Quaternary International 521 (2019) 75–84

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Quaternary International

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Thiessen polygon analysis and spatial pattern evolution of Neolithic cultural sites (8.0–4.0 ka BP) in Plain of , East T

∗ ∗∗ Li Wua, , Hui Zhoua, Jiaoyang Lib, Kaifeng Lic, , Xiaoling Suna, Shuguang Lua, Linying Lia, Tongxin Zhud, Qingchun Guoe,f a Provincial Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Regional Response in the Yangtze-Huaihe River Basin, School of Geography and Tourism, Anhui Normal University, , 241002, China b Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, China c College of Environment and Planning, University, Kaifeng, 475004, China d Department of Geography, University of Minnesota Duluth, MN, 55812, USA e School of Environment and Planning, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, 252000, China f State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an, 710061, China

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The Thiessen polygon concept was applied to analyze how Neolithic sites were gathered and the features of Thiessen polygon agriculture, living environment and transportation in the Huaibei Plain, Anhui Province, East China, in the Neolithic cultural site Shishanzi cultural period (8.0–6.5 ka BP), Dawenkou cultural period (6.5–4.5 ka BP), and Longshan cultural Huaibei Plain period (4.5–4.0 ka BP). The Thiessen polygon analysis method was effective in determining the settlement center Site catchment analysis of the region and helped to confer the complex relationships among agriculture, the living environment and Holocene civilization transportation during the Neolithic Age. From the Shishanzi cultural period to the Longshan cultural period, a East China growing number of small polygons showed enhancement in the degree of gathering and cultural communication. In the Dawenkou and Longshan cultural periods, the central part of Huaibei Plain was the settlement center and the distance from the center of each Thiessen polygon to its edges was decreasing. This indicates that the ancients' dependence on agriculture and development conditions increased over the three cultures. The devel- opment of Neolithic cultures was also affected by the environmental changes in the Huaibei Plain. From the Shishanzi cultural period to the Longshan cultural period, the climate tended to be dry, and the area of marsh decreased. However, there was little change in temperature, which was beneficial to the ancients' lives and production. Not only did cultural sites and small polygons increase constantly, but groups of sites and settlement centers also appeared in the central part of plain and areas along the main stream of the Huai River. The Neolithic culture developed vigorously, and the abilities of ancients to adapt to environment and transform nature gradually improved. The NW to SE direction of the small polygons’ distribution suggests the control of the ancient rivers on transportation in the Huaibei Plain.

1. Introduction van Andel, 1984; Bintliff and Snodgrass, 1985; Bintliff et al., 2010). Site catchment analysis focuses on the distance and time taken for ancient Site catchment analysis is a method for studying the spatial dis- people to go out from the site and obtain natural resources. The method tribution of archaeological sites based on environmental archaeology is conducted as follows: the first step is investigation and analysis of the (Vita-Finzi et al., 1970; Bintliff et al., 2010; Li et al., 2013; Cui et al., environment around a site; the second step is speculation about the 2018; Storozum et al., 2018; Zheng et al., 2018; Yan et al., 2019). After scope of ancient people's daily activities and how they may have ob- being verified in the field successfully in 1970, this method was pro- tained resources with the site as a center; and the third step is in- moted and applied across Europe and has become one of the major vestigation of the evolution of the man–land relationship at such a site methods in the archaeological research field in the west (Vita-Finzi (Bintliff et al., 2010; Perakis and Moysiadis, 2011; Lu and Yang, 2013; et al., 1970; Jacobi et al., 1976; Bailey and Davidson, 1983; Pope and Wu et al., 2014; Yan et al., 2015; Kompatscher et al., 2016; Scoz et al.,

∗ Corresponding author. ∗∗ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (L. Wu), kfl[email protected] (K. Li). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2019.06.005 Received 21 December 2018; Received in revised form 7 May 2019; Accepted 4 June 2019 Available online 07 June 2019 1040-6182/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. L. Wu, et al. Quaternary International 521 (2019) 75–84

2016; Tripković and Penezić, 2017; Bebermeier et al., 2018; Amati free days. The abundant rain synchronizes with high temperature in et al., 2019). summer. The southern boundary of the Huaibei Plain is the Qinling With the continuous development and improvement, site catchment Mountain–Huai River Line, a geographic boundary that defines the analysis now can be realized in two main ways: the first is field study, natural and human geographic characteristics of the Huaibei Plain which needs to establish an irregular circle with the site as a center; and (Jiang et al., 2018). The Huaibei Plain of Anhui is subject to a monsoon the second is to carry out Thiessen polygon analysis for the site, which climate in the warm temperate zone (Zhou et al., 2016; Zhang et al., represents the scope of daily affairs and production activities of people 2018). In spring and summer, the climate is warm and rainy with at the prehistoric site. prevailing southeastern wind, whereas in autumn and winter, the cli- From the perspective of cultural development, the Huai River basin mate is dry with less precipitation and prevailing northwestern wind. is one of the major areas of collision and exchange of ancient cultures Cinnamon Soil in this region is fertile (Anhui Survey and Design between the eastern coastal region and the central–western hinterland, Institute of Water Conservancy and Hydropower and Institute of Soil and between the Yangtze River basin and the Yellow River basin Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1976), with arable land of (Huang et al., 2006; Liu and Feng, 2012; Yang et al., 2016; Luo et al., 21,400 km2, or 47.8% of the total arable land in Anhui Province and the 2016, 2019). It is also an important area in which Chinese civilization agricultural population is 15,263,000 (Liu et al., 2016). The region has originated and spread. The Huaibei Plain of Anhui Province, located in been an important agricultural zone throughout history. the middle and eastern part of the Huai River basin, generally has a The overflow of the Yellow River to the south of the Huang-Huai- plain topography and borders the provinces of Jiangsu, Shandong and Hai Plain after the Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD) contributed sub- Henan in the east, north and west, respectively. The low bedrock area stantially to the present natural geographic environment of the Huaibei and hills are present in the northern plain. Because the Huaibei Plain of Plain and changed the geographic environment of the prehistoric Anhui is located at the southern end of the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain, its period (Hu et al., 2009; Zou, 2013; Ren, 2015; Zhang et al., 2016). main landform in modern times is the alluvial plain formed through Influenced by the numerous occurrences of the Yellow River overflow long-term silt alluviation of the Huai River and the Yellow River (Chen, to the south of the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain, the ancient riverbed has 2007). The plain appears in inclined form from northwest to southeast changed greatly throughout history in the place which is now the area and takes the Huai River as its main water system. In addition, nu- north of the Huai River (Editorial Office of Chorography of Water merous tributaries flow into the Huai River from northwest to south- Conservancy of Anhui Province, 2010). Because there has been no east. Because of the favorable climate and abundant resources, such systematic and reliable mapping of the position for prehistoric riverbed areas were important settlement sites for ancient people (Huang et al., migration in the Huaibei Plain, the specific relation between settlement 2006; Luo et al., 2016; Yang et al., 2016). Archaeological excavations site and river system is not discussed. and studies show there was a developed Neolithic culture with nu- merous sites in this region (Liang et al., 1993; Huang et al., 2006; Chen, 3. Neolithic site catchment analysis 2007). In the Neolithic Age, three periods consecutively evolved: the Shishanzi culture (8.0–6.5 ka BP), Dawenkou culture (6.5–4.5 ka BP), 3.1. Thiessen polygons of Neolithic cultural sites and Longshan culture (4.5–4.0 ka BP). The economy of Shishanzi cul- ture relied on fishing and hunting, and its agriculture was at a primitive There is a total of 128 discovered Neolithic sites in the Huaibei Plain stage. Dawenkou culture evolved from primitive agriculture to hoe- of Anhui, including eight sites from the Shishanzi cultural period, 44 farming agriculture. Longshan culture evolved into an economic model sites from the Dawenkou cultural period, and 76 sites from the of livelihood based on farming. There are distinctive cultural char- Longshan cultural period, which basically cover all developmental acteristics for each of the three periods, which have a high continuity stages and types of Huai culture in Anhui (Liang et al., 1993; Huang from the perspective of prehistoric cultural sequence. The Huaibei Plain et al., 2006; Chen, 2007; Zhang et al., 2010; Cao and Zhu, 2011). covers most of the Neolithic cultural sites of the Huai River basin in Therefore, this is an ideal region for the study of the evolution of Anhui and it is one of the regions where the Neolithic cultural sites are Neolithic culture and settlement sites. Neolithic sites in this study refer the densest in the basin. It covers elevations ranging from 20 to 40 m in to sites at which the ancients lived during the Neolithic Age, excluding most parts and is a component of the relatively uniform texture of burial sites. landform structure since the Holocene (Huang et al., 2006). The above- In accordance with the distribution of archaeological sites in the mentioned factors produce favorable conditions for carrying out GIS Huaibei Plain of Anhui during the Neolithic Age (Figs. 2–4), the analysis of environmental archaeology in this region and application of Thiessen polygon was constructed for the three cultural periods in Thiessen polygons and other spatial analysis methods (Liu, 2007; ArcGIS. This involved making perpendicular bisectors of all bordering Lombardo and Prümers, 2010; Yang et al., 2012; Yang and Lu, 2013; sites within the range, and then connecting and enclosing all these Niu et al., 2013; Yuan and Han, 2013; Luo et al., 2014; Zhang, 2014; perpendicular bisectors to form a polygon (Fig. 5). The Thiessen Jones, 2017; Lock and Pouncett, 2017; Vogelsang and Wendt, 2017; polygon can indicate the theoretical range of living activities of ancient Thelemann et al., 2018; Lu et al., 2019). Such analyses can improve our people around a site. For regions where distributions of Neolithic cul- understanding of the agricultural situation, living environment and tural sites are centralized, the Thiessen polygon has its own unique transport features of this region in the Neolithic Age. meaning. The Thiessen polygon cannot present a definite and absolute scope of agriculture production activities at such sites. The Thiessen 2. Regional setting polygon method, as applied here, can be interpreted as follows: (1) the denser the polygons are arranged, the denser the distribution of sites, The Huaibei Plain of Anhui Province, with a total area of thus defining the core zone of the culture; (2) a smaller area of polygon 37,400 km2, covers regions from the main stream of the Huai River in does not definitely mean a smaller scope of activities in such site (Hou the south to the Shaying River in the north (Fig. 1). The Huaibei Plain, and Fang, 2007; Lombardo and Prümers, 2010; Hou and Hou, 2014a, which has elevations of less than 100 m in most parts and is a southeast- 2014b; Lock and Pouncett, 2017). For example, Site 17 in Fig. 5b, inclined landform, was formed through alluviation of the ancient Nanchengzi in Malou village of Hugou, , corresponds to Yellow River and Huai River as well as their numerous tributaries a small area of polygon but its practical area is 200,000 m2, and it had (Zhang et al., 2016, 2018). The average annual precipitation in this the greatest area in the studied region during the three Neolithic cul- region is over 850 mm, which provides plentiful water for crop growth tural periods. Thus, there is no definite correlation between the area of and 95% of the precipitation is concentrated in the crop growth season. the polygon and the scope of agriculture production activities. How- The average annual temperature is 14.7 °C, with more than 206 frost- ever, the location of polygon generally reflects the importance of such

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Fig. 1. Geographical location of the Huaibei Plain in China. The map also shows six cultural areas in the Neolithic Age of China proposed by Su (2011).

Fig. 2. Distribution of archaeological sites in the Huaibei Plain of Anhui during the Shishanzi cultural period (8.0–6.5 ka BP).

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Fig. 3. Distribution of archaeological sites in the Huaibei Plain of Anhui during the Dawenkou cultural period (6.5–4.5 ka BP). sites in regional culture and the role in cultural exchange with external 4. Thiessen polygons and Neolithic culture regions. The greatest scope of activities should occur in the central site and have the greatest impacts on the surroundings. 4.1. Settlement center

It is easy to define the settlement center and aggregation extent in 3.2. Thiessen polygon calculation for Neolithic cultural sites different Neolithic cultural periods in the Huaibei Plain of Anhui ac- cording to the theory of small Thiessen polygons. There were eight The concept of small Thiessen polygons are defined as follows (Hou polygons in the Shishanzi cultural period (Fig. 5a), including only one and Fang, 2007; Lombardo and Prümers, 2010; Hou and Hou, 2014a, small polygon; thus, the settlement center was initially formed and

2014b; Lock and Pouncett, 2017): Ii = Si/S, where Ii is the Thiessen highly centralized in a small range along the Fengtai–Huaiyuan line, 2 polygon index, Si is the actual area (m ) of a certain site in a certain located on the north side of the Huai River (Fig. 2). cultural period, and S is the corresponding area (m2) of the polygon of In the Dawenkou cultural period (Fig. 5b), the settlement center that site. If a Thiessen polygon which responds to a certain cultural site consisted of 25 polygons, which were connected into a strip, forming meets the requirement of Ii < 1 and the Thiessen polygon is in- two strip-like dense zones in the southwest and northeast. This in- dependent, which means it does not rely on frames as the boundary, dicates a flourishing and rapidly growing culture in this period. The then the polygon known as a small polygon (e.g. Thiessen polygon 1 in scopes of settlement sites were greatly enlarged and extended north- Fig. 5a). ward, reaching the hinterland of the Huaibei Plain. Simultaneously, the The small polygon, a form of culture aggregation in a region, pre- number of sites in the southwest and northeast began to increase. sents the core zone or dense zone of the culture. More small polygons Therefore, three groups of settlement sites formed and spread among indicates more centralized development of culture aggregation in the the branches of the Huai River (Fig. 3). This indicates that the people of region. In accordance with central place theory (Christaller, 1967), at the Huaibei Plain communicated mutually and spread depending on the the early stages of social development, the more centralized the set- Huai River system, which is a natural and convenient water channel. In tlement, the higher the level of social development (Hou and Fang, addition, the settlement center deviated, with larger scale of settlement 2007; Lombardo and Prümers, 2010; Hou and Hou, 2014a, 2014b; Lock development and increased aggregation extent than that in the Shish- and Pouncett, 2017). anzi cultural period. By calculation according to the analysis in Fig. 5, there was only one During the Longshan cultural period, the number of small polygons small polygon in the Shishanzi cultural period, which rapidly increased increased to 49 (Fig. 5c), indicating that the settlement in this period to 25 in the Dawenkou cultural period, and then to 49 in the Longshan was further centralized relative to the Dawenkou cultural period. cultural period. The number of small polygons tends to increase in a Fig. 5c shows that small polygons occupied a large area and were multiplicative manner. contiguous, forming a roughly symmetric shape in the south and north. The sites located along the Fengtai–Mengcheng– line increased notably. The settlement center increasingly shifted toward the plain

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Fig. 4. Distribution of archaeological sites in the Huaibei Plain of Anhui during the Longshan cultural period (4.5–4.0 ka BP). center of Huaibei, and Neolithic culture in this prosperous period connected to Neolithic culture in Huaibei Plain of Anhui (Nanjing continued to develop. Another noteworthy phenomenon is that an ap- Museum, 2013; Tian et al., 2013; Luo et al., 2016). This means that proximate hexagonal central place system formed in the Huaibei Plain cities or settlements distributed in accordance with the central place with the large central settlement site at Yuchisi, as a theory may have occurred at late stage of primitive society because that center. Secondary central places were mainly concentrated in these period was close to the threshold of civilization (Huang et al., 2006; areas. First, around , there were about 8–10 sites; Zhang et al., 2010). Both agricultural production and commodity ex- second, from to Funan County, there were about 13–15 change of an initial form developed to a certain level, and population sites; third, around Bozhou, there were about 8 sites; fourth, located at migration with cultural exchange occurred (Zhang, 2005; Bai, 2006; the eastern area of Huaibei, there were about 7 sites; fifth, the eastern Duan, 2015). Therefore, conditions for forming a central place system group of sites were centralized between the Lingbi–Guzhen line and the according to the central place theory had been met (Christaller, 1967; Sixian–Wuhe line, and about 8 sites in all (Fig. 4). A secondary central Lu and Dong, 2005; Wang et al., 2008). Moreover, this implies that the place unfound in the northeastern side of Figs. 4 and 5c may be located landform of the northern Anhui was an undulating and homogeneous at the western bank of Hongze Lake in Jiangsu, which has been verified plain (i.e., an essential condition for forming a central place system) in through archaeological excavation. A settlement cluster consisting of the prehistoric period, which is consistent with survey data of regional numerous sites in the Neolithic Age was discovered in and around the geology and ancient landforms (Lu et al., 1992; Planning Commission of Sihong County, Jiangsu, and its cultural features were closely Anhui Province and Bureau of Geology and Mineral of Anhui Province,

Fig. 5. Thiessen polygon of Neolithic cultural sites in the Huaibei Plain of Anhui for (a) the Shishanzi cultural period (8.0–6.5 ka BP), (b) the Dawenkou cultural period (6.5–4.5 ka BP), and (c) the Longshan cultural period (4.5–4.0 ka BP).

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1996; Malczewski, 2009). developed. Cultural similarities of surrounding provinces and regions only existed in areas along the Huai River and western Anhui, and the 4.2. Agriculture cultural channel in Anhui had not formed. However, the area of major cultures had been initially set up, which provided a foundation for According to the classical view on site catchment, the scope of communication of cultures of different types. The cultural channel in hunting activity was in a regular circle shape, taking the site as the the Dawenkou cultural period was in the development stage, and cul- center and taking 10 km or 2 h walking distance away from the center tural communication had been developed. By the Longshan cultural as radius (Hou and Hou, 2014a, 2014b; Vita-Finzi et al., 1970). The period, the cultural channel was in a mature state, and cultural com- Huaibei District has been an overall broad plain since the Holocene (Lu munication has been intensified. Dawenkou culture and Longshan et al., 1992; Planning Commission of Anhui Province and Bureau of culture were moved down south through Huaibei Plain of Anhui to form Geology and Mineral of Anhui Province, 1996; Jiang et al., 2009). Thus, three cultural channel routes: the west line of Linquan–Funan–Huoqiu, the communications among such polygonal regions are not affected by the central line of Bozhou–Guoyang–Mengcheng and the east line of topographic relief of obstacles. In Fig. 5, the distance from the center to Suixi–Suzhou–Lingbi, reaching Sixian County (Sun, 2013). The finding the edge of the polygon in the Shishanzi cultural period was about that there was only one small polygon in the Shishanzi cultural period 27 km. The equivalent value was about 13 km in the Dawenkou cultural suggests that this culture communicated less with other cultures out- period, and about 11 km in the Longshan cultural period. The distance side. However, the quantity of small polygons in the Dawenkou cultural from center to edge of the polygon in the Shishanzi cultural period was period increased, showing that external cultural communication in- much larger than the action radius of 10 km, but it was close to 10 km in creased during this period. The quantity of small polygons in the Dawenkou and Longshan cultural periods. Longshan cultural period reached 49, indicating that cultural commu- Therefore, it was deemed that fishing and hunting activities were nication with the outside areas was more frequent than in earlier per- the main activity types in the Shishanzi cultural period, and farming iods. activities started to emerge in the Dawenkou cultural period. The pro- portion of farming activities in the Longshan cultural period continued 4.4. Environment to increase. The latter cultural periods showed a higher degree of de- pendence on agriculture, which is supported by archaeological research In the Neolithic Age, the environment was an important factor re- (Ren and Zhang, 2005; Zhu et al., 2005). The Shishanzi cultural period stricting human development. The early period of the Neolithic Age of mainly concentrated on fishing and hunting economy, supported by Huaibei Plain of Anhui started from about 8.0 ka BP. According to the evidence of a large quantity of unearthed stone and ceramic fishing and drilling pollen analysis in Huangkou (34°52′N, 116°42′E) of Xiaoxian hunting tools (e.g., net weights, arrowhead, and spear). However, quite County, which has been featured in detailed Holocene stratigraphic a few agricultural production tools for cultivation and digging (e.g., information in the Huaibei region of Anhui (Fig. 6), climate developed stone shovel and burnisher) have also been unearthed, which suggests towards warm and moist with the coming of the Holocene Megathermal that original hoe agriculture had begun to develop. Numerous agri- period (The No. 1 Hydrogeological and Engineering Geological Team of cultural production tools, especially ripping tools, unearthed at Da- Bureau of Geology and Mineral of Anhui Province and Jin, 1990; Huang wenkou cultural sites such as the Yuchisi Site of Mengcheng County et al., 2006; Jiang et al., 2018). This provided favorable environmental indicated that original agriculture had entered development stage of conditions for the ancients’ cultural development in early period and hoe agriculture in the Dawenkou cultural period (Zhou, 1999; Zhu the Neolithic culture of Shishanzi emerged in this district. However, the et al., 2005; Huang et al., 2006). Though agriculture was relatively quantity of small polygons indicated that the site numbers were small developed, the fishing and hunting economy continued to represent and they developed slowly. Moreover, no spreading route had been relatively a large proportion of the total production in this period. In formed for the different types of cultures. The middle stage of the the tools unearthed at all sites of Longshan cultural period, fishing and Neolithic Age was the most suitable period of the mid-Holocene in hunting tools decreased slightly compared with the Dawenkou cultural China because of the favorable combined water and temperature con- period, and they were mostly agricultural tools, indicating that agri- ditions (Shi et al., 1994; Mo et al., 2010, 2016; Ran and Feng, 2013). cultural status was more important in this period, and the proportion of Vegetation was mainly deciduous broadleaved forest with some con- fishing and hunting economy significantly declined compared with the iferous forest, with Cupressaceae, Quercus, Pinus, Ulmus, Tsuga and Dawenkou cultural period (Zhou, 1999; Huang et al., 2006; Huang and Betula as the dominant vegetation types (Fig. 6). The lacustrine records Li, 2008). The stone tools at that time were made in various shapes and of Lake also indicate that the vegetation changed to a mixed well ground. In addition, some new delicate and practical agricultural forest of deciduous and evergreen broadleaf trees with Quercus, Cas- tools also appeared, especially the mass use of agricultural tools for tanea, Cyclobalanopsis and Castanopsis/Lithocarpus as the main vegeta- ripping and harvesting, such as stone sickles, stone ploughs and flat tion types between 6.0 and 4.8 ka BP (Wu et al., 2019). The tempera- perforated stone spade (Huang and Li, 2008; Cao and Zhu, 2011). This ture and vegetation coverage rate in that period increased greatly both shows that the development of agricultural production at that time had in the Chaohu Lake basin and in the Jianghuai Plain (Chen et al., 2009; reached a relatively high level and primary farming had become the Shu et al., 2009, 2013; Wu et al., 2010, 2019). Neolithic culture in the principal activity. Therefore, the region in the Huaibei Plain of Anhui broadly defined Central China plains, including the Huaibei Plain, whose distance from the center point to the edge of the Thiessen never developed so rapidly as in the Dawenkou cultural period (Xu polygon was shorter than 27 km relied on fishing and hunting economy, et al., 2011; Xia, 2012; Zhou, 2012). During this period, the sea level in whereas when this distance was shorter than 13 km, the region mainly the eastern coast of China increased greatly (Wu et al., 2014; Bradley relied on farming. et al., 2016; He et al., 2018). Considerable evidence, such as marine peat layer, chronology of shell ridge and archaeological sites distribu- 4.3. Cultural communication tion, has shown that coastline in this period roughly started from the east of Lianyungang in the north, went through the line of Fu- According to the cultural channel concept proposed by Sun (2013), ning–Yancheng–Xinghua–Dongtai to the south of Haian, then turning to once the cultural types in peripheral provinces and regions enter Anhui Taizhou–Yangzhou line (Gu and Zhu, 2005; Zhu et al., 2016; Li et al., Province, they complement the local characteristic culture, and thus 2018; Xia and Zhang, 2018). Ling (1991) suggested that the Huai River form a clear cultural spreading route within Anhui. The cultural was one separate water system flowing into the sea, given that it was channel in Huaibei Plain of Anhui was in the initial stage in the not obviously affected by the Yellow River at about 6.0 ka BP. Shishanzi cultural period, and cultural communication had not been Affected by early-middle Holocene transgression, the fluvial incision

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Fig. 6. Sporopollen percentages of the drilling core in Huangkou (34°52′N, 116°42′E) of Xiaoxian County, which featured detailed Holocene stratigraphic information in the Huaibei Plain of Anhui. The palynogram was redrawn according to the original data from the Quaternary System of Huaibei Plain in Anhui, a book compiled by the No. 1 Hydrogeological and Engineering Geological Team of Bureau of Geology and Mineral of Anhui Province and Jin (1990). effect of the middle reaches of the Huai River weakened and lateral Engineering Geological Team of Bureau of Geology and Mineral of erosion effect strengthened. In this process, the middle reaches of the Anhui Province and Jin, 1990; Huang et al., 2006). Therefore, this area Huai River often experienced the following hydrological phenomena: entered a major development period of human activity; not only did the impeded river flow, changes of course or overflows. The earth surface quantity of sites and small polygons increase markedly, but there were gradually flattened, and a series of micro-landforms, such as closed also many site groups and settlement centers developing along the main oxbow lakes, were formed. The Huai River also had relatively extensive stream of the Huai River, such as the large-scale Longshan cultural site swamp development along its main stream (The No. 1 Hydrogeological group in Yuhuicun of and the settlement center in the north of and Engineering Geological Team of Bureau of Geology and Mineral of Fengtai County (Zhang et al., 2010; Yang et al., 2016; Fatorić and Anhui Province and Jin, 1990; Yu et al., 2014). As a result, during Seekamp, 2017). The tendency for dry climatic conditions and the 6.5–5.5 ka BP, the climate was warm and wet, with high precipitation further agricultural development subject to water sources in the early (Huang et al., 2006; Xu et al., 2011; Wu et al., 2019). The sufficient period made the ancients more likely to settle beside the river, and quantities of precipitation and the effects of high sea level and low- cultural spread was also more likely to develop along the river (Sun, lying landforms led to frequent river flooding. This period was therefore 2013; Wu et al., 2016, 2017). subject to frequent occurrence of natural disasters, such as floods, along The ancients relied strongly on natural resources, especially water with extensive formation of lakes. Hence, this surface environment was resources, but their productivity was limited by other resources such as not beneficial to the development of human culture and settlement production tools. According to the unearthed relic data in the relatively layout. Therefore, on the one hand, the quantity of small polygons early period of the Neolithic Age in the Huai River basin of Anhui, there multiplied in the Dawenkou cultural period. On the other hand, sites were few unearthed stone tools in all sites and featured in a low pro- and the spatial location of small polygons and settlement centers spread cessing level and simple type (Huang et al., 2006; Chen, 2007; Xu et al., towards the north, and there were few sites along the main stream of 2011; Xie and Zhang, 2013). However, relatively abundant clam, horn, the Huai River. and bone tools were found at many sites and their manufacturing level In the late period of the Neolithic Age, represented by the Longshan was not low, suggesting that the utilization degree of the abundant culture, climate conditions gradually became drier and lakes and water resources by people at that time was relatively high (Chen, 2007; swamps decreased in area (Zhu et al., 2005; Huang et al., 2006; Jiang Xu et al., 2011; Xie and Zhang, 2013). As of the Dawenkou cultural et al., 2009; Xu, 2009; Zhang, 2011). Rainfall declined substantially, period, people began to construct and live on “Gudui” (an earth mound but there were not any major changes in temperature (Fig. 6), which near water, rising several meters above the ground, and similar to an was very beneficial to agriculture production and the quality of life for ancient stylobate), and adapted to the natural environment of abundant ancient people (Xu et al., 2011; Sun, 2013). Firstly, the less temperature water resources (Sun, 2003; Yan, 2012; Wu et al., 2016). It was found drop is beneficial to the growth of crops and secondly, the decrease of that some aquatic animals were important food sources for the Da- precipitation can reduce the frequency of floods and improve the living wenkou cultural residents and primitive fishing became an important environment for human beings. The stable plain landform and abun- living means. As of the Longshan cultural period, the advanced agri- dant resources were also favorable factors for the development of set- cultural economy increasingly relied on irrigation water sources such as tlements during this period (The No. 1 Hydrogeological and lakes, marshes and rivers (Liu and Liu, 2016; Wu et al., 2016). The

81 L. Wu, et al. Quaternary International 521 (2019) 75–84 inventions of wells and “Gudui” showed that people's adaptability to of State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, Institute of environment had improved relative to earlier cultures. Earth Environment, CAS (No. SKLLQG1851), the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (No. 2018M632403), the National Key 4.5. Traffic Technologies R&D Program (No. 2016YFA0600501), the Scientific Training Program of Anhui Normal University (No. 2018kycx053), and According to the small polygon theory, since there was only one the National Innovation Training Program for College Students (Nos. polygon in the Shishanzi cultural period, there was no obvious ex- 201810370207, 201810370465, pyjh2018408). We are grateful for the change direction, and therefore, no accurate conclusion could be drawn helpful suggestions and comments from two anonymous reviewers. about the traffic direction. However, in the Dawenkou cultural period, Special thanks go to Chenchen Li, Lijia Yu, Wei Xie, Rui Ke, and Guiping there were 25 small polygons distributed along the direction of north- Lin for their support with field investigation and manuscript editing. west to southeast. Thus, it could be inferred that the flow of people and materials should primarily follow the same direction (Sun, 2013). Si- References milarly, in the Longshan cultural period, there were 49 small polygons distributed along the northwest–southeast direction. Therefore, the Amati, V., Munson, J., Scholnick, J., Habiba, 2019. Applying event history analysis to flow of people and materials was likely to be in the same direction. explain the diffusion of innovations in archaeological networks. J. Archaeol. Sci. 104, 1–9. 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