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SFU Thesis Template Files Permeability Heterogeneity in Bioturbated Strata, Cardium Formation, Pembina Field, and the Identification of Potential Waterflood Opportunities by Oliver J. Friesen B.Sc. (Hons.) University of British Columbia 2013 Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in the Department of Earth Sciences Faculty of Science Oliver J. Friesen 2015 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Summer 2015 Approval Name: Oliver J. Friesen Degree: Master of Science (Earth Sciences) Title: Permeability Heterogeneity in Bioturbated Strata, Cardium Formation, Pembina Field, and the Identification of Potential Waterflood Opportunities Examining Committee: Chair: Dr. Dirk Kirste, Associate Professor Dr. Shahin Dashtgard Senior Supervisor Associate Professor Dr. James A. MacEachern Supervisor Professor Dr. Dale Leckie External Examiner Adjunct Professor Department of Geoscience University of Calgary Date Defended/Approved: July 23, 2015 ii Abstract Bioturbated sediments representing distal expressions of paralic depositional environments are increasingly being exploited for hydrocarbons in the super-giant Pembina Field (Cardium Formation), Alberta, Canada. These strata were previously considered unproductive due to limited vertical and horizontal connectivity between permeable beds. In these “tight oil” plays (0.1 – 10 md), pressure decay profile permeametry data indicate that sand-filled burrows provide vertical permeable pathways between bioturbated and parallel laminated sandstone beds in the central, north-east and north-west parts of the field. This relationship enables the economic exploitation of hydrocarbons via horizontal drilling and multi-stage hydraulic fracturing. As the exploitation of bioturbated strata progresses in the Pembina Field, additional primary targets are being sought out, and horizontal waterflooding is being considered in areas where current horizontal wells exist. Proximal to historical produced conventional targets, reservoir analyses indicate that areas where the bioturbated facies average permeability lies between 0.35 mD and 0.85 mD and sandstone isopach thicknesses are between 0.25 m and 2.5 m should be targeted in east-central Pembina. iii Acknowledgements Firstly I would like to thank Dr. Shahin Dashtgard for allowing me to take on this project and for his guidance and mentorship throughout the entire process. I would also like to extend a sincere thank you to Dr. James MacEachern for also providing me with mentorship and feedback throughout the process. Many thanks to my fellow SFU colleagues, and specifically those in the ARISE group including Andrew LaCroix, Korhan Aryanci, Kristyn Smith, Sean Borchert, Amy Hsieh, and Macy Jones who all helped me along during the process. I would also like to thank all of those at ARC Resources Ltd. who allowed me to undertake this project, and provided me with feedback and invaluable mentorship during this process. Finally I would like to thank the SFU Earth Sciences department support staff including Matt Plotnikoff, Rodney Arnold, Glenda Pauls and Tarja Vaisanen who were always available to help when I needed it. iv Table of Contents Approval .......................................................................................................................... ii Abstract .......................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ iv Table of Contents ............................................................................................................ v List of Tables ................................................................................................................. vii List of Figures................................................................................................................ viii Chapter 1. Introduction ............................................................................................. 1 1.1. Research Objectives .............................................................................................. 2 1.2. Methods ................................................................................................................. 3 1.3. Study Area .............................................................................................................. 5 1.4. Cardium Stratigraphy .............................................................................................. 7 1.5. History of Ideas..................................................................................................... 15 1.5.1. Turbidity and Storm Rip-Currents ............................................................ 15 1.5.2. Offshore Terrace Bars ............................................................................. 16 1.5.3. Stranded Shoreface Deposits .................................................................. 16 Chapter 2. ...................................................................................................................18 2.1. Facies Descriptions .............................................................................................. 18 2.1.1. Facies 1 (F1): Silty mudstone to shale with very fine-grained sand laminae .................................................................................................... 20 2.1.2. Facies 2 (F2): Bioturbated sandy mudstone to muddy sandstone with thin sandstone beds ......................................................................... 22 2.1.3. Facies 3 (F3): Massive to bioturbated sandstone with thin mudstone and siltstone beds ................................................................... 29 2.1.4. Facies 4 (F4): Unbioturbated, massive- to hummocky cross- stratified sandstone ................................................................................. 32 2.1.5. Facies 5 (F5): Clast- and matrix-supported conglomerate ....................... 35 2.2. Facies Associations .............................................................................................. 38 2.2.1. Facies Association One (FA1): Sandying-upwards shelf/ramp to upper delta front (middle shoreface equivalent) deposits ......................... 38 2.2.2. Facies Association Two (FA2): Conglomeratic Transgressive Deposits .................................................................................................. 39 2.3. Cardium Type Logs .............................................................................................. 39 Chapter 3. Permeability Heterogeneity in Bioturbated Strata, Cardium Formation, Pembina Field, and the Identification of Potential Waterflood Opportunities1 .................................................................... 43 3.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................... 43 3.1.1. Stratigraphy and Paleogeography ........................................................... 44 3.1.2. Study Area and Pembina Development History ....................................... 47 3.2. Methods ............................................................................................................... 49 3.2.1. Pressure Decay Profile Permeameter (PDPK) Analyses ......................... 50 v 3.2.2. Permeability Calculations ........................................................................ 50 3.2.3. Contouring (using Golden Software Surfer®) ........................................... 52 3.3. Results ................................................................................................................. 52 3.3.1. Facies ...................................................................................................... 52 3.3.2. Facies Association One (FA1): Sandying upwards shelf/ramp to upper delta front (middle shoreface equivalent) deposits ......................... 57 3.3.3. Facies Association Two (FA2): Transgressive Conglomerate Deposits .................................................................................................. 57 3.3.4. PDPK ...................................................................................................... 60 3.3.5. Reservoir Characterization ...................................................................... 62 3.3.6. Mapping .................................................................................................. 63 3.4. Reservoir Controls on Production ......................................................................... 69 3.4.1. PDPK ...................................................................................................... 69 3.4.2. Sandstone Isopach .................................................................................. 69 3.4.3. Bioturbated Facies Kgeometric ..................................................................... 70 3.5. Waterflooding and future exploitation potential in east-central Pembina ............... 73 3.6. Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 76 Chapter 4. Conclusions ........................................................................................... 77 4.1. References ........................................................................................................... 80 Appendices ...................................................................................................................88 Appendix
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