration tonnes/yr plastic at landfill sites. Initiative (fossil fuel) towards national operators about a landfill prohibition for plastic. 54. Separate Compel/encourage large kitchens and Less residual Bergen 2009- 3 GWH 1,500/yr Covers G Assumed in existing treatment of the food industry to send waste for emissions and Municipality 2011 own costs plans but no authority wet organic separate biological treatment. increased to impose it. waste renewable energy from biogas
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5.5 Better Encourage and motivate toward More waste to BK, 2009- 3% more to 2000 + Campaign G For some fractions the source maximum source separation and material business 2014 material 8000/år : NOK environmental and/or separation in treatment at the highest possible recycling and/or organisation recycling – 500K climate benefit is commercial level. incineration – s 5,000 debatable (paper for activities Info/motivation campaigns less residual tonnes/yr recycling in China) emission 5.6 Better Enforcement and follow-up of More to BK, Poss 2009- 10% more 3,000 Covers G recycling in the requirements for waste plans in the recycling/better BIR 2011 to material +9,000/yr own costs construction building and construction industry. treatment and Building recycling – industry Encourage the development of private less residual and constr 5,000 recycling/treatment plants (concrete emission market tonnes/yr etc). 5.7 Better Biological treatment of farm animal Less BK, 2009- 20% more 500 NOK 2-4 G/P Biogas plants on their waste manure, suitable for agricultural waste greenhouse gas agricultural 2014 to material +5000/yr million own have limited treatment and - building of biogas plants utilising and residual organisation recycling – climate effect resource energy for fertiliser. emission s, primary 2,000 utilisation in Reception of other material fractions industry tonnes/yr + primary from primary industries free/cheaply 1 GWH industries at the recycling stations. biogas energy
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7.5.7 Summary of measures with costs and effects at key points in time Table 5.6 Summary of measures including effects of the measures Measure Summary in 2011 Summary in 2014 Summary in 2020 Summary in 2030
Investment Cost for the Effect in Investment Cost for the Effect in Cost for the Effect in Cost for Effect in 2009-2011 year 2011 direct and 2012-2014 year 2014 direct and year 2020 direct and the year direct and indirect indirect indirect 2030 indirect
NOK NOK/yr Tonnes NOK NOK/yr Tonnes CO 2 NOK/yr Tonnes NOK/yr Tonnes CO 2 equ equ CO 2 equ CO 2 equ TA1 Consumption pattern Voluntary work in the community for 1,000,000 500,000 5,000 500,000 13,000 500,000 27,000 500,000 55,000 sustainable consumption Green Living 150,000 150,000 150,000 150,000 Increased climate and environmental 100,000 2,600 100,000 5,200 100,000 5,200 100,000 5,200 weighting in public procurement “Cleaner” use of 75,000 2,000 75,000 5,000 75,000 10,000 75,000 15,000 materials Longer product life 75,000 1,000 75,000 4,000 75,000 8,000 75,000 13,000 TA2 Waste reduction Prepare for increased 500,000 400,000 3,000 400,000 3,000 400,000 3,000 400,000 3,000 re-use Fewer mailings 200,000 6,000 12,000 12,000 0 12,000 Reduce the quantity of 200,000 7,000 7,000 7,000 0 7,000 single-use bags Increased home 100,000 75,000 200 75,000 200 75,000 200 75,000 200 composting Reward waste 200,000 2,000 3,000 5,000 0 5,000 reduction
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Establish environmental fund 10,000,000 0 projects in waste reduction TA3 Better private and public waste treatment Better offer for sorting 250,000 75,000 2,000 75,000 3,000 75,000 3,000 75,000 3,000 at home Improved sorting solutions for housing 1,000,000 1,000 1,500,000 2,000 2,000 0 2,000 associations Better information on 500,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 0 2,000 return schemes Simplified recycling 150,000 1,000 300,000 2,000 300,000 2,000 300,000 2,000 fractions GIS-based waste and 400,000 50,000 1,000 50,000 1,000 50,000 1,000 50,000 1,000 environmental map Better waste handling in municipal and public 150,000 500 150,000 1,000 150,000 1,000 150,000 1,000 sector activity Establish environmental fund 0 projects in waste treatment Improved return point 1,000,000 600 600 600 0 600 system Improved waste 500 1,000 1,000 0 1,000 collection – Boss-sug Increased incineration 25,000 25,000 25,000 0 25,000 capacity Biogas from wet organic household 100,000,000 6,300 6,300 0 6,300 waste Exploitation of biogas 10,000,000 3,000 3,000 0 3,000 as fuel TA4 Upgrading of landfill sites
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Better landfill gas plant 6,000,000 200,000 23,000 200,000 19,000 200,000 12,000 100,000 1,000 in Rådalen Better landfill cover at 2,500,000 1,200 1,100 500 0 100 Rådalen site Exploitation of landfill 3,000,000 150,000 2,800 150,000 2,300 100,000 1,000 0 0 gas at Rådalen Upgrading 6-8 closed 2,000,000 1,200 1,000 200 0 landfill sites TA5 Better solutions for commercial waste Better supervision of commercial waste 10,000 15,000 15,000 0 15,000 handling Commercial waste to 400 700 700 0 700 Boss-nett Better recycling of plastics from 3,000 5,000 5,000 0 5,000 commercial sector Separate treatment of 7,000,000 1,500 1,500 0 1,500 wet organic waste Better source separation and 500,000 75,000 8,000 75,000 10,000 75,000 10,000 75,000 10,000 material recycling in commercial activity Better recycling in the 8,000 12,000 12,000 0 12,000 construction industry Better waste treatment and resource 3,000,000 5,500 5,500 0 5,500 utilisation in the primary industries Total (direct and 29,350,000 2,275,000 120,000 121,500,000 8,028,000 179,000 7,975,000 198,000 7,775,000 224,000 indirect) Total direct emission 67,000 82,000 75,000 64,000 reductions in Bergen Total indirect emission reductions (nationally 53,000 97,000 123,000 160,000 and internationally)
116 8 Adaptation to climate change
8.1 Introduction The UN’s Climate Panel defines adaptation (adaptive capacity) to climate change as follows: The ability of a system to adjust to climate change (including climate variability and extremes) to moderate potential damages, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with the consequences (IPPC, 2007). The consequences of climate change are uncertain, but to a large extent capable of being influenced. They will not only vary from region to region, but also between municipalities in the same region. The community’s ability to plan and construct robust solutions will mean much for the effect of climate change on communal functions and quality of life. It is important that climate change issues are addressed locally and that strategies, targets and accompanying measures are developed. The municipality is an important driving force in this work. The municipalities have a responsibility and through land use planning they can demonstrate major dynamism [1]. In Hordaland, increased average sea temperature and sea level must be taken into account up to the year 2100. The prognoses also show more precipitation in our region. Intense precipitation (extreme quantities in a short period) may occur much more frequently, as may more violent storms than in the past. The number of floods and avalanches/landslides is expected to increase. These may impact on existing built up areas that have historically been regarded as safe [2].
8.2 Challenges posed by climate change Climate change in the form of warmer, wetter and wilder weather will lead to an increased risk of undesirable incidents. Avalanches/landslides and floods may occur in new places and at different times of the year than in the past. It will become increasingly important in land use planning to understand this developmentin order to ensure that new development areas are safe. Changes in the way the community develops will have a big influence on vulnerability to damage caused by nature. Bergen expects increased population growth in the coming years. This will result in needs for new residential areas and increased demand for transport. Inter alia, this will exert pressure to develop infrastructure that will be robust in the face of climate change. For example, a rise in sea level may create problems for existing infrastructure that has to be upgraded, at the same time as plans for new infrastructure have to take into account future rises in sea level.
8.3 Local adaptation to climate change
Bergen Municipality has started a comprehensive project on risk and vulnerability. An important theme is the impact of climate change on risk and vulnerability. The following studies/surveys have been carried out so far: • Risk and Vulnerability Analysis (RVA) Avalanches/landslides – outline mapping (Phase 1) and detailed mapping (Phase 2). • Survey of extreme wind conditions in Bergen Municipality • Generation of isopleths for flood water levels in Bergen Municipality • Preparation of a thematic map for precipitation in Bergen Municipality • Assessment of extreme values for water level and wave heights along the shoreline • RVA linked to the land use part of the Municipal Plan
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• As a consequence of individual reports a risk map has been prepared including local precipitation, flooding, water level and areas of avalanche/landslide danger.
In connection with Cities of the Future there are both proposed projects, and projects already commenced, which focus on adaptation to climate change. Many of the projects have to do with building up knowledge, and key steps include preparing climate models, recording climate vulnerability, making forecasts and creating scenarios. These will give better understanding and knowledge about the local effects of climate change and the adaptations that will be necessary for Bergen Municipality. Some ongoing projects are shown in the summary below.
Project Water supply and effects of climate change. Target Reinforce water treatment safety and develop better indicators for monitoring sources and water treatment. Description A multidisciplinary programme under the auspices of the EU; Norwegian independent research organisation SINTEF is the project manager. Bergen is participating in the project both as a case and an end-user. The programme focuses on how the drinking water sources will be affected by climate change. Temperature rise, increased quantity and intensity of precipitation and more wind will make the water sources more unstable. There will be increased biological activity in the catchment areas with increased organic content as a result. The main themes in the project in which Bergen is involved are: • Risk and vulnerability • Optimisation of cleaning, and modelling • Optimisation of water treatment processes
Increased temperature will result in the snow line being higher than is usual at present. This will mean lower reservoir levels due to less melting snow in the spring and Bergen must thus increase reservoir capacity to store more rain precipitation. A new dam must be established at Svartavatnet to increase reservoir capacity. The time horizon for the project is 2010. Responsible Agency for Water and Sewerage Works
Project Sewage handling and effects of climate change. Target Carry out modelling of the whole sewerage network in order to identify critical points and areas, in order to establish new open solutions or to re-open former streams. Description The situation today is that the municipalities have a combined system for transporting effluent and surface water. Climate change, with an increased quantity and intensity of precipitation, will in the future result in capacity problems both in the pipe network and in the sewage treatment plants. Included in the project is modelling of the sewerage network in order to identify critical points and areas where it is possible to establish new open solutions or re-open former streams. Separation of surface water and effluent is a priority task. It is desirable for the surface water to be a resource, and sub- projects are in progress within adaptation to climate change where this is being looked at, for example the Haukås Waterway and Water between the Lungegård Lakes projects. Responsible Agency for Water and Sewerage Works
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Project Haukås Waterway – a new city district with open surface water solutions. Target Identify a strategy for adaptation to climate change in a waterway where development is planned and where there has been little Subsidiary encroachment/development previously. Target Maintain the most natural possible handling of surface water in the drainage basin, with a view to both safety and the environment. Description For this future residential development for 10,000 people in the Haukås Waterway drainage basin, Bergen Municipality has included provisions about surface water handling in the Municipal Plan, and subsequently in the development and built-up area plans. A pipe-based surface water system will not be established in the area. Local surface water handling will be based on the principles of water retention, infiltration and protecting and utilising the natural waterway. Responsible The Agency for Landscape Design and Agriculture/Agency for Water and Sewerage
Project Nestun Waterway. Target Identify a strategy for adaptation to climate change in a waterway that already has large developments in the drainage basin. Subsidiary Increase knowledge about the waterway, achieve a good ecological Targets status, plan for use and protection and encourage specialist and financial contributions from the local area, local authorities and business. Description About 23% of the drainage basin has already been built on and there are plans in existence for further development of the area. There is a wish on the part of the Municipality to secure the waterway’s surroundings against damaging floods and develop the waterway’s qualities as an out-and-out blue-green structure. The possibilities provided by the flood protection work will be exploited to develop the natural qualities of the waterway and make it accessible. The time horizon for the project is: 2008 – 2010: recording, reporting and planning work. The period will form the basis for carrying out specific measures. 2010 – 2012: carrying out specific measures. By the beginning of 2012 the appearance of central parts of the Nestun Waterway will be refreshed. 2015: be well on the way to achieving the target of “a good ecological status”. Responsible The Agency for Landscape Design and Agriculture/Agency for Water and Sewerage
Project Water between the Lungegård lakes. Target Open up a canal between Store (Large) and Lille (Little) Lungegård lakes. Description The project contains five principal themes: • Principle of distinction between lake and sea • Handling surface water • Water quality • Perception and quality • Learning and safety Responsible • Agency for Planning and Geodata
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Project Research project on sea level rise Target Develop prognoses/scenarios for the way in which the sea level will rise in Bergen. Description Variations in sea level will be mapped for the last 150 years, the status of the present sea level will be reviewed and an estimate of sea level rise in the 21st and 22nd centuries will be developed. The project will have great value for future planning of new infrastructure along the whole shoreline in Bergen Municipality. The Municipality has already started a pre-project to look at how buildings in exposed locations in areas at risk of floods will be handled.
Responsible Climate Section
Project NORADAPT Target Illustrate how climate change relates to changes in social and institutional conditions and how these relationships influence vulnerability and adaptation to climate change at the municipal level in Norway. • Identify how the municipalities are vulnerable to the combined Subsidiary effects of climate change and social and institutional changes. Targets • Identify how these factors are expected to change over time. • Identify known adaptation strategies. • Consider how the Municipality’s capacity to adapt may be promoted. • Compare how institutional factors in the municipalities influence and create vulnerability, and how they meet adaptation requirements.
Description The project is a countrywide research project in climate vulnerability and adaptation to climate change. The project is a collaborative one, involving the Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research Oslo (CICERO), research institutions Vestlandsforskning and Østlandsforskning and the Meteorological Institute. An indicator model will be developed, which will contain factors that are relevant in respect of vulnerability and adaptation. As regards how the Municipality will adapt to climate change, in this project Bergen has concentrated on Bryggen and the historical areas around the bay, plus the large development areas along the sea front in the city centre. The time horizon for the project is 2010. In 2008, an analysis was carried out of how climate change may affect the Municipality. In 2010, the question is how can the Municipality adapt to the changes in the most optimal way? Responsible Climate Section
Project Dimensioning of the surface water system – use of global climate models and data for local climate change Target Develop the future basis of dimensioning for the surface water system and measures in waterways.
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Description Because of large variations in precipitation locally in Bergen it is a big challenge to define the future basis of dimensioning the surface water system and measures in the waterways. The Municipality will scale down global climate models in cooperation with the Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research in order to obtain a better basis for assessment of the local and regional effects. It is presupposed that the work will be linked up with the EU project MARE (Managing Adaptive Responses to changing flood risk in the North Sea Region). Responsible Agency for Water and Sewerage Works
Project MARE - Managing Adaptive Responses to Changing flood risk in the North Sea region. Target Prepare sustainable new approaches to handling flood risk and mitigation measures. Description International project concerning, inter alia, the risk of flooding. The starting point for the project is climate change, urbanisation and other factors that give increased danger of flooding. This international project is supported by Interreg IVB and by partners in Dordrecht (Holland), Sheffield (England) and Hannover (Germany). A supranational approach will be worked out for managing waterways, which takes local precautions against flooding based on the requirements of the EU Floods Directive. A part of the project will look at communicating risks, addressing how to communicate about the risk of flooding and emergency preparedness arrangements for those who will be exposed. Responsible Climate Section
Project Regional Climate Panel Target Draws together regional challenges and registers them so that the municipalities can determine courses of action during their work. Description The Regional Climate Panel has representatives from Bergen Municipality, the Regional Council and Business Region Bergen. The Climate Panel will take up the following topics: • Regional climate work, transport system etc. • Each municipality must develop its own climate plans, and then the climate work should be coordinated in the regions. • Climate challenges give the potential for new business development. How can the most sustainable development of the regions be implemented?
Responsible • Climate Section
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Project RVA in the land use section of the Municipal Plan. Review/revision Target Prepare a consequence analysis of selected events and propose measures for being able to adapt to undesirable incidents. Description The project is closely linked to NORADAPT, which is described above.
Bergen Municipality has carried out a RVA as part of the land use part of the Municipal Plan. The survey is an outline analysis of incidents. In addition, recording has been carried out and themed reports have been prepared in particular areas:
• Avalanche/landslide report phase 1, outline mapping of exposed areas • Avalanche/landslide report phase 2, detailed mapping of the danger of avalanches/landslides • Wind Report; a survey of extreme wind conditions in Bergen Municipality • Flooding Report; generation of isopleths for flood water levels in Bergen Municipality • Precipitation Report; a themed map of precipitation • Water Level; an assessment of extreme precipitation, water level and wave height along the shore line.
The challenge the project now faces is to use the reports that have been developed to enable description of the consequences and propose measures so that the Municipality can adapt to undesirable incidents. Responsible Agency for Planning and Geodata
Project Geographic Information System (GIS) –Monitoring/further development of readiness map/climate vulnerability Target Further develop GIS as a tool for use when planning how to adapt to undesirable incidents. Description Bergen Municipality has developed a GIS tool that is used during planning. The project will further develop and improve this tool. Responsible Agency for Planning and Geodata
8.4 Further work on climate adaptation and land use planning
The challenges in the further work on climate adaptation and land use planning are: • To integrate knowledge about climate change in community planning, taking into account new knowledge that has emerged through ongoing projects, completed reports and RVAs. • The new Planning and Building Act that came into force on 1 July 2009 sets out requirements in Section 4-3 (Community Safety and Risk and Vulnerability Analyses) for RVAs to be carried out during land use planning. The requirement applies both to the land use part of the Municipal Plan, development plans and built-up area plans. In these analyses, trends and estimates of the development of climate change have to be taken into account. The RVAs must not be based on statistics and historical data alone. Trends will be important inputs in the analyses. • Integrate mapped information about climate change into the Municipality’s land use map.
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• Areas that are already built up may in future be exposed to dangers that were impossible to foresee previously. Such areas will need to be surveyed and secured, a process that may apply to both residential areas and infrastructure.
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9 Summary and further work
9.1 Ambitious targets require powerful measures Norway’s emissions of greenhouse gases increased by almost 11 percent from 1990 to 2007. In Bergen the emissions increased by 17 percent in the same period. The national targets are to have 30 percent lower emissions in 2020 than in 1990 and Norway is to be climate neutral in 2030. Bergen Municipality’s target is a 50% reduction in emissions in 2030 in compared with the 1991 figures. To reach the targets, measures need to be implemented at all administrative levels. The Climate and Energy Action Plan focuses on measures over which local authorities have influence. In reviewing the measures, basic assumptions are that climate effects are given high priority in local policy and that comprehensive measures are necessary in all sectors.
9.2 Projection of the basic forecast - baseline scenario without measures
In the period from 1991 to 2007 the total annual greenhouse gas emissions in Bergen increased from 645,400 tonnes to 755,900 tonnes of CO 2 equivalents. Process emissions, including emissions from waste disposal sites, went down by 45 percent in this period, while emissions from stationary energy use increased by just over 6 percent. Emissions from mobile sources, mainly road transport, have increased sharply by nearly 50% and now account for 68 percent of Bergen’s total greenhouse gas emissions. The greatest challenges are therefore to reduce emissions from mobile sources. Figure 9.1 shows the historical growth in greenhouse gas emissions and projections with and without measures. Without measures an increase in mobile and stationary emissions is anticipated because of population growth, increased income levels and increased energy use. A reduction in emissions from waste disposal sites is expected, due to measures already started and reduced methane emissions from closed landfill sites.
The total emissions level is expected to be about 916,000 tonnes of CO 2 equivalents in 2030 if no measures are initiated and there are no reductions in the form of technology developments. This is 42 percent higher than the emissions in 1991.
9.3 Effect of the packages of measures It is technologically possible to replace present stationary energy sources with renewable energy sources (conversion). At the same time there is potential for energy efficiency improvements in the existing building stock, which may compensate for the increase in consumption because of population growth and increased electricity use for heat pumps. The package of measures that is presented for stationary energy results in nil emissions from fossil fuels for stationary purposes in 2030. Extra measures in waste and consumption should lead to a further reduction in emissions up to 2030. The greatest effects are linked to measures for controlling landfill gas and exploiting it in Rådalen, increased incineration capacity (which gives less reserve waste disposal), better/increased recycling of plastics and a biogas plant for wet organic household waste.
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Total greenhouse gas emissions ['000s tonnes CO 2 equ]
Totale klimagassutslipp [1000 tonn CO2-ekv.] Baseline scenario: emissions without 1000 measures or technological gains Baseline scenario: emissions without measures 900 or technological gains 800
700 Prognoses with all measures, energy efficiency 600 improvements and technology development 500
400
300 Target: 50% reduction from 1991 200
100
0 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Figure 9.1 Historical development and extrapolation of greenhouse gas emissions excluding measures and including measures and development trends stated in the action plan.
The greatest challenge to Bergen reaching its climate targets is to turn the rising trend for emissions from mobile sources into a significant reduction. The review of policy instruments and effects shows that approximately nil growth in mobile emissions from 2007 may be achieved using local measures. The big gains are however dependent on the achievement of national and international targets for reduced emissions from vehicles. This also involves a comprehensive transition to emission-neutral vehicles such as electric and hybrid vehicles, and a gradual transfer to climate neutral fuels in the form of biologically based fuels and hydrogen as well.
This is necessary if a 50 percent reduction from the emissions level for mobile sources in 1991 is to be reached in 2030. The strong development trends associated with technology development and the entry of new vehicle technology into the marketplace can only be influenced by local authorities to a small extent. Use of environmentally friendly vehicles in the public sector, both in its own vehicle population and those of suppliers, plus arranging the infrastructure for rechargeable vehicles, will contribute to easier phasing-in of such vehicles in Bergen.
Electrification of the car population will increase the need for electricity. However, the increase is not large in comparison with the totality of electricity consumption. With the magnitude assumed in this plan, the demand in 2020 will equate to around three percent of current electricity consumption in Bergen and about six percent in 2030
9.3.1 Overall achievement of targets If all suggested measures are carried out as planned and the assumed technological development in the transport sector takes place, greenhouse gas emissions in Bergen in 2030 can be reduced by a total of 72 percent compared with 1991. In that case, the target will have been exceeded by 50 percent. However, it must be stressed that it presupposes comprehensive measures and some optimistic assumptions about technology and climate-neutral fuel. With a somewhat lower proportion of rechargeable
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vehicles, more moderate technological development and continuance of some stationary emissions, the 50 percent reduction by 2030 will still be an ambitious target.
9.3.2 Climate-neutral Bergen?
Table 9.1 . Development in greenhouse gas emissions in Bergen, baseline scenario and with measures up to 2014, 2020 og 2030 ’000s tonnes Change from 2007 Change from 1991 2014 2020 2030 2014 2020 2030 2014 2020 2030 Baseline scenario without measures and energy efficiency improvments - Mobile emissions 552 585 633 8 % 14 % 23 % 60 % 70 % 84 % - Stationary emissions 176 189 213 9 % 17 % 32 % 16 % 24 % 40 % - Process emissions 91 79 70 - 17 % - 28 % - 36 % - 39 % - 47 % - 53 % Total emissions 819 853 916 5 % 9 % 17 % 27 % 32 % 42 % Emissions with measures and energy efficiency improvements - Mobile emissions 445 340 173 - 13 % - 34 % - 66 % 29 % - 1 % - 50 % - 100 - 100 - Stationary emissions 110 54 0 - 32 % - 67 % - 28 % - 64 % % % - Process emissions 9 5 7 - 92 % - 95 % - 94 % - 94 % - 97 % - 95 % Total emissions 564 399 180 - 28 % - 49 % - 77 % - 13 % - 38 % - 72 %
As shown earlier, technical possibilities exist within stationary energy use for removing almost all stationary emissions of greenhouse gases. The review of mobile emissions shows that climate considerations in land use and transport policy must have top priority, along with a comprehensive phasing-in of more climate-friendly vehicles, in order to reach the targets that have been set. This must be reinforced further if Bergen is to be climate-neutral. A completely climate-neutral transport sector can be achieved through fossil fuels giving way to electricity and biofuels and, over time, hydrogen as well. This depends on developments in the production and price of biofuels and hydrogen. As there is significant traffic across the municipal boundaries, corresponding development must take place within Bergen’s daily commuting catchment area and nationally. Within process emissions, reductions of over 90 percent can be achieved. Some residual emissions will remain; primarily a residue of landfill gas emissions that experience has shown cannot be captured. This covers the direct emissions in Bergen. On the other hand, if the total of direct and indirect emission reductions is examined, these may be greater than shown in the statistics as emissions. The reason is that existing statistics do not capture resources that are saved nationally and internationally in new production, transport etc, when measures leading to waste minimisation are implemented (less consumption, less production and less waste). A climate-neutral municipality in 2030 is probably not achievable and some emissions will occur in any case in Bergen as well. Underlying the target for a climate-neutral Norway in 2030 is continued purchase of greenhouse gas emissions allowances (climate credits) and various measures abroad within the regulatory framework provided through the Kyoto Protocol. If Bergen is to be climate-neutral both an ambitious local climate policy and measures that include purchasing climate credits, for example, will be necessary.
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9.3.3 Adaptation to climate change As well as measures to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases it is important to prevent undesirable incidents resulting from climate change. However, it is uncertain what consequences climate change will have for Bergen. Development in the form of, inter alia, land use planning and various preparatory and preventative measures will also have an influence on how climate change affects us. Bergen Municipality has taken on the role of being an important driving force in the work of preventing, and adapting to, the effects of climate change. This applies both through land use planning, where the Municipality has a special responsibility, and through various measures intended to make the community more robust in the face of more extreme weather situations.
9.4 The way ahead
Clear division of responsibilities and active involvement Energy and greenhouse gas emissions are cross-sector themes involving many participants, where climate objectives partly coincide with, and in part stand in opposition to, targets for other communal spheres. To achieve results from this Action Plan it is important that the agencies and organisations involved take responsibility for, and ownership of, the various measures and that the climate effect becomes the main theme of activities and measures at all levels. Some of the proposed measures that have the greatest energy and climate effects will require long-term planning.
Annual audit and monitoring The plan requires monitoring. Therefore an annual audit of the Action Plan is proposed, where the status of emissions and the packages of measures are monitored. Monitoring and necessary revisions need to have firm foundations among those responsible for the measures. In addition to annual reporting to political superiors, it may be useful to establish specialist groups that correspond with the procedural methodology of this plan. The organisation of these groups and their mandates need clarification and the groups should consist of central specialist agencies with participation by partner organisations and business and commerce. “Sustainability Management in the Municipal Sector”, where Bergen Municipality is the pilot, is a systems solution for supporting the municipalities’ work on climate among other things. An important purpose of this systems solution is that plans and measures implemented are documented, and the effects of the various measures are analysed. This applies, inter alia, to climate accounting being used to document the status of, and changes to, the Municipality's contribution to the national consolidated climate accounts. It may be crucial to have this in place if, for example, the introduction of further incentive mechanisms for municipalities in connection with emission reductions is considered.
Monitor development trends There are really no statistics for municipal emissions of greenhouse gases. The figures published by Statistics Norway are calculations based on a range of data sources, partly municipal figures and partly statistics at a regional and national level broken down to municipal level. This means that some local circumstances and municipality-specific variations are not captured. Therefore it is necessary to develop a set of local indicators to monitor development closely. Work on this is in progress in Bergen Municipality, through the project “Sustainability Management in the Municipal Sector”.
Implementation requires resources The direct budget costs of climate measures vary widely. Moreover it is not correct to allocate all the costs of a measure to “climate policy” when the justification is also associated with other needs. This applies to a great extent within land use and transport policy where climate considerations coincide with targets for better local environmental
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conditions and efficient transport development. Even if there are objectives that coincide and the costs cannot be linked exclusively to climate considerations, an ambitious climate policy must be followed up by freeing-up budgets and by administrative resources being provided to enable the measures to be implemented and monitored. Use of national subsidy schemes such as Enova and Transnova, among others, will be important resources for implementing local measures.
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10 References
Chapter 2 [1] Statistics Norway, www.ssb.no [2] Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research Oslo (CICERO) www.cicero.uio.no [3] Klimaendringer (’Climate Change’), www.miljolare.no [4] Statens forurensningstilsyn (SFT) (‘Climate and Pollution Agency’), www.sft.no [5] Miljøverndepartementet og Statens Forurensningstilsyn (‘Ministry of the Environment and the Climate and Pollution Agency’), www.miljostatus.no [6] CICERO, 2005. ” Betydningen av kommunal klimapolitikk. Virkemidler, potensial og barrierer ” (‘The Importance of Municipal Climate Policy. Policy instruments, potential and obstacles’). Chapter 3 [1] Vest norsk Enøk på oppdrag for BKK Nett AS (’Western Norwegian Energy Efficiency on assignment for BKK Nett AS’): ” Lokale energiutredning Bergen kommune - rullering 2007” (’Local Energy Report Bergen Municipality – Update 2007’) LEU-2007 [2] Statistics Norway, www.ssb.no [3] Statens forurensningstilsyn (SFT) (‘Climate and Pollution Agency’), www.sft.no Chapter 5 [1] Bergen Municipality, Hordaland County Authority, Norwegian Public Roads Administration 2008: ” Samferdselsdata for Bergen 2007” (‘Transport and Communications Data for Bergen 2007’) . Specialist coordination group for the Bergen Programme. Bergen 16 June 2008. [2] Consultancy ‘Norconsult’ March 2009: ” Reviderte grunnprognoser for persontransport NTP 2010-2019 ” (’Revised Basic Forecasts for Passenger Transport NTP 2010-2019’) [3] Ministry of Transport and Communications 2009: Report to the Storting No 16 (2008-2009): ” Nasjonal transportplan 2010-2019” (‘National Transport Plan 2010- 2019’). [4] Norwegian Public Roads Administration, Eastern Region, December 2008: ”Reduksjon av transportomfang og klimagassutslipp. Forslag til strategi til handlingsprogram 2010 -19 ”(’Reduction of Transport Volume and Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Proposal for a Strategy for an Action Programme 2010-19’). . [5] Bergen Municipality, September 2008: ” Framtidens byer. Strategier og handlingsprogram ”. (‘Cities of the Future. Strategies and Action Programme’) [6] Norconsult. Future Light Railway Network in Bergen. Work in progress, for publication in the autumn of 2009. [7] Institute of Transport Economics Report 109/2009: ” Kollektivtransport–innspill til et satsingsområde i Bystrategi Region Sør .” (’Public Transport – Proposal for a Priority Area in City Strategy Region South’) . [8] Public transport market research consultancy ’Urbanet Analyse’ 2007: ”Kollektivtransport, utfordringer, muligheter og løsninger for byområder.” (’Public Transport, Challenges, Opportunities and Solutions for City Districts’). [9 ] Institute of Transport Economics Report 393/1998: ”Hva Forsøksordningen har lært oss. Hovedkonklusjoner fra forsøk med kollektivtransport 1991-95” (’What the Trial Scheme has taught us. Main Conclusions from Public Transport Trials 1991-95’).
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[10] Samferdslesdepartementet: Belønningsordningen for bedre kollektivtransport og mindre bilbruk i byområdene. (’ Ministry of Transport and Communications: Reward Scheme for Better Public Transport and Reduced use of Cars in Urban Areas.’) www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/sd/tema/kollektivtransport/belonningsordningen.html?i d=426204 [11] Urbanet Analyse and Norconsult 2007: ”Evaluering av belønningsordningen for bedre kollektivtransport og mindre bilbruk” (’Evaluation of the Reward Scheme for Better Public Transport and Reduced use of Cars’). [12] Travelling Habits Survey for Bergen 2008, being published spring 2009. [13] Institute of Transport Economics Report 895/2007: ”Køprising i Bergen og Trondheim – et alternativ på 20 års sikt?” (’Congestion Charging in Bergen and Trondheim – an Alternative looking 20 Years Ahead?’) [14] Miljöavgiftskansliet, Stockholms Stad (Stockholm City Environmental Tax Office): ”Fakta och resultat från Stockholmsförsöket – Andra versionen” . (‘Facts and Results from the Stockholm Experiment – Version 2’) August 2006 [15] Norconsult 2006: ” Innfartsparkering i Bergensområdet. Kartlegging av behov og strategier for utvikling av innfartsparkeringsplasser for bil og sykkel ”. (‘Park and Ride in the Bergen Region. Survey of Demand and Strategies for developing Park and Ride Spaces for Cars and Cycles') . [15] Urbanet Analyse and Norconsult. Congestion Charging in Bergen. Work in progress, will be published in the autumn of 2009. [16] Bergen Municipality, Hordaland County Authority, Norwegian Public Roads Administration Western Region: ” Transportanalysen for Bergensområdet 2010- 2030 ” (‘Transport Analysis for the Bergen Area 2010-2030’) [17 ] Institute of Transport Economics Working Document PT/1859/2006: ”Effekter av virkemiddelbruk. Innspill til transportanalysen for Bergensområdet” (‘Effects of using Policy Instruments. Contribution to Transport Analysis for the Bergen Region'). 11.8.2006 [18] Oslo Municipality www.trafikketaten.oslo.kommune.no/miljo/politivedtekt_for_oslo/miljopolitikk/articl e118245-32518.html [19] Ecodriving Finland, 2006: http://www.ecodriving.com/nor/ecodriving.html [20] EU, 2008: European Parliament legislative resolution of 17 December 2008 on the proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council setting emission performance standards for new passenger cars as part of the
Community's integrated approach to reduce CO 2-emissions from light-duty vehicles P6_TA-PROV(2008)0614 [21] ”Handlingsplan for elektrifisering av veitransport ”. (’Action plan for Electrification of Road Transport’). Report from a resource group established by the Ministry of Transport and Communications. May 2009. [22] Ministry of the Environment 2006: “NOU 2006. Et klimavennlig Norge” (Official Norwegian Report 2006: 18. A Climate-friendly Norway’). [23] Statens forurensningstilsyn (SFT) (‘Climate and Pollution Agency’), www.sft.no [24] Forskningsrådets program (‘Reasearch Council Programme’) RENERGI. www.forskningsradet.no/renergi [25] Transnova: www.transnova.no [26] Avinor, airlines SAS Norge, Widerøe and Norwegian and the Confederation of Norwegian Enterprise: ” Bærekraftig og samfunnsnyttig Luftfart ”, (’Sustainable and Publicly Useful Air Transport’) January 2008. [27] Western Norwegian Planning Group (1994): ” Byutviklingens transportvirkninger. En studie av transporteffekter, energibruk og utslipp til luft ved alternative
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byutviklingsstrategier i Bergen ” (’The Impact of Transport on Urban Development. A Study of the Transport Effects, Energy Use and Emissions into the Air arising from Alternative Urban Development Strategies in Bergen’) [28] Petter Næss (1997): ” Fysisk planlegging og energibruk ”. (‘Physical Planning and Energy Use’) . Tano – Aschehoug [29] Avinor: www.avinor.no/avinor/trafikk/10_Trafikkstatistikk [30] Statistics Norway: http://statbank.ssb.no/statistikkbanken/ [31] Bergen Municipality, Hordaland County Authority, Norwegian Public Roads Administration ” Sykkelstrategi for Bergen 2010-2019” . (‘Cycle Strategy for Bergen 2010-2019’). Bergensprogrammet (’The Bergen Programme’). Bergen 2009 [32] Bergen Municipality, Hordaland County Authority, Norwegian Public Roads Administration ” Fram Bergen. Dokumentasjonsrapport” (‘ Bergen Forward. Documentation Report ’). Bergensprogrammet (’The Bergen Programme’). Bergen 4 March 2008.
Chapter 6 [1] Vest norsk Enøk på oppdrag for BKK Nett AS 2007 (’Western Norwegian Energy Efficiency on assignment for BKK Nett AS 2007’): ”Lokale energiutredning Bergen kommune - rullering 2007 (’Local Energy Report Bergen Municipality – Update 2007’) LEU-2007 [2] Statistics Norway, www.ssb.no [3] Statens forurensningstilsyn (SFT) (‘Climate and Pollution Agency’), www.sft.no
Chapter 7 [1] Statistics Norway, www.ssb.no [2] Framtidens byer: Forbruksmønster og avfall – Handlingsplan (‘Cities of the Future: Consumption Pattern and Waste – Action Plan’) [3] Cowi/ BIR: BIRs avfallsplan 2004-2008 (‘BIR’s Waste Disposal Plan 2004-2008’) [4] BIR - Presentasjon: Foreløpige konklusjoner for avfallsplan 2009-2013 (’BIR Presentation: Interim Conclusions of the Waste Disposal Plan 2009-2013’) [5] Research foundation Østfoldsforskning: ”Klimaregnskap ved avfallshåndtering. Avfall Norge ” (‘Climate Accounting for Waste Handling. Waste Management Norway’) . Report 2009 [6] Bergen Municipality - Agency for Landscape Design and Agriculture: Totalrådgivning av etterdrift av Rådal avfallsdeponi (’Total Consultancy re Post- Closure Operation of Rådal Landfill Site’)
Chapter 8 [1] Klimakommune.no – Tilpasningsstrategier,(’Adaptation Strategies’) www.klimakommune.no/tilpasningsstrategier/ [2] Klimatilpasning Norge – Hordaland (‘Adaptation to Climate Change Norway - Hordaland’) www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/md/kampanjer/klimatilpasning- norge/fylker-2/hordaland.html?id=540017
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Enclosure 1. Organisation of the work
Various specialist groups have worked on the Climate and Energy Action Plan during the winter of 2009 and spring of 2010. Composition of the work groups: Specialist group mobile energy consumption: • Bergen Municipality – Department of Urban Development, Climate and the Environment, Ane Margrethe Lyng • Bergen Municipality – Department of Urban Development, Climate and the Environment, Per Vikse • Bergen Municipality – Department of Urban Development, Climate and the Environment, Nils Høysæter • Bergen Municipality - Agency for Planning and Geodata, Ida Hermansen • Bergen Municipality – Agency for Road and Transport, Kirsten Lysen • Norwegian Public Roads Administration - Western Region, Sindre Lillebø • Hordaland County Authority - Transport and Communicatons Department, Nils Egil Grude • Friends of the Earth Norway, Erik Natvig • NHH, Gunnar Eskeland • BKK AS, Veronica S. Kvinge • County Governor in Hordaland – Environmental Protection Department, Torgeir Flo • Norconsult, Hans Petter Duun
Specialist group stationary energy consumption: • Bergen Municipality – Department of Urban Development, Climate and the Environment, Ane Margrethe Lyng • Bergen Municipality - Agency for Planning and Geodata, Bente Florelius • BKK-Varme, Øystein Haaland • Bergen Tomteselskap (Land Developer), Per Aas Moen • Bergen Municipal Buildings Agency, Sølvi Ringås • Bergen Municipality – Municipal Undertaking for Housing and Redevelopment, Harald O. Holmås • The Housing Bank, Steinar Anda • Bergen University College, Magnar Berge • Friends of the Earth Norway, Silje Østerbø • Hordaland County Authority, Eivind Moe • County Governor in Hordaland – Environmental Protection Department, Ingrid Torsnes • County Governor in Hordaland – Agriculture Department, Arne Rikard Stadaas • Bergen Municipality - Agency for Landscape Design and Agriculture, Rune Mikkelsen • Norconsult, Tor Mjøs
Specialist group waste and consumption: • Bergen Municipality – Department of Urban Development, Climate and the Environment, Ane Margrethe Lyng • Bergen Municipality – Department of Urban Development, Climate and the Environment, Håvard Bjordal • Bergen Municipality – Department of Urban Development, Climate and the Environment, Stig Bang-Andersen • Bergen Municipality - Agency for Landscape Design and Agriculture, Rune Mikkelsen and Fritz Haffner • County Governor in Hordaland – Agriculture Department, Arne R. Stadaas
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• BIR, Bente Daazenko • BIR, Camilla Tangenes • Friends of the Earth Norway, Nils Tore Skogland • Port of Bergen, Stein Garmannslund • UN Association Norway, Jonas Kjærvik • Bjørgvin Bispedømme (Bergen Diocese), Lars Ove Kvalbein • Norconsult, Jens Erling Frøiland Jensen
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Enclosure 2. Options for better control and exploitation of landfill gas
Conditions and prospects at the Rådalen landfill site The survey concluded that there are four potential volumes of gas extraction according to whether a High or Low scenario is applied, and whether these are then adjusted by applying a 50% reduction in extraction because of water-filled landfill volumes:
Figure V2-1 Landfill gas estimates in the survey carried out There are several problem areas with present and past gas extraction: • There is a lot of water in the landfills, which causes gas generation to be significantly delayed (but not stopped) in the water-saturated zones. Little has been done by way of repairs. • The extraction plant with 94 vertical wells that was established in the period 1988- 1997 is very vulnerable to settlement and other operational problems, which have only been partially repaired. • Parts of the landfill (subareas) have no gas extraction at all. • The plant is not of modern design with automatic regulation, control and logging. • During some periods the plant has been run primarily to drive an electric generator of approximately 1.5 MW, which has been too large for the actual gas extraction most of the time.
Supplementary estimates have been made of the following: • Future total emissions without gas extraction and flaring or energy utilisation based on Statistics Norway’s and SFT’s public estimation model and a test with a simplified model using Norconsult's empirical data. • Estimated possible extraction in an upgraded and expanded extraction plant based on Norconsult’s empirical data from a range of extraction plants.
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In the figure below, the results of these are shown together with registered extraction data and estimates of potential extraction from the survey.
Figure V2-2 Estimate of total landfill gas volumes generated and extractable As shown, significantly less gas has been taken out than the optimised extraction indicates. The figure also shows that very significant emissions will continue to be released for many years to come. The fact that the landfill is partially filled with water means in the first instance that the potential emissions are staggered in time, not that they have disappeared. It is therefore very pertinent to implement measures to upgrade the plant and improve the condition of the landfill. Relevant measures are: • Draining the water in the landfill • Inspection of the surface pipework and repair of blocked pipes and wellheads • Establishment of new wells in the present extraction areas and in new subareas (perhaps after trial pumping) • Upgrading/modernisation of the two processing plants
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