Santalka: Filologija, Edukologija / Coactivity: Philology, Educology 2016, 24(2): 113–121 ISSN 2351-714X / eISSN 2335-7711 DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.3846/cpe.2016.299

PROBLEMS IN TRANSLATING THE NAMES OF BREEDS FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF DIFFERENT NOMINATION PRINCIPLES AND LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY

Jelena SUCHANOVA¹, Ramunė Eugenija TOVSTUCHA²

Mykolas Romeris University, Ateities g. 20, LT-08303 Vilnius, Lithuania E-mails: ¹[email protected]; ²[email protected]

Received 4 October 2016; accepted 27 February 2017

The paper analyses selected terms from the perspective of linguistic relativity. It examines how the speakers of English, Lithuanian, and Russian perceive similar phenomena, how this specific perception is reflected in the linguistic nomination, and what difficulties this difference may cause for a translator. The analysis has demonstrated that some dog breeds are grouped differently in given languages, which presents certain problems of translation. The translator must possess considerable knowledge of cynology vocabulary or seek for a professional advice in order to produce a correct translation of dog breeds from English into Lithuanian and Russian, and vice versa.

Keywords: theory of language relativity, translation difficulties, cynology, nomination principle, breed na- mes borrowings, nomination method, names.

Introduction may cause for a translator. The key nomination The problem discussed in this paper is the dif- principle of English words discussed within ferences of nomination principles in English, the scope of this paper is compounding, as Lithuanian and Russian and the way in which compounds illustrate the principles of linguis- these differences affect the process of transla- tic relativity and its reflection in the process of tion of selected terms. In the course of this nomination at its best. The aim is to determine paper, the nomination is examined from the the pattern used in the process of nomination perspective of linguistic relativity. Namely, it of certain compound terms of selected fields, is examined by which means the speakers of namely cynology, and to observe the difficulties English, Lithuanian, and Russian perceive si- of translation of selected compounds condi- milar phenomena, through what this specific tioned by the different nomination principles perception is reflected in the linguistic nomina- in English, Lithuanian, and Russian. The objec- tion, and what kind of difficulties this difference tives are: 1) to select English compound terms

Copyright © 2016 The Authors. Published by VGTU Press. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 ­(CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. The material cannot be used for commercial purposes. 113 114 Jelena Suchanova, Ramunė Eugenija Tovstucha Problems in translating the names of dog breeds... referring to different dog breeds and types from the American researchers Franz Boas, Edward various sources and to provide their translations Sapir and most significantly by Benjamin Lee into Lithuanian and Russian; 2) to determine Whorf (Marina 2003) and known as “Sapir- the principle of nomination for each compound Whorf hypothesis.” Stuart Chase, in his fore- or for the group of compounds through the word to Whorf’s “Language, thought, and prism of linguistic relativity and the differ- reality” summarizes the theory of the latter as ences or the similarities of nomination in the follows: “Speakers of different languages see given languages; 3) to determine the existing the Cosmos differently, evaluate it differently, or potential difficulties of translation caused by sometimes not by much, sometimes widely. different nomination principles. Thinking is relative to the language learned” The analysis consists of two parts. The first (Whorf 1959). According to Valerija Marina, part presents the overview of a theoretical “linguistic relativity is a complicated multilevel basis and the scope of the analysis, including and multidimensional phenomenon referring the main theories used as the background for to the relations between language, thought, research and the overview of the problem of a experience (reality) and culture” (Marina 2008). multilingual terminology of selected fields. The In her study on the linguistic relativity, Marina second part covers the analysis of the cynolo- notes that “at the level of the picture of the gical terms, namely the names of dog breeds world described by individual languages relativ- and varieties. ity implies that every language presents its own picture different in many ways from the others. This in turn results from various handling of the Theoretical basis and the scope of the same “pieces of reality” by different languages” analysis (Marina 2008), and cites Boas who has analyzed many examples in order to demonstrate “how a Concepts of nomination and linguistic relativity given experience would be differently rendered According to Czech linguist František Čermak, in various languages or how a set of experiences the language nomination can “broadly mean a would be differently grouped (classified) by dif- language name (form) for an item of extralin- ferent languages” (Boas 1966: 146–147). guistic reality or mental content”, and draws This paper presents an attempt to analyze “either on morphemes […] and their combi- the key points determining the nomination nations or words and their combinations (in principles in the selected English, Lithuanian most languages)” (Čermák 2002). Lithuanian and Russian terms within the framework of author Rūta Žukaitė mentions the tendency of above mentioned theory, presuming that the a language nomination based on a word forma- choice of different constituents as parts of given tion to employ a certain trait (not necessarily terms is based on the different worldview of the the most important one) of a particular object speakers of each language which enables them of reality as a basis for a newly formed de- to give preference to different traits of an object nomination. She also notes that the reality can of reality during the process of nomination. be perceived slightly differently depending on In order to provide concrete analysis of various factors, and it can influence the nomi- selected terms, the scope of the research of the nation itself – the principle of nomination of the differences in nomination has been narrowed same object of reality in different languages can to the names of some dog breeds. Although this differ or match, and the more traits the object field – the terminology of cynology – is not con- possesses, the more variations in nomination sidered highly important in comparison to, for can be found (Žukaitė 1980). example, legal or medical terminology, there is The latter conclusion goes in line with the still a demand for a clear, fixed, stable multilin- theory of linguistic relativity formulated by gual nomenclature. Recently both hunting and Coactivity: Philology, Educology 2016, 24(2): 113–121 115 cynology have turned into widespread leisure (The Free Dictionary 2016), “a dog of any activities in both Lithuania and Russia, not of numerous hunting breeds including both to mention English-speaking countries where scent (as the and bea- these hobbies are well-known for centuries. gle) and sight hounds (as the and Both professional and amateur cynology deve- Afghan )” (Merriam-Webster English lop rapidly as well, which includes the need for Dictionary 2016), as well as simply “a dog” (The strict breed nomenclature of cynological book Free Dictionary 2016). According to English publishers, dog-related commercials, kennel Etymology Dictionary (2016), the meaning of clubs, organisations, et cetera. Unfortunately, Old English word hund (originally a dog) had neither bilingual nor multilingual official dic- narrowed to a dog used for hunting in circa 12th tionaries on cynology have been issued up to century AD. Despite the narrowed use, the term this day, and the only multilingual dictionary of hound in the English language still can be attrib- hunting terms which appears to include some uted to a relatively wide class of hunting . nomenclature related to breeds is The closer survey shows how the term is used the “Dictionary of Hunting”, published in 1997 in the process of nomination of separate breeds. following the initiative of Gediminas Petruzis. Four ways of nomination using the hound The dictionary comprises circa 600 words and constituent can be found in English: expressions in five languages (Lithuanian, 1. The nomination according to the object English, Russian, German and French). The of hunting, e.g. in , , names of dog breeds were selected by the au- Coonhound, Staghound, Deerhound, thor from different resources, including the Wolfhound, et cetera. abovementioned “Dictionary of Hunting”, the 2. The nomination according to the way of online databases of The Fédération Cynologique hunting, e.g. (a hound that Internationale (the world’s largest canine or- hunts and pursues game by sight rather ganisation) and The Lithuanian Cynological than by scent), Scenthound (a hound that Society (National member of FCI), the online hunts and pursues game by scent rather dictionaries, as well as from books on cynology than by sight), Bloodhound (a hound that and hunting published both in Lithuanian and is used for tracking both by scent and Russian. blood track) (Merriam-Webster English Dictionary 2016); 3. The nomination according to the place The analysis of translation difficulties of origin, e.g. , Tyrolean conditioned by the different nomination Hound, Serbian Hound, , principles , et cetera (FCI 2016). 4. The singular case of unknown nomination Analysis of the names of dog breeds from the pattern in Greyhound – the word which 1) perspective of different nomination principles refers both to a separate breed of sight- and linguistic relativity hounds which has developed in the terri- Breed names with a hound constituent. The tory of Britain and is known nowadays as definition of an English term hound accord- Greyhound, 2) is used as a synonym of a ing to Oxford English Learner’s Dictionaries sighthound in general in some cases (as in (2016) is “a dog of a breed used for hunting, Polish Greyhound, Hungarian Greyhound, especially one able to track by scent”. However, Spanish Greyhound (FCI 2016). Accord- the other definitions include also “a domestic ing to The English Etymology Dictionary dog of any of various breeds commonly used (2016), the etymology of “grey” constitu- for hunting, characteristically having drooping ent is not clear, although it has nothing to ears, a short coat, and a deep resonant voice” do with colour. 116 Jelena Suchanova, Ramunė Eugenija Tovstucha Problems in translating the names of dog breeds...

Translation problems frequently arise develop very high speed. All breed variations while dealing with the abovementioned words within each abovementioned category must because the nomination patterns in both be attributed according to a particular group. Lithuanian and Russian are entirely differ- Thus, for example, the speakers of English may ent from that of the English language. Both talk about a sighthound breed called Lithuanian and Russian separates the above- using the word hound, and this would not be mentioned hunting breeds according to a diffe- a mistake as in English both scenthounds and rent nomination principle. There is a clear dis- are actually hounds. On the contra- tinction between the hounds which are used for ry, the attempt to use the same pattern while hunting the prey by scent (Lithuanian skalikas, referring to a whippet either in Lithuanian or Russian гончая) and the hounds which pursue Russian can result in a mistake, as the speaker the prey by sight (Lithuanian kurtas, Russian must make a clear division between the two борзая). Moreover, there is a clear morphologic separate meanings of hound and to choose distinction attached to the abovementioned whether he calls the whippet skalikas (Russian terms in either Lithuanian or Russian. Skalikas гончая) or kurtas (Russian борзая). The former or гончая refers to a hound characteristically will be a mistake as the connotation of a whippet having drooping ears, short coat, and a deep, in either Lithuanian or Russian is strictly limi- resonant voice while kurtas or борзая defines ted to an English sighthound, that is Lithuanian a sinewy, slender, long-legged dog which can kurtas and Russian борзая.

Table 1. The comparison of English, Lithuanian and Russian dog breed names with “hound” compound” (sources: Petružis 1997; LKD 2016; Sabaneev 1992; Navasaitis, Pėtelis 1998; Mazover 1985; FCI 2016; LKSK 2016) No. English term Translation into Lithuanian Translation into Russian 1. Hound Skalikas Гончая Kurtas Борзая Kurtai ir skalikai Борзые и гончие Medžioklinis šuo Охотничья собака 2. Sighthound Kurtas Борзая 3. Greyhound Greihaundas Грейхаунд Kurtas Борзая 4. Deerhound Dirhaundas Дирхаунд Škotų kurtas Шотландская борзая Elninis šuo (Petružis 1997) Оленья борзая 5. [Irish] Wolfhound [Airių] volfhaundas [Ирландский] волкодав [Airių] vilkogaudis Ирландская борзая 6. Scenthound Skalikas Гончая Pėdsekys 7. Bloodhound Kraujasekis Гончая по кровяному следу Bladhaundas Кровяная гончая Бладхаунд 8. Staghound Elninis skalikas Стэгхаунд Skalikas elniams medžioti Оленегонная гончая 9. Foxhound Fokshaundas Фоксхаунд Лисогон 10. Otterhound Ūdrinis skalikas Оттерхаунд Выдровая гончая Coactivity: Philology, Educology 2016, 24(2): 113–121 117

The abovementioned distinction and the framework of the language’s own lexical choice of nomination pattern are remarkable means did not arise; instead, the loaned if observed from the perspective of linguistic Slavonic word was incorporated. relativity. While the English language uses the b) The breeds of hounds used for hunting object of hunting, the way of hunting or the by scent bear a common name гончая in place of breed’s origin as a basis for the nomi- Russian. The inner form of the word sug- nation, the nomination pattern in Lithuanian gests that the main quality of these dogs and especially in Russian is more diverse, as which determined the choice of nomi- illustrates Table 1. nation base is their ability to pursue the Some examples to explore: prey relentlessly for a long time (Russian a) In the Russian language, sighthounds гон, гнать – to chase, to pursue) with a bear a common name борзая – the term long, deep, vibrant howling (гоньба which highlights the ability of these dogs голосом – a chase with a voice) (Sabaneev to develop a very high speed on the run. 1992: 150–151). The same nomination The famous Russian cynologist Saba- pattern – highlighting the specific sound neev notes in his monograph on hound produced by these dogs during the pur- breeds that the name борзая is derived suit of prey – can be seen in Lithuanian from the word борзый, meaning fast and word skalikas, which highlights “their assigned in the old days to horses only most distinctive feature – the peculiarity (Sabaneev 1992: 8; BTS 1998). According of their voice, a bay during the pursuit to Sabaneev, it points to the main quali- of prey” (Medžiotojų ir žvejų draugi- ty of the breed. Interestingly, in English, ja 1968: 248). Again, as in the previous the accent is put on the other quality of section, this pattern of nomination is to- these dogs, namely their ability to hunt tally uncommon in English – there is no by sight (sighthound or gazehound). distinction of the above-mentioned types Lithuanian word kurtas, according to of dogs according to either their speed or data from various resources provided by the peculiarity of their voice. Lithuanian Etymology Dictionary, may The above-mentioned nomination patterns have been the loan from Slavonic lan- result quite frequently in translation mistakes, guages (Polish chart, Russian хортая as a translator must make a distinction between борзая) (LEŽD 2016). Sabaneev men- different types of hounds while translating these tions the word kurtzi as used by one of terms into Russian and Lithuanian. the ancient chroniclers while describing As discussed above, the most difficult task the hunting dogs of The Duke of Mos- for a translator in the course of translating covia, suggesting that it is of the Tartar English compounds with a hound constituent origin, although the etymology is un- into Lithuanian or Russian is to understand known (Sabaneev 1992: 55). Therefore, whether the hound constituent in this particu- the Lithuanian kurtas are not based on lar word indicates the type of a scenthound any specific known traits of the dog itself, dog or a sighthound dog and to translate which is understandable, as, according to accordingly. The quotation belonging to Sabaneev, the ancient Lithuanians hunted Benjamin Lee Whorf is very eloquent in this the big game only (bisons, moses, wild context: “You might think that “tree” means boars, bears) and thus preferred strong the same thing, everywhere and to everybody. hunting dogs over the slim and fast ones. Not at all. The Polish word that means “tree” Therefore, sighthounds were uncommon also includes the meaning “wood.” The context in the Baltic region and the necessity of or sentence pattern determines what sort of any particular nomination within the object the Polish word (or any word, in any 118 Jelena Suchanova, Ramunė Eugenija Tovstucha Problems in translating the names of dog breeds... language) refers to.” (Whorf 1959: 259) The correct – the equivalence would be faraonų very same pattern is applicable to the English šuo in Lithuanian and фараонова собака in word hound, and the task of translation is Russian (LKD 2016). hardly possible without a deeper research into The similar confusion may occur in regard this particular field. of the pair wolfhound – wolf-dog. The tempta- The most characteristic example is the pair tion may arise to translate both words as vilki- deerhound – staghound. The first constituent of nis šuo or vilkšunis in Lithuanian and волчья both compounds is synonymic (stag is a male собака in Russian. However, wolfhound actu- deer, especially a male red deer after its fifth ally refers to a sighthound which in Lithuanian year) (Oxford English Learner’s Dictionaries bears the name of vilkogaudis in the case of do- 2016), and the second constituent is the same mestication (LKSK 2016) or volfhaundas(LKD one. Thus, the direct translation based on the 2016) in the case of borrowing and волкодав meaning of each constituent becomes hardly in Russian. Remarkably, both Lithuanian and possible. According to Sabaneev, the confu- Russian words highlight the specific ability sion related to the translation of these two of the above-mentioned dog to catch (from breed names into Russian has been known Lithuanian gaudyti) or even to kill (Russian for a long time (Sabaneev 1992: 32). Correct давить) a wolf, while the English name only translation requires knowledge of the purpose indicates the wolf as an object of hunting with for which each of these two breeds has been these particular hounds. used. Only then it becomes clear that the Wolf-dog vs. Vilkšunis. Another interesting slender light-built dolichocephalic deerhound nomination case which may present a certain which hunts by sight should be referred to as difficulty to a translator is a specific Lithuanian kurtas in Lithuanian and as борзая in Russian nomination of a certain kind of domestic dogs and the heavy-built staghound which is used to called vilkšunis in Lithuanian. Lithuanian hunt the deer by scent or blood trail is skalikas vilkšunis is a compound derived from vilkas + in Lithuanian and гончая in Russian. These šuo (English wolf + dog). Thus, it may seem that difficulties related to different nomination the translation of the term is an easy task as the principles has led to a wide use of borrowings very same words compose the English com- in the translation of the names of dog breeds pounds wolf-dog or dog-wolf. However, the case (Lithuanian dirhaundas, Russian дирхаунд), is much more complicated, as these seemingly as it helps to avoid translation mistakes and identical compounds refer to different pheno- to prevent the perversion of the meaning. An mena in Lithuanian (especially colloquial) and interesting case can be found in the Dictionary English languages. of hunting (1997) which translates the word The Oxford English Learner’s Dictionaries deerhound as elninis šuo in Lithuanian and give the following definition of a wolf-dog (or оленья собака in Russian – presumably, out dog-wolf): “a hybrid between a domestic dog of inability or unwillingness of the translator and a wolf”. Practical use of the compound, to identify whether the hound constituent in as in American Wolfdog, “Czechoslovakian this particular term defines a sighthound or a Wolfdog”, “ Saarlooswolfdog” (FCI 2016) fully scenthound. The translation of hound as sim- corresponds to its definition – it is used to name ply a dog is possible (see Table 1), although it an established dog breed or a crossbreed that must be admitted that some meaning is lost in contains a certain amount of a wolf’s blood. this particular case, and the target language TheContemporary Dictionary of Lithuanian reader is unable to discover which breed was Language defines vilkšunis as vilkinis šuo originally meant in the source language text. (DLKŽ 2016), thus retaining the ambiguity as However, in case of the inter- it is not clear whether vilkinis šuo (which can pretation of the hound constituent as a dog is be translated literally as a wolfish dog) refers to Coactivity: Philology, Educology 2016, 24(2): 113–121 119 a dog who has a wolf among its ancestors or to волкособ when referred to a cross between wolf a dog which simply has some external features and dog, or волкообразная собака (Kalinin which may be attributed to a wolf (coat colour, 1992: 9) if referred to a dog with specific wolfish general appearance, et cetera). Generally, the external characteristics. However, the dogs col- meaning of the abovementioned term should loquially named vilkšunis in Lithuanian usually be the one that fully corresponds to the English are denominated in Russian as mere sheepdogs term wolf-dog – a wolf-dog hybrid. The com- or their crosses – овчарка, метис овчарки, munity of professional cynologists, including colloquial овчароид. the Lithuanian Cynological Society, supports In this particular case, the adopted the principle of nomination for these breeds Lithuanian nomination principle seems unique adopted in English. The online database of in comparison to English and Russian. The Lithuanian Cynological Society gives the fol- phenomenon of a prickle-eared shepherd breed lowing translations: Czechoslovakian Wolfdog – or its mixtures is equally present in all three Čekoslovakų vilkšunis, Saarlooswolfdog – countries, but only Lithuanian language devel- Sarloso vilkšunis (LKD 2016). Unfortunately, oped the generalized term for it. Even if the use the case of vilkšunis remains complicated, as, of the word vilkšunis is considered to be very besides its professional use adopted within colloquial, non-professional and misleading (as the professional cynological community, it dogs called vilkšunis – wolfish dog in Lithuanian also has another meaning which beyond all in most cases have nothing to do with wolves), comparison exceeds the scope of use of the still it is widespread, and its connotation for the official one. In colloquial Lithuanian vilkšunis speakers not involved in professional cynology generally refers to dogs belonging to the breed is very clear. officially called vokiečių aviganis (English If observed from the translator’s perspective, German Shepherd Dog, German Deutscher the nomination phenomena discussed above Schäferhund, Russian немецкая овчарка), as presents certain difficulties. The translation well as to any other dog which resembles the from English into Lithuanian and from Russian abovementioned breeds in appearance or has into Lithuanian is not of a particular difficulty any of them among the ancestors. According to as the principles of nomination, in this case, the Lithuanian corpus developed by Vytautas do match. English wolf-dog has its equivalence Magnus University, the word vilkšunis appears of vilkšunis in its meaning of a wolf-dog cross, 39 times in publicist writings and 32 times while German Shepherd Dog or sheepdog are in fiction texts (DLKT 2016). The collocates translated accordingly as vokiečių aviganis or confirm that the use of the term vilkšunis aviganis; the same translation pattern is valid rarely refers to its supposed meaning as a mix for Russian (wolf-dog – волчья собака, German of a dog and a wolf or the established breeds of Shepherd Dog – немецкая овчарка, sheepdog – wolfish origin like Czechoslovakian Wolfdog овчарка or пастушья собака in some cases). and Sarlooswolfdog, but, on the contrary, However, the translation of Lithuanian vilkšunis indicates ordinary domestic dog – a shepherd either into English or Russian may require the or a dog resembling the latter in appearance. explicit knowledge of the context, the under- In the Russian language, the use of any standing of nomination principle used in this similar pattern as in Lithuanian vilkšunis for the case, and the right idea of the described phe- nomination of a German Shepherd Dog or the nomenon itself. In some context, the Lithuanian dogs of similar appearance type is unknown. the word vilkšunis must be translated as wolf-dog Russian language nominates a wolf-dog pheno- while in other cases it may be necessary to menon in the same way as it is done in English, translate it as either sheepdog, German Shepherd thus, there are such terms as волчья собака in Dog or even to use a paraphrase like a dog of official breed names, colloquial волкопес or wolfish appearance. 120 Jelena Suchanova, Ramunė Eugenija Tovstucha Problems in translating the names of dog breeds...

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ŠUNŲ VEISLIŲ PAVADINIMŲ VERTIMO PROBLEMOS SKIRTINGŲ NOMINACIJOS PRINCIPŲ IR KALBOS RELIATYVUMO POŽIŪRIU

Jelena SUCHANOVA¹, Ramunė Eugenija TOVSTUCHA² Mykolas Romeris University, Ateities g. 20, LT- 08303 Vilnius, Lithuania E-mails: ¹[email protected]; ²[email protected] Darbe nagrinėjami nominacijos būdų skirtumai kalbų reliatyvumo teorijos kontekste ir šių skirtumų sukelti vertimo sunkumai. Analizei atlikti parinkti šunų veislių ir porūšių pavadinimai anglų kalba. Pateiktas jų vertimas į lietuvių ir rusų kalbas, atlikta lyginamoji kiekvieno termino analizė. Analizuojant atsižvelgiama, kuris to paties tikrovės objekto (šuns) požymis tampa pavadinimo pamatu kiekvienoje iš kalbų. Atitinkamai nustatoma, kokių vertimo problemų gali kilti verčiant pateiktų tikrovės objektų pavadinimus, kurių nomi- nacijos būdas skirtingose kalbose nesutampa. Tyrimo metu nustatyta, kad šunų veislių pavadinimai anglų kalboje itin dažnai sudaromi remiantis visai kitais tikrovės objektų požymiais nei rusų arba lietuvių kalbose. Vertėjas turi teisingai suvokti tikrovės objektų nomi- nacijos principus, dėl kurių tam tikri pavadinimai skirtingose kalbose gali įgauti platesnę ar siauresnę reikšmę.

Reikšminiai žodžiai: kalbos reliatyvumo teorija, vertimo problemos, kinologija, nominacijos principas, pa- vadinimų skolinimas, nominacijos būdas, šunų veislių pavadinimai.