ISSN 2534-9597 (Print) ISSN 2535-0145 (Online) 1 2019 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences International Scientific Journal International Scientific Journal Published and financially supported by the National Sports Academy, Sofia, Bulgaria Published and financially supported by the National Sports Academy, Sofia, Bulgaria Editor in chief: Prof. Tatiana Iancheva, DSc Editorial Board Prof. J. P. Verma, PhD Prof. Dr. Nikolay Boyadzhiev, PhD Lakshmibia National Institute of Physical Education (Deemed Medical University – Plovdiv, Bulgaria University), India Prof. Yana Simova, PhD Prof. Sidonio Serpa, PhD Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski” University of Lisbon – Medical Faculty, Sofia, Bulgaria Indexed in: Faculty of Human Kinetics, Portugal Assoc. Prof. Vladimir Grigorov, PhD Prof. Vassil Girginov, PhD University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa Brunel University London Prof. Lence Aleksovska - Velickovska, PhD College of Health and Life Sciences, UK Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopije, Prof. Matthew J. Robinson, PhD Republic of Macedonia University of Delaware, USA Prof. Dr. Emin Ergen Prof. Kairat Zakirianov, Kazakh Academy Rehabilitation and Sports Medicine Clinic in Doha, Qatar of Sports & Tourism, Kazakhstan Prof. Argon Cuka, PhD Prof. Trayana Djarova – Daniels, PhD Sports University of Tirana, Albania University of Zululand, South Africa Prof. Vladimir Koprivica, PhD Prof. Luis Miguel Ruiz, PhD University “UNION-Nikola Tesla”, Serbia Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport-INEF, Prof. Srećko Jovanović, PhD Technical University of Madrid, Spain University “UNION-Nikola Tesla”, Serbia Prof. Janis Zidenas, Latvian Academy of Sport Education, Prof. Sebahattin Devecioğlu Latvia Firat University, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Prof. Milovan Bratic, PhD Turkey Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Prof. Mehmet Gunay University of Nis, Serbia Gazi Universitesi, Turkey Prof. Juris Grants, PhD Dr. Maria Efstratopoulou, PhD Latvian Academy of Sport Education, Latvia Bishop Grosseteste University, UK Prof. Pencho Geshev, PhD Prof. Biser Tzolov, PhD National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Prof. Nikolay Izov, PhD Prof. Evgenia Dimitrova, DSc National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Prof. Apostol Slavchev, PhD Prof. Rumian Hristov, DSc National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Prof. Krasimir Petkov, PhD Prof. Bonka Dimitrova, PhD National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Prof. Ognyan Miladinov, DSc Prof. Diana Dimitrova, PhD National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Prof. Ivan Maznev, PhD Prof. Daniela Lyubenova, PhD National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Prof. Daniela Dasheva, DSc Prof. Dimitar Mihaylov, PhD National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Editor in chief: Prof. Latchezar Dimitrov, PhD Assoc. Prof. Albena Alexandrova, PhD National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Prof. Tatiana Iancheva, DSc Prof. Svilen Neykov, DSc Assoc. Prof. Zdravko Stefanov, PhD National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Prof. Kiril Andonov, DSc Assoc. Prof. Karolina Lazarova, PhD National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Publisher: NSA Press Indexed in: Cover Design: Stanislav Hristov Index Copernicus Directory of Research Journals Indexing (DRJI) Printing: Printing House LtD Scientific Indexing Services (SIS) ISSN 2534-9597 (Print) Научная электронная библиотека eLIBRARY.RU/РИНЦ Open Academic Journal Indexing (OAJI) ISSN 2535-0145 (Online) CiteFactor

Cover Design: Stanislav Hristov; Printing: Printing House LtD; ISSN 2534-9597 (Print) ISSN 2535-0145 (Online) JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences International Scientific Journal International Scientific Journal Published and financially supported by the National Sports Academy, Sofia, Bulgaria Published and financially supported by the National Sports Academy, Sofia, Bulgaria Editor in chief: Prof. Tatiana Iancheva, DSc Editorial Board Prof. J. P. Verma, PhD Prof. Dr. Nikolay Boyadzhiev, PhD Lakshmibia National Institute of Physical Education (Deemed Medical University – Plovdiv, Bulgaria University), India Prof. Yana Simova, PhD Prof. Sidonio Serpa, PhD Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski” University of Lisbon – Medical Faculty, Sofia, Bulgaria Indexed in: Faculty of Human Kinetics, Portugal Assoc. Prof. Vladimir Grigorov, PhD Prof. Vassil Girginov, PhD University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa Brunel University London Prof. Lence Aleksovska - Velickovska, PhD College of Health and Life Sciences, UK Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopije, Prof. Matthew J. Robinson, PhD Republic of Macedonia University of Delaware, USA Prof. Dr. Emin Ergen Prof. Kairat Zakirianov, Kazakh Academy Rehabilitation and Sports Medicine Clinic in Doha, Qatar of Sports & Tourism, Kazakhstan Prof. Argon Cuka, PhD Prof. Trayana Djarova – Daniels, PhD Sports University of Tirana, Albania University of Zululand, South Africa Prof. Vladimir Koprivica, PhD Prof. Luis Miguel Ruiz, PhD University “UNION-Nikola Tesla”, Serbia Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport-INEF, Prof. Srećko Jovanović, PhD Technical University of Madrid, Spain University “UNION-Nikola Tesla”, Serbia Prof. Janis Zidenas, Latvian Academy of Sport Education, Prof. Sebahattin Devecioğlu Latvia Firat University, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Prof. Milovan Bratic, PhD Turkey Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Prof. Mehmet Gunay University of Nis, Serbia Gazi Universitesi, Turkey Prof. Juris Grants, PhD Dr. Maria Efstratopoulou, PhD Latvian Academy of Sport Education, Latvia Bishop Grosseteste University, UK Prof. Pencho Geshev, PhD Prof. Biser Tzolov, PhD National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Prof. Nikolay Izov, PhD Prof. Evgenia Dimitrova, DSc National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Prof. Apostol Slavchev, PhD Prof. Rumian Hristov, DSc National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Prof. Krasimir Petkov, PhD Prof. Bonka Dimitrova, PhD National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Prof. Ognyan Miladinov, DSc Prof. Diana Dimitrova, PhD National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Prof. Ivan Maznev, PhD Prof. Daniela Lyubenova, PhD National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Prof. Daniela Dasheva, DSc Prof. Dimitar Mihaylov, PhD National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Editor in chief: Prof. Latchezar Dimitrov, PhD Assoc. Prof. Albena Alexandrova, PhD National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Prof. Tatiana Iancheva, DSc Prof. Svilen Neykov, DSc Assoc. Prof. Zdravko Stefanov, PhD National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Prof. Kiril Andonov, DSc Assoc. Prof. Karolina Lazarova, PhD National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Publisher: NSA Press Indexed in: Cover Design: Stanislav Hristov Index Copernicus Directory of Research Journals Indexing (DRJI) Printing: Printing House LtD Scientific Indexing Services (SIS) ISSN 2534-9597 (Print) Научная электронная библиотека eLIBRARY.RU/РИНЦ Open Academic Journal Indexing (OAJI) ISSN 2535-0145 (Online) CiteFactor

Cover Design: Stanislav Hristov; Printing: Printing House LtD; ISSN 2534-9597 (Print) ISSN 2535-0145 (Online) INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL SPORTS ACADEMY (NSA), SOFIA, BULGARIA

JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences

Vol. 1 July, 2019 www.journal.nsa.bg

CONTENTS

MODIFIED FIELD TEST FOR DETERMINING 3-12 THE SPECIFIC ENDURANCE IN RHYTHMIC GYMNASTICS Maria Gateva STUDY OF THE RELAXING EFFECT 13-25 OF SLOW-DYNAMIC GYMNASTIC EXERCISES Vladimir Angelov IMPROVEMENT OF THE SYSTEM FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF 26-38 FLEXIBILITY OF 10-12-YEAR OLD MALE ARTISTIC GYMNASTS Georgi Sergiev NUTRITIONAL STATUS AND BODY COMPOSITION 39-52 OF YOUNG ARTISTIC GYMNASTS FROM BULGARIA Stefan Kolimechkov, Iliya Yanev, Iliya Kiuchukov, Lubomir Petrov, Albena Alexandrova, Dilyana Zaykova, Emil Stoimenov COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF MOTOR COORDINATION ABILITIES 53-65 OF 9-10-YEAR OLD BOYS ON THE BASIS OF REGIONAL (DEMOGRAPHYC) BENCHMARK CONTEXT Nikolina Tankoucheva EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY AIMED 66-76 AT IMPROVING THE FRONT-LEG KICK SPEED IN KARATE Radoslav Penov, Milen Chalakov FACTOR STRUCTURE AND MAJOR FACTORS 77-84 OF PHYSICAL ABILITY OF 13-14-YEAR-OLD PUPILS Mariana Borukova EFFECT OF HIP ADDUCTORS ON BASKETBALL 85-90 PLAYERS BALANCE Rumiana Tasheva, Georgi Mitrev FUNCTIONAL EFFICIENCY 91-98 OF ATHLETES IN MIDDLE DISTANCE RUNNING Ivaylo Lazarov SPEED-STRENGTH RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN 99-107 ROWING ON ERGOMETER AND CLEAN PULL EXERCISE Oleg Hristov A TIME-MOTION ANALYSIS 108-121 OF THE FOOTBALL WORLD CUP IN RUSSIA 2018 Petar Peev, Vasil Tsvetkov, Nestor Youroukov EVALUATING THE MOTOR COMPETENCE 122-130 OF HEARING IMPAIRED PRIMARY SCHOOL STUDENTS Mirela Hristova ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE ENHANCING ACE, ACTN3, 131-149 AMPD1 GENETIC MARKERS, FITNESS CHARACTERISTICS, C-REACTIVE PROTEIN AND URIC ACID OF CRICKET, NETBALL, RUGBY AND SOCCER PLAYERS: A REVIEW Sam Chenjerai Mugandani PULSE TRANSIT TIME - RELIABLE MARKER 150-156 FOR SLEEP DISTURBANCES AMONG ATHLETES Krassimir Rankov GENERAL HEALTH PREDICTION FROM BURNOUT 157-163 AND EMPLOYMENT STATUS OF PRIVATE HEALTH AND FIT NESS CENTERS’ EMPLOYEES Yannis Georgiou, Aggeliki Fotiou STANDARTS AND 164-179 DYNAMICS IN SPORTS WEBSITES ONLINE EDITING Efrem Karanfilov AUTHOR’S GUIDELINES 180-186

ISSN 2534-9597 (Print) ISSN 2535-0145 (Online) JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 MODIFIED FIELD TEST FOR DETERMINING THE SPECIFIC ENDURANCE IN RHYTHMIC GYMNASTICS Maria Gateva National Sports Academy „Vassil Levski”, Sofia, Bulgaria

ABSTRACT Several attempts have been made in the past years to create adequate tests in order to de­ terminate the fitness level of the athletes in the gymnastics disciplines. Considering the high- intensity movements and the total routine time, we hypostatized that anaerobic metabolism is a determinant for rhythmic gymnastics performance. Based on the physiological indicators of a competitive routine the aim of this study was to create a reliable and valid specific field test to measure the fitness level (specific endurance) of the rhythmic gymnasts competing at national and international level. 12 high level gymnasts aged 15.7 ± 2.1 were involved in this study. The testing was done twice – once in the preparatory and second time in the competitive period. Two tests were performed in the field – the specific anaerobic test and a competitive routine. The heart rate and the blood lactate were recorded during and after the load. Specific endurance gymnastics field test is a sim­ ple routine including specific but very basic rhythmic gymnastics exercises from each body group – steps; waves; balances; pivots; leaps and acrobatic elements with very low level of difficulties. The maximal blood lactate concentration levels recorded in both tests and periods did not show any significant difference and varied between 7.2 to 8.4 mmol/l. All of the heart rate values after the loads indicated high work intensity – above 185 bpm. There were significant differences in both exercises (specific test & routine) between the preparatory and the competitive routine. The heart rate clearly showed adaptation of the cardiovascular system towards the load when tapering into the peak performance period. The suggested test is a standard field test suitable for active, mid to high level rhythmic gymnasts aged above 12 years which can measure the current specific endurance of a gymnast and compare it with her previous testing or gymnasts.

Key words: rhythmic gymnastics, specific endurance, field test, blood lactate, heart rate

INTRODUCTION intensity of a typical AG competition. Several attempts have been made in the Sleeper et al. (2012) applied a whole bat- past years to create adequate tests in order to tery of tests in order to measure the fitness determinate the fitness level of the athletes in level in women’s artistic gymnastics. There is the gymnastics disciplines. There is a field test no doubt that strength, flexibility, mechanical in aerobic gymnastics, for example, that mea- and anaerobic powers are the primary factors sures the anaerobic metabolism performance in artistic gymnastics performance (Jemni et known also as Borelli’s test (Alves et al., al., 2011). Some authors (Marina, Rodríguez, 2015). It consists of specific gymnastics ele- 2014), though, suggested that modern female ments performed in maximal repeated sprint competitive gymnastics imposes higher car- fashion, during a total timeframe of 80–90 sec dio-respiratory and metabolic demands than which aims at simulating the total duration and previously supposed.

Journal of Applied Sports Sciences 3 DOI: 10.37393/jass.2019.01.1 2019, Vol. 1, pp. 3-12 ISSN 2534-9597 (Print), ISSN 2535-0145 (Online) MODIFIED FIELD TEST ... M. Gateva

Several authors have tried to identify the study was to create a reliable and valid specific volume of internal load during the competi- field test to measure the fitness level (specific tive program (routine) of rhythmic gymnasts endurance) of the rhythmic gymnasts compet- (Gateva, 2014 & 2015; Fernández-Villarino et ing at national and international level. al., 2018). A statistical approach highlights the significance of aerobic and anaerobic metabo- METHODS lism (high energy phosphate and glycolysis) Subjects for successful performance in rhythmic gym- 12 high level gymnasts (some in the Bul- nastics (Douda et al., 2008). The same authors garian National team) aged 15.7 ± 2.1 were recorded significant (high) correlation between involved in this study. The competitors were the maximal oxygen consumption and the sport category “elite” from Levski Triaditsa sports result as continuous maximal exercise for 60 club in Sofia, training 30 to 35 h per week. The to 90 seconds required aerobic metabolism. In testing was done twice – once in the prepara- concordance, Guidetti et al. (2000) found that tory period and second time in the competitive the most taxed energy source during the ball period. Two tests were performed in the field routine was aerobic, which enabled athletes to – the specific anaerobic test and a competitive perform high-intensity rhythmic gymnastics routine. Parental permission and informed routines and also pointed out the importance of consent were obtained from all participants. anaerobic metabolism. Training sessions and The collected data were used in two ways programs require gymnasts to have endurance – to check the validity of the test compared to in force production in rhythmic gymnastics other test as well as to determinate the sensibil- (Polat, Günay, 2016). The routines have a short ity of the test (comparing the values between duration and the exercise intensity is maximal preparatory and competitive period to see if at some moments (Batista et al., 2018). The the positive changes from tapering in peak per- load during the competitive routine in rhyth- formance are determined by the test). mic gymnastics has very high demands on the Instruments anaerobic system (Manos, et al., 2012) – blood Heart rate was recorded by POLAR RCX3. lactate concentration after a group routine is The recording started at rest and continued un- up to 12.2 mmol/l. Similar and even higher til 10 min post exercise (recovery period). A results were obtained with the Bulgarian na- drop of blood sample was taken from the fin- tional team (Nikolov, Katelieva, 2004). gertip to measure blood lactate using an Ac- Wingate test is used in artistic and aerobic cutrend Plus Roche. Lactate was taken before gymnastics to measure the anaerobic power of and at the 3rd, 5th and the 9th min during the the athletes. In rhythmic gymnastics, though, recovery period. this test is not adequate because it is designed towards more power orientated specific sports. Study design

VO2max is not appropriate either, as it mea- Specific endurance gymnastics field test is sures the aerobic capacity. Considering the a simple routine including specific but very ba- high-intensity movements and the total routine sic rhythmic gymnastics exercises from each time, we hypostatized that anaerobic metabo- body group – steps; waves; balances; pivots; lism is a determinant for rhythmic gymnastics jumps & leaps and acrobatic elements with performance. Based on the physiological indi- very low level of difficulties. We investigated cators of a competitive routine the aim of this if the load during the test would match the ef-

4 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 fect of performing a real gymnastics routine performed on the standard RG carpet 13 x 13 m. regarding the HR and blood lactate values The presented 21 exercises in table 1 are 59 sec from both executions in both periods (prepa- long and in order to perform them in tempo the ratory & competitive). song „We Will Rock You” by Queen was played (84 bpm). The route is repeated twice to reach Warm up the target time of 2 min. (1.58 min). It is com- The test was carried out at the beginning of posed of typical basic exercises for rhythmic the training sessions after a 30 min warm up, gymnastics where the order of the performed followed by a 10 min specifi c warm up prior elements is based on the choreographic deci- to each of the two routines. After the comple- sions and alternation of the elements from the tion of the fi rst test the gymnasts were given a different body groups. All of the specifi c exer- passive recovery period for 10 min. The next cise groups are displayed in this routine with fi eld test was done after 20 min. low level of diffi culty and structure close to the Description of the test (Author test) – spe- competitive one. The aim of the test is to achieve cifi c endurance rhythmic gymnastics fi eld test. the closest possible dynamics and kinematics of The total duration of the routine is 1.58 min the rhythm in a gymnastics routine. Table 1. Description of the specifi c endurance rhythmic gymnastics fi eld test 1. 4 chassé 8. Vertical & 15. Chaîné with the star jump right & left 2 times (in leg one place) 2. Vertical 9. Backwards 16. Cart- jump with walkover wheel 360° turn to squad

3. Split leap 10. Side split 17. Pike dive with leap on jump forward roll hands 4. Passé 11. 3 split 18. Back- balance leaps in a wards roll (with body chassé) wave 5. Two 12. Side roll 19. 360° en chaînés dehors passé pivot 6. Body wave 13. Forwards 20. 3 turning forwards walkover cat leaps

7. 2 illusions 14. Ara- 21. 360° en besque dedans balance passé pivot

5 MODIFIED FIELD TEST ... M. Gateva

Figure 1. Directions and illustration of the specifi c endurance rhythmic gymnastics fi eld test

Statistical analysis periods – preparatory & competitive period. Descriptive statistics was used to charac- The level of signifi cance of p < 0.05 was ad- terize the physiological reaction during and af- opted in all cases. ter applying the tests and routines in rhythmic RESULTS gymnastics. The values of heart rate and blood lactate Pearson’s correlation coeffi cient mea- concentration measured during and after the sures the relationship between the competitive specifi c endurance test on the fi eld and the routine and our specifi ed fi eld test (routine) competitive gymnastic routines in both peri- based on the heart rate and blood lactate re- ods are summarized in the fi gures and tables sults. Student’s paired t-test was applied to below. The maximal blood lactate concen- fi nd differences in heart rate monitoring and tration levels recorded in both tests and peri- blood lactate measurements between the two ods did not show any signifi cant difference.

6 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019

Figure 2. Blood lactate levels after specific test & routine

A very strong correlation in blood lactate in- between the specific test and the competitive dicator during the competitive period was found routine but not in the preparatory period.

Figure 3. Pearson correlation coefficient – blood lactate concentration in competitive period

Moderate correlation was recorded in exercises (specific test & routine) between the peak heart rate values in both testing – in the preparatory and the competitive routine. preparatory and in competitive period. All The heart rate clearly showed adaptation of of the heart rate values after the loads indi- the cardiovascular system towards the load cated high work intensity – above 185 bpm. when tapering into the peak performance There were significant differences in both period.

7 MODIFIED FIELD TEST ... M. Gateva

Figure 4. Heart rate values after specific test & routine

Figure 5. Heart rate values during specific test & routine - preparation period

Figure 6. Heart rate values during specific test & routine - competition period

8 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019

In figures 5&6 we can quite clearly see the system but with lower values than the gym- cardio-dynamic and fast phases of the heart nastics routine. We have to keep in mind that rate at the begginig of the tests. After the the competitive routine is performed with ap- first 30 sec of the load, values continued to paratus in hands while the modified routine rise slowly with just 20 b/min up to the end is free of apparatus, so the intensity of load of the tests. The specific endurance test pro- in the upper body during the RG competitive voked similar response in the cardio-vascular routine is higher. Table 2. Descriptive statistics of the HR and concentration of the blood lactate after the load Test HR HR HR La mean La La mean (SD) min. max. (SD) min. max. (b/min) (b/min) (b/min) (mmol/L) (mmol/L) (mmol/L) Modified routine PP 190.1 (±5.4) 182 200 7.2 (±2.5) 4.6 11.5 Gymnastics routine 194.1 (±4.2) 187 200 8.7 (±2.3) 5.7 12.8 PP Modified routine CP 186.3 (±4.9) 179 197 7.5 (±2.5) 4.4 11.4 Gymnastics routine 188.1 ( ±4.0) 181 194 7.2 (±2.2) 5.0 11.7 CP PP – preparatory period; CP – competitive period

Table 3. Heart rate dynamics during the testing (means ± SD) Specific modified field test Gymnastics routine t (min) Preparation Competitive Preparation Competitive period period period Period 00:00 129.8 (±17.1) 130.7 (±13.6) 146.7 (±10.9) 132.9 (±17.6) 00:15 153.1 (±15.6) 153.5 (±9.1) 160.8 (±11.6) 152.5 (±10.7) * 00:30 168.8 (±9.1) 167.2 (±5.2) 176.9 ( ±7.5) 173.1 ( ±6.4) 00:45 178.3 (±8.4) 174.8 (±4.5) * 185.8 (±5.3) 180.5 ( ±5.3) * 01:00 184.0 (±6.9) 179.4 (±5.2) ** 189.5 (±4.9) 184.5 ( ±4.0) * 01:15 187.9 (±6.0) 183.0 (±5.1) ** 191.5 (±4.2) 186.1 ( ±4.1) * 01:30 187.2 (±5.5) 182.8 (±4.6) ** 194.1 (±4.2) 188.1 ( ±4.0) ** 01:45 188.6 (±5.7) 183.8 (±4.8) ** 02:00 190.1 (±5.4) 186.3 (±4.9) ** *p < 0.05 significant difference between the periods **p < 0.01 significant difference between the periods

DISCUSSION test. Mackenzie, B. (2005) presents various We hope that not only the laboratory exam- field tests to determine the fitness level of the ination but also the field gymnastic “specific athletes (Harvard step test; Home step test; 3 anaerobic” test provide valuable information min step test; ect.). about the actual level of anaerobic abilities of Gymnastics has been proven to be an an- the gymnasts and their changes during train- aerobic sport despite some discussions and ing. Heller, et al. (1998) considers that the field different opinions. The duration of a rhyth- test of 30-s repetitive jumping performance mic gymnast’ routine is 90 sec with high in- may be used as a simplified measure of an- tensity of the execution. For that period ap- aerobic capacity, because of its close relation- proximately 90 to 100 different exercises are ship to the standard laboratory 30 s Wingate performed with body and apparatus with high

9 MODIFIED FIELD TEST ... M. Gateva level of difficulty (Petrova, 2015). Anaerobic Analysing the curve of the heart rate we con- lactic system is the main provider of energy sidered that from this moment the aerobic for exercises lasting from 10 to 60 sec and mechanism started to be the supplier of en- the aerobic system requires 60 to 80 sec to ergy for the remaining part of the routine. Al- start producing energy (Bompa, Buzzicheli, though the values of the heart rate were lower 2015). There is an increasing contribution with 3 to 5 bpm for the specific endurance test of the anaerobic metabolism in gymnastics (the routine still showed higher demands on (Jemni et al., 2011). The training sessions in the gymnasts’ body systems) we consider our rhythmic gymnastics are in aerobic regime attempt to measure the sport-specific physi- of work (Gateva, 2008) but the competitive cal abilities (specific endurance) a successful programs (routines) which are repeated many one. The two curves of the heart rate response times per training session have submaximal towards the physical load are identical. The demand based on the tested indicators. The test is applicable as it is standardized and with aerobic fitness a gymnast may possess will the predetermined exercises all gymnasts will show how quickly gymnasts recover between have the same physical load and we can com- high intensity load such as routines or part pare the athletes to one another. As the test of the routines. The blood lactate shows the was set by a certain tempo we still can talk anaerobic involvement of the body systems about specific endurance in rhythmic- gym into the measured physical loads. Although nastics. If we ask the gymnasts to perform it there is no significant difference between the with maximal speed, then it can be an anaer- tests and periods, in the preparatory period obic endurance. The presented test is infor- the concentration of blood lactate is slightly mative and gives the opportunity to compare lower in the specific test (7.4 mmol/l) than in the result from previous testing or to com- the routine (8.4 mmol/l) but in the competi- pare the specific endurance between different tive period it is decreased in the value of the gymnasts. It is expected that with appropriate routine and we have recorded similar value training between each test, the analysis would for the specific test. By rehearsing the same indicate an improvement. skills and routines the gymnast becomes in- Further research is needed to continue the creasingly “economical” (Jemni et al., 2011) process of establishing the various types of re- – in this case the competitive routine was liability and validity of the test. practised many times per day in comparison with the specific endurance test which was CONCLUSIONS not performed at all. Despite all the contra- The suggested test is a standard field test dictive opinions about the reliability of the suitable for active, mid to high level rhyth- heart rate, some authors consider it as a useful mic gymnasts aged above 12 years which can first approach to assess exercise intensity in measure the current specific endurance of a technical-combinatory sports such as gym- gymnast and compare it with her previous nastics (Marina, Rodríguez, 2014). For oth- testing. It can also be used to compare the ers, heart rate is a significant variable used specific endurance between different rhyth- to explain performance in gymnastics (Douda mic gymnasts. Further investigation is needed et al., 2008). The results from the heart rate to determine the correlation between the pro- show that we have a certain type of a pla- posed test and the sports achievement. The teau – from the 45th sec of the loads onwards. blood lactate is the best indicator for the an-

10 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 aerobic regime of work of the physical activi- siology, Vol. 4, pp. 40-44. ties in the study. The test can also be applied Gateva, M. (2015). Test to determinate with several applications – to develop the an- the fitness level in rhythmic gymnastics. Sport aerobic power (endurance) when requested Mont, XIII (43-44-45), pp. 63-69. to perform at maximal speed; to develop the Guidetti L, Baldari C, Capranica L, Per- aerobic endurance when performed with nor- sichini C, Figura F. Energy cost and energy mal tempo (84 bpm) with several repetitions source of ball routine in rhythmic gymnasts. without resting period. Int J Sports Med. 2000; Vol. 21, pp. 205–209. Jemni, M., Sands, W., Salmela, J., Holvoet. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS P., Gateva, M. (2011). The Science of Gymnas­ Supported by Grant (con tract № 373/13.06.2012) from the Natio nal Sports tics, Routledge, Oxon. Academy and Ministry of Education (Bul- Fernández-Villarino, M., Hernaiz-Sán- garia). chez, A., Sierra-Palmeiro, E., Bobo-Arce, M. (2018). Performance indicators in individual REFERENCES rhythmic gymnastics: correlations in compe- Alves, C., Borelli, M., Paineli, V., Azeve- tition, Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, do, R., Borelli, C., Lancha Junior, A., Gual- 13(3), pp. 487-493. ano, B., Artioli, G. (2015). Development of Heller, J., Tûma, Z., Dlouhá, R., Bunc, V. a Specific Anaerobic Field Test for Aerobic and Nováková, N. (1998). Anaerobic capac- Gymnastics. PLoS One, DOI:10.1371/Journal. ity in elite male and female gymnasts. Acta pone.0123115 April 13, 2015. Universitatis Carolinae – Kinanthropologi­ Batista, A., Gomes Natacha, Garganta R., ca, Vol. 34, 2. Avila-Carvalho, L., (2018). Training intensi- Mackenzie, B. (2005). 101 Performance ty of group in rhythmic gymnastics. Science, Evaluation Tests. Electric Word plc, London. movement and health, Vol. XVIII, Issue 1, 18 Manos, M., Grigore, V., Popescu, L. (1): 17-24. (2012). Study about the energy expenditure Bompa, T., Buzzicheli, C. (2015). Perio­ assessment in rhythmic gymnastics. Science, di zation of sport training, Human Kinetics, movement and health, Vol. XII, No. 2. Champaign, IL. Marina, M., Rodríguez, F. (2014). Physi- Douda, H., Toubekis, A., Avloniti, A., Tok- ological demands of young women’s competi- makidis, S. (2008). Physiological and Anhtro- tive gymnastic routines, Biology of Sport, Vol. pometric Determinants of Rhythmic Gym- 31 No3, pp. 217-222. nastics Performance. International Journal of Polat, S., Günay, M. (2016). Comparison Sports Physiology and Performance, Human of Eight Weeks Rhythmic Gymnastics, Pilates Kinetics, Inc. Vol. 3, pp. 41-54. and Combined Training in Terms of Some Gateva, M. (2008). Examination of the Physical, Physiological and Motoric Param- training loading in rhythmic gymnastics and eters, International Journal of Human Move­ perfecting the training methods. Doctoral dis- ment and Sports Sciences, Vol. 4 No. 4, pp. sertation. National Sports Academy, Sofia. 61-69. Gateva, M. (2014). Investigation of the Sleeper, M., Kenyon, l., Casey, E. (2012). effect of the training load on the athletes in Measuring fitness in female gymnasts: the rhythmic and aesthetic group gymnastics dur- Gymnastics functional measurement tool. The ing the preparation period. Research in Kine­ international journal of sports physical thera­

11 MODIFIED FIELD TEST ... M. Gateva py, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 124-138. vachnoto natovarvane na natsionalnia otbor Nikolov, V., Karelieva, D. (2004). Plani- po hydojestvena gimnastika jeni – individy- rane na trenirovachnotot natovarvane, III alno za 2011 i za 2014 g., Sofia, NSA, DR. mejdynaroden naychen kongres Sport, Stres, // Петрова, М. (2015). Динамика на трени- Adaptatsia, Sofia. //Николов, В., Кателиева, ровъчното натоварване на националният Д. (2004). Планиране на тренировъчното отбор по художествена гимнастика жени натоварване, III-ти международен научен – ин ди ви дуално за 2011 год. и за 2014 год. конгрес Спорт, Стрес, Адаптация, София. София, НСА, ДР. Petrova, M. (2015). Dinamika na treniro-

Corresponding author:

Maria Gateva Department of Gymnastics National Sports Academy „Vassil Levski” Studentski grad, 21, Acad. Stefan Mladenov str. Sofia 1700, Bulgaria E-mail: [email protected]

12 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 STUDY OF THE RELAXING EFFECT OF SLOW-DYNAMIC GYMNASTIC EXERCISES Vladimir Angelov National Sports Academy „Vassil Levski”, Sofia, Bulgaria

ABSTRACT Introduction: The relaxation is a psychophysiological state of a person and in particular of athletes. On the basis of the literature sources, two main types of relaxation can be defined – physi­ cal and mental. Physical relaxation can be employed to reduce muscular tension and to improve coordination during the performance. It can be suggested that this psychophysiological state cre­ ates appropriate conditions for the development of flexibility, speed and all psychomotor qualities. That’s why an alternative new means with relaxing effect in this study will be investigated. Aim: The aim of the study is to prove that the slow-dynamic gymnastic exercises practice leads to reduction of muscular tension. According to the hypothesis of the research, the applica­ tion of the mentioned exercises will increase the performers’ sense of relaxation. The object of the study is a specialized set of gymnastic exercises which includes dynamic gymnastic exercises performed with slow movements and holding of static poses. Methods: The assessment of the relaxation degree was made through physiological and psychological parameters. The collected physiological data included heart rate, breathing fre­ quency, blood pressure, and finger skin temperature measurement. The psychological data were assessed with Spielberger State Anxiety Inventory and four-point Likert type scale for self-rated relaxation. The measurements were made before and after the execution of the exercises. Results: Statistically significant changes were found for all variables studied, except systolic blood pressure. The comparison of the collected data from the two measurements showed the greatest differences in three indicators after the application of slow-dynamic gymnastic exer­ cises – a decrease in the Spielberger Inventory results (-7.3 points, p<0.05), a decrease in the heart rate (-6 bpm, p<0.05) and an increase in the finger skin temperature of both hands (left: 3.5°, right: 3.8°, p<0.05). Conclusion: In conclusion, the established results confirm the hypothesis of the study and prove the relaxing effect of the slow-dynamic gymnastic exercises.

Key words: relaxation degree, types of relaxation, psychophysiological reactions, relaxation techniques, and specialized set of gymnastic exercises

INTRODUCTION relaxation and its role in sports practice, types This article presents the results from a pi- of relaxation, ways to achieve the relaxing ef- lot research on the effect of the application of fect, physiological and psychological reactions a specialized set of slow-dynamic gymnastic of relaxation, benefits of relaxation, and meth- exercises. The main aim of the study is proving ods for assessment of the level of relaxation. the relaxing effect of a distinct type of gymnas- The literature review allows concluding tic exercises. On this basis, the following ques- that relaxation is a psychophysiological state tions require an answer: what is the nature of of a person and in particular of athletes. Fur-

Journal of Applied Sports Sciences 13 DOI: 10.37393/jass.2019.01.2 2019, Vol. 1, pp. 13-25 ISSN 2534-9597 (Print), ISSN 2535-0145 (Online) STUDY OF THE RELAXING ... V. Angelov thermore, relaxation is a psycho-physiological autogenic training. Thus, the main structural process which is based on an individually groups of relaxation techniques are sum- different reference point on a continuum be- marized (Figure 1). It was established in re- tween activation and deactivation (Vaitl, 2014; search that relaxation led to distinctive long- Weinberg & Gould, 2011). It consists of physi- term effects and it was more than a symptom ological reactions which are an inherent part reduction (Smith, 1999). Previous studies of human behavior. In other studies, relaxation suggested that the greatest effects of relax- was defined as a psychological strategy used ation techniques could be expected when a by sports performers to help manage or reduce symptom precisely matched the specific goal stress-related emotions and physical symp- of the technique (e.g., Davidson & Schwartz, toms during high pressurized situations (Ire- 1976). Despite the fact that each relaxation searchnet.com). technique has its own peculiarities, there are On the basis of the review of the literature three principles common to all methods: (a) sources, two main types of relaxation can be lowering of muscle tone, (b) focusing on defended – physical and mental. Physical re- the present moment and on body sensations, laxation can be employed to reduce muscular and (c) relaxing breathing (Hazlett Stevens, tension and to improve coordination during 2008). There are a lot of surveys indicating the performance. It can be achieved by a vari- that relaxation techniques benefit athletes by ety of relaxation techniques such as breathing enhancing self-confidence, concentration, exercises, progressive muscular relaxation per formance, reducing anxiety and stress, (PMR), and biofeedback (BFB). The men- blo od pressure as well as muscle tension. All tal relaxation focuses primarily on reducing the different relaxation techniques potentially negative emotions such as anxiety. Mental lead to a variety of psychological and physio- relaxation techniques include transcenden- logical changes which are summarized under tal meditation, mindfulness meditation, and the umbrella term relaxation response.

Figure 1. Classification of the relaxation techniques

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The examination of the physiological and ing techniques. Some theories underline that psychological reactions of the body is a ba- applied relaxation derives from behavioral sic approach to determining the relaxation psychology. A pilot study by Catharina Gus- degree. The relaxation response includes a tavsson and Lena von Koch found that the variety of possible psychological and physi- applied relaxation helped better perceived ological changes (Andreassi, 2007). On a control over pain and stress among individu- psychological base, the relaxation response als with long-lasting neck pain. (Gustavsson, includes an increase in the ability to focus, von Koch, 2006). an increase in well-being, a reduction of an- Other important aspects of the successful ger and arousal, a decrease in lack of activa- development of relaxation and psyching-up tion, a possible increase in self-confidence, skills are: appropriately structured mental the establishment of an inner balance, and training sessions, reinforcement of the ath- a possible prevention of insomnia (Smith, letes’ autonomy, and effective integration of 1999). Strategies with predominant cognitive psycho-physiological techniques into sports components were associated with decreases practice (Pineschi, 2010). For successful in the level of uneasiness, self-assessment of development of relaxation and psyching-up anxiety or pain, and an increase in the abil- skills, three stages of a mental training pro- ity to concentrate (Jain et al., 2007). Different gram are required: (a) “learning stage,” in versions of PMR, biofeedback, yoga, and sys- which ath letes learn different techniques and tematic breathing are the most investigated identify those best suited to their needs; (b) techniques in this domain (Kudlackova et al., “training stage,” in which athletes repeat, 2013). Progressive muscle relaxation and its adjust, ma ke automatic and integrate the se- derivations have received the most attention lected techni ques into their training and com- in a scientific context. petition routine; and (c) “application stage,” Further, biofeedback provides the individ- in which athletes use the techniques they have ual with information about bio-signals which learned and practiced in the stressful context are generated by physiological processes in of com petitions (Pineschi, 2010; Pineschi & the body and are generally inaccessible to Di Pietro, 2013). the conscious perception (Lehrer, 2012). The Another key point is the use of relaxation progressive relaxation training-PRT, devel- techniques in sports practice. Petermann and oped by Edmund Jacobson in 1929, noted that Vaitl (2014) reported hypnosis, autogenic mental relaxation resulted from body relax- training, meditational (eastern) techniques, ation (Chevallon, 1995). Similarly, systemat- imagery, progressive muscle relaxation ic breathing (including relaxed basal breath- (PMR) and biofeedback as being the standard ing, diaphragmatic breathing, and abdominal repertoire of techniques which are known to breathing) was reported to be one of the sim- induce relaxation. Following Kudlackova et plest and most effective ways to control anxi- al. (2013), autogenic training, eastern relax- ety and muscle tension (Lewis et al., 2007). ation, and progressive muscle relaxation were A study by Janet Ortiz (2006) showed that the less used techniques compared to deep PMR led to improved putting performance breathing, meditation and imagery in a study among female golfers, while many other investigating the use of relaxation techniques sports showed tremendous improvements in professional and semi-professional sports. following the use of PMR and other breath- The way of assessment of the relaxation

15 STUDY OF THE RELAXING ... V. Angelov degree is the next important point. The review the authors established the relaxation degree of the studies on relaxation and its application achieved through application of recovering showed the importance of this psycho-phys- massage therapy with the help of different in- iological state in sport. The literature review dicators such as evaluation of trunk flexion, shows that specialists have explored differ- heart rate, heart rate variability, blood pres- ent approaches and methods for assessment sure, cortisol level, mood, state anxiety, mus- of the psycho-physiological states. Some sci- cular tension, intensity and pressure thresh- entists aimed to determine the effectiveness old of the musculoskeletal pain, and body of the muscle relaxation program in reducing flexibility (Leivadi et al., 1999; Hasson et al., anxiety and to create an action strategy deal- 2004; Nordschow, Bierman, 1962; Moyer et ing with and alleviating anxiety by using the al., 2004; Braun et al., 2012; Buttagat et al., Competitive Sport Anxiety Inventory and a 2011; Angelov et al., 2016). training program for the progressive muscle The literature review allows generalizing relaxation (Ali, 2015). In another study the the relaxation as a problem of sports theory authors recorded the physiological and psy- and practice where the attention of sports spe- chological responses to the preferred relax- cialists is focused. It can be concluded that ing music by collecting information about the nature of relaxation, the forms of relax- vascular constriction, heart rate, muscle ten- ation, the effects of the application of vari- sion, finger skin temperature and self-rated ous relaxation techniques and the methods relaxation with the Spielberger State Anxiety of assessing the relaxation degree have been Inventory and a seven-point Likert type scale. examined by a number of experts. Neverthe- Results indicated that state anxiety decreased less, supplementing sports theory and meth- and relaxation increased from pre to post-test odology with new facts about how to achieve conditions consistently across trials (Davis, and implement the relaxation in sport practice Thaut, 1989). Brown and Fletcher (2017) ex- will help to improve training programs and to amined the effects of psychological and psy- increase athletes’ opportunities. chosocial interventions on sport performance Therefore, the main idea of this research systematically with a meta-analytical but more was to investigate the new alternative means general approach, revealing that sports per- that lead to relaxing effect. The purpose of formance could benefit from the implementa- the study was to prove that the slow-dynamic tion of those interventions. Contrary to these gymnastic exercises practice leads to reduc- findings, in their review on stress - manage tion of muscular tension. According to the hy- ment techniques (incl. relaxation techniques), pothesis of the research, the application of the Rumbold et al. (2012) reported that evidence mentioned types of exercises will increase the regarding the intervention-performance re- performers’ relaxation. It is important to em- lationship appeared to be weak. They found phasize that the relaxing effect of the new im- that stress management interventions were ef- pact is not the only effect that is aimed by the fective in terms of reducing stressors, modi- application of the specialized gymnastic sets. fying cognitive appraisals, reducing negative Another aspect of the slow-dynamic gymnas- affect states, increasing positive affect states, tic exercises designation, that is not object of and facilitating effective coping behavior but this study, is increasing the body working only had little to no impact on performance. capacity through low-intensity exercises and In some of the reviewed literature sources, less energy expenditure. It can be suggested

16 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 that the additional relaxing effect provides er body posture and develop self-relaxation the necessary and appropriate conditions for skills during the performance of the exercises development of flexibility, speed, coordina- to achieve a greater effect. tion, and other psychomotor qualities. The duration of the gymnastic set is 35 minutes. It includes two parts: a slow-dynam- METHODS ic (30 min) and dynamic (5 min) one. The Participants slow-dynamic part consists of 26 exercises The research was done among 35 Bul- with total influence. Each exercise is repeated garian athletes (5 women and 30 men) aged twice in both directions – left and right. The between 18 and 25 years (21.2 ± 2.2 years) dynamic part consists of 12 exercises for legs who practice acrobatic and trampoline gym- joints and swing movements with the lower nastics. The athletes fulfilled the following limbs that are repeated 9 times with both legs. criteria: a background of systematic training, It is important to note that the performance of continuous training for the previous 3 months the exercises does not require maximum am- with the absence of musculoskeletal injury, plitude and intensity. The movements’ ampli- absence of potential medical problems that tude and intensity have to depend on the mo- could compromise the participation or per- mentary physiological state of the athletes. formance in the study. Participants were in- Both the instructor and the participants do formed about the experimental design of the the set of slow-dynamic gymnastic exercises study. after the instructor shows how to perform them. This helps the participants to elimi- Experimental Design nate the unnecessary tension associated with The set includes dynamic gymnastic exer- memorizing the sequence of the exercises and cises that are performed with slow movements to pay more attention to the correct perfor- with influence on the whole body. The impact mance. of this gymnastic set is implemented through movements and poses that include all types Measure Procedure of muscle contractions: isotonic, isometric, The study was conducted in two types of concentric and eccentric. The gymnastic set conditions. The first condition included initial of exercises used in this study was built on registration of the physiological and psycho- the basis of several principles: a) after doing logical indicators at rest. The second condi- exercises for certain muscle groups, some tion contained a measurement of the same motions for antagonist muscles activation are parameters after the performance of the gym- performed; b) including exercises that have a nastic set of slow-dynamic exercises. pronounced effect on joints’ receptors which The assessment of the relaxation degree distinguishes this type of gymnastics exercis- was made through two parameters groups: es from the standard ones; c) keeping a spe- physiological and psychological. Physiologi- cific body posture during the performance of cal data collected included: heart rate (bpm), the exercises as an important prerequisite for respiratory rate (breaths per minute), blood achieving the desired effect. The basic posi- pressure (mm Hg), and finger skin tempera- tion of the body is the upright position of the ture (°C). The heart rate (HR), systolic blood spine; d) emphasizing the voluntary relax- pressure (SBP), and diastolic blood pressure ation of the muscles during the performance (DBP) were measured with the help of blood of the exercises. One should train for a prop- pressure monitor TRANSTEK TMB-1491-A.

17 STUDY OF THE RELAXING ... V. Angelov

A chronometer MAS-JS-9003 model, maker Wilcoxon test for non-normal data distribu- JUNSO for respiratory rate (RR) measur- tion to find the differences in the variables ing was used. The temperature of the mid- studied were used. The level of significance dle fingertip on the left and right hand was p ≤ 0.05 was adopted in all cases. In addi- measured with infrared thermometer with tion, an effect size was calculated. According laser targeting. The measurement of the men- to the descriptors of magnitudes of the effect tioned physiological indicators was manually size, as initially suggested by Cohen (1988) accomplished in equal conditions: ambient and expanded by Sawilowsky (2009), the fol- temperature – 20-23°, normal humidity, each lowing six degrees of this indicator can be participant in lying position, a skillful exam- defined: very small (0.01), small (0.2), me- iner. The psychological data were assessed dium (0.5), large (0.8), very large (1.2), and with the Spielberger State Anxiety Inventory huge (2). and a four-point Likert type scale for a self- RESULTS rated state of relaxation. The duration of the The values of the physiological and psy- research was one month. chological parameters studied before and af- Data and Statistical Analysis ter the specialized gymnastic set of exercises The collected data from the study were are summarized in Table 1. The HR and di- statistically processed with the statistics astolic BP results were with normal distribu- package SPSS 17.0. The data were descrip- tion. All the rest indicators studied were with tively analyzed (mean ± standard deviation). an abnormal data distribution. The results Shapiro-Wilk (SW) test to determine the nor- were statistically significant, except the val- mality of data distribution was used. Student’s ues of the systolic blood pressure. paired t-test for normal data distribution and

Table 1. Results from the descriptive analysis (mean ± SD). Parameters Initial Final p-values studied measurement measurement Heart rate (bpm) 79.1±7.1 73.1±7.2 <0.05 Respiratory rate 14.9±3.1 14.1±2.5 <0.05 (breaths per minute) Systolic blood pressure 120.2±8.0 119.9±5.0 >0.05 (mm Hg) Diastolic blood pressure 75.1±5.5 77.3±3.5 <0.05 (mm Hg) Finger skin temperature 26.9±4.8 30.4±5.0 <0.05 Left (°C) Finger skin temperature 30.8±4.2 27.0±4.5 <0.05 Right (°C) Spielberger State Anxiety 32.1±8.1 24.8±5.8 <0.05 Inventory (points)

The effect size calculated as a result of the exercises is presented in Figure 2. application of the slow-dynamic gymnastic

18 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019

Figure 2. Effect sizes of the parameters studied: heart rate, breathing rate, systolic and dias- tolic blood pressure, fingertip skin temperature of both hands, and Spielberger State Anxiety In ventory.

The heart rate before (79.1 ± 7.1 bpm) and A comparison of the established mean val- after (73.1 ± 7.2 bpm) the set of slow-dynamic ues of the blood pressure was made. The results gymnastic exercises performance was one of the obtained were statistically insignificant for the main parameters used to prove the relaxing ef- systolic BP and statistically significant for the fect. For confirming the hypothesis of the study, diastolic BP. The systolic blood pressure data the statistically significant difference between show that the mean values before the gymnas- the initial and the final HR after the new impact tic set performance was 120.2 ± 8.0 mmHg and was established (-6 bpm; p<0.05). The value of after the slow-dynamic exercises was 119.9 ± this indicator was decreased with 6 bpm as a 5.0 mmHg. A low difference between the initial result of slow-dynamic exercises performance. and final measure procedure was established. The effect size of the established heart rate was The decrease in this indicator after the applica- -0.84. On the basis of the described effect size tion of the specialized gymnastic complex was degrees, the heart rate effect size was large. small (SBP: -0.3 mmHg, p>0.05). The effect Next, a statistically significant difference size calculated was very small (-0.04). These between the initial and the final respiratory facts allow making a conclusion for the lack of rate was established (-0.8 breaths per minute; effect of the new impact on the systolic blood p<0.05) to define the result of the new impact. pressure. The mean value of the diastolic blood The mean value from the initial measurement pressure from the initial measurement was 75.1 was 14.9 ± 3.1 breaths per minute, and the value ± 5.5 mmHg, and the value from the final mea- from the final measurement was 14.1 ± 2.5. The surement was 77.3 ± 3.5 mmHg. The data col- effect size of the breathing frequency calculated lected for this indicator showed an increase in (-0.28) shows a small degree of this indicator. the values with 2.2 mmHg (p<0.05) as a result

19 STUDY OF THE RELAXING ... V. Angelov of slow-dynamic gymnastic exercises perfor- new impact on the physical relaxation stimula- mance. The medium degree of the effect size for tion and the decrease in state stress. Addition- this parameter was calculated (0.39). It is obvi- ally, we can suggest that the application of this ous that the new impact causes greater changes type of exercises leads to enhancing the regula- in diastolic blood pressure. tory capacity of the nervous system, improving A statistically significant difference in the the peripheral blood circulation, stimulating the registered finger skin temperature before and af- recovery processes, improving the working ca- ter the new impact was found. The measuring of pacity and functioning of the locomotor system. this parameter in the two conditions of the study In this study, the focus is on proving the relaxing showed similar results between the temperature effect of the slow-dynamic gymnastic exercises. of the left and right finger. The initial values re- The realization of the main task of this study corded were 26.9 ± 4.8° for the left and 27.0 ± was implemented through the functional mea- 4.5° for the right hand. The values established suring of heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pres- after the new impact were respectively 30.4 ± sure, finger skin temperature, and state anxiety 5.0° and 30.8 ± 4.2° for the left and right finger. as indicators for determining the relaxation de- An increase of this parameter after the slow-dy- gree. The literature review showed that the heart namic gymnastic exercises performance was es- rate is a widely used parameter for assessing the tablished (left finger: 3.5°, p<0.05; right finger: physiological response of the body and mind as 3.8°, p<0.05). The effect size degree was large a result of different types of influences. The re- (left finger: 0.72; right finger: 0.76). search approach in this article has a certain sim- Next, the collected data from the Spiel- ilarity to an idea of the reviewed study, which berger State Anxiety Inventory was analyzed aimed to investigate possible effects of mechan- with the help of a four-point Likert type scale ical massage and mental training through heart for self-rated relaxation (Table 1 and Figure 2). rate, blood pressure and fingertip temperature The results obtained on the basis of the subjec- measurement (Muller et al., 2016). Another tive sensations before and after the new impact argument in favor of the chosen indicators for were statistically significant. The analysis of the the assessment of the relaxation level was their answers from the self-assessment questionary easily and timely application. The results ob- on the state anxiety shows that before the new tained were processed and analyzed quickly and impact, the average value of this indicator was easily. It is known that the heart rate depends 32.1 ± 8.1 points, and after the performance of on various external factors. Nevertheless, the the specialized set of gymnastic exercises it de- application of this indicator is appropriate for creased to 24.8 ± 5.8 points. The difference be- comparison of initial and final physiological tween the initial and the final state anxiety was state – before and after the performance of spe- established (-7.3 points; p<0.05). A very large cialized gymnastic set of exercises. State Anxi- effect size was calculated (-0.91). ety Spielberger Inventory was chosen to assess the subjective aspect of the relaxation degree DISCUSSION because of its easy and rapid applicability. In The key findings of this study were in regard future studies, additional psychological meth- to the positive physiological and psychological odologies to assess the subjective sensations effects from the execution of slow-dynamic of the participants in regard to the relaxation gymnastic set of exercises. On this basis, the degree will be used. A study examined in the main task was to prove the effectiveness of the literature review sparks an interest by adapting

20 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 methods for collecting such kind of data in sport that if the duration of the set of slow-dynamic (Iancheva, Yordanov, 2011). gymnastic exercises is longer, the difference be- The results from the two conditions of the tween the two parameters in the two conditions study were analyzed. It was expected that the of the study could be bigger. In this connection, relaxing effect of the new impact would be es- it is logical to assume that the extended impact tablished. time will also increase the effect on the other The recorded heart rate delay was expected examined indicators. It can be concluded that because the application of the slow-dynamic respiratory rate and systolic blood pressure are gymnastic exercises activates the parasympa- parameters less influenced by the application of thetic nervous system. Similar results were ob- the slow-dynamic gymnastic exercises. tained after the application of massage therapy We can conclude that the established results which are described in some of the studies cited in of the fingertip skin temperature are in favor the literature review (Braun et al., 2012; Kaye et of the new impact. It is obvious that the slow- al., 2008; Chompoopan, Eungpinichpong, 2016; dynamic gymnastic exercises performance leads Pinar, Afsar, 2015; Pystupa, 2013; Supa’at et al., to an increase in the finger skin temperature of 2013; Muller et al., 2016; Paschoala, 2016). It both arms. This means that peripheral blood can be summarized that the issue of reliability circulation is improved. On this basis, it can be of the heart rate as an indicator for assessment concluded that the relaxation degree has also of the psychosomatic states can be discussed as increased. Another interesting point about this it depends on many external factors. In this con- indicator is the established results of asymmetry nection, in similar future research, the method between the finger skin temperature of the left of the variability of the heart rate will be used. and right hand, which after the application of the The lower respiratory rate recorded after the new impact, not only increased but also became execution of the specialized gymnastic set of ex- symmetrical in relation to both hands. This issue ercises can be viewed as a positive result even deserves more attention and it will be explored though the difference established is less than one in future studies. breathing cycle and the effect size is small. All of The positive result of the Spielberger State the above mentioned respiratory rate results are Anxiety Inventory can be determined as unex- not impressive but they indicate the existence of pected. The greatest effect size for this psycho- a relaxing effect after the application of slow- logical indicator in comparison with the other dynamic exercises. parameters studied was calculated. The psycho- An interesting fact is that some participants’ logical data also confirmed that the slow-dy- values of the blood pressure from the initial namic gymnastic exercises performance leads measurement deviated from the norm, whereas to a relaxing effect and reduces state anxiety. after the performance of the complex of slow- The analysis of the collected data did not in- dynamic gymnastic exercises these values were clude a study of the relation between the results normal. For this reason, the effect of the new im- of the men and the women. This will be done in pact on the blood pressure will be investigated in future research with more female participants. further studies with larger and more diverse sam- This study found that slow-dynamic gym- ples. It is possible that the reason for the small nastic exercises have a relaxing effect. Further- change in the results of the commented respira- more, the performance of these exercises can be tory rate and systolic blood pressure before and used as a means of influence on the two types of after the new impact is its duration. We suppose relaxation – physical and mental. The decrease

21 STUDY OF THE RELAXING ... V. Angelov in the heart rate mean values and the increase emphasis is on the training of self-perception of in the fingers skin temperature after application muscular sensations has greater effects on so- of slow-dynamic exercises proves the achieve- matic issues while the revised versions in which ment of physical relaxation. The results of the producing a subjective experience of relaxation self-assessment survey on the relaxation degree is the key strategy, have a greater impact on cog- confirm the presence of mental relaxation. In nitive symptoms (Fears and anxieties; Dolbier & this connection, it is important to emphasize the Rush, 2012). essence and the role of the relaxation in sport. Previous research divided the relaxation Other studies indicated that the most successful techniques into two separate paths (Davidson athletes used more relaxation techniques com- & Schwartz, 1976; Kenttä & Hassmén, 1998). pared to the less successful ones (Gould, Eklund Muscle­to­mind techniques focus on the train- & Jackson, 1993; Orlick & Partington, 1988). ing of one’s sensitivity to muscle tension (e.g., The relaxing effect established from the PMR, breathing techniques) while mind­to­mus­ slow-dynamic gymnastic exercises performance cle techniques focus on the cognitive processes is a prerequisite for this set of exercises to be involved in relaxation (e.g., autogenic training, used as therapeutic support. Some relaxation hypnosis). The slow-dynamic gymnastic ex- techniques mentioned in the literature review ercises in such classification of the relaxation were utilized as therapeutic support in the treat- techniques belong to the group of muscle-to- ment of psychological and physiological disor- mind techniques. Furthermore, the new impact ders. All these relaxation techniques can be de- creates more opportunities to achieve relaxation fined as a means through which individuals are and to increase the ability to manage the psycho- able to reduce their muscle and psychological physiological states of the athletes. The relaxing tension voluntarily. effect of the new impact established in this study The slow-dynamic gymnastics exercises uti- is mainly used to influence the locomotor system lized in the study can be defined as a muscular- and to improve working capacity. It is an appro- ly-oriented method for relaxation. In this sense, priate condition for developing flexibility, speed, Davidson and Schwartz’ matching hypothesis and coordination. Hence, the logical question is (1976), Kudlackova et al.’s study (2013), and how the speed can be achieved by applying re- Lehrer (1996) all suggest that muscularly-orient- laxation techniques. The answer is that such type ed methods have the greatest effects on the mus- of impact increases the conduction of the nerve culoskeletal system and autonomically-oriented impulses of the athletes. This indirectly leads to methods on the autonomic nervous system. improvement of the speed. Next, the slow-dynamic gymnastic exercises On the basis of the physiological and psy- performance can be characterized as a method chological data collected in this study, the slow- based on the training of self-perception of the dynamic gymnastic exercises can be defined as muscular sensations and aimed to reduce the a somatic-based relaxation technique with an muscle tension. As such a method, it generates additional positive effect on mental relaxation. a great effect on the psychosomatic processes In this sense, Davidson and Schwartz’s (1976) management. Following the theory of Jacobsen matching hypothesis states that somatic-based (1938), the central aim of a relaxation technique relaxation has greater effects in reducing so- is the deliberate and continuous reduction of matic stress while cognitive-based techniques tension in specific muscle groups of the - loco reduce anxiety or cognitive stress. motor system. The original method in which the At the end of the discussion, it can be summa-

22 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 rized that the slow-dynamic gymnastic exercises conditions for development of flexibility, speed, examined in this study have the following char- coordination, and other psychomotor qualities. acteristics: a) have a relaxing effect – physical REFERENCES and mental; b) can be defined as a muscularly- Ali, K. (2015). The Effectiveness of Progres- oriented method for relaxation based on training sive Muscle Relaxation to Reduce the Intensity of self-perception of the muscular sensations; c) of Competitive Sport Anxiety among the Elite aim to reduce the muscle tension; d) can be used Players Football. Res. J. Physical Education as therapeutic support; e) belong to the group of Sci. Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 4-8. muscle-to-mind techniques and to the group of Andreassi, J. L. (2007). Psychophysiology: somatic-based relaxation techniques. Human Behavior and Physiological Response. The study is limited by factors such as Publisher: Lawrence Erlbaum, New York. age, education, social and health status, sports Angelov, V., Gotova J, Albert, E., Tishinov, O. qualification, and the size of the sample. Fur- (2019). Application of the Visualization through thermore, as an additional limit, the indicators Stereoscopic Glasses in the Massage Therapy. studied can be defined. This study is a part Exercise Medicine, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 1-7. of a project that aims to elaborate a complex Braun, L.A., Stanguts, C., Casanelia, L., methodology for the assessment of the psy- Spitzer, O., Paul, E., Vardaxis, N.J., Rosenfeldt, chophysiological characteristics of the motor F. (2012). Massage therapy for cardiac surgery actions. This means that in further research of patients – a randomized trial. J Thorac Cardio­ this nature, more methods to estimate the psy- vasc Surg. Vol. 144, No. 6, pp. 1453-1459. chophysiological states will be included. Brefczynski-Lewis, J. A., Lutz A., Schaefer CONCLUSION H. S., Levinson D. B., Davidson R. J. (2007). The results obtained confirmed that the hy- Neural correlates of attentional expertise in pothesis of the study is correct. This allowed long-term meditation practitioners. PNAS, Vol. concluding that the application of slow-dynamic 104, No. 27, pp. 11483-11488. gymnastic exercises in the training process can Brown, D. J., Fletcher, D. (2017). Effects of be used to reduce the muscle tension and to de- Psychological and Psychosocial Interventions crease the state anxiety. It is important to empha- on Sport Performance: A Meta-Analysis. Sports size that physical relaxation was suggested as a Med. Vol. 47, pp. 77-99. result of the new impact, while the positive ef- Buttagat, Vitsarut & Eungpinichpong, Wichai fect on state anxiety was unexpected. This type & Chatchawan, Uraiwan & Kharmwan, Samer- of exercises allows the successful management duen. (2011). The Immediate Effects of Tradi- of psychosomatic processes. On this basis, this tional Thai Massage on Heart Rate Variability influence can be defined as an additional relax- and Stress-Related Parameters in Patients with ation technique. Furthermore, the new impact Back Pain Associated with Myofascial Trigger has many other positive effects that will be inves- Points. J Bodyw Mov Ther., Vol. 15, pp. 15-23. tigated and proven in future studies. The slow- Chevallon, S. (1995). L’entraînement psy­ dynamic gymnastic exercises can be used as a chologique du sportif [Mental training for ath- means for improvement of the working capacity letes]. Editions De Vecchi, Paris, France. of the locomotor system, as an alternative means Chompoopan, W., Eungpinichpong, W. for warming up, as an appropriate way for stim- (2016). Effects of Traditional Thai Massage on ulating the recovery, as a means for protection Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, and Anxiety in De- against injuries, as a means creating appropriate pression Patients: A Pilot Study. Int J Geom. Vol.

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Corresponding author: Vladimir Angelov Department of „Gymnastics“ National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Studentski grad, 21, Acad. Stefan Mladenov str. Sofia 1700, Bulgaria E-mail: [email protected]

25 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SYSTEM ... G. Sergiev IMPROVEMENT OF THE SYSTEM FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF FLEXIBILITY OF 10-12-YEAR OLD MALE ARTISTIC GYMNASTS Georgi Sergiev National Sports Academy „Vassil Levski”, Sofia, Bulgaria

ABSTRACT One of the main purposes of this paper is to perfect sports preparation in artistic gymnastics at the stage of initial sports specialization. This stage coincides with the sensitive period for development of flexibility. This manuscript deals with the issue of flexibility being one of the most significant motor qualities. High level of flexibility development guarantees the successful performance with maximum amplitude of a great number of exercises in artistic gymnastics. The aim of the research was updating the system for tracing the improvement and evalua­ tion of young male gymnasts’ flexibility. The main tasks of the survey were selecting suitable tests for evaluation of the quality flexibility as well as carrying out testing with competitors of all age groups. In the end, a 50-grade scale for evaluation of flexibility was designed along the different indexes (tests). The research was done among 38 male 10-12-year old gymnasts with the help of 8 tests. On this basis specification tables were designed for each test with the use of a 50-grade (point) scale. The specification tables allowed for the quick evaluation of competitors along a certain test right after their measurement. On the basis of the conducted research, testing, collected information and specification tables made, it will be possible to improve the evaluation of the temporary state of competitors’ flexibility at each stage of the preparation. We will also be able to evaluate (notice) the smallest changes (increase) in the indexes during the preparation both in positive and negative aspect.

Key words: artistic gymnastics, flexibility, testing, specification tables.

INTRODUCTION to the successful planning and management of One of the main objectives of this paper is to the education-training process in gymnastics. perfect artistic gymnastics sports training during Tracing the development and evaluation of the the initial sports specialization stage. We believe components of sports training at all stages of that on this basis a more purposeful and rational gymnasts’ preparation ensures the quality of management of an education-training process the training and guarantees high achievements. will be achieved as regards the different com- Generally, flexibility is an important parameter ponents of sports training in male artistic gym- associated with health-related physical fitness, nastics. The system of control and evaluation of more – hamstring flexibility plays a substantial competitors’ sports technical qualities will also role in maintaining a correct spinal posture and be perfected as regards the development of their preventing possible injuries (Muyor еt al, 2014). motor qualities and flexibility in particular. This manuscript deals with the issue of fle- Control, being part of the mechanism of spo- xibility as one of the most important qualities. rts training management (Hadzhiev, Andonov, Its high level guarantees the successful execu- Mineva, 2011), is an irreplaceable factor related tion with maximum amplitude of a great num-

Journal of Applied Sports Sciences 26 DOI: 10.37393/jass.2019.01.3 2019, Vol. 1, pp. 26 - 38 ISSN 2534-9597 (Print), ISSN 2535-0145 (Online) JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 ber of exercises peculiar to all sports related to is one of the main factors in selection of 10-12 gymnastics – sports aerobics (Mineva, 1986), years old gymnasts (Hadzhiev, Andonov, Dimi- rhythmic gymnastics (Gancheva, 2013), artis- trova, 2011). Nevertheless, the efforts to develop tic gymnastics (Dimitrova, 2014), (Kyuchukov, flexibility and its control should be ceaseless Andonov, 2003), (Hadzhiev et al, 2011), as well due to its significance for the execution of the as other spheres such as physical education at most difficult exercises mostly at the final stages schools (Andonov, 2019), (Borisova, Andonov, of the sports career. For instance, according to 2004), (Ilieva, Andonov, 2005), stuntmen prepa- Gaverdovski (2002) the technique of the Italian ration (Videv, 2003). Moreover, in classic, mod- giants on a high bar depends on flexibility of the ern and folklore dances (as part of the musical shoulder joints. Also, the use of extraordinary, and rhythmic preparation in gymnastics) a high artificial “working” positions and movements level of flexibility is needed. Research in this area in gymnastics (split, bridge, maximal bends, leg showed that a positive increase of the flexibility swings with big amplitude, and so on) require a level had also been established by the use of the high level of the quality flexibility (Smolevski, contrast principles (with alternation of load and Gaverdovski, 1999). stretching exercises) in the training process in the Tracing the improvement and evaluation Bulgarian folk dances (Angelov et al., 2014). of the motor qualities, such as flexibility, in Flexibility is perhaps the single greatest artistic gymnastics is carried out with tests discriminator of gymnastics from other sports (Tŭrnichkova et al., 2016). These tests should (Sands et al, 2015). Flexibility in artistic gym- be updated regularly, which is applicable to nastics is developed in a complex way which is a great extent to specification tables as well. due to the specificity of the exercises. Namely the They should be renewed in response to the specificity of artistic gymnastics exercises sup- much higher requirements gymnasts have poses the development of the quality flexibility faced in the recent years. of shoulder joints, coxofemoral joints, increase in the overall mobility of the spinal column in METHODOLOGY all directions, flexibility of the knee and ankle The aim of the study was updating the sys- joints, which will help the gymnasts to perform tem for tracing the improvement and evalua- exercises with a perfect technique according to tion of young male gymnasts’ flexibility. the code of points. According to Radulov (1982), The main tasks of the research are the fol- flexibility is a primary quality of gymnasts and lowing: those who do not possess it have great difficulty 1. To select suitable tests for evaluation of in learning the exercises and hardly ever reach the quality flexibility. perfection in their execution. A previous study 2. To carry out testing with 10 – 12 years old also showed that specialists in the field of gym- competitors. nastics (48%) considered the quality flexibility of 3. To design a 50-grade scale for evaluation of the most importance as regards gymnasts’ prepa- flexibility along the different indexes (tests). ration (Ivanova, Gancheva, 2016). Subject of the research: The quality flexibility. The sensitive period of development of mo- Object of the research: The different in- tor abilities as regards flexibility is 7-9 years dexes (tests) providing information about the (Dimitrova, 2014). According to Beighton et level of development of the quality flexibility al. (2012), the range of normal joint movements of 10-12-year-old male gymnasts. decreases rapidly throughout childhood. This The research was done among thirty-eight is one of the reasons why the quality flexibility 10-12-year old male gymnasts.

27 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SYSTEM ... G. Sergiev

Organization of the research The rationale behind organizing these gro- We present the organization of the research ups was based on the fact that the group (10 along its different stages which follow the - 12 years old) performs compulsory routines above-mentioned tasks: and the development of the quality fl exibility Stage one – January – March 2015 is built and refers to the exercises included in During the fi rst stage we selected the ap- these routines to a great extent. Even if we ta- propriate tests needed for the quality evalua- ke a brief look at the exercises included in the tion of fl exibility. They are described in detail routines of the gymnasts in this age group, we in the method section. can see the necessity of the high level of devel- The analysis and selection of the fl exibility opment of fl exibility. This age period compris- tests (8 tests) were done on the basis of the es the second stage of the sports preparation level of modern artistic gymnastics and the of many years – initial sports specialization requirements competitors face as regards the (Hadzhiev, Andonov, Sergiev, 2010). execution of the exercises on the different ap- Stage three – July – October 2015 paratuses. The tests corresponded to the specif- During this stage we analyzed the results ics of the gymnastics exercises. For example: from the testing (Variation analysis) and de- fl exibility in coxofemoral joints, registered in signed specifi cation tables for control and tests 3, 4 and 5 (splits) is important for exer- evaluation of the different indexes along a cises such as “fl air” on Pommel horse (Thom- 50-grade (point) scale. 50-grade (point) scale is as circles) and split leaps and jumps on fl oor. well-known and used by sports specialists for Flexibility in shoulder joints, registered in tests evaluation of athletes’ motor qualities (Kurmu- 6 and 8 is important for the exercises “Slow lis, 2009). As mentioned below, it allows for the inlocate from hang” on rings and “Adler” on evaluation of the achievement and its increase a high bar, Tests 1 and 2 are important for the with 2%. We believe that whether or not the exercises Endo (straddled and legs together), 50-point scale is suitable, depends on the range and Stalder (straddled and legs together) on a (R) (R = Xmax – Xmin). When there is a “big” high bar. The tests are well-known by the gym- range, a 100-point scale could be used as well. nastics coaches in Bulgaria and have been used for more than 50 years now, i.e. their objectiv- Research methods ity and validity has been proven. The only new We used the following research methods: tests are tests 2 and 6 and they require more  Analysis and synthesis of the movements. data (researched individuals) in order to check  Sports-pedagogical testing. their validity and objectivity. The standard  Math statistical methods. check is made with a re-test which determines - Variation analysis – (mean), S (stan- whether the results from the second testing co- dard deviation), V (variation), minimum, incide or are similar within certain limits. maximum, As (asymmetry), Ex (excess). The tests are expedient and provide quan- - Method of sigma variance. titative and qualitative information about the In order to design the specifi cation tables, state and preparation of the athletes as regards we used the method of the sigma digressions. the researched issue – fl exibility. According to this method for evaluation of the Stage two – April - June 2015 condition of the researched subjects, the evalu- During this stage we carried out the testing ated index is compared with the average level with the competitors of all age groups 10 - 12 of the same index. The main characteristics years. used are mean arithmetical value and standard

28 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 deviation (Tsarova, 2013). drawback of this assessment scale is the fact The sigma method for evaluation enables that a rather big percentage (40%) of the cases the quantitative evaluation of (in our case) fall into the zone (between Р30, and P70) around flexibility with respect to the different tests. the mean value which makes the specification The values are calculated on the basis of the not selective enough. In fact, an achievement average level of each of the researched combi- coinciding with the mean value and later in- nations, which is a prerequisite for the design creased by 15% is not registered as an achieve- of specification tables for control over sports ment along the 7-point scale. This problem is preparation. The received values are specified solved with the 50-grade point system. If we and presented in 50-grade point system (from look at test 7 (Bridge) in table 3 (below), we 1.0 to 50.0 – with 1.0 in between). This enables will see that at angle 90o, the gymnast receives the comparison of the achievements along dif- 12 points for this achievement, and at angle ferent tests and indexes measured in sec, m, 100o he will receive 23 points, i.e. with 10o in- kg, number, etc. The average level is 25 points. crease, which is almost 20% achievement, it In case a higher quality (e.g. time for running will be registered on the scale and will give the a distance) corresponds to a lower value of the gymnast (in this case) twice as many points. result along a certain index, the scale is re- versed (Borukova, 2018). Tests (indexes): Specification tables provide us with the 1. Test (index) opportunity to quickly evaluate a certain in- The gymnast gets on a bench; the legs are dividual along a particular index right after brought together; the toes are on the edge of the testing. Also, the 50-grade point system the bench – a bend forward is performed with (unlike the 5-grade one, 7-grade one, etc.) en- extended legs. The distance between the upper ables the evaluation of a smaller increase in edge of the bench and the tips of the fingers is the achievements, which practically affects, on measured. (Figure 1) the one hand, the optimal management of the After the execution of the bend, when the training process, and on the other hand, influ- gymnast reached the final position, we took a ences positively athletes’ motivation. photo from 2 m distance with a high defini- For example, for the design of 7-point scale tion camera, so that we could later, by using specifications with the use of percentiles, Р2, the zoom option (1a), record the result on the

Р16, Р30, P70, P84 and Р98 must be calculated. A evaluation scale.

Figure 1. Test Bend on a gymnastics bench. Figure 1а. Zoom of test №1.

29 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SYSTEM ... G. Sergiev

2. Test (index) Prior to the execution of the exercise, we A sitting straddle position on the floor; the mea sured the angle between the legs (Figure 2c) heels of both feet are placed on the bench so with a goniometer shown in Figure 2a and 2b. that there is a 90o – 100o angle between the We took a frontal photo of the gymnast legs. A bend forward is performed (below the from a distance of 2 m with a high definition bench) – the distance between the floor and camera, so that we could later, by using the chest (the most upper part of the breast bone) zoom option (Figure 2d), record the result on is measured. (Figure 2). the evaluation scale.

Figure 2. Bend with legs extended to the sides, placed on a 40 cm high gymnastics bench.

Figure 2а. Goniometer (Close view) Figure 2b. Goniometer

Figure 2c. Measuring the angle between the legs. Figure 2d. Zoom of Figure 2

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3. Test (index) ured. (Figure 3).We took a photo of the gymnast It is performed in a straight line. The pelvis from a distance of 2 m, so that we could later, by should be against the wall. The distance betwe en using the zoom option, record the result on the the floor and the lowest part of the pelvis is meas- evaluation scale on the wall (Figure 3a).

Figure 3. Side split (in cm)

Figure 3a. Measurement scale Figure 3b. Zoom of the picture in Figure 3 of flexibility of the splits (in cm) 4. Test (index) of the pelvis is measured. (Figure 4). The gymnast performs a Left front split. It The way we measured the result was the is performed in a straight line. The gymnast’s same as the one shown in Figure 3 (Side split). left shoulder should be against the wall. The We used the measurement scale in Figure 3a. distance between the floor and the lowest part

Figure 4. Left front split. Figure 4b. Zoom of the picture in Figure 4

5. Test (index) is measured (Figure 5). The gymnast performs right front split. It is The way we measured the result was the performed in a straight line. The right shoulder same as the one used in Figure 3a (Side split). should be against the wall. The distance be- We used the measurement scale in Figure 5a. tween the floor and the lowest part of the pelvis

31 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SYSTEM ... G. Sergiev

Figure 5. Right front split. Figure 5a. Zoom of the picture in Figure 5

6. Test (index) in cm/. The distance between the floor and the From a pike sit – hands slip backwards / armpit is measured (in cm). (Figure 6).

Figure 6. From a pike sit – hands slip backwards (in cm)

Requirements for the test: extended arms, placed the measurement scale (Figure 6b), af- palms on the floor next to each other (Figure ter that we took a photo. 6a). The way we measured the result was the As soon as the gymnast reached the final same as the one in Figure 3а (Side split). We position, after sliding his hands backwards, we used the measurement scale in Figure 6b.

Figure 6а. Position of arms for execution Figure 6b. Measurement scale. of the test.

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7. Test (index) flexible – the shoulder joint or the spinal cord. The inner angle between the floor and The aim of this test is not the correct technical the shoulders is measured. (Figure 7). execution of a bridge. The aim is the gymnast We measured the angle with a goniometer, to open the measured angle as much as pos- shown in Figure 2b. The requirements for ex- sible. In this case the angle in the shoulder ecution of the bridge were: extended legs and joints can reach over 180o. There are other arms, feet and hands on the floor approximate- flexibility tests which register flexibility only ly shoulder-width apart. in the shoulder joints or only in the spinal col- Generally, the angle we measured is a umn, separately. function of the sum of the flexibility of the „More modern approaches to spine stretch- shoulder joints and the spinal column, i.e. the ing in gymnastics encourage the position” in test had to measure the sum of the flexibility Figure 7, while discourage the position in Fig- regardless of the fact which joint was more ure 7d (Sands et al, 2015).

Figure 7. Bridge measured with goniometer Figure 7d. Bridge.

8. Test (index) The distance between the wrists is measured. Shoulder dislocates with a rod (Figure 8a, 8b). (Figure 8c)

Figure 8a, Figure 8b. Shoulder dislocation. Figure 8c. Distance between the wrists.

33 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SYSTEM ... G. Sergiev

RESULTS increase can be seen. Only with two of the in- The indexes characterizing fl exibility are dexes (№ 1 and 7) the direction of increase is shown in Table 1. The measurement units, the positive, while along the other indexes – it is accuracy of measurement and the direction of negative. Table 1. List of indexes characterizing fl exibility Accuracy Direction № Indexes \ Parameters Units of mea- of surement increase 1. Bend with legs brought together (gymn. bench) cm 1,0 + 2. Bend with extended legs to the sides (gymn. bench) cm 1,0 - 3. Side split (fl oor) cm 1,0 - 4. Left front split (fl oor) cm 1,0 - 5. Right front split (fl oor) cm 1,0 - 6. Pike sit, sitting position, slip (fl oor) cm 1,0 - 7. Bridge (fl oor) degrees 1,0 + 8. Shoulder dislocates with a rod (fl oor) cm 1,0 -

The results from the variation analysis are (As) and excess (Ex) at a signifi cance level 0.05 shown in Table 2. It can be observed that only are 0.58 and 0.85 respectively. The critical val- along one of the indexes (№ 7) the group is ho- ues of the coeffi cient of excess and asymmetry mogeneous (V = 9.5 %), and along the other in- are determined from well-known statistical ta- dexes – the group is highly non homogeneous, bles on the basis of the number of the researched coeffi cient of variation (V) is over 30%. Also, individuals (n) and the signifi cance level of α (in as regards excess and asymmetry, we can claim our case α= 0.05). When the obtained values are that the distribution is not a normal one, except below the critical value in the table of the criti- for indexes № 1, 7 and 8, which have a normal cal values, there is a normal distribution, as we distribution. The critical values of asymmetry can see in tests 1, 7 and 8. Table 2. Variation analysis of the indexes characterizing fl exibility – 10 - 12 years of age

№ Indexes \ parameters S V (%) min max As Ex

1. Bend with legs brought together (gymn. 16,29 10,35 63,55 0 26 -0,94 -0,92 bench) 2. Bend with extended legs to the sides 3,37 7,46 221,55 28 0 2,55 6,46 (gymn. bench) 3. Side split (fl oor) 0,16 0,69 435,89 3 0 4,36 19,00 4. Left front split (fl oor) 0,26 1,15 435,89 504,36 19,00 5. Right front split (fl oor) 0,24 1,14 475 5 0 4,32 19,05 6. Pike sit, sitting position, slip (fl oor) 9,34 2,42 25,86 16 5 0,98 2,16 7. Bridge (fl oor) 101,53 9,65 9,50 71 127 0,09 -0,95 8. Shoulder dislocates with a rod 20,63 14,71 71,31 51 0 0,38 -0,51

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Table 3. Specification table – gymnasts 10 - 12 years of age 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Bend Bend with Side split Left front Right front Pike sit, Bridge Shoulder Points with legs extended (floor) split (floor) split (floor) sitting (floor) dislocates brought legs to position, with a rod together the sides slip (floor) (floor) (gymn. (gymn. cm bench) cm bench) cm cm cm cm degrees cm 50 27,88 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 4,34 124,03 2,88 49 27,41 0,09 0,00 0,01 0,00 4,54 123,13 3,59 48 26,95 0,22 0,01 0,02 0,01 4,74 122,23 4,30 47 26,49 0,35 0,02 0,03 0,02 4,94 121,33 5,01 46 26,02 0,48 0,02 0,04 0,03 5,14 120,43 5,72 45 25,56 0,61 0,03 0,05 0,04 5,34 119,53 6,43 44 25,10 0,74 0,04 0,06 0,05 5,54 118,63 7,14 43 24,63 0,87 0,04 0,07 0,06 5,74 117,73 7,85 42 24,17 1,00 0,05 0,08 0,07 5,94 116,83 8,56 41 23,71 1,13 0,06 0,10 0,08 6,14 115,93 9,27 40 23,24 1,27 0,06 0,11 0,09 6,34 115,03 9,98 39 22,78 1,41 0,07 0,12 0,10 6,54 114,13 10,69 38 22,31 1,55 0,07 0,13 0,11 6,74 113,23 11,40 37 21,85 1,69 0,08 0,14 0,12 6,94 112,33 12,11 36 21,39 1,83 0,09 0,15 0,13 7,14 111,43 12,82 35 20,92 1,97 0,09 0,16 0,14 7,34 110,53 13,53 34 20,46 2,11 0,10 0,17 0,15 7,54 109,63 14,24 33 20,00 2,25 0,11 0,18 0,16 7,74 108,73 14,95 32 19,53 2,41 0,11 0,19 0,17 7,94 107,83 15,66 31 19,07 2,57 0,12 0,20 0,18 8,14 106,93 16,37 30 18,61 2,89 0,13 0,21 0,19 8,34 106,03 17,08 29 18,14 2,73 0,13 0,22 0,20 8,54 105,13 17,79 28 17,68 3,05 0,14 0,23 0,21 8,74 104,23 18,50 27 17,22 3,21 0,15 0,24 0,22 8,94 103,33 19,21 26 16,75 3.29 0,15 0,25 0,23 9,14 102,43 19,92 25 16,29 3,37 0,16 0,26 0,24 9,34 101,53 20,63 24 15,56 4,11 0,28 0,46 0,44 9,58 100,67 22,10 23 14,83 4,86 0,41 0,66 0,63 9,82 99,81 23,57 22 14,10 5,61 0,53 0,85 0,83 10,06 98,95 25,04 21 13,37 6,35 0,66 1,05 1,03 10,30 98,09 26,51 20 12,64 7,10 0,78 1,25 1,23 10,54 97,23 27,98 19 11,91 7,84 0,91 1,45 1,42 10,78 96,37 29,45 18 11,18 8,59 1,03 1,64 1,62 11,02 95,51 30,92 17 10,45 9,34 1,16 1,84 1,82 11,26 94,65 32,39 16 9,72 10,08 1,28 2,04 2,01 11,50 93,79 33,86 15 8,99 10,83 1,41 2,23 2,21 11,74 92,93 35,33 14 8,31 11,57 1,53 2,43 2,41 11,98 92,07 36,80 13 7,63 12,32 1,66 2,63 2,60 12,22 91,21 38,27 12 6,95 13,07 1,78 2,82 2,80 12,46 90,35 39,74 11 6,27 13,81 1,91 3,02 3,00 12,70 89,49 41,21 10 5,59 14,56 2,03 3,22 3,20 12,94 88,63 42,68 9 4,91 15,30 2,16 3,42 3,39 13,18 87,77 44,15 8 4,30 16,05 2,28 3,61 3,59 13,42 86,91 45,62 7 3,69 16,80 2,41 3,81 3,79 13,66 86,05 47,09 6 3,08 17,54 2,53 4,01 3,98 13,90 85,19 48,56 5 2,47 19,03 2,66 4,20 4,18 14,14 84,33 50,03 4 1,86 19,78 2,78 4,40 4,38 14,38 83,47 51,50 3 1,25 20,53 2,91 4,60 4,57 14,62 82,61 52,97 2 0,64 21,27 3,03 4,79 4,77 14,86 81,75 54,44 1 0,00 22,02 3,16 4,99 4,97 15,10 80,89 55,91

35 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SYSTEM ... G. Sergiev

The specifi cations for each index are shown more data (testing) will allow the precision in Table 3. They are distributed in a 50-grade of these specifi cation tables so that they could scale. The competitor receives certain number become more informative. Because the re- of points for each achievement. searched individuals are some of the best in For example: Test № 1 – if the competi- the age group 10-12 years, we can claim that tors have achieved a result of 26 cm, they get the results from the tests could be considered 46 points. model characteristics for the gymnasts of this There are a few options for calculation of age as regards fl exibility. the total grade on the base of all indexes of REFERENCES fl exibility: Angelov, V., Grigorov, B., Ünlü, Y.H. The sum of the number of points received (2014). Application of the Contrasting Ap- along all indexes. Thus, the maximum proach to the Development of the Flexibility in number of points is 400 points. Bulgarian Folk Dance Lessons. Sport, Stress, The use of an average grade index – mean Adaptation Scientifi c Journal, Sofi a, Bulgaria, arithmetic value – the total number of points Extra issue, pp. 528-532, ISSN 2367–458X. from all the tests is divided by 8. Thus, the Kurmulis, A, (2009). Methods for initial maximum number of points is 50. sports preparation of young basketball players The third approach requires more profound in Greece, Dissertation, National Sports Acad- studies. We should establish the factor emy, Sofi a, Bulgaria. weight of each index, i.e. every index will Andonov, K. (2019). Optimizirane na uc­ have a different weight when forming the he bni programi po gimnastika v uchilishte za total grade. However, this will be subject of fi zichesko vŭzpitanie pri uchenitsi ot I do VI future research. klas., Monografi ya, ISBN 978-954-718-568- At this stage, we can successfully use the 5 // Андонов, К. (2019). Оптимизиране на fi rst two options for calculation of the total учебните програми погимнастика в учи ли- grade for evaluating the quality fl exibility. щ ното физическо възпитание при уче ници CONCLUSIONS от I до VI клас., Монография, ISBN 978- The obtained results are interesting for the 954-718-568-5. specialists since they can be viewed as a data- Beighton, P., Grahame, R., Bird, H. (2012). base which was not available in the past. Hypermobility of Joints, 4th ed.; Springer-Ver- The results from the tests will help the up- lag: London, UK, pp. 21. grading of the specifi cation tables for observ- Muyor, J.M., Zemkova, E., Stefanikova, ing, tracing of the improvement and evaluation G., Kotyra, M. (2014). Concurrent validity of of fl exibility. clinical tests for measuring hamstring fl exibil- Based on the testing, collected information ity in school age children. Int. J. Sports Med, and specifi cation tables made we can improve 35, pp. 664-669, doi:10.1055/s-0033-1353217. the management and evaluation of the tem- Sands, W.A., McNeal, J.R., Penitente, G., porary state of competitors’ fl exibility at each Murray, S.R., Nassar, L., Jemni, M., Mizuguchi, stage of the preparation. We will also be able S., Stone, M.H. (2015). Stretching the Spines of to evaluate (notice) the smallest changes (in- Gymnasts: A Review. Sports Med., 46, pp. 315- crease) in the indexes during the preparation 327, doi:10.1007/s40279-015-0424-6. both in positive and negative aspect. Borisova, T., Andonov, K. (2004). Opti mi- In conclusion we can say that gathering zirane na obuchenieto po gimnastika v uchil-

36 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 ishtnoto fizichesko vŭzpitanie pri uchenitsi ot I ука, изв. бр. 4, - VI klas., Sport, obshtestvo, obrazovanie, tom Ilieva, St., Andonov, K. (2005). Dinamika 9, pp. 34 - 41. // Борисова, Т., К. Андонов. na fizicheskoto razvitie i deesposobnost na (2004). Оптимизиране на обучението по uchenitsite v nachalna uchilishtna vŭzrast., гим настика в училищното физическо въз- Sport i nauka, izvŭnreden vol. 2, pp. 21 – 27 // питание при ученици от I - VI клас., Спорт, Илиева, Ст., Андонов, K. (2005). Динамика общество, образование, том 9, стр. 34 – 41. на физическото развитие и дееспособност Borukova, M., (2018). Kontrol na sportnata на учениците в начална училищна възраст., podgotvenost na 13-14 godishni basketbolist­ Спорт и наука, извънреден бр.2, стр., 21 - 27. ki, Monografiya, S, BOLID INS, pp. 66, ISBN Dimitrova, B. (2014). Teoriya na podbora 978-954-394-242-8 // Борукова, М., (2018). v sportnata gimnastika (zheni), BINS, pp. 87. Контрол на спортната подготвеност на 13- ISBN 978-394-146-9 // Димитрова, Б. (2014). 14 годишни баскетболистки, Монография, Теория на подбора в спортната гимнастика С, БОЛИД ИНС, стр. 66, ISBN 978-954-394- (жени), БИНС, стр. 87. ISBN 978-394-146-9. 242-8. Kyuchukov, Il. Andonov, K. (2003). Videv, E. (2003). Znachenieto na dvi- Vŭzmozhnosti i metodichni predlozheniya gatelnite kharakteristiki na podgotovkata i za obuchenie za gimnastika., Sport i nauka, realizatsiyata na kaskadyora”, Godishnik na vol. 2, Bins. // Кючуков, Ил., Андонов, К. T.U.V., Varna // Видев, Е. (2003). Значението (2003). Възможности и методически пред- на двигателните качества за подготовката и поставки за усъвършенстване обучението реализацията на каскадьора”, Годишник на по гимнастика., Спорт и наука, бр.2, Бинс. Т.У.В., Варна. Mineva, M. (2011). Sportna aerobika - teo­ Gancheva, G. (2017). Hudozhestvena gim­ riya i praktika, NSA PRES, pp. 47 // Минева, nastika - muzika i dvizheniya. Monografiya. So- М. (2011). Спортна аеробика – теория и fiya. BOLID INS, ISBN 978-954-394-227-5 // прак тика, НСА ПРЕС, стр. 47. Ганчева, Г. (2017). Художествена гимнастика Mineva, M. (1986). Optimizirane na me- – музика и движения. Монография. София. to dite za kontrol i otsenka na dvigatelnoto БОЛИД ИНС, ISBN 978-954-394-227-5. kachestvo na gŭvkavostta pri 9-13g. gimnas- Gancheva, G. (2013). Spetsifichni upraz- tichni i usŭvŭrshenstvani na negovoto razvitie, h neniya v hudozhestvenata gimnastika - rav- Disertatsiya, Sofia, ETSNPKFKS, // Минева, no vesiya, vŭrteniya, gŭvkavosti, NSA PRESS. М. (1986). Оптимизиране на методите за pp. 5, ISBN 978-954-718-354-4. // Ган- кон трол и оценка на двигателното качество чева, Г. (2013). Специфични упражнения в гъвкавост при 9-13 г. гимнастички и усъ- художествената гимнастика – равновесия, вър шенстване на неговото развитие, Ди- вър тения, гъвкавости, НСА ПРЕС. стр. 5, сертация, София, ЕЦНПКФКС. ISBN 978-954-718-354-4., Radulov, V. (1982). Nachalno obuchenie v Ivanova, V., Gancheva, G. (2016). Anketno sportnata gimnastika, MiF, pp. 8. // Радулов, pro uchvane na trenyora, otnosno fizicheskata В. (1982). Начално обучение в спортната podgotovka v hudozhestvenata gimnastika, Sport гим настика, МиФ, 84 стр. i nauka, izv. vol. 4 // Иванова, В., Ганчева, Tŭrnichkova, M., Dobrev, D., Dimitrova, Г. (2016). Анкетно проучване на тре ньо - D., Chanev, D. (2016). Testovi kontrol i otsenka рите, относно физическата подготовка в na fizicheskata deesposobnost, sŭstezatelite v художествената гимнастика, Спорт и на- sportnata aerobika, NSA PRES. pp. 34, ISBN

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978-954-718-441-1 // Търничкова, М., До- (2011). Gimnastika, Selektsiya, NSA PRES, pp. брев, M., Димитрова, Д., Чанев, С. (2016). 65-66. ISBN 978-954-718-293-6. // Хаджиев, Тестови контрол и оценка на физическата Н., Андонов, К., Димитрова, Б. (2011). дееспособност, на състезателите в спорт­ Гимнастика – Селекция, НСА ПРЕС, стр. ната аеробика, НСА ПРЕС. стр. 34, ISBN 65-66, ISBN 978-954-718-293-6. 978-954-718-441-1. Hadzhiev, N., Andonov, K., Sergiev, G. Tsŭrova, R. (2103). Problemi na kontrola (2010). Gimnastika - Periodizatsiya i plani­ v basketbola, BOLIDINS. pp. 94. ISBN 978- rane, NSA PRESS, ISBN 978-954-718-265- 954-394-125-4 // Църова, Р. (2013). Проблеми 3. // Хаджиев, Н., Андонов, К., Сергиев, Г. на контрола вбаскетбола, БОЛИДИНС, стр. (2010). Гим настика – Периодизация и пла- 94. ISBN 978-954-394-125-4. ни ране, НСА-ПРЕС, ISBN 978- 954- 718- Hadzhiev, N., Andonov, K., Mineva, M. 265- 3. (2011). Gimnastika - Kontrol na trenirovkata, Gaverdovski, YU. K., (2002). Tekhnika na NSA PRES, pp. 47, ISBN 978-954-718-320- gimnasticheskite uprazhneniya, Populyarni 9 // Хаджиев, Н., Андонов, M., Мине ва, M. uchebnitsi, Terra-Sport, pp. 44, ISBN 5-9317- (2011). Гимнастика - Контрол на трениров- 158-9. // Гавердовски, Ю. К., (2002). Тех- ката, НСА ПРЕС, стр.47, ISBN 978-954- ника гим настических упражнеиний, По- 718-320-9. пулярное учебное пособие, Терра-Спорт, Hadzhiev, N., Andonov, K., Dobrev, D., стр. 44. ISBN 5-9317-158-9. Petrov, V. (2011). Gimnastika - Fizicheska Smolevski, V. M., Gaverdovski, YU. K. podgotovka, NSA PRES, pp. 89. ISBN 978- (1999). Sportna gimnastika, Kiev, olimpiĭska 954-718-301-8 // Хаджиев, Н., Андонов, K. literatura, pp. 307, ISBN 996-7133-15X Добрев, Д., Петров, В. (2011). Гимнастика // Смо левски, В.М., Гавердовски, Ю.К. – Физическа подготовка, НСА ПРЕС, стр. (1999). Спор тивния гимнастика, Киев, 89. ISBN 978-954-718-301-8. „Олим пии ская литера тура”, стр. 307, ISBN Hadzhiev, N., Andonov, K., Dimitrova, B. 996-7133-15X.

Corresponding author:

Georgi Sergiev Department of Gymnastics National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Studentski grad, 21, Acad. Stefan Mladenov str. Sofia 1700, Bulgaria E-mail: [email protected]

38 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 NUTRITIONAL STATUS AND BODY COMPOSITION OF YOUNG ARTISTIC GYMNASTS FROM BULGARIA Stefan Kolimechkov, Iliya Yanev, Iliya Kiuchukov, Lubomir Petrov, Albena Alexandrova, Dilyana Zaykova, Emil Stoimenov NationalNational Sports Academy Sports Academy „Vassil Levski”, „Vassil Levski” Sofia, Bulgaria

ABSTRACT Young gymnasts should not have excessive body mass because that might lead to under- performance. Therefore, children practising gymnastics should consume a balanced diet, which will promote their physical abilities and optimal body mass. The aim of this study was to compare the nutrient intake of young Bulgarian artistic gymnasts to matched groups from the National Nutrition Survey in Bulgaria (NNSB2003). The study consisted of 76 artistic gymnasts (5 to 14 years of age) from four cities in Bulgaria, and the participants were divided into three groups in accordance with the age and gender categories applied in the NNSB2003. Anthropometric measurements were taken and a food frequency questionnaire was applied in order to assess the body composition and nutrient intake of the gymnasts. The percentile scores in the height and %Fat of the gymnasts were significantly lower than the 50th percentile of the international norms. The energy intake of the gymnasts did not differ significantly from those reported in the NNSB2003, whilst the protein intake, relative protein intake, and energy contribution of proteins were significantly higher than those in the same survey. The energy contribution of fats was above the recommended norms (15-30%), as provided by the WHO. The fat intake was slightly higher, and the carbohydrate intake was slightly lower than the recommended values in the literature, and, therefore, the former should be reduced and the latter increased in their food.

Key words: nutrition, diet, body composition, artistic gymnastics

INTRODUCTION mended that young gymnasts should not have It is of particular importance to all athletes, excessive body mass because that might lead to young and old, to pay special attention to nu- under-performance. Moreover, overweight can trition in order to achieve good results in sport decrease the technique of the gymnasts and ex- (Nisevich, 2008). A good and balanced diet can pose them to an increased risk of injuries due support consistent intensive training, while re- to the excess load on the body structure. (Brit- ducing the risk of injuries. Furthermore, good ish Gymnastics, 2005). Therefore, children food choices will also promote muscle adap- practising gymnastics should consume a bal- tations in response to the training workload. anced amount of proteins, carbohydrates and (International Olympic Committee, 2012). fats, which will help sustain and promote their The recommended nutrient intake in children physical abilities, as well as their optimal body and adolescents who are engaged in sports is mass. different from those of non-athletes due to the Young athletes need a higher protein con- additional physical exercise. tent than that recommended for non-athletes, Artistic gymnastics is a strength sport which but the studies conducted on children engaged can be practised from an early age. It is recom- in sports are scarce (Petrie et al., 2004). More-

Journal of Applied Sports Sciences 39 DOI: 10.37393/jass.2019.01.4 2019, Vol. 1, pp. 39 - 52 ISSN 2534-9597 (Print), ISSN 2535-0145 (Online) NUTRITIONAL STATUS AND ... S. Kolimechkov, I. Yanev, I. Kiuchukov, L. Petrov, A. Alexandrova, D. Zaykova, E. Stoimenov over, the reported data on protein intake in best energy restoration results (British Gym- child athletes differ in the scientific literature. nastics, 2005). Due to its importance as an en- For instance, Cupisti et al. reported that the ergy supplier, carbohydrates should provide at relative protein intake (RPI) of adolescents least 50% of the energy intake in child athletes. engaged in sports and a control group not simi- For intensive training, the energy contribution larly engaged is comparable (1.09 g/kg vs 1.13 from carbohydrates should increase to 65-70% g/kg, p > 0.05) (Cupisti et al., 2002). Other (Petrie et al., 2004). However, many studies authors recommend RPI of 1.0 – 1.5 g/kg for on the nutrient intake of gymnasts (Filaire and children who have just begun a training pro- Lac, 2002, Reggiani et al., 1989, Benardot et gramme, and 1.2 - 1.4 g/kg for children who al., 1989, Moffatt, 1984) reported that these practise sports (Nevin-Folino, 2003, Nisevich, athletes receive less than the recommended 2008). Dallas et al. recommend ≥ 1.5 g/kg RPI 55-75% energy intake from carbohydrates for competitive female gymnasts (Dallas et al., (WHO, 2003). 2017). However, other studies reported a high- The following relative fat intake (RFI) of er amount of RPI, such as 1.6 g/kg for children gymnasts is reported in the literature: 2.1 ± 0.8 practising gymnastics (O’Connor, 2000), and g/kg for 7-15-year-old gymnasts with energy 2-3 g/kg for young competitive gymnasts (Be- contribution of 36.5 ± 6.3% from the daily en- nardot et al., 1989). In our pilot study on nu- ergy intake (Karabudak et al., 2016); 2.7 ± 0.9 trition of children engaged in gymnastics, the g/kg for 6-10-year-old gymnasts with energy RPI was 3.2 g/kg for those who were between contribution of 34.4 ± 4.5% (Kolimechkov et the ages of 4 and 6, and 2.9 g/kg for those be- al., 2016); and fat intake of 72.0 ± 25.0 g for tween the ages of 7 and 10 (Kolimechkov et 13-16-year-old gymnasts with energy contri- al., 2016). bution of 32.0 ± 4.0% (Lindholm et al., 1995). Studies on the nutrition of gymnasts (Be- Other authors (Filaire and Lac, 2002, Reg- nardot et al., 1989, Ersoy, 1991, Reggiani et giani et al., 1989, Benardot et al., 1989, Ca- al., 1989, Lindholm et al., 1995, Moffatt, 1984, labrese, 1985) also report that gymnasts con- Kirchner et al., 1995) showed that the energy sume above the recommended 15-30% (WHO, contribution which comes from protein is ei- 2003) of energy deriving from fat. ther at the upper limit of the 10-15% recom- The aim of this study was to compare the mended by the WHO, or above it (Karabudak energy and nutrient intakes of young Bulgarian et al., 2016, Kolimechkov et al., 2016, Bena- artistic gymnasts to age- and gender-matched rdot, 1996). groups from the National Nutrition Survey The American Dietetic Association (ADA) for school children in Bulgaria, NNSB2003 recommends the following relative carbohy- (Petrova et al., 2003). drate intake (RCI) for young athletes: 3-5 g/ kg for very light intensity training; 5-8 g/kg METHODOLOGY for moderate or heavy training; 8-9 g/kg for Participants pre-event loading (24-48 hours prior to the The study consisted of 76 artistic gym- competition); 1.7 g/kg for post-event refuel- nasts (43 girls and 33 boys) between the ages ling, within 2-3 hours (Nevin-Folino, 2003, of five and fourteen, from four different cities Nisevich, 2008). Carbohydrate food with a in Bulgaria (Sofia, Blagoevgrad, Veliko Tar- high glycaemic index should be consumed im- novo and Ruse). The participants had on aver- mediately following completion of training for age 3.8 years of sports experience in artistic

40 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 gymnastics (ranging from 1 to 10 years), and gymnast. The following classification for the they regularly took part in, or were preparing BMI percentile scores (PRs) in children and for, competitions representing five gymnastic adolescents was applied: ‘overweight’ (BMI > clubs which are registered with the Bulgarian 85th PRs); ‘obese’ (BMI > 97th PRs); ‘thinness’ Gymnastics Federation. (BMI < 15th PRs); and ‘severe thinness’ (BMI The participants were divided into three < 3rd PRs), (WHO, 2007a). groups: Group-A (boys and girls from 5 to 9), In order to appropriately assess the body Group-B (girls from 10 to 14), and Group-C composition of gymnasts, body fat percent- (boys from 10 to 14), in accordance with the age (%Fat) was also calculated. Two skinfolds age and gender categories applied in the Na- (triceps and subscapular) were measured to tional Nutrition Survey for school children in an accuracy of 1 mm with the Lange Skinfold Bulgaria, NNSB2003 (Petrova et al., 2003). Calliper, Beta Technology Inc, Cambridge, Institutional ethics approval for this re- USA, and the %Fat was determined by the search was granted by the National Sports sum of the two skinfolds, using Slaughter’s Academy in Sofia, and informed consent was equations (Slaughter et al., 1988, Heyward obtained from the parents of each gymnast. and Stolarczyk, 1996). This method is highly recommended in literature to assess body com- Body composition position in children and adolescents because of The height of the gymnasts was recorded its accuracy and simplicity (Boye et al., 2002, to the nearest 0.1 cm using a height measure, ALPHA, 2009, Laurson et al., 2011). In addi- body mass was recorded to within an accuracy tion, the percentile scores of %Fat were also of 0.1 kg by using the Omron BF511 electronic calculated by using the international norms for scale, and waist circumference was measured Caucasian children and adolescents (McCar- to the nearest 0.1 cm with the Lufkin W606PM thy et al., 2006). The %Fat was classified by tape measure. The anthropometric procedures the following cut-offs: ‘overweight’ (%Fat > for those measurements were followed thor- 85th PRs;); ‘obese’ (%Fat > 95th); and ‘under- oughly (Piwoz and Viteri, 1985, NHNES, fat’ (%Fat < 2nd PRs), (McCarthy et al., 2006). 2007). Body mass index (BMI = body weight in kg/height in metres squared) and waist-to- Nutritional assessment height ratio (WHtR= waist circumference in The food frequency questionnaire (FFQ), cm/height in cm) were calculated, and the rec- which had been used for children practising ommended cut-off of WHtR = 0.500 was used gymnastics (Kolimechkov et al., 2016), was to assess increased health risk in children relat- applied in this study in order to assess the nu- ing to an excessive accumulation of body fat trient intake of the artistic gymnasts. on the upper body (Ashwell and Hsieh, 2005, The FFQ consists of 30 questions relating McCarthy and Ashwell, 2006). Moreover, to the weekly consumption of different types the WHO AnthroPlus specialised software of food and questions about the physical ac- based on the international norms in children tivity, height and weight of children. In addi- (WHO, 2011), as well as on the most recent tion to that, tables for measuring the frequency Bulgarian norms as provided by the “Physical of fruit and vegetable consumption were also Development of Children and Youths in Bul- added. The frequency tables included a total of garia” study, PDCYB (Nacheva et al., 2012), 22 common fruits and 24 common vegetables were applied in order to calculate the percen- with five possible answers for each fruit and tile scores for height, weight and BMI of each vegetable (never, rarely, sometimes, often,

41 NUTRITIONAL STATUS AND ... S. Kolimechkov, I. Yanev, I. Kiuchukov, L. Petrov, A. Alexandrova, D. Zaykova, E. Stoimenov and always). The FFQs were completed by the the WHO norms vs the Bulgarian norms. Two children’s parents, which is a common prac- sample t-test and Cohen’s effect size of the nu- tice when assessing nutrition in children and trients and energy intake vs the data from the elderly people (Gibson, 1990). NNSB2003 were also calculated. The follow- Based on the results, the daily intake of ing classification of the effect size was applied: proteins, carbohydrates and fats, relative pro- d (0.01) = very small, d (0.20) = small, d (0.50) tein intake per kg body mass (RPI), relative = medium, d (0.80) = large, d (1.20) = very carbohydrate intake (RCI), relative fat intake large, and d (2.00) = huge (Sawilowsky, 2009, (RFI), and the energy contribution of each Cohen, 1988). nutrient (E%), in addition to the total daily RESULTS energy intake (kcal/24h) and relative energy The anthropometric parameters, their per- intake (REN) were calculated. Moreover, the centile scores and their effect size vs the 50th percent of protein and fat which comes from percentiles (PRs) of the three groups are pre- animal sources (animal protein% and animal sented in Table 1. As expected, Group-A (5-9 fat%) was also calculated. years) has the smallest average sports experi- The basal metabolic rate (BMR kcal/24h) ence (2.5 years). The average frequency of was calculated by using the equations of Harris- the gymnastics training ranged from 3 to 6 Benedict (Harris and Benedict, 1919), which sessions per week and was significantly lower are commonly applied in research (Blinman in the youngest group (5-9 years). The height- and Cook, 2011). for-age percentile scores in all groups were The estimated daily energy needs (kcal/24h) significantly lower than the 50th percentile of were derived by employing the following for- both international norms (WHO, 2006) and mula (BMR kcal/24h x (1.2 + 0.08 x number Bulgarian norms (Nacheva et al., 2012) for of sessions)), (Harris and Benedict, 1919). The children and adolescents at this age (Table two lessons of physical education (2 x 45 min) 1). The average weight PRs of the gymnasts at school were considered as 1 sports session. did not differ from the average international Statistical Analysis standards in Group-A, but it was significantly The statistical analyses were conducted lower than the Bulgarian norms in Group-A with SPSS Statistics 19 software, using de- and Group-C. However, it should be taken scriptive statistics and One-way ANOVA with into account that the World Health Organiza- the Bonferroni post hoc test. Statistically sig- tion (WHO) does not provide weight-for-age nificant differences between the average val- reference data for children over 10 years of ues were evaluated at p < 0.05, and the data in age, because this indicator cannot distinguish the text and the tables are presented as mean ± between height and body mass at an age when SD, and in the figures are presented as mean ± many children are experiencing the pubertal SE. In addition, one sample t-test and Cohen’s growth spurt (WHO, 2007b). The percentile effect size (d) of the percentile scores for the scores of the body mass index (BMI) for all anthropometric parameters vs their 50th per- three groups did not differ significantly from centile were calculated in order to present the the 50th PRs of the WHO and the Bulgarian magnitude of the effects. Pared samples t-test norms, except for Group-A, and the average was used in order to compare the PRs scores waist-to-height ratio was below the boundary of height, weight and BMI as calculated by of 0.500, which distinguishes children at risk

42 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 as far as their health is concerned (Ashwell cantly lower in the male group (Group-C) in and Hsieh, 2005, McCarthy and Ashwell, comparison with the female group (Group- 2006). The absolute value of %Fat is signifi- B). Overall, the %Fat percentile scores in all

Table 1. Anthropometric parameters, their percentile scores as provided by the international norms (WHO, 2011), and the Bulgarian norms (Nacheva et al., 2012), in addition to their effect size vs the 50th percentile (PRs) of the artistic gymnasts (mean ± SD). 5-9 years 10-14 years 10-14 years (n=45) Female (n=18) Male (n=13) Group-A Group-B Group-C Age (years) 7.93 ± 1.26 BC 12.01 ± 1.56 12.22 ± 1.60 Sports experience (months) 30.22 ± 18.57 BC 63.42 ± 38.74 71.69 ± 25.95 Sessions per week 4.17 ± 1.16 bC 5.22 ± 1.06 5.54 ± 0.78 Height (cm) 122.96 ± 8.79 BC 146.96 ± 10.15 146.38 ± 9.43 Height WHO percentile score 32.49 ± 29.54 36.35 ± 26.66 29.50 ± 21.86 Effect size vs 50th PRs 0.59 D 0.51 d 0.94 d Height BG percentile score 23.31 ± 26.58 W 33.87 ± 25.13 24.52 ± 19.42 w Effect size vs 50th PRs 1.00 D 0.64 d 1.31 D Weight (kg) 25.09 ± 5.21 BC 40.03 ± 9.62 38.90 ± 8.06 Weight WHO percentile score 43.56 ± 27.51 -* -* Effect size vs 50th PRs NS Weight BG percentile score 35.35 ± 26.66 W 43.03 ± 25.67 37.26 ± 15.83 Effect size vs 50th PRs 0.55 D NS 0.80 d BMI (kg/cm2) 16.43 ± 1.82 18.26 ± 2.24 17.97 ± 1.65 BMI WHO percentile score 57.50 ± 25.88 50.67 ± 23.09 51.05 ± 22.18 Effect size vs 50th PRs NS NS NS BMI BG percentile score 59.85 ± 23.26 w 59.61 ± 23.91 W 56.16 ± 19.53 Effect size vs 50th PRs 0.42 d NS NS Waist-to-height ratio 0.44 ± 0.04 b 0.41 ± 0.03 0.43 ± 0.02 % Fat 15.30 ± 3.97 16.77 ± 3.93 c 12.63 ± 2.48 % Fat percentile score 16.00 ± 22.71 12.31 ± 13.67 9.92 ± 15.76 Effect size vs 50th PRs 1.50 D 2.76 D 2.54 D

* WHO does not provide weight-for-age reference data for children older than 10 years of age (WHO, 2007b). b – p < 0.01 vs Group-B; B – p < 0.001 vs Group-B; c – p < 0.05 vs Group-C; C – p < 0.001 vs Group-C; d – p < 0.05 vs 50th PRs; d – p < 0.01 vs 50th PRs; D – p < 0.001 vs 50th PRs; w – p < 0.05 vs WHO PRs norms; W – p < 0.001 vs WHO PRs norms; NS – not significant

43 NUTRITIONAL STATUS AND ... S. Kolimechkov, I. Yanev, I. Kiuchukov, L. Petrov, A. Alexandrova, D. Zaykova, E. Stoimenov

Table 2. Daily intake of macronutrients and energy contribution of each nutrient (E%) of the gymnasts’ diet (mean ± SD), in addition to their effect size vs the data from the National Nutrition Survey in Bulgaria (NNSB2003). 5-9 years 10-14 years 10-14 years (n=45) Female (n=18) Male (n=13) Group-A Group-B Group-C Energy needs (kcal/24h) 1865.16 ± 258.72 BC 2405.11 ± 274.59 2500.92 ± 348.44 Relative energy needs (REN) 75.53 ± 9.17 Bc 62.31 ± 10.14 65.11 ± 5.18 (kcal/kg/24h) Energy intake (kcal/24h) 1950.80 ± 460.17 2181.45 ± 595.12 2301.00 ± 640.96 Effect size NS NS NS Relative energy intake (REI) 79.72 ± 21.57 Bc 56.23 ± 15.78 59.60 ± 12.52 (kcal/kg/24h) Energy needs/Energy intake 1.06 ± 0.28 0.91 ± 0.25 0.92 ± 0.20 Protein (g/24h) 77.72 ± 16.19 84.86 ± 21.37 88.29 ± 28.27 Effect size 1.10 D 1.05 D 0.77 d Relative protein intake (RPI) 3.20 ± 0.87 Bc 2.19 ± 0.58 2.28 ± 0.56 (g/kg/24h) Effect size 1.45 D 1.13 D 0.97 D Protein-Е% 16.60 ± 1.80 16.11 ± 2.00 15.69 ± 2.14 Effect size 2.06 D 1.78 D 1.66 D Fat (g/24h) 69.13 ± 16.63 77.55 ± 25.89 77.30 ± 21.90 Effect size NS NS NS Relative fat intake (RFI) 2.83 ± 0.79 2.01 ± 0.73 2.00 ± 0.44 (g/kg/24h) Fat-E% 33.11 ± 5.34 32.72 ± 6.32 31.15 ± 4.60 Effect size 0.37 d NS NS Carbohydrates (g/24h) 243.58 ± 74.44 275.08 ± 91.14 300.74 ± 94.61 Effect size NS NS NS Relative carbohydrates intake 9.92 ± 3.26 b 7.07 ± 2.34 7.81 ± 2.04 (RCI), (g/kg/24h) Carbohydrates-E% 50.40 ± 6.01 51.06 ± 7.26 53.15 ± 6.12 Effect size NS NS NS Animal Protein (%) 53.13 ± 8.49 52.28 ± 10.68 50.69 ± 11.68 Effect size 0.78 D 0.70 d 0.68 d Animal Fat (%) 64.44 ± 10.81 66.56 ± 14.55 62.38 ± 16.30 b – p < 0.01 vs Group-B; B – p < 0.001 vs Group-B; c – p < 0.01 vs Group-C; C – p < 0.001 vs Group-C; d – p < 0.05 vs NNSB2003; d – p < 0.01 vs NNSB2003; D – p < 0.001 vs NNSB2003; NS – not significant

44 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 groups were substantially lower than the 50th children and adolescents of the same gender percentile of the international norms for chil- and at the same age. The effect size of these dren and adolescents (McCarthy et al., 2006), differences according to Sawilowsky and Co- and Cohen’s effect size was very large (d = hen (Sawilowsky, 2009, Cohen, 1988) varied 1.50) for Group-A, and huge for Group-B and from 0.77 (large) to 2.06 (huge). In addition to Group-C (d = 2.76 and d = 2.54, respectively), that, Group-A had a significantly higher RPI in accordance with the benchmarks provided of approximately 1 g/kg/24h, compared to by Cohen and Sawilowsky (Sawilowsky, Group-B and Group-C. 2009, Lakens, 2013). The fat and carbohydrate intake, as well The data from the nutritional survey for all as the energy contribution from those mac- three groups are presented in Table 2. The av- ronutrients, did not differ from those of the erage REN and REI values in Group-A were NNSB2003, except in the Fat-E%, which was significantly higher than those in the other two higher in Group-A, where there was a small groups. The daily energy intake in all groups effect size (d = 0.37). The protein and fat did not differ from those reported in the Na- which come from animal sources did not show tional Nutrition Survey, 2003, in Bulgarian any significant differences between the three school children (NNSB2003), (Table 3). How- groups. However, the protein which comes ever, the protein intake, RPI, and the energy from animal sources was significantly higher contribution of proteins were significantly than the NNSB2003 data, with medium effect higher in the artistic gymnasts in comparison size (d = 0.78 for Group-A, d = 0.70 for Group- with those published in the NNSB2003 for B and d = 0.68 for Group-C). Table 3. Daily intake of macronutrients and % of energy (E%) in school children from the National Nutrition Survey in Bulgaria, NNSB2003 (Petrova et al., 2003) (mean ± SD) 7-9 years 10-14 years 10-14 years Female and Male Female Male (n=888) (n=853) (n=861) Energy (kcal/24h) 1853 ± 713.0 2056 ± 792.0 2313 ± 915.0 Protein (g/24h) 53.4 ± 22.3 59.1 ± 24.6 67.1 ± 27.5 Relative protein intake 1.9 ± 0.9 1.4 ± 0.7 1.6 ± 0.7 (g/kg/24h) Protein (Е %) 11.5 ± 2.5 11.5 ± 2.6 11.7 ± 2.4 Fat (g/24h) 76.7 ± 38.4 85.2 ± 42.9 93.0 ± 47.7 Fat (E %) 36.3 ± 8.7 36.4 ± 8.6 35.4 ± 8.9 Carbohydrates (g/24h) 237.2 ± 91.8 262.8 ± 100.7 301.6 ± 120.5 Carbohydrates (E %) 52.0 ± 9.1 51.8 ± 9.1 52.8 ± 9.3 Animal Protein (%) 38.5 ± 19.2 39.0 ± 19.2 38.4 ± 18.1

The average frequency consumption of consumption of all three groups of gymnasts fruits and vegetables did not differ signifi- were combined together and are presented in cantly between the three groups of gymnasts. Figure 1 and Figure 2, respectively. Therefore, the results of fruit and vegetable

45 NUTRITIONAL STATUS AND ... S. Kolimechkov, I. Yanev, I. Kiuchukov, L. Petrov, A. Alexandrova, D. Zaykova, E. Stoimenov

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

Frequency of fruit consumption fruit of Frequency 0.5

0.0

Figure 1. Frequency of fruit consumption of all artistic gymnasts (n=76)

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5 Frequency of vegetable consumption vegetable of Frequency

0.0

Figure 2. Frequency of vegetable consumption of all artistic gymnasts (n=76) The most often consumed fruits were banan- artistic gymnasts (50%) did not meet the mini- as and apples, and the most frequently consumed mum recommendation of 400 g or 5 portions vegetables were cucumbers, lentils, beans, to- (standard portion weighs about 80 g) of fruits and matoes and carrots. The results from our survey, vegetables a day, provided by the World Health presented in Figure 3, showed that 38 out of 76 Organization (Agudo, 2004, WHO, 2003).

46 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019

18

16

14

12

10

8 16 13 6 12 11 10

Number of gymnasts of Number 4 8 6 2

0 2 or less 3 4 5 6 7 More Number of fruit and vegetable servings per day

Figure 3. Fruit and vegetable intake (1 portion = 80 g) of all artistic gymnasts (n=76)

DISCUSSION or near adult height of artistic gymnasts of The percentile scores in the height of the both genders is not compromised by intensive gymnasts are significantly lower than the 50th gymnastics training at a young age or during percentile of both international and Bulgarian the pubertal growth spurt (Malina et al., 2013). norms (Table 1), with medium to large effect Sands (1999) recognises gymnastics to be a size for Group-A (Cohen’s d = 0.59 and 1.00, unique area of physical activity which, unlike respectively), medium effect size for Group- many sports which favour athletes of greater B (Cohen’s d = 0.51 and 0.64, respectively), stature or weight, provides opportunities for and large effect size for Group-C (Cohen’s d even the smallest and lightest athletes in the = 0.94 and 1.31, respectively). The gymnasts area of competitive activities (Sands, 1999). with shorter stature probably have an advan- The BMI percentile scores in all groups tage while executing gymnastics exercises. did not differ from the 50th percentile of the The absolute average values of the height of international norm, but they did not provide an young gymnasts in different studies (Benar- accurate assessment for some individual gym- dot, 2014) are similar to those in our study. nasts involved in our study because of the limi- Another example can be seen in the height- tations of the BMI. It should be stated that the for-age of female junior elite gymnasts, which BMI provides a simple way, employing a stan- progressively dropped from the 48th to the dardised methodology, to assess and monitor 20th percentile as age increased (Benardot the health of school children (Boeva and Mari- and Czerwinski, 1991). These results do not nova, 2013, Boeva and Margaritova, 2014), in signify a slowdown in growth as a result of ar- addition to providing a safe, inexpensive, and tistic gymnastics training. Malina et al. (2013) widely applied anthropometric method (Pekar, in their review, which analysed the role of in- 2011, Keys et al., 2014). However, the BMI tensive training on the growth of artistic gym- does not distinguish between fat and muscle nasts, came to the conclusion that adult height mass, and, therefore, some authors maintain

47 NUTRITIONAL STATUS AND ... S. Kolimechkov, I. Yanev, I. Kiuchukov, L. Petrov, A. Alexandrova, D. Zaykova, E. Stoimenov that this specific parameter is not appropriate protein by the gymnasts in our study comes for some groups of people, such as profession- from animal sources, a recent review con- al athletes, body building enthusiasts, people cluded that a well-planned vegan diet is also engaged in jobs with strenuous physical activ- capable of fulfilling the protein needs of com- ity (Bogin and Varela-Silva, 2012), and ado- petitive gymnasts, in addition to helping them lescent athletes (Lutoslawska et al., 2014). lose excess weight, improving the quality of The %Fat percentile scores in all groups diet, and at the same time reducing the risk were significantly lower than the 50th percen- of modern chronic diseases in the long term tile (p<0.001) with very large to huge effect (Jakše and Jakše, 2018). size, which is normal for children and adoles- The fat and carbohydrate intake, as well cents who are engaged in artistic gymnastics as the energy contribution did not differ from (Jemni, 2011). Our results are also similar those reported in the NNSB2003, except for to those reviewed by Benardot (Benardot, the energy contribution of fats in Group- 2014), where the average %Fat for young A, which was slightly lower. Overall in all female and male gymnasts ranged between groups, the energy contribution of fats was 8.6% and 21.5%. above the recommended norms (15-30%), as The energy intake of the gymnasts from all provided by the WHO (WHO, 2003). The re- groups did not differ significantly from those ported data in literature show similar findings reported in the national survey, NNSB2003. in line with our results: the energy contribu- The REI of Group-A was significantly high- tion of fats for gymnasts is above the recom- er than the older gymnasts (Group-B and mended 15-30%, and that of carbohydrates is Group-C) by about 20 kcal/kg, which is prob- below 55-75% (Karabudak et al., 2016, Bena- ably because of the increased energy needs rdot et al., 1989, Reggiani et al., 1989, Kirch- for growth at this age. There is a good consis- ner et al., 1995, Moffatt, 1984, Kolimechkov tency between the REN and REI in all groups, et al., 2016). It has been suggested that chil- as can be seen from their ratio, which is close dren seem to be more suited to absorbing free to 1 (Table 2). fatty acids as a primary substrate for exercise The protein intake and the relative pro- compared with carbohydrates (Unnithan and tein intake (RPI) were both significantly Goulopoulou, 2004). However, after review- higher (p<0.001) than those published in the ing multiple studies on nutrition for young NNSB2003. This higher protein intake is in gymnasts, Benardot (2014) highlights that line with our previous study (Kolimechkov et they should increase the energy contribution al., 2016) and with other authors who reported of carbohydrates and lower their fat intake, as higher values of RPI for young competitive a diet high in carbohydrates, with a moderate gymnasts (Benardot et al., 1989, Karabudak amount of protein, and with a low fat content, et al., 2016). Consequently, the energy con- will provide the best combination for those tribution of proteins was significantly higher athletes (Benardot, 2014). than the NNSB2003 and the values of 10- The gymnasts from our study predomi- 15%, as recommended by the WHO (WHO, nantly consumed non-seasonal fruits, such as 2003), but this was in line with data reported apples, bananas and citrus fruits, as well as for gymnasts (Benardot, 1996, Benardot et vegetables which are traditional in Bulgaria: al., 1989, Karabudak et al., 2016, Kirchner cucumbers, tomatoes and carrots, and high- et al., 1995). Although half of the consumed in-protein lentils and beans. However, 50%

48 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 of all artistic gymnasts had a low intake of Test Manual. fruits and vegetables, which was below the Ashwell, M. & Hsieh, S. D. (2005). Six minimum figure of 400 g or 5 portions, as rea sons why the waist-to-height ratio is a rapid recommended by the WHO (Agudo, 2004, and effective global indicator for health risks WHO, 2003). of obesity and how its use could simplify the international public health message on obesity. CONCLUSIONS Int J Food Sci Nutr, 56, pp. 303-7. The results showed that the height percen- Benardot, D. (1996). Working with young tile scores of the gymnasts were significantly athletes: views of a nutritionist on the sports lower than the 50th percentile of both inter- medicine team. Int J Sport Nutr, 6, pp. 110-20. national and Bulgarian norms. The %Fat and Benardot, D. (2014). Gymnastics. In: its percentile scores showed substantially low Maughan, R. (ed.) Sports Nutrition: The En­ levels for all three groups, which are within the cyclopedia of Sports Medicine London: IOC norms and parameters for artistic gymnasts. Medical Commission Publication. The energy intake of the artistic gym- Benardot, D. & Czerwinski, C. (1991). Se- nasts did not differ significantly from those lected body composition and growth measures reported in the Bulgarian nutritional survey, of junior elite gymnasts. Journal of the Ameri­ NNSB2003. However, the protein intake, the can Dietetic Association, 91, pp. 29-33. relative protein intake (RPI), and the energy Benardot, D., Schwarz, M. & D., H. (1989). contribution of proteins were significantly Nutrient intake in young, highly competitive higher than those for children and adolescents gymnasts. Journal of the American Dietetic As­ from the national survey, but were in line with sociation, 89, pp. 401-3. other nutritional studies on gymnasts. The fat Blinman, T. & Cook, R. (2011). Allometric intake was slightly higher, and the carbohy- Prediction of Energy Expenditure in Infants and drate intake was slightly lower than the rec- Children. ICAN: Infant, Child, & Adolescent ommended values in literature. Therefore, the Nutrition, 3, pp. 216-224. carbohydrate intake should be increased, and Boeva, S. & Margaritova, V. (2014). Im- the fat content in their food reduced. Gymnasts pact of BMI on the manifestation of physical should increase their fruit and vegetable intake fitness with students from primary school age. to at least five portions a day, as recommended Prospects in education, The Plovdiv University by the WHO. “Paisii Hilendarski”. Plovdiv, Bulgaria. ISBN ACKNOWLEDGMENT 978-954-423-942-8. This research was financially supported Boeva, S. & Marinova, D. (2013). by Grant ‘08/15.02.2018’ from the National Should BMI be considered as part of the as- Sports Academy, Sofia, Bulgaria. sessment in Physical Education for school pupils. European standards in sport educa­ REFERENCES tion at schools. V. Tarnovo, Bulgaria: I & B, Agudo, A. (2004). Measuring intake of fruit ISBN: 978-954-9689-79-2. and vegetables. FAO and WHO workshop on Bogin, B. & Varela-silva, I. (2012). fruit and vegetables for health. Kobe, Japan: The Body Mass Index: the good, the bad World Health Organization. and the horrid. Bulletin de la Societe Suisse Alpha (2009). The Alpha Health-related Fit- d’Anthropologie, 18, pp. 5-11. ness Test battery for Children and Adolescents, Boye, K. R., T. Dimitriou, F. Manz, E.

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50 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 sedentary students. Journal of Physiological Magazine, Summer 2011, pp. 21-22. Anthropology, 33. Petrie, H., E. Stover & Horswill, C. (2004). Malina, R. M., Baxter-Jones, A. D., Arm- Nutritional Concerns for the Child and Adoles- strong, N., Beunen, G. P., Caine, D., Daly, R. cent Competitor. Nutrition, 20, pp. 620-631. M., Lewis, R. D., Rogol, A. D. & Russell, K. Petrova, S., L. Ivanova, D. Baikova, K. An- (2013). Role of intensive training in the growth gelova, B. Iordanov, V. Duleva, D. Ovcharova and maturation of artistic gymnasts. Sports & Vatralova, K. (2003). National Survey on nu- Med, 43, pp. 783-802. trition and nutritional status of schoolchildren in Mccarthy, H. D. & Ashwell, M. (2006). A Bulgaria (Report). (in Bulgarian). Bulgaria: Na- study of central fatness using waist-to-height tional Center of Hygiene, Medical Ecology and ratios in UK children and adolescents over two Nutrition. decades supports the simple message--’keep Piwoz, G. & Viteri, F. (1985). Food and Nu- your waist circumference to less than half your trition Bulletin. UNU, 07, 86. height’. Int J Obes (Lond), 30, pp. 988-92. Reggiani, E., Arras, G. B., Trabacca, S., Mccarthy, H. D., T.J. Cole, T. Fry, S.A. Jebb Senarega, D. & Chiodini, G. (1989). Nutritional & Prentice, A. M. (2006). Body fat reference status and body composition of adolescent fe- curves for children. International journal of male gymnasts. J Sports Med Phys Fitness, 29, Obesity, 30, pp. 598-602. pp. 285-8. Moffatt, R. J. (1984). Dietary status of Sands, W. (1999). Why Gymnastics? USA elite female high school gymnasts: inadequa- Gymnastics Online: Technique, pp. 19. cy of vitamin and mineral intake. J Am Diet Sawilowsky, S. (2009). New Effect Size Assoc, 84, pp. 1361-3. Rules of Thumb. Journal of Modern Applied Nacheva, A., Zhecheva, Y., Yankova, I., Statistical Methods, 8, pp. 597-599. Filcheva, Z., Mitova, Z. & Yordanov, Y. (2012). Slaughter, M., T. Lohman, R. Boileau, C. Physical Development of Children and Youths Horswill, R. Stillman, M. Van loan & Bemben, in Bulgaria on the borderline between 20th D. (1988). Skinfold equations for estimation of and 21st century, Academic Publishing House body fatness in children and youth. Human bi­ ‘Prof. Marin Drinov’. ology, 60, pp. 709-23. Nevin-folino, N. (2003). Pediatric Manual Unnithan, V. & Goulopoulou, S. 2004. Nu- of Clinical Dietetics (2nd ed.). The Pediatric trition for the Pediatric Athlete. Current Sports Nutrition Practice Group. Chicago: American Medicine Reports, 3, pp. 206-2011. Dietetic Association. WHO (2003). Diet, Nutrition and the Pre- Nhnes (2007). National Health and Nutri­ vention of Chronic Disease. Report of a Joint tion Examination survey (NHNES). Anthro­ WHO/FAO Expert Consultation. Chapter 5: pometry procedures manual, USA, CDC. Population nutrient intake goals for prevent- Nisevich, P. (2008). Sports Nutrition for ing chronic-diseases. Geneva: World Health Young Athletes. IDEA Fitness Journal, pp. Organization 2003. 65-67. WHO (2006). WHO Child Growth Stan- O’Connor, H. (2000). Special needs: chil- dards based on length/height, weight and age. dren an adolescents in sport. In: Burke, L. M. Acta Paediatr Suppl, 450, pp. 76-85. & Deakin, V. (eds.) Clinical Sports Nutrition. WHO. (2007)a. BMI-for-age (5-19 years) Sydney: McGraw Hill. [Online]. World Health Organization. Avail- Pekar, T. (2011). Body Mass Index. IMS able: http://www.who.int/growthref/who2007_

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Corresponding author:

Stefan Kolimechkov National Sports Academy „Vassil Levski” Studentski grad, 21, Acad. Stefan Mladenov Str. Sofia 1700, Bulgaria E-mail: [email protected]

52 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF MOTOR COORDINATION ABILITIES OF 9-10-YEAR OLD BOYS ON THE BASIS OF REGIONAL (DEMOGRAPHYC) BENCHMARK CONTEXT Nikolina Tankoucheva Sofia University „St. Kliment Ohridski”, Bulgaria

ABSTRACT Changes in socio-economic life are related to new challenges affecting the growing children as well. Reduced motor activity as a consequence of the ubiquitous presence of new technolo­ gies, urbanization and social changes, increasing of schooling activity and others, lead to deg­ radation of the physical health, changes in the physical development and fitness of the younger generation. The purpose of the study is to establish whether there is a difference in the manifestation of motor coordination abilities of 9-10-year-old boys from different regions of Bulgaria classified by population. Backwards ball throw test, Low jump test and Orientation shuttle run test were used for measurement of the motor coordination abilities of 9-10-year-old-boys. The demographic factor was determined forming 5 groups depending on the population. The results provide clear evidence that there are statistically significant differences in mani­ festation of the motor coordination abilities of 9-10 years-old boys depending on the number of town population. The most significant practical difference was observed for Orientation shuttle run test or for kinesthetic ability of the low limbs. Multiple comparisons showed that for the first test - Backwards ball throw test there were not statistical differences between small cities and Sofia city. Probably the pupils from the small cities are as talented to perform the coordination exercises as those in Sofia city. For the second test – Low jump test results showed statistically significant differences for almost all compared pairs. The same conclusion is valid also for Orientation shuttle run test. This means that the number of the population can be a differentiating factor for the manifestation of various motor skills, including motor coordination abilities.

Key words: motor coordination abilities, 9­10 years old boys, comparative analysis, demo­ graphic principle

INTRODUCTION Changes in socio-economic life are re- The demographic problem is seen to be one lated to new challenges affecting the growing of the main social problems of contemporary children as well. Reduced motor activity as Bulgarian society. Population theories are an a consequence of the global presence of new important part of today’s “demography” sci- technologies, urbanization and social chang- ence that seeks the link between demographic es, increasing of schooling activity and oth- dynamics and economic development (Chola- ers, lead to degradation of the physical health, kov, 2012; Sugareva, 2017). changes in the physical development and fit-

Journal of Applied Sports Sciences 53 DOI: 10.37393/jass.2019.01.5 2019, Vol. 1, pp. 53 - 66 ISSN 2534-9597 (Print), ISSN 2535-0145 (Online) COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ... N. Tankoucheva ness of the younger generation. master the compulsory curriculum of athletics, The data from the studied literature on the gymnastics and sports games. Elective areas problem show that there is a lag in the devel- of learning content required the mastery of at opment of the physical abilities of adolescents least one sport or a motor-cognitive activity (Boeva, 2012; Bernstein, 1991; Lyah, 2003; (https://www.mon.bg/bg/1689). Of the recom- Hirtz, 1985; Raczek et al. 2003 etc.). Physical mended percentage distribution of the manda- capacity as a complex indicator of the over- tory hours for the year - 80 hours, 16% are all functional state of people and their motor dedicated to the development of motor abili- skills is closely related to the degree of devel- ties. The choice of additional sports disciplines opment and manifestation of the basic physi- is made by the school management, according cal (motor) abilities. For many pupils there is to the conditions, traditions, qualification of not any harmony between the development of the pedagogues and the interests of the pupils. their physical qualities and their motor skills Many surveys have been carried out on the (Momchilova, 2002). study of the manifestations of the motor coor- The development of physical capacity dination abilities for school physical education and motoric has a direct relationship with the and in particular among children in primary de velopment of motor coordination (MC). school age (Momchilova, 1996; Fedyakina, (Dimitrova, 1975; Momchilova, 1996, 2002; 1998; Magomedov, 1999; Kohoutek, 2005; Ignatov, 2017). According to Rusev (1995), Lyah, 2006; Pisarenkova, 2010; Grozdeva, Grosser et al. (2004), Lyah (2006), Chelishev 2010; Turchak, 2014; Zlatev et al. 2016) (2012) etc., they can be described as the ability Coordinating performance is typically mea- of human beings to solve the motor tasks in the sured by sports motor tests that are standardized event of complex and unexpected situations in driving tasks and meet three classic quality cri- the most perfect, quick, convenient, economi- teria: objectivity, reliability and validity. cal, precise and intelligent way. In reality, simple control exercises can give At the elementary school age “foundation an idea of how well children have developed is laid” to develop these abilities, as well as to in primary school and what practical abilities acquire knowledge, skills and habits for coor- they have (Roth, 2014). dination exercises (Hirtz, 1985; Momchilova, The aim of the study was to establish wheth- 1996; Hirtz et al. 2000; Hirtz, Starosta, 2002; er the re is a difference in the manifestation of Lyah, 2006). Zamashkin and Tolstova (2013) mo tor coordination abilities of 9-10-year-old call this age period - “golden age” - referring boys from different regions of Bulgaria classi- to the speed of development of the motor co- fied by population. ordination abilities. The purpose solution will allow to assess There are five basic motor coordination the actual condition of these abilities for pupils abilities to learn in physical education classes of the third grade for the school year 2018/19 (Hirtz, 1986; Rusev, 2005): ability for spatial according to the emerging demographic chan- orientation, kinesthetic differentiation ability, ges in Bulgaria reflecting education as a social balance ability, ability of reaction; rhyth mic phenomenon (including physical education and ability. sport) and, respectively, necessary to update and For the 2018/19 school year the educa- develop criteria for motor coordination abilities tional objectives of the PE curriculum for the control that will positively influence the physi- third graders in Bulgaria required that pupils cal development of the growing generation.

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METHOD AND MATERIALS to 30, 000 inhabitants - Smolyan, Svilengrad Object of the study - quantitative and qual- and Radomir (Code 4); itative characteristics of the upper and lower “Very small cities” - with a population of limb kinesthetic discrimination ability and less than 10, 000 - Kubrat and Smilyan lower limb response orientation ability. (Code 5). Participants The research was conducted in October- The study was carried out in a total of 13 November 2018. Bulgarian schools. Of them - 7 secondary Measurements schools (SS) - with education from 1st to 12th From the analysis of the studied literature, grade and 6 Primary schools (PS) - from 1st to three tests for structuring the testing battery 4th grade. The 564 boys from different cities were selected under the field conditions (field in the country, aged 9-10 years, of the third evaluation). There is no common practice to grade were tested, divided into five groups perform a pre-test to minimize the learning according to the population (http://www.nsi. effect during the research. The test battery bg/bg/content/2981/): was confirmed from Hirtz et al. (1985) by ad- “Very large cities “- with a population of over ministering a large and representative sample than 200, 000 inhabitants – Sofia (Code 1); of school-aged children (Table 1). According “Big cities” - with a population of 100, 000 to Di Cagno et al. (2013) this battery has high to 200, 000 inhabitants - Plovdiv and Bour- test-retest reliability (Infraclass correlation gas (Code 2); coefficient (ICC) range 0.80-0.85 – authors’ “Medium Cities” - with a population of 30, unpublished data). The second test was adapt- 000 to 100, 000 inhabitants - Veliko Tarnovo ed - “with a rebound from the floor” due to the and Targovishte (Code 3); lack of equipment (plinth) in some schools. “Small cities” - with a population of 10, 000

Table 1. Hirtzʼs battery test description (Hirtz et. al., 1985)

Test № Name and description Measure Measure units Measuring accuracy Direction of growth 1 Backwards ball throw test (BBT) (Figure 1) Participants performed a one-hand overhead throw backwards with a tennis ball. They were instructed to center a ground target located 250 cm behind the performer. The target had a 20 cm diameter. After a training throw, participants performed five consecutive p. 0.2 + trials. Five points were assigned for each centered target. Scores of 4, 3, 2, 1 and 0 were assigned with increasing distance of the con tact point of the ball from the target and the mean score was computed. 2 Low jump test (LJ) (Figure 2) Participants jumped with the legs together from the floor (adapted) to a ground marking at a set distance (1 m). They were instructed to land with their heels on the marking. The test was performed twice cm 0.5 - and the distance of each heel from the marking was measured in centimeters for each trial. The values of the distance of the two heels are averaged. The better result was taken into account.

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3 Orientation shuttle run test (OSR) (Figure 3) The participant was instructed to run three times, as quickly as possible, from a start marker toward one of fi ve numbered goal markers located behind him. The goal markers were 3 m apart from him and 1.5 m apart from another on a hypothetical circumference arc. The sequence of goal markings to be reached was not known previously. The next marking number was announced when the participant returned to the start ball and touched it for the next run s 0.01 - to begin without pausing. After demonstration by an experimenter, participants performed the test.

Figure 1. Backwards ball throw test (BBT)

Figure 2. Low jump test (LJ)

Figure 3. Orientation shuttle run test (OSR)

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Each test includes either the upper limbs means for statistical significance. Information or the lower limbs in order to avoid any con- on the multiple comparisons between each fusion between the measured motor coordina- pair of subgroups is provided by Tukey’s HSD tion ability. The first Backwards ball throw test (honestly significant difference) test. The coef- (T1BBT) allows to evaluate the kinesthetic ficient eta is also calculated, which makes it capability of the upper limbs for the finely possible to estimate the practical magnitude of differentiated management of the dynamic the differences. It is a coefficient of determi- spatial-temporal motor parameters (Figure 1). nation and shows what percentage of the total The second test, a “ Low jump test “ (T2LJ), dispersion of values is explained by belonging is to assess the kinesthetic ability of the lower to the groups. The Effect Size Variable (Cohen limbs where the participants are instructed to f difference) was also calculated. Limit values land their heels on the marked line (Figure 2). for assessing the magnitude of differences in The third test -” Orientation shuttle run test “ literature indicate - up to 0.02 - small differ- (T3OSR) for assessing the kinesthetic ability ences, to 0.15 - moderate differences, to 0.35 of the lower limb response orientation ability significant differences and over 0.35 - large (Figure 3). differences between groups. Statistical analysis Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used RESULTS to analyse the differences among group means The results of the screening of the hypoth- in the samples. ANOVA provides a statisti- esis of equivalence of the mean values of the cal test of whether the population means of demographics benchmark context for the ex- several groups are equal. ANOVA is useful amined 9-10-year-old boys are presented in for comparing (testing) three or more group the ANOVA table (Table 2). Table 2. One-Way ANOVA table of the variables (p≤0.05) Variables Source of dispersion SS df MS F Sig. Backwards Between Groups 19.12 4 4.78 8.78 .000 ball throw test Within Groups 304.26 559 .54 Total 323.38 563 Low jump test Between Groups 546.638 4 136.66 8.21 .000 Within Groups 9301.46 559 16.64 Total 9848.09 563 Orientation Between Groups 132.40 4 33.104 19.96 .000 shuttle run test Within Groups 926.98 559 1.66 Total 1059.39 563

The observed significant dispersion for throw test was Femp = 8.78 at degrees of very large and small cities can be explained freedom df1 = k - 1 = 4 and df2 = nk-1 = 559 by the different opportunities for practicing and Critical Criterion F 0.05; 2; 21 = 2.37. sport (very large cities) and good natural Femp > F0.05, which means that the difference in coordination for sport in the small towns. the demographic motor coordination abili ties The empirical value of Fischer’s F- in the dif fe rent categories of populated place Crite rion for the first test - Backwards ball is statistically significant (Figure 4, Table

57 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ... N. Tankoucheva

3). The same conclusion is imposed by the (3.88 p. SD ± .59) and Small cities (3.75 p. SD signifi cance level Sig = 0.000. We found out, ±0.70) compared with pupils from Big cities that distance mean values measured in points (3.45 p. SD ± .88), Medium cities (3.47 p. SD indicated the better level of upper limb ki nes- ± .66) and Very small (3.42 p. SD ± .72). thetic differentiation for pupils from Sofi a city

Figure 4. Box-plot diagram of Backwards ball throw test performance comparison (M=3.59 point; α =0.00)

For test 2, a Low jump test was Femp = ties in the different categories of settlements 8.21 at degrees of freedom df1 = k-1 = 4 and is statistically reliable. The same conclusion is

df2 = nk-1 = 559 and critical criterion F0.05; imposed by the signifi cance level Sig = 0.000

Femp> F0.05, which also means that in this test (Figure 5, Table 3). the difference in the motor coordination abili- Table 3. Descriptive statistics of the variables Variables Town codes N Mean Std. Deviation 1.00 118 3.88 .59 2.00 189 3.45 .88 Backwards ball 3.00 129 3.47 .66 throw test 4.00 84 3.75 .70 5.00 44 3.42 .72 Total 564 3.59 .76 1.00 118 7.87 4.05 2.00 189 7.22 4.28 3.00 129 7.20 3.19 Low jump test 4.00 84 9.43 4.21 5.00 44 10.02 5.20 Total 564 7.90 4.18

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1.00 118 11.70 1.44 2.00 189 10.52 1.24 Orientation 3.00 129 10.74 1.23 shuttle run test 4.00 84 11.34 1.38 5.00 44 10.42 .99 Total 564 10.93 1.37

The mean values of the distance measured ± 4.21 cm) and very small cities (7.90 ± 5.20 in cm showed a better level of the kinesthetic cm). This can be explained by better teachers’ capability of the lower limbs, with synchro- qualifi cations as well as the additional sports nous muscular effort in the horizontal plane for activities led by the specialists at extra-time for the pupils from the capital (7.87 ± 4.05 cm), the the boys from very large, large and medium big cities (7.22 ± 4.28 cm) and the medium cit- sized cities. ies (7.20 ± 3.19 cm), compared to small (10.02

Figure 5. Box-plot diagram of Low jump test performance comparison (M=7.90 cm; α =0.00)

For Test 3 - Orientation shuttle run test cities (10.42 ± 0.99 s) compared to their peers again, the difference in motor coordination from very large (11.70 ± 1.44 s) and small cit- abilities from the demographic benchmark ies (11.34 ± 1.38 s). This test provides a com- context was statistically signifi cant - Femp = prehensive assessment of kinesthetic abilities, 19.96 at degrees of freedom df1 = k-1 = 4 and the speed of complex motor response and at- df2 = nk-1 = 559 the critical value of criterion F tention parameters. The strong dissipation of

0.05; 2; 21 = 2.37, Femp> F0.05, and Signifi cance the results concerning large cities is an indica- Level Sig. = 0.00. Analysing the level of spa- tor that there are also pupils who experience tial orientation abilities in T3OSR, measured serious diffi culties in crossing the route and, in sec, there is a difference in performance in therefore, possess a low level of coordination favour of pupils in large cities (10.52 ± 1.24 skills development. (Table 3, Figure 6). s), medium (10.74 ± 1.23 s) and very small

59 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ... N. Tankoucheva

Figure 6. Box-plot diagram of Orientation shuttle run test performance comparison (M=10.93 s; α =0.00) To estimate the practical magnitude of the small or 5.5% of the variance of the values differences, the coeffi cient eta (η) and Co- is explained by belonging to the group. Co- hen’s f ware used. In our case for Test 1, which hen’s f value is is , informs about the level of kinesthetic ability which again speaks of a small practical dif- of the upper limbs allowing a fi nely differen- ference between the comparison averages and tiated management of the dynamic spatial- this test. In the third test, the kinesthetic abil- temporal parameters of the movement of the ity of the lower limbs the difference was 0.12 studied 9-10-year-old boys, the difference cal- and here the difference is moderate or 12% culated was 0.05 and means that a small dif- of the variance of the values is explained by ference or 5.9% of the variance of the values belonging to the groups. Cohen’s f value is is explained by belonging to the groups. Co- , which also indi- hen’s f value , which cates a moderate practical difference between indicates also a small practical difference be- the averaged values for Test 3. tween the compared average values. For Test The results from the comparisons in pairs 2 - the kinesthetic ability of the lower limbs, are presented in the Multiple Comparisons the difference was 0.05 and again means that table (Table 4). Table 4. Multiple correlations between the variables (Tukey HSD, p≤0.05) Groups 1 2 3 4 5 Backwards ball throw test 1 .43* .42* .46* 2 -.43* -.30* 3 -.42* -.27* 4 .30* .28* 5 -.46*

60 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 Low jump test 1 2.15* 2 2.21* 2.80* 3 2.24* 2.82* 4 2.21* 2.23* 5 2.15* 2.80* 2.82* Orientation shuttle run test 1 1.18* .97* 1.27* 2 -1.18* -.81* 3 -.97* -.60* 4 .81* .61* .91* 5 -1.27* -.92* The statistically significant differences (MD) are marked with a symbol (*). It can be seen that there was a statistically Sofia city and very small cities (MD = 2.15 significant difference in the first test for motor cm) and big cities and small and very small coordination abilities of 9-10-year-old boys (MD = 2.21 cm and MD = 2.80 cm) between between the first group (Sofia city) and the the medium and small (MD = 2.24 cm) and second group (Plovdiv and Burgas) (MD = very small and medium (MD = 2.82 cm). This .43 p.), between the first and the third MD( = test (motor coordination ability) seems to dif- .42 p.) and between the first and fifth group ferentiate the pupils in context of city popula- (very small towns - Kubrat and Smilyan) tion. The same conclusion can be drawn for (MD = .46 p.) at level of significanceα = 0.00. the last test – Orientation shuttle run where the Such was missing when comparing Sofia city following significant differences are observed: with small towns (Smolyan and Svilengrad) • Sofia city and Big cities (MD = -1.18 s); So- (α = .74) (first - fourth group). There was not fia and medium (MD = -.97 s) and with very a statistically significant difference between small cities (MD = -1.27 s) all in favour of the second and third groups (large towns and Sofia city; medium-sized towns) as well as between • Big cities and Small one (MD = 0.81 s) in small and very small towns. favour of the first; However, there was a statistically signifi- • Medium and small cities (MD = 0.61 s) also cant difference between medium-sized towns in the favour of the medium; and small towns (MD = .28 p.) in favour of the • Between small and very small (MD = 0.91 s); cities with medium population. The result is • Very small with small (MD = -0.92 s) in fa- supported by the necessary statistical signifi- vour of the very small. cance - α = 0.05. Based on the results of the multiple com- It is interesting that for the very small parisons with the Tukey Ba,b for Backwards towns and the only village of Smilyan there ball throw test, two subgroups of the tested, was only one significant difference and it was represented by their mean values in the Ho- mentioned above, namely Sofia city (in favour mogeneous Subsets table (Table 5) are formed. of Sofia city). The first subgroup includes representatives The results from the Low jump test showed of very small cities, big cities and medium- statistically significant differences between sized cities, whose averages are 3.42 p., 3.45

61 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ... N. Tankoucheva p. and 3.47 p. respectively, and the second teachers; conducting the physical education group - Sofia and small towns whose average classes by the class supervisors; lack of special- values are respectively 3.75 for the first and ists (coaches) for the extra hours, etc. All these 3.88 p. for the latter. Based on the results of facts affect the degree of mastery of the neces- the multiple comparisons with the Tukey Ba,b sary motor skills and habits and the develop- for Low jump test, two subgroups of the ex- ment and manifestation of the basic physical amined, presented with their mean values in (physical) qualities, incl. the motor coordina- the Homogeneous Subsets table (Table 6), are tion abilities of the younger generation. also formed. The first subgroup includes the Moreover, it seemed that the test battery representatives of the middle cities, the big has a high applicability since it turned out to cities and the Sofia city, whose averages are be effective for a wide age range, from kinder- respectively 7.20 cm, 7.22 cm and 7.87 cm, garten children (Chang et al., 2013) to adoles- and the second group - the small towns and cents aged 13-16 years of an elite performance the very small towns whose average values are school (Budde et al., 2008). Demonstrating its respectively 9.43 cm for the first and 10.02 cm effectiveness, it will be important to promote for the second ones. implementation of coordinative multilateral For Orientation shuttle run test, two de- physical education programmes and to invest mographic subgroups are presented based on in quality physical education programmes as the results of the multiple comparisons with widely as possible (Gallotta, 2014). the Tukey Ba,b, represented by their mean val- Probably, planned and long-term coor- ues in the Homogeneous Subsets table (Table dinated teaching activities can make chil- 7). The first subgroup includes the representa- dren more active, develop the motor skills of tives of the very small towns by population, 9-10-year-old children, and bring them up to the large and medium-sized ones, whose av- an upper level of education in terms of psycho- erages are 10.42 s, 10.52 s and 10.74 s respec- motor development levels. tively, and the second group - small towns Given the increasing movement complexi- and Sofia city whose average values are re- ty during growth it is crucial to develop coordi- spectively 11.34 s for the first and 11.70 s for nation during young school-age. An effective the second ones. training program for children must take into account the psycho-physical particularities of DISCUSSION each age range, in order to focus on and to ex- Migration processes in the country have ploit to the maximum the specific age-related been part of demographic processes in the last motor learning abilities (Ricotti, 2011). years. According to NNC data, the largest move- The comparative analysis of the surveyed ment is in the city-city direction (38 per cent). indicators will allow to reveal the specificities With lesser scope are the migration processes in of the motor coordination abilities of the third the directions “city-village” and “village-town” grade children by demographic characteris- (http://www.nsi.bg/bg/content/2981/). This af- tics. On this basis, an experimental method- fects the socio-economic life of different social ology for developing these abilities could be fields, such as education and sport. elaborated, and a normative system for con- In the case of physical education and sports, trol of the training process in physical educa- the problems are related to: insufficient sports tion and sport for Bulgarian schools could be facilities or lack of them; low qualification of introduced.

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CONCLUSION as those from Sofia city. For the second test Our results provide clear evidence that – Low jump test the results show statistically there are statistically significant difference de- significant differences for almost all compared pending of the number of town population in pairs. The same conclusion is also valid for manifestation of the motor coordination abili- Orientation shuttle run test. This means that ties of 9-10- year-old boys. the number of people in the populated area can The most significant practical difference is be a differentiating factor for the manifestation observed for Orientation shuttle run test or for of various motor skills, including motor coor- kinesthetic ability of the low limbs. dination abilities. Multiple comparisons show that for the During the coordination training, it is nec- first test -Backwards ball throw test that there essary to use the differentiated approach which are not statistically differences between small is based on the strength of pupils’ nervous sys- cities and Sofia city. Probably the pupils from tem. Such approach allows to open the reserves small cities (Smolyan and Svilengrad) are as of pupils and improve the motor coordination talented to perform the coordination exercises abilities. Table 5. Backwards ball throw test Tukey Ba,b α= 0.05 Population (cities, towns) N 1 2 Very small 44 3.42 Big cities 189 3.45 Medium 129 3.47 Small 84 3.75 Sofia 118 3.88 Table 6. Low jump test Tukey Ba,b α= 0.05 Population (cities, towns) N 1 2 Medium 129 7.20 Big cities 189 7.22 Sofia 118 7.87 Small 84 9.43 Very small 44 10.02 Table 7. Orientation shuttle run test Tukey Ba,b α= 0.05 1 2 Population (cities, towns) N Very small 44 10.42 Big cities 189 10.52 Medium 129 10.74 Small 84 11.34 Sofia 118 11.70

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LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY Piazza, M., Fiorilli, G., Calcagno, G., Pigozzi, Because the study is a personal idea, not na- F., Borrione1, P. (2013). Time of Dey – Effects tional or under the project, we take into account on Motor Coordination and Reactive Strength in the time given us by the school directors - 1 Elite Athletes and Untrained Adolescents, Jour­ school hour is 40 minutes. On average, in one nal of Sports Science § Medicine, Mar; 12 (1), class, 22-23 students were examined, which al- pp. 182–189 lowed us to run a maximum of three tests. Dimitrova, Sv. (1975). Psihologichni prob - For the upper limbs motor coordination lemi na fizicheskoto va zpitanie v uchilishte, Sofia abilities, we used only the Backwards ball Fedyakina, L. K. (1998). Razvitie koordi- throw test, the fourth test - Hanging target na cionih I intellektualnih sposobnostey shkol - throw test we did not apply. nikow mladshih klassov na osnove vosrastnih The study was conducted with 564 boys za konomernostey organizacii dvi zhe niya. Diss., and 509 girls, but in this paper only boys’ re- Sochi sults were analysed. Gallotta, M. C. (2014). Coordination exercise The anthropometric indicators as Height for children health. In: Handbook of Physical (cm), Weight (kg) and BMI (kg/m2) are to be Education Research, ISBN: 978-1-63321-076-9, included in the main intervention experiment. Editor: Ricky Todaro, pp.193-220. Grosser, M., Starischka, S., Zimmermann, REFERENCES E. (2004). Das neue Konditionstraining für alle Bernstein, N. A. (1991). O lovkosti I ee raz­ Sportarten , für Kinder, Jugendliche und Aktive, viti, Fizkultura i sport, Moskva Broschiert, BLV, München Boeva, S. (2012). Efekt na modulnoto obu- Grozdeva, N. (2010). Dvigatelnata koordina - chenie za razvitieto na fizicheskata godnost ciya za efektivno obuchenie po fizichesko vaz- na uchenicite ot nachalna uchilishtna vazrast, pitanie i sport. Nauchni trudove na Rusen skiya Sbornik trudove ot IV mejdunarodna nauchna uneversitet, 2010, Vol. 49, No 8.2, pp. 174 konferenciya, “Kineziologiya” 2012, I&B ltd, Hirtz, P. (1985). Koordinative Fähigkeiten V. Tarnovo, pp. 219-225 im Schulsport, Volk und Wissen Verlag, Berlin Budde, H., Voelcker-Rehage, C., Pietrabyk- Hirtz, P. (1986). Koordinacionnite sposob - Kendziorra, S., Ribeiro, P., Tidow, G. (2008). nosti v uchilishtnoto fizichesko vazpitanie, Vap­ Acute coordinative exercise improves attentional rosi na fizicheskata kultura, No 6, Sofia performance in adolescents. Neuroscience Let­ Hirtz, P., Arndt, K.J., Holtz, D., Jung, R., Lud- ters, 441(2), 219-223. wig, G., Schielke, E., Wellnitz, I., Willert, K.J., and Chelyshev, N. N. (2012). Analiz ponyatiy: Vilkner, K.J. (1985). Koordinative Fӓhigkeiten “Koordinaciya dvizheniy”, “Koordinacionnie im Schulsport, Volk and Wissen Verlag, Berlin sposobnosti”, “Lovkost”. Nauchniy poisk, 2.7, Hirtz, P., Hotz, A. & Ludwig, G. (2000). Moskva, pp.50-54 Gleichgewicht, Karl Hofmann Harausgeber, Chang, Y. K., Tsai, Y. J., Chen, T. T., Hung, Schorndorf T. M. (2013). The impacts of coordinative ex- Hirtz, P., Starosta. W.(2002). Sensitive and ercise on executive function in kindergarten critical periods of motor coordination develop- children: an ERP study. Experimental Brain Re­ ment and its relation to motor learning, Journal search, 225(2), 187-196. of Human Kinetics, Vol. 7, pp. 19-28. Cholakov, N. (2012). Demografskite procesi Ignatov, D. (2017). Senzitivnost na fi zi- – isoriya, tendencii I prespektivi, sb. “Nauchni cheskoto razvitie, fizicheskata deesposobnost I trudove” na UNSS, 2012, No 1, Iz datelski kom- motorikata na detsata ot nachalna uchilishtna pleks – UNSS, Sofia, pp. 119 vazrast. LIBRA SKORP, Burgas, ISBN 978- Di Cagno, A., Battaglia, C., Giombini, A., 619-7123-70-8

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Kohoutek, M. (2005). Koordinační schop- 6286 (4), pp. 616-628. https://doi.org/10.4100/ nosti u dětí, FTVS UK, Praha, pp. 33-34, ISBN: jhse.2011.64.05 80-86317-34- X. Roth, K. (2014). Zur Sache: Koordinative Lyah, V. I. (2003). Ponyatie «koordinacionne Fähigkeiten. Grundschule Sport, 1, (1), Hof- sposobnosti» I «lowkost», TPFK, No 8, Moskva, mann, Schorndorf, pp. 7. pp. 44-46 Rusev, R. (1995). Kibernetichen model na Lyah, V. I. (2006). Koordinacionne sposob­ koordinacionnite sposobnosti. Sport I nauka, No nosti: diagnostika I razvitie, TBT, Divizion, 9, Sofia. Moskva Rusev, R. (2005). Strukturno-funkcionalni Magomedov, I. M. (1999). Pedago giche skie modeli na dvigatelnata koordinaciya v sportnata osnovi razvitiya koordinacionnih sposob nostey deynost. Diss., Sofia u uchashtihsya nachalnih klassov, Diss., Ma- Sugareva, M. (2017). Demografiyata kato hachkala nauka I osobenosti na demografskoto razvitie na Momchilova, A. (1996). Razvitie na koordi- Balgariya. Izdanie za obrazovanie, nauka I kul­ nacionnite sposobnosti na uchenici ot I – IV klas, tura, Plovdivski uneversitet. Br. 1-2 (466-467), sp. Pedagogika, No. 3, Sofia godina ХХХV, 24.02.2017, pp. 2 Momchilova, A. (2002). Vliyanie na razli- Turchak, N. L. (2014), Razvitie koordina- chnite metodi za razvivane na koordinacionnite cionnih sposobnostey u detey mladshego shkol­ sposobnosti varhu razvitieto na intelektualnite nogo vozrasta na urokah fizkultura, Kazahstan kachestva na 7 – 10 godishnite uchenici., Li­ Uchebna programa po fizichesko vazpita- chnost, motivaciya, sport, No. 4 nie I sport za III klas (obshtoobrazovatelna pod- Nacionalen statisticheski institute. (2019). gotovka) v sila ot uchebnata 2018-2019 godina, ut- Naselenie po oblasti, obshtini, naselenie mesta I vardena sas Zapoved № РД09-1093/25.01.2017, wazrast, http://www.nsi.bg/bg/content/2975/, ac- https://www.mon.bg/bg/1689, accessed 5 Febru- cessed 27 February 2019 ary 2019 Pisarenkova, E. P. (2010). Razvitie speci- Zamashkin K. S., Tolstova S. Y. (2013). ficheskih koordinacionnih sposobnostey u shkol- Raz vitie na koordinacionnih sposobnostey u de- nikov 7-15 let raznih tipov konstitucii. Avtore­ tey mladshego shkolnogo vozrosta. Uspehi sov­ ferat, Tula re mennogo estestvoznaniya, No 10, Moskva, pp. Raczek, J., Mynarski, W., Ljach, W. (2003). 28-29 Kształtowanie i diagnozowanie koordynacyjnych Zlatev, B., Bachev, V., Groshev, O., Yordan- zdolnosci motorycznych, APE Publ., Katowice, ov, P. (2016). Tehnologichen transfer na optiko- pp. 237 elektrichni metodiki – metrologichen primer pri Ricotti, L. (2011). Static and dynamic bal- testovete za izmervane na lovkost. Metrologiya I ance in young athletes. Journal of Human Sport metrologichno osiguryavane – dokladi, TU, So- and Exercise, 1988-5202, vol 6, N 4, 616- fia, pp. 221-227

Corresponding author: Nikolina Tankoucheva Department of Primary School Pedagogy Faculty of Educational Studies and the Arts Shipchenski prohod 69 A Sofia 1574, Bulgaria E-mail: [email protected]

65 EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY ... R. Penov, M. Chalakov EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY AIMED AT IMPROVING THE FRONT-LEG KICK SPEED IN KARATE Radoslav Penov, Milen Chalakov National Sports Academy „Vassil Levski”, Sofia, Bulgaria

ABSTRACT That article aims to present the development of an experimental methodology that improves the speed of kicks in Karate. The rationale behind creating the methodology is the fact that the speed of kicks in Karate is instrumental for overcoming the opponent. In addition, kicks are among the most commonly used techniques in matches. Therefore, our goal was to study the effect of applying the methodology we created onto improving the speed of kicks in Karate. In order to conduct the study, we used a video-computerized system to record and analyze the speed of kicks performed by the participants in the experiment. The results concerning the speeds of kicks were measured in identical ways in order to make sure that the survey was performed under uniform conditions. The input data was processed by means of kinematics analysis software. To prove the credibility of the data registered, we applied the necessary statistical analysis methods. We hope that by applying the methodology that we developed and have presented in this article, more coaches will start using modern tools and methods in order to improve the quality of the training process in Karate.

Key words: methodology, karate, kick, leg, speed. INTRODUCTION parated into the following phases: Modern Karate employs a variety of 1. Swing - this as an action that precedes the kicks, whi ch is in fact specific for this sport. punch or kick and leads to increasing the Kicks are performed at three different lev- distance between the body part that should els of height: low, middle, and high (gedan, implement the strike and the target. chudan, and jodan). The use of kicks at high 2. Striking action - this is the motion from the maneuverability and dynamics in rapidly final point of the swing and the point of changing circumstances requires of competi- impact. tors ultimately specialized technical prepara- 3. Striking impact - the contact between the tion and physical and psychological strength two bodies. (Bishop, 1989; Higaonna, 1985). 4. Motion after the impact - the motion of the Kicks are harder to perform than punches be- body part that delivered the strike after dis- cause remaining balanced on unstable surfaces engaging from contact with the target. is difficult; however, once properly performed, The coordination of motions in the case of a kick can produce unrivaled power, precision, techniques of greatest power meets the follow- speed and damage (Habersetzer, 1998). ing two expectations (Pinto, et al. 2007): Karate stances strictly define the body pos- 1. Gaining maximum velocity for the body ture at specific positions of arms and legs. In part that should perform the strike before Shotokan karate all transitions are performed before phase three. by shifting from one stance to another (Cynar- 2. Increasing the strike’s impact at the mo- ski et al, 2014 ). Punches and kicks can be se- ment of impact by hardening specific areas

Journal of Applied Sports Sciences 66 DOI: 10.37393/jass.2019.01.6 2019, Vol. 1, pp. 66 - 76 ISSN 2534-9597 (Print), ISSN 2535-0145 (Online) JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019

of the striking limb through simultaneous- All participants compete in Karate on the ly employing the antagonistic muscles and National Sports Academy’s team and possess increasing the radius of rotation. technical levels from 5th kyu to 1st dan. In order to increase and further improve Competitors surveyed: Karate techniques, athletes should perform 1. I.S. – National champion for 2017, 3 kyu, each technique repeatedly, with maximum brown belt. concentration and dedication. This, however, 2. D.N. – National champion for 2017, 3 dan, will not be enough unless the training is based black belt. on proper physical and physiological princi- 3. M.M. – National champion 2018, 2 dan, ples (Marques, 2014). Utilizing the individual black belt. preparation of the athlete while training is an- 4. E.K. – National Championship (third place) other important factor that helps improve the 2017, blue belt. technique. This factor contributes to the im- 5. N.N. – National champion – Team 2017, 5 provement of techniques not only in karate but kyu, blue belt. in other single fights. (Iliev, 2016). 6. A.T. – National champion for 2014, 1 dan, black belt. Goals of the study 7. S.S. – National champion 2017, 1 dan, This survey aims to study the effect of ap- black belt. plying this methodology for the purposeful 8. V.G. – National champion 2016, 3 dan, increase of the speed of the front-leg kick - black belt. Kizami Mawashi Geri. 9. M.M. – National champion 2012, 1 dan, Objectives of the study black belt. 1. To evaluate the importance of the speed of 10. G.A. – National champion 2013, 1 dan, kicks and punches for the technical mas- black belt. tery of Karate. To accomplish the tasks assigned, the ath- 2. To develop a methodology for purpose- letes in question were divided into two groups: ful development of the speed of kicks and a control group and an experiment group. Both punches. groups performed 10 kicks onto a designated 3. To analyze the effect of the methodology target, and we recorded precisely the results for purposeful development of the speed of achieved. For a period of five months, we ap- kicks and punches. plied a special experimental methodology onto Methodology the experimental group in order to develop the The survey was conducted by means of video- physical quality of kick-speed. The methodol- computerized system for registration and ogy used is presented in Tables 2 and 3. analysis of the Karate kicks and punches. Ten The grouping of the participants is present- male participants, aged 19 to 26, took part. ed in Table 1. Table 1. Group organization Control group Test group I.S. A.T. D.N. M.M. N.N. V.G. S.S. E.K. G.A. M.M.

67 EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY ... R. Penov, M. Chalakov

The exercises applied to the test group, (Kizami Mawashi Geri) are presented in Table aiming to develop speed of the front-leg kick 2.

Table 2. Dosage per exercise (aiming to develop the speed of the front-leg kick, Kizami Mawashi Geri) Month Exercise Weekly I II III IV V VI dosage week 1 2Х10 3Х10 4Х10 5Х10 4Х10 3Х10 1. Half-squat with week 2 2Х10 3Х10 4Х10 5Х10 4Х10 3Х10 a bar and a hop week 3 2Х10 3Х10 4Х10 5Х10 4Х10 3Х10 week 4 2Х10 3Х10 4Х10 5Х10 4Х10 3Х10 week 1 2Х10 3Х10 4Х10 5Х8 5Х6 3Х5 2. Standing long week 2 2Х10 3Х10 4Х10 5Х8 5Х6 3Х5 jump week 3 2Х10 3Х10 4Х10 5Х8 5Х6 3Х5 week 4 2Х10 3Х10 4Х10 5Х8 5Х6 3Х5 3. Performing week 1 2Х5 3Х5 4Х5 5х5 4х5 3Х5 Mawashi Geri week 2 2Х5 3Х5 4Х5 5х5 4х5 3Х5 with an elastic week 3 2Х5 3Х5 4Х5 5х5 4Х5 3Х5 band week 4 2Х5 3Х5 4Х5 5х5 4Х5 3Х5 week 1 2Х30 2Х45 3Х45 4Х60 5Х60 5Х60 week 2 2Х30 2Х45 3Х60 5Х60 5Х60 5Х60 4. Splits week 3 3Х30 3Х45 3Х60 5Х60 5Х60 5Х60 week 4 3Х30 3Х45 4Х60 5Х60 5Х60 5Х60 5. Performing week 1 2Х10 3Х10 4Х10 5Х10 3Х10 2Х10 maximum number week 2 2Х10 3Х10 4Х10 5Х10 3Х10 2Х10 of Mawashi Geri week 3 2Х10 3Х10 4Х10 5Х10 3Х10 2Х10 repetitions per 10 week 4 2Х10 3Х10 4Х10 5Х10 3Х10 2Х10 seconds. 6. Mawashi feint, week 1 2Х10 4Х10 2Х10 2Х10 2Х10 1Х10 step, mawashi week 2 3Х10 4Х10 2Х10 2Х10 2Х10 1Х10 geri - maximum week 3 4Х10 4Х10 2Х10 2Х10 2Х10 1Х10 repetitions per 10 week 4 4Х10 4Х10 2Х10 2Х10 2Х10 1Х10 seconds

Descriptions of the exercises used by the the explosive strength of the lower limbs and experimental group in order to develop speed is performed in series of 10 repetitions. when performing Kizami Mawashi Geri: 2. Standing long jump – This exercise 1. Half squat and hop – The exercise is develops the explosive power of the lower performed by using an extra weight bar. The limbs. It is performed after a very good gen- intensity is 40-50% of Fmax. The maximum eral and special warm-up. One series includes weight used in this exercise for a single repeat 10 repetitions during the first three months. needs to be measured first. Then, for each of The repetitions in the following three months the tested persons, the workload for this ex- reduce to 8,6,5 repetitions per series. The in- ercise, which is 40% of the maximum weight, termission between series is 1 minute. The is determined. The exercise is performed by athlete performs a long jump from the start- using a different load for each participant in ing position, then faces backwards and per- the experimental group. This exercise builds forms another long jump towards the starting

68 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 position, and then repeats the action. As the ops the specific speed of the lower limbs, dosage table indicates for this exercise, from and particularly the front-leg hook kick at month 1 to month 5 the number of the series the level of the head (Kizami Mawashi Geri increases. Jodan). The exercise is performed in pairs 3. Performing Mawashi Geri with an as one partner holds a punching pad at the elastic band. This exercise develops the ex- level of the belt, and the other one tries to plosive power and speed of the lower limbs. perform as many repetitions as possible in It is performed after a very good general and 10 seconds. The coach measures the time special warm-up. While performing the ex- and signals the beginning and the end of the ercise the athlete uses an elastic band, which interval. The exercise is performed from a is tied to the ankle of the kicking leg, and a static position, as the partner holding the partner who holds a punching pad at the level boxing pad has taken a static position - of the head. The athlete performs a front-leg “battle stand”. The intermission between kick targeting the punching pad. The bands the series is 1 minute. From the table with used are 8 (eight) millimeters thick with re- the dosage of this exercise, it is evident sistance of five kilograms. There are 5 rep- that the amount of the series increases from etitions in each series, and the intermission month 1 to month 3 and that it decreases between the series is from 30 sec to 1 min. from month 4 to month 6. The number of series increases during the 6. A Mawashi Geri feint, step, Mawashi first four months and then decreases in the Geri – maximum number of repetitions per months that follow. 10 seconds. This is a specialized exercise 4. Splits – This exercise is performed after that develops the speed of the lower limbs. a very good general warm-up. Once a stand The exercise is performed in pairs as one is taken, the athlete positions his/her feet to partner holds a punching pad at the level the side so that the center of body mass be of the head, and the other one performs a positioned on the virtual line connecting the Mawashi Geri feint, then performs Kizami two heels. At the position of maximum reach, Mawashi Geri, and then switches the guard the distance from the symphysis to the ground position. The athlete aims to perform as is measured. This exercise indicates the agil- many repetitions as possible in 10 seconds. ity of the hip joint and the flexibility of the The exercise is performed from a static po- muscles of the inner side of the thigh. A gym- sition, as the partner holding the boxing pad nast bench or wall can be used as props while has taken a static position - “battle stand”. shifting the body mass center downwards. The coach measures the time and signals the The result is measured in centimeters. This beginning and the end of the interval. The exercise develops the flexibility of the lower intermission between the series is 1 minute. limbs. The dosage per series varies from 30 From the table with the dosage of this exer- to 60 seconds. The number of series increases cise, it is evident that the amount of the se- and goes up to 5 in the final months. This ex- ries increases from month 1 to month 3 and ercise is performed at the end of the training that it decreases from month 4 to month 6. session. The exercises used by the control group, 5. Performing a maximum number of aiming to develop speed of the front-leg Mawashi Geri Kicks per 10 seconds. This kick (Kizami Mawashi Geri) are presented is one of the special exercises that devel- in Table 3.

69 EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY ... R. Penov, M. Chalakov

Table 3. Dosage per exercise (aiming to develop the speed of the front-leg kick, Kizami Mawashi Geri) Month Exercise Weekly I II III IV V dosage week 1 2Х30 4Х30 5Х30 6Х30 7х30 week 2 3Х30 5Х30 6Х30 7Х30 8х30 1. 50-meter sprint week 3 4Х30 5Х30 6Х30 7Х30 8х30 week 4 4Х30 5Х30 6Х30 7Х30 8х30 week 1 2Х5 3Х5 4Х5 5Х5 6Х5 week 2 3Х5 4Х5 5Х5 6Х5 7Х5 2. Standing long jump week 3 3Х5 4Х5 5Х5 6Х5 7Х5 week 4 3Х5 4Х5 5Х5 6Х5 7Х5 week 1 2Х3-6-9 3Х3-6-9 4Х3-6-9 5Х3-6-9 6Х3-6-9 week 2 2Х3-6-9 3Х3-6-9 4Х3-6-9 5Х3-6-9 6Х3-6-9 3. 3-6-9 Shuttle week 3 2Х3-6-9 3Х3-6-9 4Х3-6-9 5Х3-6-9 6Х3-6-9 week 4 2Х3-6-9 3Х3-6-9 4Х3-6-9 5Х3-6-9 6Х3-6-9 week 1 2Х5 3Х10 3Х10 3Х10 3Х10 4. Kizami Mawashi week 2 2Х5 3Х10 3Х10 3Х10 3Х10 Geri - performed in week 3 2Х5 3Х10 3Х10 3Х10 3Х10 pairs upon signal week 4 2Х5 3Х10 3Х10 3Х10 3Х10

Descriptions of the exercises used by the 3. 3-6-9 Shuttle running. This exercise of shu- control group in order to develop speed when ttle running is performed from low-start po- performing Kizami Mawashi Geri: sition upon the coach’s signal. The athlete 1. 50-meter sprint – This exercise aims to devel- sprints from the starting point to the 3-meter op the quality of speed. It is performed from mark, then sprints back to the starting point, a low-start position upon the coach’s signal sprints to the 6-meter mark, sprints back to at the maximum speed possible. The exercise the starting point, and sprints to the 9-me- is performed in series with a 1-minute break ter marker and back. This exercise develops between the series. The exercise is performed speed and agility. It is performed after a very after a very good general and special warm- good general and special warm-up. The in- up. It is evident from the table with the dosage termission between the series is 2 minutes. It of this exercise that from month 1 to month 5 is evident from the table with the dosage of the number of the series increases. this exercise that from month 1 to month 5 2. Standing long jump – This exercise devel- the overall amount of series increases. ops the explosive power of the lower limbs. 4. Kizami Mawashi Geri - performed in pairs It is performed after a very good general and upon signal. This exercise is performed after a special warm-up. One series includes 5 repeti- very good general and special warm-up. At the tions. The intermission between series is from start of the exercise the athletes pair up with a 30 seconds to 1 minute. The athlete performs partner, and as the coach gives the starting sig- a long jump from the starting position, then nal one of the athletes performs Kizami Ma- faces backwards and performs another long washi Geri at full speed from a static position. jump towards the starting position. A total of Athletes alternate performing the kick without 5 repetitions are performed. As the dosage interfering with each other with defensive ac- table indicates for this exercise, from month 1 tions. This exercise develops the speed of the to month 5 the number of the series increases. lower limbs and a faster auditory reaction.

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The results concerning the speed of the front- data was normalized regarding the periods of the leg kick for both groups were measured in the phases of motion and later averaged (Rathee et. same way in order for the survey to be conduct- al., 2014). The results that were received from ed under identical conditions for both groups. the video-recorded materials were processed The data regarding the speed was discussed with with mathematical and statistical methods, in- specialists in order to eliminate mistakes. Kick cluding variation analysis. speeds were registered by means of Sony PJ740 video camera at 50 frames per second. The cam- RESULTS era was positioned perpendicularly to the sagit- The speed of kicks and punches in Ka- tal axis, and the point of view was at the height rate depends on the proper execution of all of the kicks. Later the video recordings were phases of performing the technique. Figure 1 processed by means of Kinovea video-comput- illustrates the phases of the kick that was per- erized software for cinematic analysis. Only at- formed by the participants and video recorded. tempts that met the criteria for the speed of the Later, all attempts performed were compared kick were chosen for thorough analysis. The with the proper execution of the kick.

Figure 1. Phases of Kizami Mawashi Geri After conducting the first and the - sec control group and the experimental group, as ond measurement of the kick’s speed param- indicated in Figure 2 and Figure 3. eters, we received the following data for the Results of first measurement in meters per second for the control group

D.N. 12.2 G.A. 12.18 I.S. 11.1 M.M. 11.3 E.K. 10.74 10.00 10.50 11.00 11.50 12.00 12.50

Figure 2. Average kick speeds from the first measurement

71 EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY ... R. Penov, M. Chalakov

Figure 3. Average kick speeds from the second measurement

After the first and the second measurements following results for the test group. These re- of the kick’s speed parameters, we received the sults are shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5.

Results of First measurement in meters per second for the test group

S.S. 13.34

M.M. 13.42

W.G. 12.56

N.N. 13.17

A.T. 12.47

11.8 12 12.2 12.4 12.6 12.8 13 13.2 13.4 13.6 Figure 4. Average kick speeds for the first measurement

Results of second measurement in meters per second for the test group

S.S. 15.17

M.M. 14.75

W.G. 14.91

N.N. 14.81

A.T. 14.73

14.50 14.60 14.70 14.80 14.90 15.00 15.10 15.20 15.30

Figure 5. Average kick speeds for the second measurement Studying the speed of the front-leg kick in As a result of the training process that applied Karate is an important aspect of the training the methodology we developed, we achieved process and relates both to the proper execu- improvements of the speed parameters of the tion of the kick and the inability of the oppo- kick. The results we received are to be provided nent to attempt defensive actions. Therefore, it in the materials to follow. was important for us to prove that the developed For the past period of training, in the control methodology leads to increasing the speed of group we observed an increase of the kick’s speed the front-leg kick in Karate. by 1.26 m/s. These results are shown in Figure 6.

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Generalized results of the two measurements in meters per second for the control group D.N. 13.75 12.2 G.A. 13.11 12.18 I.S. 12.66 11.1 M.M. 12.81 11.3 E.K. 11.486 10.74 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 Second measurement First measurement

Figure 6. Generalized results of the two measurements for the control group. Figure 7 presents the generalized values observe an improvement in the average maxi- of speeds measured for the test group before mum kick speed by 1.88 m/s. and after applying the methodology. Here, we

Generalized results of the two measurements in meters per second for the test group

S.S. 15.17 13.34 M.M. 14.75 13.42 W.G. 14.91 12.56 N.N. 14.81 13.17 A.T. 14.73 12.47 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Second measurement First measurement

Figure 7. Generalized values of speeds measured for the test group In order to illustrate the progress of the a comparison between the achieved results two groups more clearly, Figure 8 presents of the two groups for the period of training.

Generalized results after the training period

5 15.17 13.75 4 14.75 13.11 3 14.91 12.66 2 14.81 12.81 1 14.73 11.486 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 Test group Control group

Figure 8. Generalized results after the training period As Table 4 indicates, the average speed speeds of the two groups is 2.11 m/s in fa- of the test group is significantly higher than vor of the group that used the experimental that of the control group. Respectively, the methodology. difference between the average maximum Table 4. Results of the variance analysis Indicator/Group Control Group Test Group X̅ 12.763 14.874 S 0.827 0.180 V% 6.482 1.208

73 EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY ... R. Penov, M. Chalakov

To calculate V% (the coefficient of varia- about the target of the attack was of 9.5 to 11 tion) we needed to calculate the standard devi- m/s. Others kicks the karate literature deter- ation S. The variation coefficient was obtained mined the linear velocity, the results were the by applying the following formula: following: 9.9 to 14.4 m/s of the yoko geri l The coefficient for the control group is (side kick) (Diacu, 2003), 2 m/s of the yoko 6.482%. geri kekomi, 41 m/s of the yoko geri keage l The coefficient for the test group is 1.208%. (Gianino, 2010) and 10.6 to 12 m/s of the ush- l It may be concluded that the survey is iro geri (back kick) (Diacu, 2003) highly uniform, since V% does not ex- In order to perform Kizami Mawashi Geri ceed 10-12%. successfully the athlete needs to use an attack transition move. These preparatory motions DISCUSSION greatly contribute to effectiveness of the kick’s The mae geri kekomi (front kick in the execution. The specific point here is the ability trunk) was of 15.76 ± 5.45 m/s, but the mae to shorten the distance to the opponent quickly, geri keage (in the face) was faster, with 19 m/s which is a major task of technical and tactical (Marques, 2014). The mae geri without infor- nature. By exerting pressure onto the underly- mation about the target of the attack was of 9.9 ing surface the competitor increases the linear to 19.3 ± 1.49 m/s (Diacu, 2003). The mawashi velocity of his/her own center of body mass in geri kekomi (semicircular kick with back keg the direction of the opponent and thus utilizes in the trunk) had linear velocity of 3.05 ± 0.21 two important advantages: shortening the time to 8 ± 3.24 m/s, but the mawashi geri keage for attack and adding extra speed to the attack- (back leg in the face) the linear velocity was of ing surface that will execute the technique. 3.05 ± 0.21 to 7.58 ± 0.34 m/s (Emmermacher The spatial structure of the trajectory of the et al., 2007). However, the mawashi geri ke- distal end of the cinematic chain in the case age with preparatory phase of the kick equal to of front-leg kick with a forward step (Figure the mae geri, had better linear velocity (7.95 ± 9) that can be approximated to a straight line 0.27 m/s) than the traditional mawashi geri ke- in the second phase of the motion, unambigu- age (7.58 ± 0.34 m/s) described by Nakayama ously illustrates the great technical mastery of (Nakayma, 2012). execution. The mawashi geri without information

Figure 9. Trajectory of the distal end of the cinematic chain in the case of front-leg kick with a forward step

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Figure 10 illustrates the trajectories of the flex point in the trajectory graph. The smooth- distal end of the cinematic chain in the case of ness of the trajectory and a more precise mo- performing the kick from a fixed position. In tion in space of the active leg can be achieved general, when performing a kick with the real by providing a more stable position of the cen- leg, the transitions from one phase to the next ter of body mass, which in turn is provided by are clearly expressed by the presence of an in- the pivoting leg (Penov, 2014).

Figure 10. Trajectory of the distal end of the cinematic chain in the case of performing the kick from a fixed position (Mawashi Geri Chudan) A stable spatial and phase structure of best attack during the sports match. performing the kick predetermines the spe- 4. The improvement of the speeds be- cifics and the speed qualities of a competi- tween the attempts of both groups is cred- tor. Therefore, speed parameters prove to be ible, which proves that the speed measure- a major biochemical characteristic (Stanchev ment and the video analysis applied can be and Hristov, 2014). used in the sports training of karate prac- titioners and will contribute to improving CONCLUSIONS their sports skills. 1. The parameter analysis of the speed of the front-leg kick (Kizami Mawashi Geri), REFERENCES as well as the application of the experimen- Bishop, M. (1989). Okinawan Karate: tal methodology aimed at improving the Teachers, Styles and Secret Technique, A & C speed of this kick have brought about ob- Black, First edition, pp. 153 – 166. servable positive results. Cynarski, W.J., Wajs, W., Vencesbrito, A. 2. Improving the speed of kicks in karate (2014). Improving the movements of basic ka- is of great significance in offensive tech- rate techniques with the use of motion capture niques because attacks at higher speeds are and mathematical modeling. The concept of a harder to block by the opponent, which in research project. Ido Movement for Culture. turn, leads to winning the match. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology, Vol. 14, 3. Following the analysis of the front-leg № 1, pp.39-53. kick speed (Kizami Mawashi Geri), we ob- Diacu, F. (2003). On the dynamics of ka- served that this speed is of great importance rate, PIMS, Pi in the Sky № 6, pp. 9-11. for the contender, who needs to choose the Emmermacher, P., Witte, K., Potenberg, J.

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(2007). Different variations of the karate tech- Physiology and Prescription, pp. 400-417. nique mawashi geri. 25º International Sympo­ Nakayma, M. (2012). O melhor do ka- sium on Biomechanics in Sport Ouro Preto, rate – fundamentos. vol. 2, 9ª ed., São Paulo: MG, Brazil, pp. 289-292. Cultrix, pp. 108-109. Gianino, C. (2010). Physics of karate: ki- Penov, R. (2014). Analysis of Men’s Finals nematics analysis of karate techniques by a Recordings at the 22nd World Karate Champi­ digital movie camera. Lat Am J Phys Educ, onship (WKF), Bremen, Ch., № 2, pp. 47-53. Vol. 4, № 1, pp. 132-34. Pinto Neto, O., Magini, M., Saba, M. Habersetzer, R. (1998). Ko-Budo, Oruzhie (2007). The role of effective mass and hand Okinavii, Tirasop, Modus, pp. 230-254. speed in the performance of kung fu athletes Higaonna, Morio, (1985). Traditional ka- compared with nonpractitioners. Journal of rate do Fundamental Techniques, Vol. 1, Japan Applied Biomechanics, Vol. 23, № 2, pp.139- Publications, pp. 17-20. 148. Hristov H., Stanchev N. (2014). Kinema- Rathee, N., Magnes, J., Davis J. (2014). tik analysis on the “Shiko” exercise in sumo, Kinematics of board breaking in karate using 9th EIEP European congress, 7th International video physics and human performance. Eu­ scientific congess “Sport, Stress, Adaptation”, ropean Scientific Journal, Vol.10, № 12, pp. book of abstracts, 9-12. 10. 2014, Sofia-Bul- 338-348. garia. Stanchev, N., Hristov, H. (2014). Structure Iliev, I. (2016). Individual training of ath- and biomechanical analysis of the racing tech- letes in wrestling to increase the level of mo- nique by gripping the opponent’s belt in the tor skills. Scientific Conference “Challenges sport sumo, Sports and Science, Special issue and Prospects for Sports Science”, “Specifics №2, pp. 5. of Preparation in Different Sports Courses”, Tabben, M., Coquart, J., Chaabène, H., Dept. of Heavy Athletics, Boxing, Fencing and Franchini, E., Ghoul, N., Tourny, C. (2015). Sport for All, Sofia, pp. 65-67. Time-motion, tactical and technical analysis in Marques Junior, N. (2014). Scientific evi- top-level karatekas according to gender, match dences about the fight of the shotokan karate outcome and weight categories. Journal of of competition, Brazilian Journal of Exercise Sports Science, Vol. 33, № 8, pp. 841-849.

Corresponding author:

Radoslav Penov Department „Wrestling and Judo” National Sports Academy „Vassil Levski” Studentski grad, 21, Acad. Stefan Mladenov Str. Sofia 1700, Bulgaria E-mail: [email protected]

76 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 FACTOR STRUCTURE AND MAJOR FACTORS OF PHYSICAL ABILITY OF 13-14-YEAR-OLD PUPILS Mariana Borukova National Sports Academy „Vassil Levski”, Sofia, Bulgaria

ABSTRACT Physical activity is an important element and criterium for a healthy lifestyle. The level of physical ability determines the degree to which an organism adapts to its environment and therefore the development and condition of all the other personal qualities depends greatly on it. One of the elements of physical ability and fitness is the main motor qualities – speed, strength, endurance, agility, flexibility, balance, coordination of movements. The aim of that study is to reveal the major factors of physical ability of 13-14-year-old pupils, as well as to determine to what extent gender differences influence the level of physical ability between boys and girls of one age group. We used variation, factor and comparative analyses when we processed the results. According to the general conclusions, for both boys and girls there are three major factors with a very high percentage to the initial dispersion of the surveyed phenomenon. We can sum up that in this age group the established gender differ­ ences have a very big impact on the physical ability of the pupils, and these differences regard mostly the explosive power of the lower limbs, the speed abilities and the endurance of the kids, the advantage being totally in favor of the boys.

Key words: pupils, adolescents, factor structure and physical ability

INTRODUCTION cal fitness is a prerequisite, a condition for the Nowadays the issue about saving and sup- development of a harmoniously developed porting adolescents’ physical health is quite personality. It provides enough resources for topical. Modern technology has been an intrin- a better health, great efficiency in education- sic part of young people’s daily round since an al, professional and home activities, for better early age. Both youngsters’ insufficient physi- quality of life (Dimitrova, 1997, Popivanova, cal load and their improper and bad diet lead 2007). One of the elements of physical ability to their reduced physical ability. and fitness is the main motor qualities – speed, The aim of the education system is to pro- strength, endurance, agility, flexibility, bal- vide conditions for the proper development ance, coordination of movements. The tests for and support of children’s physical and psychic evaluation of these qualities and the markers for health, as well as their harmonious develop- physical development turn into major indexes ment as able and active persons. of a person’s health status. The way of life of the Physical activity is an important element contemporary generation is characterized with and criterium for a healthy lifestyle. The level reduced motor activity, lower physical ability of physical ability determines the degree to and a generally worse healthy status, which has which an organism adapts to its environment been pointed out in a number of scientific manu- and therefore the development and condition of scripts (Petkova, Kvartirnikova 1985, Slanchev all the other personal qualities depends greatly et al,1992, Popivanova, 2007). The research on it. We would not go far by stating that physi- was done among secondary school pupils. At

Journal of Applied Sports Sciences 77 DOI: 10.37393/jass.2019.01.7 2019, Vol. 1, pp. 77 - 84 ISSN 2534-9597 (Print), ISSN 2535-0145 (Online) FACTOR STRUCTURE ... M. Borukova this stage of their education they should acquire factors which influence to the greatest extent a general sports knowledge and general physi- physical ability of 13-14-year-old pupils. cal preparation. In compliance with the state ed- The aim of the present study is to re- ucational requirements (SER) pupils receive a veal the major factors of physical ability of mark for the level of their physical fitness. Kids 13-14-year-old pupils, as well as to determine nowadays find it very difficult to cope with the to what extent gender differences influence physical tests applied so far. In this relation, a the level of physical ability between boys and national research was carried out on a large scale girls of one age group. over a six-month period to establish the physi- cal fitness of pupils (1st to 12th grade) in order METHODOLOGY to design a new test battery for their evaluation. The study was carried out in October - De- Such kind of testing had not been conducted in cember 2018. Bulgaria for the last 25 years. The pupils we The research was aimed at studying the tested are part of this research. main indexes of physical fitness of 13-14-year- The complex development of physical old pupils (boys and girls) and was done qualities poses the issue of evaluation and among 61 pupils at a humanitarian secondary control of the level of physical preparation of school in the town of Shumen. pupils. Such studies are conducted on school For the purposes of the research we tested and university level as well. The authors (Ma- the pupils along 5 indexes which carry infor- vrudieva, 2008; Mavrudieva et al, 2017) con- mation about the main indexes of physical fit- sider speed, strength and agility to be the lead- ness. These are: ing factors of physical ability at a more mature Running 30 m; age. The revealing of the factor structure of Long jump with both feet from place; physical ability has a high information value 3 kg medicine ball throwing with both for the optimization of pupils’ education pro- ha nds from standing position; cess (Tzarova, Borukova, 2012). Running 200 m.; Similar surveys were carried out in Mace- Agility and space coordination test (Hun- donia and Romania (Saiti, 2013; Bădicu,2017). ting test) With the help of the compulsory tests (four for The four tests: Running 30 m, Standing preliminary and four for secondary schools) Long jump with both feet, 3 kg medicine ball provided by the national system for evaluation throwing with both hands from standing posi- of physical education and sport, the dynamics tion and Running 200 m are standard tests ap- and mobility of the 7-14-year-old pupils was plied in physical education and sport classes. observed. It will be interesting to point out The only new test is the Test for agility and that only one of these tests made in Macedonia spatial coordination. Description: Four small and Romania, coincides with those, applied in rubber hoops (with a diameter 15-20 cm) are Bulgaria, namely long jump. The best results placed in the shape of the letter T (Figure 1). were recorded exactly along this test. There is one tennis ball in each hoop. Actions: The analysis of the abovementioned facts, the pupil stands in front of the hoop at the our personal experience and observations en- start/finish spot in initial position: upright, feet able us to formulate the following work hy- shoulder-width apart. At the starting signal the pothesis: we assume that the present study will pupil bends down, takes the ball from inside the enable us to determine and identify the major hoop and moves to the rest of the hoops in the

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Start/Final Figure 1. Hunting test direction indicated with figures from 1 to 6 (see provided with brief instructions, video and Figure 1). demonstration. In standard settings – a gym and Pupils take the ball from every hoop leav- a running track in the school yard, with the nec- ing the one they have taken from the previous essary equipment: a stopwatch, measurement hoop. The recording ends as soon as the ball equipment and medicine ball – 3 kg, each par- touches the area of the hoop at the start/finish ticipant executed each test twice. In the analysis point and is measured with accuracy of up to of the results the better scores were used. 0.01 sec. Data analysis Research methods and indexes The results from the research were pro- In order to fulfil the set tasks and aim of the cessed with math-statistical methods such as: research we applied the following methods: a variation, factor and comparative analyses detailed study of the specialized literature and with t-criterion of Student for independent sports-pedagogical testing. samples (Gigova, 2002). All analyzes were developed using the Social Science Statistical Procedure Package (SPSS, version 19.0) The sports-pedagogical tests were applied Three major factors were established by the same researcher within three sessions which characterize the specific peculiarities of with 21 pupils during their regular classes. The the researched individuals. testing was carried out by the school and the teachers of the researched individuals. Pupils’ RESULTS anonymity was guaranteed because all of them The results from the variation analysis of were recorded under different numbers. The re- the observed indexes of physical fitness (Table spondents took part in the research voluntarily 1) show that the values have a normal distribu- and did not receive any monetary or financial tion, and the researched individuals are rela- compensation for their contribution. None of tively homogeneous as regards the character- the participants refused to take part. They were istics these indexes provide information for.

Table 1. Mean values and variability of the indexes of physical fitness № Indexes N Min Max X S V As Ex 1. Running 30 m 61 4,13 6,76 5,45 0,63 11,64 -0,094 -0,909 2. Standing Long jump 61 110,00 250,00 165,35 31,97 19,34 0,693 -0,141 3. 3 kg medicine ball throwing 61 195,00 830,00 466,40 130,15 27,91 0,503 -0,076 4. Running 200 m 61 25,67 63,90 45,91 7,18 15,63 -0,032 0,149 5. Agility test 61 11,92 26,36 15,74 2,25 14,27 1,694 6,974

79 FACTOR STRUCTURE ... M. Borukova

For the purposes of the research we divided pupils consists of 3 major factors (Table 2) the researched individuals along gender (female which explain a very high percentage of the and male pupils) and applied factor analysis. initial dispersion of the surveyed phenomenon The factor structure of 13-14-yesr-old male (91,28 %). Table 2. Factor structure of physical ability of 13-14-yesr-old male pupils № Indexes І ІІ ІІІ h² 1-h² 1. Running 30 m ,658 ,649 -,054 ,858 ,142 2. Standing Long jump -,653 -,451 ,447 ,830 ,170 3. 3 kg medicine ball throwing -,196 -,107 ,963 ,977 ,023 4. Running 200 m ,876 ,316 -,250 ,930 ,070 5. Agility test ,331 ,910 -,163 ,964 ,036 ∑а² = 91,28% 68,39% 16,41% 6,37% Besides the factor weights, the table pres- horizontal efforts, speed abilities and the en- ents the data about the size of the explained durance of the boys. (h²) and the unexplained (1-h²) initial disper- The second factor is determined by only sion of each surveyed index. one factor which is related to the special ori- The analysis of Table 2 shows that the first entation and agility of the pupils. established factor explains 68,39 % of the ini- The third factor in the factor structure of tial dispersion of the surveyed phenomenon. the physical fitness of 13-14-year-old pupils The following two factors have a smaller con- explains the smallest percentage (10,95%) of tribution to the pupils’ general physical fit- the initial dispersion of the surveyed phenom- ness, 16,41 % and 6,37 % respectively. enon. This index is related to the strength of The first factorin the factor structure of the the male pupils’ shoulder girdle. physical fitness of 13-14-year-old male pupils The factor structure of 13-14-yesr-old fe- is determined by three indexes and as we have male pupils also consists of 3 major factors already stated, it explains the highest percent- (Table 3) which explain the high percentage age of the initial dispersion of the surveyed of the initial dispersion of the surveyed phe- phenomenon (68,39 %). This factor is related nomenon (89,18 %). to the explosive power of the lower limbs in Table 3. Factor structure of physical ability of 13-14-yesr-old female pupils № Indexes І ІІ ІІІ h² 1-h² 1. Running 30 m ,847 -,206 ,295 ,847 ,153 2. Standing Long jump -,675 ,552 -,197 ,799 ,201 3. 3 kg medicine ball throwing -,094 ,962 -,103 ,944 ,056 4. Running 200 m ,908 -,010 ,212 ,870 ,130 5. Agility test ,316 -,139 ,938 ,999 ,001 ∑а² = 89,18 % 59,69 % 18,31 % 11,18 %

The analysis of table 3 shows that the first pupils is also determined by three indexes, like established factor explains 59,69% of the ini- those of the boys, but here the initial dispersion tial dispersion of the surveyed phenomenon, of the surveyed phenomenon is explained with while the following two factors have a much less than 10% of them. This factor is related smaller percentage - 18,31 % and 11,18 %. to the explosive power of the lower limbs in The first factor in the factor structure of horizontal efforts, speed abilities and the girls’ the physical fitness of 13-14-year-old female ability to run 200 m.

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The second factor is determined by only (1963) shows that with the 11-14-year-old the one factor (18,31%), which is related to the strength training has the same effect for boys explosive power of the female pupils’ shoul- and girls. Later, when they are 15-16 years der gridle, while the same factor is related to old, there is an increase in girls’ strength com- the boys’ agility. pared with boys’, nevertheless the same train- The third factor in the factor structure of the ing method is applied. It has been established physical fitness of 13-14-year-old female- pu that the gender differences are more greatly pils explains the smallest percentage (11,18%) expressed in the strength of the muscles of of the initial dispersion of the surveyed phe- the limbs and significantly less in the strength nomenon. This is the index related to the girls’ of the core muscles (Borukova, 2018). With agility and their spatial orientation. pubescence, which is observed at the age of The analysis of the results presented in ta- 11-13 nowadays, the increase of the strength bles 2 and 3 shows that as regards the explained drops, but after the age of 14-15 it increases dispersion of the surveyed phenomenon there sharply reaching its maximum values between are some differences in the percentage corre- the age of 18 and 20. lation and the weight of the factors when we From methodological point of view, the compare the boys and the girls. The indexes coordination of the movements is viewed as included in the first factor are the same for a component of agility. The sensitive periods both groups, but with the boys the percentage for the development of the coordination abili- of the explained dispersion is 68,39%, while ties are those between 7 and 12 years and after with the girls it is 59,69%. The second factor puberty, but the highest indexes appear at the with the boys is related to agility and spatial age of 13-14. orientation, while the second factor with the It is important for us to find out whether girls is related to the explosive power of upper there are some differences between the mean limbs. values of the boys and girls besides the factor The development of the quality strength weights of the surveyed indexes. shows a pronounced dependence between The comparative analysis of the mean val- gender and age. The research of Kirsten ues of the two groups is presented in Table 4. Table 4. Comparative analysis of the mean values of the surveyed indexes of the two groups

Indexes Boys/girls N X S boys 27 5,11 0,642 Running 30 m girls 34 5,71 0,504 boys 27 182,37 33,685 Long jump girls 34 152,65 23,873 boys 27 537,04 139,361 3 kg medicine ball throwing girls 34 412,85 93,530 boys 27 41,29 5,422 Running 200 m girls 34 49,48 6,412 boys 27 15,10 2,0518 Agility test girls 34 16,24 2,327

We can see in the table that in running 30 have higher values of 0,30 cm at average; they m boys are 0.60 sec faster than girls, in 200 m throw 120 cm farther the medicine ball, and in – they are about 8 sec faster. There are bigger the agility test they are 1 sec faster. differences in the long jump where the boys The comparative analysis of the mean val-

81 FACTOR STRUCTURE ... M. Borukova ues does not provide us with sufficient infor- In order to prove the differences between mation. The analysis of the table of variances the average levels of the two groups, we ap- shows that along one of the indexes (agility plied a comparative analysis with t-criterion test) there are some deviations from the nor- of Student for independent samples at a high mal distribution as regards both asymmetry guarantee probability Pt ≥ 99 % and a coeffi-

(As) and excess (Ex). As a whole, however, cient value higher than tcritical = 3,46. we can assume that the set of indexes used has The significance of the differences be- a normal distribution. tween the two groups is presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Significance of the differences of the mean values between boys and girls (13-14 -yeаrs-old) After the application of the criterion we fo- fitness of 13-14-year-old pupils allows us to u nd out that there were statistically significant draw the following conclusions: differences between the average levels of the 1. The coefficient of variation of the students indexes of physical fitness of the two groups at a secondary school shows that the rese ar- along four of the surveyed indexes. These are ch ed in dividuals are relatively homogeneous the indexes related to speed abilities, explosive as regards the observed indexes of physical power of lower and upper limbs, and the pupils’ fitne ss. endurance. With 99% guarantee probability we 2. For the 13-14-year-old pupils (boys and can claim that the 13-14-year-old boys are bet- girls) the most important is the factor reveal- ter as regards these indexes. As regards agility ing the high significance of: and special orientation, there is no statistically ü speed abilities; significant difference between the boys and the ü explosive power of the lower limbs, and girls. The existing differences between the two ü the endurance to run 200 m. groups can be explained with fortuitous reasons. 3. The following factor have a smaller con- tribution to the physical fitness of the CONCLUSIONS 13-14-year-old pupils: The analysis of the results and the gener- ü the explosive power of the upper limbs, and al look at the factor structure of the physical ü agility and special orientation.

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4. The comparative analysis enables us to REFERENCES claim that, along four of the indexes, the Aleksieva, M. (2010). Varianti za optimi- boys are superior to their female peers. The zi rane izjvite na podrastvashti igrachi po differences are statistically significant along basketbol, Pedagogicheski almanah, UI four indexes. As regards agility, there is no „Sv. Sv. Kiril I Metodij“. // Алексиева, М. statistically significant difference between (2010). Варианти за оптимизиране изявите the boys and the girls. на подрастващи играчи по баскетбол, The analysis of the integral factor struc- (студия). Педагогически алманах, УИ „Св. tures of the physical fitness of 13-14-year-old св. Кирил и Методий”. pupils who took part in the research shows Bădicu, G. (2017). The dynamics of mo- there are three factors established for both bility in the light of the assessment of manda- groups which explain a high percentage of the tory tests, introduced in the national system of initial dispersion - 91,28% for the boys and evaluation, in students in primary and second 81,18% for the girls, respectively. educational stages. Journal Plus Education. We could sum up that the established gen- ISSN 1842-077X, E-ISSN (online) 2068- der differences in this age group have a great 1151, vol. XVIII, рр. 112-121. influence on the physical fitness of the pupils, Borukova, M. (2018). Upravlenie i control and these differences are more strongly mani- na sportnata podgotovka pri 13-14 godishni fested in the explosive power of the lower and basketbolistki. Sofia, Bolid ins. // Борукова, upper limbs than in the children’s speed abili- М., (2018). Управление и контрол на ties and endurance – the advantage being in спортната подготовка при 13-14 годишни total favor of the boys. баскетболистки. София, Болид-инс It would have been better for the purposes Borukova, M., (2014). Factor structure and of the research if we had been provided with basic factors of the physical development and the information about the pupils’ height and the specific workability of growing up bas- weight, so we could have calculated their ketball players (12-19 years old). Proceeding BMI. This would have helped the analysis of Book of 4th FIEP Congress and 7th Interna­ the results. The sports-pedagogical testing, tional Congress “Sport, Stress, Adaptation”. however, aims at designing a new Normative Physical Education and Sport, Competence System for evaluation of the physical fitness for life, 9-12 October 2014. pp. 287-296. of the secondary school pupils in Bulgaria and Bujar, S. (2013). Tables For Evaluation Of that is why only five tests were included. The Motor Capabilities Of 10 Years Old Male During this age period children’s physical Pupils In Rebublic Of Macedonia, FIEP BUL­ and psychic qualities are developed the most LETIN. Volume 83 - Special Edition - ARTI- intensively. The physical development and CLE III, pp. 340-342 perfection of a child’s organism, the gain in Dimitrova, S. (1993). Intelekt I sport. VFK, health and the increase of vitality, hardening, Sofia. // Димитрова, Св. (1993). Интелект и obtaining motor and hygienic habits, which спорт., ВФК, София, 1993 г. are specific tasks of the physical education and Gigova, V. (2002). Statisticheska ob­ sport among adolescents, are closely related rabotka I amaliz na Danni, Sofia, NSA- to the other sides of education: mental, labor, IPB. // Гигова, В., (2002). Статистическа aesthetic, moral. обработка и анализ на данни, София, НСА – ИПБ.

83 FACTOR STRUCTURE ... M. Borukova

Giocheva, K., Tzarova R., Tzarov. Kr. tove za ozenjavane na fizicheskata deesposob- (1990). Sisrema za kojrol, otzenka I optimtzi­ nost. Sofia, Medicina & Fizkultura. // Петкова, rane na sportnata podgotovka na momicheta Л., Квартирникова, M. (1985). Тестове за I momcheta – 13-15 godini. Sofia, ETZNPK- оценяване физическата дееспособност. FKS-IPB, pp.6. // Гьошева, К., Р. Църова, К. Сoфия, Медицина и Физкултура. Църов, (1990). Система за контрол, оценка Popivanova, Tzv. (2007). Namalenata и оптимизиране на спортната подготовка dvigatelna aktivnost na uchenizite I riska ot на момичета и момчета – 13-15 години. osteoporoza. Sport & nauka, br. 1, Sofia, pp. София, ЕЦНПКФКС – ИПБ, стр.6. 32. // Попиванова, Цв., (2007). Намалената Kirsten G. (1963). Der Einfluss isome- двига телна активност на учениците и trischen Muskeltrainings auf die Entwicklung риска от ос теопороза. Спорт и наука, брой der Muskelkraft Jugendlicher Internationale 1, София, стр.32. Zeitschrift für Angewandte Physiologie Ein- Slanchev, P. (1992). Sportna medicina: schliesslich. Argbeitsphysiologie; vol. 19, pp. Uchebnik za student ot NSA. Sofia, Medicina 387–402 I fizkultura. // Слънчев, П. (1992). Спортна Mavrudieva, N. (2008). Factorna struktura медицина: Учебник за студенти от НСА, na fizicheskata godnost I sportno-tehnicheskite София, Медицина и физкултура. umenia na uchenitzi ot VI klas na SOU. Tzarova, R. (2013). Problemi na kontrola Sport & nauka, Izvanreden broi 4, pp. 172- v basketbola, Sofia, Bolid ins. // Църова, Р. 183). // Маврудиева, Н. (2008). Факторна (2013). Проблеми на контрола в баскетбола. структура на физическата годност и София. Болид инс. спортно-техническите умения на ученици Tzarova, R., Borukova, M. (2011). Izsled - от VІ клас на СОУ. Спорт и наука. Извънр. vane varhu nivoto na na podgotvenost na uche- Брой 4, с. 173-183. nieziteq kandidatstvashti v sportni uchilishta s Mavrudieva, N., Zhunisbek, D., Mavrudi- profil basketbol. Sport & nauka, izv. broi 2, ev, P., Kuleva, M. (2017). Factorial structure pp. 89-97. // Църова, Р., Борукова, М. (2011). of physical development and physical ability Изследване върху нивото на подготвеност of students. Proceeding book of the Interna­ на учениците, кандидатстващи в спортните tional Congress “Applied Sports Sciences”, училища с профил баскетбол. Спорт & Sofia, pp. 417-420. наука, (Изв. брой 2.) стр. 89-97. Petkova, L., Kvartirnikova, M. (1985). Tes-

Corresponding author:

Mariana Borukova Department „Basketball, Volleyball, Handball” National Sports Academy „Vassil Levski” Studentski grad, 21, Acad. Stefan Mladenov Str. Sofia 1700, Bulgaria E-mail: [email protected]

84 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 EFFECT OF HIP ADDUCTORS ON BASKETBALL PLAYERS BALANCE Rumiana Tasheva1, Georgi Mitrev2 1 National Sports Academy „Vassil Levski”, Sofia, Bulgaria 2 Basketball Club „Rilski Sportist”, Samokov, Bulgaria

ABSTRACT The functional evaluation of athletes is the sports physiotherapist’s initial opportunity to iden­ tify dysfunctions and muscle imbalance. The aim of this study is to investigate the correlation between basketball players’ shortening hip adductors with Patrick’s Test and their balance and coordination with the Shark Skill Test. Methods: We tested 65 healthy active basketball players in Basketball Club “Rilski sportist” – Samokov and the National Bulgarian Basketball Team. The athletes were divided into 2 groups: 22 players in the first Control Group with average 20.9 years and 21 youth players in the second Group with average 15.6 years. They were observed voluntarily in 2016. The 2 tests were applied at least 12 hours after the training. The shortness of hip adductors was assessed with Patrick’s Test and balance and coordination skills - with Shark Skill Test. Results: The results from the Shark Skill Test on the left and on the right lower limb demon­ strated statistically significant better time and fewer mistakes among 1G basketball players (aver­ age 20.9 years) with shorter left and right adductors than these with normal adductors’ elasticity. In contrast, there were no statistically significant differences among the youth athletes. Conclusion: Summarizing the results, it is clear that the basketball play causes the shortening of the hip adductors of men and teenagers. In this aspect, it is important that the asymmetry of the adductor elasticity in both groups does not lead to statistically significant differences in the dura­ tion and mistakes during performance of the Shark skill test. In our opinion, it is necessary to expand the study by applying physiotherapy for the short­ ened hip adductors and track changes in the implementation of the Shark Skill Test before and after treatment.

Key words: basketball players, Patrick’s Test, Shark skill test

INTRODUCTION jures. Tissue damage is almost always a result The functional evaluation of athletes is the from dysfunction of the affected body part, sports physiotherapist’s initial opportunity to and this is especially true of the lower limbs identify dysfunctions and muscle imbalance. of basketball players. One of the most impor- It is not a standardized test, but one geared tant muscle groups is that of hip adductors be- toward improving athletic performance and cause of their role in stabilization and control preventing injuries. Basketball is a dynamic of the pelvis, and the position of the innomi- athletic game requiring specific technical nate bone, especially while walking. The hip skills and complex activity of motor abilities. adductors can contribute to bilateral stability In fact, high level of intensity, sudden stops even in the absence of adequate hip abduc- with twisting movements and jumping often tor function (Gluck&Liebenson, 1997). These cause muscle dysfunction and this is one of muscles are very prone to cramps and shorten- the most important risk factors leading to in- ing when they are stressed. The question is:

Journal of Applied Sports Sciences 85 DOI: 10.37393/jass.2019.01.8 2019, Vol. 1, pp. 85 - 90 ISSN 2534-9597 (Print), ISSN 2535-0145 (Online) EFFECT OF HIP ADDUCTORS ... R. Tasheva, G. Mitrev

Are the hip adductors shortened in basketball divided into 2 groups: 22 players in the first players and whether this causes difficulties in Group (1G) with average 20.9 years and 21 the implementation of the special balance test? youth players in the second Group (2G) with The aim of this study is to investigate average 15.6 years. They were observed vol- the correlation between basketball players’ untarily in 2016. sho rt ening hip adductors with Patrick’s Test The 2 tests were applied at least 12 hours and balance and coordination with the Shark after the training. The shortness of hip adduc- Skill Test. tors was assessed with Patrick’s Test in initial su pine position with unilateral hip, knee and METHODS ankle flexion, and the foot against the contra- The research was done among 65 healthy lateral knee (Levit, 1981). The assessment of active basketball players in Basketball Club the adductors involved passive hip abduction “Rilski sportist” – Samokov and the National with contralateral stabilization on the pelvis Bulgarian Basketball Team. The athletes were (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Patrick’s Test The distance from the knee to the support surface was measured in cm. (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Patrick’s Test Measurement Figure 3. Shark Skill Test For balance and coordination skills we used square to the each peripheral one with the hands Shark Skill Test in 90/90 cm square divided on hips (Figure 3). For the right lower limb, the into 9 smaller numbered squares (Gatz, 2009). test was performed in a clockwise direction and The athletes jumped on one leg from the middle for the left one in the opposite direction.

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The execution time and mistakes were re- program SPSS IBM. For the attached corre- corded. The mistakes included: missing the lation analysis for hypothesis testing we used middle or the other square, contact with the the t-criterion of Student for independent sam- other leg, or movements with the upper limbs. ples, and we also calculated Cohen’s distinc- tion of establishing the relevance of the differ- RESULTS ence in values (Damianova & Gigova, 2000; For the analysis of the results we used the Damianova & Gigova, 2002). Table 1. Results of 1G’s Shark skill test in norm and shortened adductors of the left lower limb Norm add Shortened add Cohen‘s Shark skill test d t P(t) n X1 S1 n X2 S2 d Left time 3 5.93 0.35 19 4.62 0.66 1.3 0.778 3.30 100 Left mistakes 3 2 1 19 0.7 0.87 1.2 0.570 2.30 97 Right time 3 6.37 0.6 19 4.74 0.71 1.6 0.778 3.71 100 Right mistakes 3 2.3 2.08 19 1.1 0.94 1.2 0.348 1.01 91 Note: Critical value of the t-criterion of Student for independent samples at d = n1 + n2-2 = 20 and a = 0.05 equals 2.09; add – adductors. Table 1 shows the correlation in 1G be- The correlation in 1G between Test for the tween Test for the left hip adductors and Shark left hip adductors and Shark Skill Test on the Skill Test on the left lower limb in: right lower limb is (Table 1): • shortened adductors: time – 4.62 sec; • shortened adductors – 4.74 sec; mistakes mistakes in the performance - 0.7 errors; in the performance - 1.1 errors; • without shortening adductors: time – 5.93 • without shortening adductors – 6.37 sec; sec; mistakes in the performance - 2 errors; mistakes in the performance – 2.3 errors; • statistically significant difference in time • statistically significant difference in time – 1.3 sec (t = 3.3; P (t) = 100%); – 1.6 sec (t = 3.71; P (t) = 100%); • statistically significant difference in mis- • statistically significant difference in mis- takes – 1.2 errors (t = 2.30; P (t) = 97%.); takes – 1.2 errors (t = 1.01; P (t) = 91%.); • high practical importance Cohen’s: time - • high practical importance Cohen’s: time - d = .778; mistakes - d = .570. d = .778; mistakes - d =.348. Table 2. Results of 2G’s Shark skill test in norm and shortened adductors of the left lower limb Norm add Shortened add Cohen‘s Shark skill test d t P(t) n X1 S1 n X2 S2 d Left time 4 6.93 1.42 17 6.93 1.56 0.00 0.000 0.01 1 Left mistakes 4 3 1.41 17 2.2 1.6 0.8 0.256 0.95 74 Right time 4 6.95 2.2 17 6.54 1.5 0.4 0.108 0.45 34 Right mistakes 4 2.3 2.1 17 2 1.37 0.3 0.084 0.3 23 Note: Critical value of the t-criterion of Student for independent samples at d = n1 + n2-2 = 19 and a = 0.05 equals 2.09; add – adductors.

Table 2 shows the correlation in 2G of the mistakes in the performance - 2.2 errors; teenagers between Test for the left hip adductors • without shortening adductors: time – 6.93 and Shark Skill Test on the left lower limb in: sec; mistakes in the performance - 3 errors; • shortened adductors: time – 6.93 sec; • not statistically significant difference in

87 EFFECT OF HIP ADDUCTORS ... R. Tasheva, G. Mitrev

time – 0.00 sec (t = .01; P (t) = 1%); in the performance - 2 errors; • not statistically significant difference in • without shortening adductors – 6.95 sec; mistakes – 0.8 errors (t = .95; P (t) = 74%.); mistakes in the performance – 2.3 errors; • not practical importance Cohen’s: time - • not statistically significant difference in d = 0.000; mistakes - d = .256. time – 0.4 sec (t = .45; P (t) = 34%); The correlation in 2G of the teenagers be- • not statistically significant difference in tween Test for the left hip adductors and Shark mistakes – 0.3 errors (t = 0.3; P (t) = 23%.); Skill Test on the right lower limb is (Table 2): • not practical importance Cohen’s: time - • shortened adductors – 6.54 sec; mistakes d = .108; mistakes - d = .084.

Table 3. Results of 1G’s Shark skill test in norm and shortened adductors of the right lower limb Norm add Shortened add Cohen‘s Shark skill test d t P(t) n X1 S1 n X2 S2 d Left time 2 5.95 0.49 20 4.69 0.71 1.2 0.718 2.44 98 Left mistakes 2 2 1.41 20 0.8 0.89 1.2 0.453 1.75 90 Right time 2 6.4 0.85 20 4.8 0.78 1.6 0.700 2.73 99 Right mistakes 2 2 2.83 20 1.2 1.01 0.8 0.181 0.38 24 Note: Critical value of the t-criterion of Student for independent samples at d = n1 + n2-2 = 20 and a = 0.05 equals 2.09; add – adductors. Regarding the correlation between right The results on right hip adductors and hip adductors and Shark Skill Test on the left Shark Skill Test on the right lower limb (Ta- lower limb in the 1G the results are similar to ble 3) are slightly different: these on the left (Table 3): • shortened adductors: time – 4.8 sec; mis- • shortened adductors: time – 4.69 sec; takes in the performance – 1.2 errors; mistakes in the performance – 0.8 errors; • without shortening adductors: time – 6.4 • without shortening adductors: time – 5.95 sec; mistakes in the performance – 2 er- sec; mistakes in the performance – 2 errors; rors; • statistically significant difference in time • statistically significant difference in time – 1.2 (t = 2.44; P (t) = 98%); – 1.6 sec (t = 2.73; P (t) = 99%); • statistically significant difference in mis- • not statistically significant difference in takes – 1.2 (t = 1.75; P (t) = 90%); mistakes – 0.8 (t = .38; P (t) = 24%); • high practical importance Cohen’s: time - • practical importance Cohen’s: time – high d = .718; mistakes – d = .453. d = .700; mistakes – low d =.181.

Table 4. Results of 2G’s Shark skill test in norm and shortened adductors at right lower limb Norm add Shortened add Cohen‘s Shark skill test d t P(t) n X1 S1 n X2 S2 d Left time 3 6.53 1.45 18 6.99 1.54 0.4 0.000 0.48 36 Left mistakes 3 2.7 1.53 18 2.3 1.6 0.4 0.256 0.391 30 Right time 3 7.5 2.27 18 6.5 1.5 1 0.108 1.08 71 Right mistakes 3 2.3 2.5 18 2 1.33 0.3 0.084 0.357 27 Note: Critical value of the t-criterion of Student for independent samples at d = n1 + n2-2 = 19 and a = 0.05 equals 2.09; add – adductors.

88 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019

Table 4 shows the results of the 2G bal- (t = 1.01; P (t) = 91%.). The same data were ance test for teenagers with shortened and recorded in 1G with the right adductors (Table normal right hip adductors. The differences 3). During performance of the Shark Skill Test are minor without statistically significant and on the left lower limb the time was better 1.2 practical importance as the left one. (t = 2.44; P (t) = 98%) among the basketball According to asymmetry of the adductor players with short right adductors and 1.2 (t elasticity in both groups no statistically sig- = 1,75; P (t) = 90%) fewer mistakes. This ten- nificant differences were found in the duration dency was preserved in the balance test for the and mistakes of Shark skill test. right lower limb. Again, the athletes with short right adductors had 1,6 sec better time (t = DISCUSSION 2.73; P (t) = 99%). And only in this part there Overloading of basketball players’ adduc- was not statistically significant difference in tor muscles as a result of specific movements mistakes – 0.8 (t = .38; P (t) = 24%) and jumps from semi squat positions may also Despite the better Shark Skill test results result in strong abduction or adduction. Short for basketball players with shortened hip ad- adductors, diagnosed with Patrick’s test, occur ductors, shortening should be treated as it may in this study in men with average 20.9 years provoke hip and sacroiliac disorders or medial (Table 1 and Table 3). knee pain, pain in the hip joint, intrapelvis The literature on the assessment of the pain, and difficulty in activating gluteus me- shortening of basketball players’ certain mus- dius (Liebenson, 1990). cle groups for prophylactic purposes is scarce. On the other hand, the results of youth Liebenson (1990) points out that competitive basketball players were various (Table 2 and basketball and volleyball players frequently Table 4). The differences in time and mistakes suffer different forms of knee dysfunctions during performance of the Shark Skill Test on due to muscular imbalances. Their ability to the left and right lower limb among athletes jump is often severely impaired due to the with and without shortness of the hip adduc- presence of shortened muscles associated with tors were minor, not statistically significant weakness of other muscles. and have less practical importance. Nevertheless, the results from the Shark Skill Test on the left and on the right lower CONCLUSION limb demonstrated statistically significant bet- Summarizing the results, it is clear that ter time and fewer mistakes among 1G basket- the basketball play causes the shortening of ball players (average 20.9 years) with shorter the hip adductors of the men (on the left – left and right adductors than these with normal 86.36%, and on the right – 90.9%) and of the adductors’ elasticity. The athletes in 1G with teenagers (on the left – 80.95%, and on the short left adductors performed balance test on right – 85.7%). the left lower limb with 1.3 sec (t = 3.3; P (t) = In this aspect, it is important that the asym- 100%) faster and 1.2 fewer mistakes (t = 2.30; metry of the adductor elasticity in both groups P (t) = 97%.). The results were similar to those does not lead to statistically significant differ- in the performance of the Shark Skill Test on ences in the duration and mistakes during per- the right lower limb. The players in 1G with formance of the Shark skill test. short left adductors were 1.6 sec faster (t = Regarding the results from the Shark Skill 3.71; P (t) = 100%) and had 1.2 fewer mistakes Test basketball players in 1G with short left

89 EFFECT OF HIP ADDUCTORS ... R. Tasheva, G. Mitrev and right adductors demonstrated statistically REFERENCES significant better time and fewer mistakes dur- Gatz, G. (2009). Complete condition- ing performance of both lower limbs. In fact, ing for soccer. Leeds: Human Kinetics, USA, there was a correlation between Patrick’s Test Chapter 4, pp. 24-25. and Shark Skill Test in this group. Gluck, N., Liebenson, C. (1997). Parado- In our opinion, it is necessary to expand x ical muscle function. Journal of Bodywork the study by applying physiotherapy for the and Movement Therapies, 1(4), pp. 219-222. shortened hip adductors and track changes in Damianova, R., Gigova, V. (2000). Guid­ the implementation of the Shark Skill Test be- ance for seminars on statistical methods in fore and after treatment. sport. Second ed. NSA Press, Sofia. This tendency is not seen among young Damianova, R., Gigova, V. (2002). Sta­ basketball players. There are no statistically tistical methods in sport. Textbook, Third ed. significant differences in the performance of NSA Press, Sofia. the Shark Skill Test between athletes with and Levit, K. (1981). Manual therapy. Medi­ without shortening the hip adductors. This fact cine and Physical culture, Sofia, pp.120-126. confirms the need for physiotherapy for timely Liebenson, C. (1990). Active muscular re- prevention. laxation techniques (part 2). Journal of Ma­ nipulative and Physiological Therapeutics, 13(1), pp. 2-6.

Corresponding author:

Rumiana Tasheva Department of Theory and Methodics of Kinesitherapy National Sports Academy „Vassil Levski” Studentski grad, 21, Acad. Stefan Mladenov str. Sofia 1700, Bulgaria E-mail: [email protected]

90 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 FUNCTIONAL EFFICIENCY OF ATHLETES IN MIDDLE DISTANCE RUNNING Ivaylo Lazarov National Sports Academy „Vassil Levski”, Sofia, Bulgaria

ABSTRACT Modern athletics is developing with incredible dynamics. In sports science and practice there are a number of proven methodological approaches that are related to the diagnosis of the training effects. One of the tasks of functional diagnostics in sports is researching and tracing the body changes related to energy supply in a certain training activity. The aim of the research is to increase the effectiveness of the mid-distance training exercise through the creation of criteria for assessing the adaptation effects of the workloads. The subject of the study is the adaptation changes in the level of HR, VO2max and La in the conditions of the training activity. The research was done among 27 male middle distance competitors. The test was performed on the athletics track with the use of a special K4 set which recorded the pulse frequency and oxygen consumption dynamics. The concentration of lactate in capillary blood was recorded immediately after the run. The results show that the speed of recovery of the pulse frequency in the phases of the short­ ened rest is the correct adaptation marker for the determination of the individual tolerance in running loads and the level of athletes’ training. The recommended quantitative values of the respiratory and metabolic adaptation markers and their associated running speed are as follows: aerobic threshold - 2 mmol/l at a running speed of less than 4.10 m/sec. and a heart rate up to 157 HR.; anaerobic threshold - 4 mmol/l at a running speed between 4.10 and 5.13 m/s and a pulse limit of 157-178 HR - an effective aerobic zone (economic zone); over 178 HR and the running speed over 5.13 m/s.

INTRODUCTION them from making inadequate decisions. Modern athletics is developing with in- One of the tasks of functional diagnostics credible dynamics. In sports science and prac- in sports is researching and tracing the body tice there are a number of proven methodologi- changes related to energy supply in a certain cal approaches that are related to the diagnosis training activity. While the cardiovascular and of the training effects (Bonov, 2003; Dasheva, respiratory systems transport oxygen and nu- 2002; Dick, 2002; Furnadjiev, 2005; Neikov, trients to the working muscles, the metabolic 2017). A lot of authors constantly try to es- processes provide the energy required for their tablish standards in training exercises (Bonov, functioning. Therefore, the changes in the con- 2003; Neikov, Dasheva, 2017; Lazarov, 1978). centration of metabolites related to the energy- These are largely determined by the individual supplying processes of the muscular work are structure of competitors’ adaptive potential. In of great value for the assessment of physical this sense, finding objective methods for as- capacity. Lactic acid is such a metabolic and it sessment of the effects of the applied work- is given special attention in the modern func- loads can alleviate coaches’ work and prevent tional diagnostics (Astrand, 1986; Bauckaert,

Journal of Applied Sports Sciences 91 DOI: 10.37393/jass.2019.01.9 2019, Vol. 1, pp. 91 - 98 ISSN 2534-9597 (Print), ISSN 2535-0145 (Online) FUNCTIONAL EFFICIENCY ... I. Lazarov

1999; Grancharov, 1997). min. The testing was done during training ses- The rise in blood lactate concentration is sions: 5 x 1000 meter load over a 3-minute an indicator of a change in the nature of the passive pause with progressive time reduc- energy supply of muscle work - from aero- tion (speed increasing) for each segment as bic to anaerobic. If the changes in lactic acid follows: 1 - 4:00 min (4.17m/s), 2 - 3:40 min concentration in arterial blood coincide with (4.54 m/s), 3 - 3:15 min (5.13 m/s), 4 - 3.00 those of ventilation, there is optimal breathing min (5.55 m/s), 5 - 2:50 min (5.88 m/s). The effectiveness, defined as „Threshold of An- test was performed on a standard running track aerobic Exchange”. One of the major aims of (400m). The pace of the running was regulated modern training methodology improvement is with a special automatic pacemaker. A telem- determining the anaerobic threshold and this is etry computer equipment „K4” was used to in the basis of all sports-functional diagnostic measure the following indicators of activity of tests (Bauckaert, 1999; Grancharov, 1997). the cardiorespiratory system: Such complex studies of cardiovascular • Dynamics of the pulse frequency in the system activity and metabolic reactions to phases of load and rest; physical exercise have been made only in labo- • Dynamics of oxygen consumption (maxi- ratory conditions. The conducted study allows mum and relative) in the operating and re- to compare the results of the laboratory and covery phases field research and thus to improve the regula- In addition, the lactate concentration in ca- tory systems for control and evaluation of the pi llary blood was measured as follows: adaptation processes that characterize the ef- • For the first minute after completion of the fectiveness of the training process (Mirzaei, running from the inner clamshell - a lactate Shadmehr, 2016). analyzer that automatically reports the lac- The aim of the research is to increase the tate content was used; effectiveness of the mid-distance training ex- • After the last blood test the procedure was ercise through the creation of criteria for as- repeated for 6 and 12 minutes, taking into sessing the adaptation effects of the workloads. account the current elimination time (im- In order to fulfill the aim of the research we mediate recovery) set the following tasks: 1. To explore athletes’ functional capabilities RESULTS AND ANALYSIS in mid-distance running; The middle-distance running is character- 2. To analyze the changes in heart rate, VO- ized by extremely high demands on all sys- 2max and La at intervals with progressive tems in an athlete’s body. The 800 and 1500m increase of intensity; competitors reach 100% of their current aero- 3. To establish adaptation markers quantitative bic power. Table 1 shows the results from the values of respiratory and metabolic activities. variance analysis of the researched functional marks and Table 2 – the correlations between METHODOLOGY marks, which confirms the thesis.At the same We studied the adaptation changes in the time, although the body works at similar level, level of HR, VO2max and La in the conditions the amount of oxygen that the systems provide of the training activity. The research was done is inadequate and the body falls into a state among 27 male middle distance competitors of deep acidosis. Trainings that develop resis- with results in 800m from 1:47.14 to 1:54.75 tance to such conditions require precise deter-

92 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 mination of the critical levels in the work of cardio respiratory system. the body’s main systems, and in particular the

Table 1. Variance analysis of functional mark: VO2max-maximum oxygen consumption, vVO2max-speed of running in maximum oxygen consumption, vAnT-speed of anaerobic threshold, vAeT- speed of aerobic threshold, htrVO2max-heart rate in maximum oxygen consumption, htrAnT-heart rate in threshold of anaerobic possibilities

N=27 n Xmin Xmax R X S V As Ex

VO2max 27 59.6 77.8 18.2 67.2 4.31 7.7 1.89 0.67

vVO2max 27 4.2 5.9 1.7 5.12 0.53 10.7 -0.93 0.12 vAnT 27 3.52 4.85 1.33 4.22 0.34 4.17 -0.67 0.31 vAeT 27 3.69 4.52 0.83 4.12 0.18 5.78 2.31 1.76 vrdst 27 4.3 6.8 2.5 5.7 0.55 10.2 1.92 -0.61 htrVo2max 27 186 212 26 200 5.87 2.98 0.65 0.91 htrAnT 27 172 197 25 187 7.86 4.08 0.18 0.54 htrAeT 27 143 177 34 158 7.69 4.62 -0.34 0.17

Table 2. Correlations between the researched marks

VO2max vVO2max vAnT vAeT vrdst htrVO2max htrAnT htrAeT

VO2max 1 0.52 0.15 -0.11 0.15 -0.83 -0.61 -0.59

vVO2max 1 0.63 0.61 0.85 -0.57 -0.78 -0.81 vAnT 1 0.63 -0.21 -0.24 -0.28 vAeT 1 0.79 0.11 0.14 0.21 vrdst 1 -0.14 -0.31 -0.35

htrVO2max 1 0.79 0.82 htrAnT 1 0.61 htrAeT 1

Figure 1 shows the dynamics of the test re- oxygen that the body absorbs in the energy sults for VO2max in running with the progres- supply of a motor activity. The data from this sive increase in speed. It is clear that it is ex- analysis are presented in Figure 2. Comparing tremely dependent on the individual qualities the trends in the graphs (Figure 1 and Figure of the different competitors. At the same time, 2), we see they are much more similar to those the theoretical trend is described by a parabolic describing the dynamics of total oxygen con- dependence that follows the logical trend of sumption during rest. This confirms the claim increase in the intensity and the amount of that individual body weight has a significant oxygen required for the muscle energy supply. effect on the functional efficiency of energy

VO2max/kg shows the importance of body supply at different speeds. weight in determining the exact amount of

93 FUNCTIONAL EFFICIENCY ... I. Lazarov

5000 4800 4720 4600 4530 4390 4400 4200 4140 4000 3800 3620 3600 3400

3200 VO2 MAX SPEED M/S 4.17 4.54 5.13 5.55 5.88

Figure 1. Dependence between VO2max and speed of running (work and rest).

70 67.12

65 63.78

60 58.12

54.91 55

49.87 50 VO2MAX/KG

45 SPEED M/S 4.17 4.54 5.13 5.55 5.88

Figure 2. VO2max/kg in work phases. All this gives us reason to make the fol- cal” (inflation) points of adaptation changes in lowing conclusions about the oxygen con- the energy metabolism: 2 mmol/l, provided by sumption that determines the quantitative an oxygen supply of 50 ml/kg of body weight characteristics of adaptation markers of aero- per minute; 4 mmol/l, provided by an oxygen bic performance of elite athletes in medium supply of 58 ml/kg of body weight. distance running: aerobic threshold <50 ml/ The presented results establish the follow- kg/min; effective aerobic zone 50-55 ml/kg/ ing two “thresholds” of the energetic metabo- min; anaerobic threshold of 55 ml/kg/min; lism of physical performance: “aerobic” and anaerobic zone 55-65 ml/kg/min; high acido- “anaerobic”. Identifying the intensity of mus- sis>65 ml/kg/min. cle work that provokes transitions from one Figure 3 presents trends that character- area to another is basic for functional training ize the dependence between the power of the not only in middle and long distance runs but breathing processes and La in the capillary also in sport as a whole. The study confirms blood. Comparing the dynamics and the posi- that the interdependence between the dynam- tion of these curves, we can outline two “criti- ics of metabolic acidosis and the progressive

94 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019

70 67.12

65 63.78

60 58.12

54.91 55

49.87 50 VO2max/kg

Lactate 45 2.5 3.4 4.2 6.1 9.8

Figure 3. Correlation between VO2max/kg and La.

Figure 3. Correlation between VO2max/kg and La. increase in the intensity of muscular work is that range. The values given are valid mainly exponential. for competitors with similar results. In addi- The adaptive markers defined by this depen- tion to the control of the functional effect of dence are: Running speed in effective aerobic the applied running loads, the results from the mode from 4.10 m/s to 5.13 m/s. Continuous analysis of the pulse changes in the respective running aimed at improving the functionalities metabolic zones are also provided. should be conducted at a running speed within

12 9.8 10

8 6.1 6 4.2 4 3.4 2.5

2 LACTATE MMOL/L

SPEED M/S 0 4.17 4.54 5.13 5.55 5.88

Figure 4. Dependence between running speed and La.

Figure 5 shows the dynamics of metabol- to 6 mmol/l. And heart rate 185 beats/min. ic acidosis processes during the load. This These values complement the informa- dependence repeats the previously described tion about the effective aerobic work area trends defining the quantitative parameters of of muscle work, which in the present case the respective adaptation markers. The first is limited - the pulse ranges from 157 to 178 critical point is 2.2 mmol/l of lactate associ- beats/min. At the same time, one of the most ated with a heart rate of 157 beats/min. The often used indicators of functional proper- second critical point - 4 mmol/l lactate at a ness is the pulse rate dynamics in restorative pulse rate of 178 beats/min. Here, however, pauses. we find a third critical point that corresponds

95 FUNCTIONAL EFFICIENCY ... I. Lazarov

12 9.8 10

8 6.1 6 4.2 4 3.4 2.5 2 LACTATE

HEART RATE 0 157 166 178 185 193

Figure 5. Dependence between heart rate and La.

Figure 6 shows the dependence of the portant in the implementation of operational pulse on the lactate accumulation in the rest control and regulation of running loads. The periods. We see that the areas of low, medium quantitative limits of metabolic processes re- and high intensity are clearly outlined, as well veal wide possibilities for improvement of as the quantitative data reflecting the degree the individual exercise training in functional of training and adaptability to the applied run- sports. ning loads. This phenomenon is extremely im-

12

9.8 10

8 6.1 6 4.2 4 3.4 2.5

2 LACTATE

HEART RATE 0 104 109 116 127 134

Figure 6. Dependence between heart rate and La in the phases of rest.

CONCLUSIONS markers and their associated running speed 1. The speed of recovery of the pulse fre- are as follows: quency in the phases of the shortened rest • aerobic threshold - 2 mmol/l at a running is the correct adaptation marker for the de- speed of less than 4.10 m/s and a heart rate termination of the individual tolerance in up to 157 beats/min. (zone stabilizing the running loads and athletes’ level of train- capacity of the aerobic metabolic mecha- ing. nism); 2. The recommended quantitative values of • anaerobic threshold - 4 mmol/l at a running the respiratory and metabolic adaptation speed between 4.10 and 5.13 m/s and a

96 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019

pulse limit of 157-178 beats/min - an effec- Furnadjiev, V., Abadjiev, I. (2005). tive aerobic zone; Adaptacia v sporta, Sofia, NSA. • over 178 beats/min and the running speed Grancharov, N. (1997). Anaerobniat over 5.13 m/s - a zone developing maxi- prag - sushtnost I prilojnastoinost, Disserta- mum breathing processes). tion, Sofia, NSA. 3. The pulse frequency in the rest phase char- Housh, T., Thorland, W., Johnson, G. acterizes the adaptation processes as fol- Tharp, G., Cisar, C. (1984). Anthropometric lows: unrestricted adaptation from 105 to and body buils variables as discriminators of 115 beats/min; limited adaptation 115-135 event participation in elite adolescent male beats/min; impaired adaptation over 135 track and field athletes.Journal of Sport Sci­ beats/min. ences., 2(1), pp. 3-11. REFERENCES LaTorre, A., Impellizzeri F.M., Dotti A., Arrese, A.L., Izquierdo, D.M, Urdiales, Arcelli E. (2005). Do caucasian athletes need D.M. (2005). A review of the maximal oxy- to resignt hemselves to African domination gen uptake values necessary for different in middle and long distance running ? New running performance levels. New Studies­ Studiesin Athletics- volume 20, pp. 39-49. inAthletics- volume 20, pp. 7-20. Lazarov, G. (1978). Biagane na sredni Astrand, P.O., Rodahl, K. (1986). Text­ razstoiania, Disertation, Sofia, VIF. book of Work Physiology, New York – St. Mirzaei, M. R., Shadmehr, M. (2016). Ef- Louis, pp 120-122. fects of IMT on energy cost in elite endur- Bassett, D., E. Howley. (2000). Limiting ance runners. New studies in athletics, 1-2, factors for maximum oxygen uptake and de- p. 7. terminants of endurance performance, Med­ Neikov, S., Dasheva, D. (2017). Plani- Sci Sports Exerc, Tennessee, USA; rane I upravlenie na zakliuchitelnia etap na Bauckaert, J., Vrigens, J., Pauner, J. podgotovka za glavni sastezania pri elitni (1999). Effect Special tests Procedures on sportisti, “Sport and science” No 1, pp 7-17. Plasma lactate concentration and epoxy oxy- Neumann, G. (1988). Special perfor- gen uptake in endurance athletes. The Jour­ mance capacity. In: Dirix, A., Knuttgen, nal of Sport Medicine and Physical fitness, H.G. & Tittel, K. (eds), The Olympic Book v.30., pp 12-13. of Sports Medicine, Vol. 1. Blackwell & Sci- Bonov, P. (1991). Study of the relation- entific Publications, Oxford, pp. 97-108. ship between speed, hart rate and accumula- Slavchev, A. (1997). Optimal training tion of lactic acid in blood mag. New Studies speed in continuous running efforts in the in Athletics, vol.4, IAAF, London. middle and long distances - Second Annual Bonov, P. (2003). Biagane za izdrajlivost Congress of the European College of Sport I adaptacia, Sofia, Tip-top pres. Science, 20-23.08.1997, Copenhagen, Den- Dasheva, D. (2002). Trenirovka I adapta­ mark, Poster Presentations, Book of Ab- cia v sporta, Sofia, Bins. stracts II, р.918. Dick, F. W. (2002). Sports Training Prin­ Strydom, N. (1978). The relationship of ciples, A&C Black, London. maximum oxygen intake to gross body mass

97 FUNCTIONAL EFFICIENCY ... I. Lazarov and somatotype. Physical Activity Sciences: H. (2000). Running economy of African and Biomehanics of Sports and Kinanthropom­ Caucasian distance runners. Medicine. Sci­ etry, Vol. 6, pp. 571-580. Miami, Florida. ence. Sports Exercise., Vol. 32, No. 6, pp.32. Weston, A. R., Mbambo, Z., Myburgh, K.

Corresponding author:

Ivaylo Lazarov Track and Field athletics department National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Studentski grad, 21, Acad. Stefan Mladenov str. Sofia 1700, Bulgaria E-mail: [email protected]

98 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 SPEED-STRENGTH RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ROWING ON ERGOMETER AND CLEAN PULL EXERCISE Oleg Hristov National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski”, Sofia, Bulgaria

ABSTRACT Speed-strength qualities are significant for obtaining high power, especially in sports such as rowing. There are few surveys quoted in literature on multi-joint movements with increasing load in the training and competitive range of intensity where the speed-strength qualities are traced. In our research, we aim to make a comparative analysis of speed-strength qualities with increasing load in two multi-joint exercises: rowing on rowing ergometer and the clean pull strength exercise. The research was conducted among rowers (n=7; age - 16.28 ± 1.11 years; weight - 73.12 ± 7.63 kg; height - 186.27 ± 7.20 cm). The test on a rowing ergometer was per­ formed with Concept II Model C, and the data were processed with the system BioRowTech. The data from the strength exercise were recorded and processed with the system GymAwareCloud. Regression equations were worked out for the speed-strength qualities: in clean pull exercise – peak force R2=0.52 and average force R2=0.76; in rowing on ergometer – peak force R2=0.72 and average force R2=0.56. We found out that in both exercises the mean power reached was almost identical (in rowing = 692.28 W, in clean pull = 609.42 W), but in rowing it is on account of higher velocity and less force.

Key words: speed-strength, rowing, clean pull, different loads

INTRODUCTION (Ameredes et al., 1992), temperature (Assmus- Everybody who has some experience in the sen et al., 1994), etc. field of biomechanics and physiology is aware The surveys on single-joint movements of the relationship between force and veloc- allow research of human muscles which lead ity as a result of the actions of the skeletal to change in the movement only of one joint, muscles. The research in this area was greatly while the rest of the body is static during the developed at the end of the 20th century, start- maximal effort. The most numerous studies ing with Hill (1922), Gasser and Hill (1924), found in literature concern the following joints: Hill (1938), Katz (1939) and still continuing elbow (Wilkie, 1950; Martin et al., 1995), knee today. The surveys in this direction can be di- (Johanson et al., 1987; Seger and Throstens- vided into three groups: 1) single fibers / single son, 2000), ankle (Bobbert et al., 1990). Most muscles, 2) single-joint movement, 3) multi- of the researchers claim that the obtained curve joint movement. of the relation between force and velocity is The surveys in the first direction of studies similar to the one introduced by Hill. are related mostly to the shape of the curve The characteristics of speed-strength quali- expressing the relation force-velocity, as well ties in multi-joint movements are relatively as the factors which influence it, namely: type understudied compared to the relationships in of muscle fibers (Baratta et al., 1995), type of single muscles and single-joint movements. stimulation (Heckman et al., 1992), fatigue A number of authors study the relationship

Journal of Applied Sports Sciences 99 DOI: 10.37393/jass.2019.01.10 2019, Vol. 1, pp. 99 - 107 ISSN 2534-9597 (Print), ISSN 2535-0145 (Online) SPEED-STRENGTH RELATIONSHIP ... O. Hristov velocity-force in pedaling on a stationary bike indexes from tests with a progressive increase (Baron et al., 1999), weight lifting (Thomas in intensity which could provide information et al., 1996), vertical jump (Bosco and Komi, about the work regime of muscle groups in dif- 1979). There are some surveys done in this ferent types of intensity used in the training direction with rowing ergometer (Hartmann et programs. al., 1993; Sprague et al., 2007) where the re- In order to increase the level of strength lationship force-velocity in several maximum preparation in rowing, strength exercises on cycles (5-6) was studied. land are regularly performed with different Multi-joint movements are characterized methods and means but most often with bar- with additional complications because a bells. One of the complex exercises used is the number of muscles and muscle groups work clean pull because it combines the work of the together and move in certain coordination above mentioned three segments: lower limbs, pattern. Therefore, when studying multi- torso and upper limbs in close or identical joint movements, we have to measure and sequence to the stroke cycle (Bachev, 1987; analyze the force and velocity throughout Bachev et al., 2000). their action. With these movements, the ner- Hence, the aim of this research was to study vous agitation and the influence of the dif- the relation velocity-force and to make a com- ferent muscles is constantly changing during parative analysis of two similar in the structure the execution of the whole movement. This of performance multi-purpose tasks connected is particularly important, since it is presumed with multi-joint activity, namely rowing on er- that the mechanical features of the muscle gometer and clean pull. systems acting in a multi-joint motor task may differ from the mechanical features of METHODOLOGY the different muscles. Seven young rowers on national level Rowing is a kind of sport where the ex- of preparation took part in the research (age ecution of a stroke cycle is performed by al- 16.28 ± 1.11 years; weight 73.12 ± 7.63 kg; most all muscles in the human body, and lots height 186.27 ± 7.20 cm). They participated of authors (Christov, Christov, 1989; Christov, in a-two-day survey on rowing ergometer and 1997; Kleshnev, 2000; Soper&Hume, 2004; undertook a test for strength preparation (clean Notle, 2011) define this activity as working pull). During the first day the test on the row- with three segments – lower limbs, torso and ing ergometer was performed, and on the sec- upper limbs. The standard consequence of ac- ond day the clean pull test was carried out. tivities during the work phase of the stroke cy- The research on rowing ergometer was cle of these segments is: lower limbs followed done with Concept II Model C, and the ve- by the torso, and finally – upper limbs. There locity-force indexes were measured with are some data in literature about the power of the help of Bio Row Techequipment (http:// a stroke cycle, peak power in a stroke cycle, biorow.com/index.php?route=product/ mean and maximum force applied to the oar product&path=61_108&product_id=60). handle, as well as some limited data about the The force in the handle was measured with velocity of the handle during realization of a strength amount with work range (a range this strength (Christov, 1988; Bourdin et al., of 0-2500 N, with the accuracy being within 2004; Kleshnev, 2000; Soper&Hume, 2004). 0.4% of the range). The velocity of the handle There are no data concerning velocity-force was measured directly with linear positional

100 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 transducer, which is connected to the handle reaching the individual maximum for every with a cord. Each competitor performed 10 participant. The competitors’ personal weight cycles with different intensity – number of was not included in the calculation of the de- cycles per minute: 16; 20; 24; 28; 32 cycle/ rivative indexes from the test. There was a suf- min, which ranged between low training in- ficient resting time between each performance tensity to competitive intensity for rowing er- during the test (a minimum of 5 min). On the gometer. Each intensity was performed with base of a directly measured force and prelimi- two-min breaks in between every activity. Af- narily set weight of the barbell the following ter the recorded data were processed with the parameters for each weight of the load were software, the average values for each inten- calculated: peak force [N]; average force [N], sity were obtained. The following indexes of peak velocity [m/s], average velocity [m/s], the movement of the handle were measured: peak power [W], average power [W], height maximum force [N]; average force [N], maxi- of the barbell pull [m]. mum velocity [m/s], average velocity [m/s], peak power [W], average power [W], length RESULTS of a stroke cycle [m]. The obtained results were statistically pro- The velocity-force indexes in the clean cessed with variation and correlation analyses. pull exercise were measured with the system All parameters had a normal distribution of the Gym Aware of Kinetic Performance and the values compared to the critical ones for num- data were processed with online software ber of attempts. In the correlation analysis, Gym Aware Cloud. It is important to point out between the parameters recorded for the two that with this equipment the speed of the bar- exercises, we obtained values between 0.706 bell is measured along the same principle as and 0.977 with significance level Sig=0.00, Power the speed of the ergometer handle measured which shows a high (0.7 – 0.9) and very high Force with a linear positional transducer. A classic correlation (> 0.9) between them. test for determining the maximum force was Sample graph illustrations are presented in performed (Jovanovic et al., 2014). The test Figures 1 and 2, and the average values along started with 20 kg weight and the subsequent the loads of all researched individuals in Table weights were increased with 10 kg each until 1 and Table 2.

Figure 1. Sample graph of a certain attempt “clean pull” obtained with Gym Aware Cloud.

101 SPEED-STRENGTH RELATIONSHIP ... O. Hristov

Figure 2. Sample graph of a certain competitor of the average stroke cycles in all kinds of intensity on a rowing ergometer obtained with BioRowTech. In the sample graphs of velocity, force and The work amplitude is different – on a power in Figures 1 and 2 indicate that these rowing ergometer it is 1.62 m with variation two exercises are almost identical as regards 0.9%, while in the clean pull exercise it is their features and parameters. The velocity in 1.19 m with variation 8.3%. This difference both exercises starts from zero and its maxi- is observed due to the fact that in the clean mum values are reached in the second half of pull the wrists cannot reach the level of the feet the activity. The development of force reaches because the diameter of the barbell plate ob- its maximum before the middle of the activity. structs them. While in rowing, the wrists (the The comparative analysis of the average handle) go over the feet and so the amplitude results from the two tests established the fol- is significantly greater. lowing: Table 1. Average results of the parameters from clean pull n=7 Mean Peak Height Mean Peak Mean Force Peak Velocity Velocity Average(m) Power (W) Power (W) (N) Force (N) (m/s) (m/s) Weight Valu- ST Valu- ST Valu- ST Valu- ST Valu- ST Valu- ST Valu- ST (kg) es DEV es DEV es DEV es DEV es DEV es DEV es DEV 20.00 1.29 ±0.1 415.6 ±59.5 1013.4 ±183.7 1.85 ±0.1 3.17 ±0.3 204.3 ±6.4 467.2 ±54.7 30.00 1.29 ±0.1 552.6 ±88.4 1233.1 ±220.3 1.71 ±0.2 2.86 ±0.3 307.8 ±5.3 632.7 ±114.4 40.00 1.25 ±0.1 619.3 ±104.6 1313.7 ±256.9 1.52 ±0.2 2.48 ±0.4 404.2 ±10.7 755.8 ±128.9 50.00 1.20 ±0.1 654.7 ±122.4 1338.1 ±226.9 1.31 ±0.2 2.18 ±0.3 501.5 ±6.7 808.1 ±54.7 60.00 1.11 ±0.2 631.9 ±133.9 1291.7 ±205.5 1.07 ±0.2 1.85 ±0.3 598.5 ±5.1 885.2 ±87.5 70.00 1.11 ±0.1 725.2 ±106.8 1373.2 ±196.8 1.05 ±0.2 1.72 ±0.2 696.9 ±4.0 968.8 ±42.9 80.00 1.04 ±0.1 666.8 ±103.8 1417.3 ±153.2 0.85 ±0.1 1.56 ±0.2 796.7 ±4.0 1044.2 ±30.1 Avr. 1.19 609.42 1282.94 1.34 2.26 501.40 794.57 STDEV 0.10 100.13 132.52 0.37 0.61 212.15 198.29 Variation % 8.3% 16.4% 10.3% 27.8% 26.8% 42.3% 25.0%

102 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019

The values of the speeds of the execution is 0.56 m/s, while in clean pull it is 1.00 m/s. of the exercises differ in the average values – The reached maximum values are close, and on rowing ergometer the velocity is 1.66 m/s the differences are observed in the minimum with variation 13.4%, starting from 1.37 m/ values – almost 50% lower. It should be point- sand ending to 1.93 m/s in the range of inten- ed out that in rowing, with the small load the sity increase. While the average value of ve- velocity is the lowest, and with the increase locity in clean pull is 1.34 m/s with variation in the intensity it grows. While in the strength 27.8% and initial speed of the slightest load exercise, with the small load the velocity is the 1.85 m/s to the toughest load of 0.85 m/s. It can highest, and with the increase in the intensity be observed that the range of velocity change it begins to decrease – a classic reaction for in the two exercises is different: in rowing it speed-strength relation. Table 2. Average results from 10 stroke cycles on ergometer n=7.

Stroke Mean Peak Mean Peak Mean Peak Handle Handle Handle Force Handle Force Length (m) Power (W) Power (W) Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s) (N) (N) Stroke Rate (str/ Valu- ST Valu- ST Valu- ST Valu- ST Valu ST Valu ST Valu ST min) es DEV es DEV es DEV es DEV es DEV es DEV es DEV 16.70 1.60 ±0.1 539.5 ±24.6 1204.3 ±180.4 1.37 ±0.1 2.00 ±0.1 336.8 ±36.5 712.6 ±111.1 20.21 1.63 ±0.1 594.0 ±36.1 1309.0 ±267.5 1.51 ±0.1 2.14 ±0.1 344.7 ±48.0 738.8 ±124.5 24.22 1.63 ±0.1 691.9 ±36.9 1563.7 ±167.7 1.67 ±0.1 2.31 ±0.1 368.3 ±44.5 796.9 ±104.2 28.71 1.62 ±0.1 760.6 ±59.9 1710.7 ±262.3 1.80 ±0.1 2.45 ±0.1 382.4 ±55.6 824.8 ±140.4 32.91 1.60 ±0.1 875.5 ±86.4 2004.9 ±277.0 1.93 ±0.1 2.60 ±0.2 414.4 ±69.7 894.8 ±163.0 Avr. 1.62 692.28 1558.51 1.66 2.30 369.30 793.58 STDEV 0.01 133.46 320.21 0.22 0.24 31.09 72.10 Variation % 0.9% 19.3% 20.5% 13.4% 10.4% 8.4% 9.1%

The strength parameters recorded during in rowing on ergometer for a stroke cycle is the execution of the two exercises show no 692.28 W with variation19.3%, while in the difference in their maximum values, only in strength exercise it is 609.42 W with variation the minimum ones. The average value of the 16.4%, which is about 12% higher power in force in rowing on ergometer is 369.30 N with rowing. The peak values of power show sig- variation 8.4%, and in the strength exercise nificantly higher values in the test on a rowing clean pull, it is 501.40 N with variation 42.3%. ergometer and average 1558.5 W with varia- The force in the smallest weight in clean pull tion 20.5%, while in the strength test the peak is 204.3 N, which makes it the lowest; with an values of power average 1282.9 W with varia- increase in the weight there is a growth in the tion of 10.3%.The significant increase in the applied force until reaching its maximum val- peak value of the rowing power is a result of ue of 796.7 N. In rowing on ergometer, at the the fact that with an increase in the intensity, lowest intensity the lowest force is observed, the speed significantly rises while the strength namely 336.8 N, while at the highest intensity component remains relatively stable. While as the force is the greatest with 414.4 N. regards force, despite the increase in the load As a result of this activity, the power is (strength), the velocity drops abruptly. presented in two parameters: mean power and A major task of our research was to estab- peak power. The mean value of the power lish the relation between velocity and force in

103 SPEED-STRENGTH RELATIONSHIP ... O. Hristov the two tests. For this purpose, we worked out peak force in clean pull y = -235.81+1325.7, regression equations of these relationships, R2 = 0.52, mean force in clean pull y = which are the following: peak force in rowing -455.81+1107.7, R2 = 0.7594. A graphic illus- y = 357.52+57.924, R2 = 0.7214; mean force tration of these relationships and their regres- in rowing y = 148.13+109.98, R2 = 0.5614; sion equations is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Strength-speed relationships in mean and peak values of test on rowing ergometer and strength test clean pull

Figure 3, Tables 1 and 2, show the aver- muscle exertion also increase both in the mean age values of speed-strength relationships in and peak values. Their regression equations the two tests, the observations are the fol- are with a positive sign in front of the inde- lowing: in rowing on ergometer the power pendent variable (х), and in the equations for is within 40 – 50% of the maximum force in the strength test they are with a negative sign. the strength test and in the high border val- ues of the velocity reached – almost 100% CONCLUSION or about 2 m/s. While with the peak values, The research on a rowing ergometer and the rowers perform the stroke cycle with 60 the strength exercise clean pull with in- – 80% of the peak force values and 80 – 90% creasing load shows that the velocity-force of the speed indexes established from the relationship in rowing has a reversed trend test clean pull. compared to the normally established one Graphs also show that, in rowing when the by Hill in strength exercises. The regres- intensity is increased, the force and velocity of sion equations in rowing, both in the mean

104 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 and in the peak value have a positive sign in effort, the object is driven at an increasing front of the independent variable (х) which speed. So here we see increasing power on predetermines the fact that when the speed account of the speed component, which was is increased, the strength of the muscle con- also confirmed by Baron et al., 1999, New- traction also increases. In the strength test ton et al., 1997, Arsac et al., 1995; Thomas, we found a normal linear interdependence et al., 1996. In conclusion, we think that between force and velocity, where with the more in-depth research is needed on variety increase in speed, the strength decreases. of exercises related to similar of ergometer The analysis of the results shows that the propulsion. reached mean power, which is the more im- portant index in the two exercises, is almost REFERENCES the same but is a product of different velocity- Ameredes, B. T., Brechue, W. F., Andrew, force relations. In the strength test it is a result G.M. and Stainsby, W. N. (1992). Force veloc- of the greater value of the force and low veloc- ity shifts with repetitive isometric and isotonic ity of the muscle contraction, while in rowing contractions of canine gastrocnemius in situ. it is a product of a relatively low value of the Journal of Applied Physiology. 73, pp. 2105- force and high velocity ranging from 1.2 m/s 2111. to almost 3.0 m/s (Figure 3). Arsac, L. M., Hautier, C. A., Lacour, J. R. These results should reflect on the analy- and Belli, A. (1995) Effect of sprint training on sis of the training methods for speed-strength a cycle ergometer on the muscle power-veloc- qualities of rowers. A significant attention ity measured during cycling. XVth Congress needs to be paid to the increase in the speed of the International Society of Biomechanics. component of this quality at the presence of (Edited by Hakkinen, K., Keskinen, K. L., high strength potential. Komi, P. V. and Mero, A.), pp. 70-71. Jyvas- The research findings provoke a discus- kyla, Finland. sion related to the difference between the Assmussen, G., Beckers-Bleukx, G., and strength-speed curves obtained in rowing Marechal, G. (1994). The force-velocity re- ergometer and the classical curve of Hill. In lation of the rabbit inferior oblique muscle; our opinion, this difference is due to the na- influence of temperature. Pflugers Archives. ture and specificity of the motor action. For 426, pp. 542-547. example, Assmussen et al., 1994, Seger and Bachev, V. (1987). „Fizicheska podgoto­ Throstensson, 2000, Martin, et al., 1995 car- vka v grebaneto”, monography // Бачев, В. ried out their research on muscle contraction (1987). „Физическа подготовка в гребане­ exercises, as a result of concentric effort to то”, монография. overcome certain resistance or gravity and Bachev, V., Oronova, D., Kaloupsis, B., obtained a force-velocity curve resembling Neikov, Sv. (2004). Sredstva za silova pod- that of Hill. In exercises like ours, where the gotovka v grebaneto. Sport and Science. pp. muscle effort is in one or multi joined move- 4 // Бачев, В., Оронова, Д., Калоуписис, ments, a certain resistance is also overcome. Б., Нейков, Св. (2004). Средства за силова We assumed that this leads to an increase подготовка в гребането. Спорт и наука. стр. in the speed (movement, turnovers) of the 4. object on which the effort is applied. In this Baratta, R. V., Solomonow, M., Best, R., situation, at every subsequent progressive Zem bo, M., and D’Ambrosia, R. (1995).

105 SPEED-STRENGTH RELATIONSHIP ... O. Hristov

Force-velocity relations of nine load-moving Medicine. 14, pp. S42-S45. skeletal muscles. Medical and Biological En­ Heckman, C. J., Weytjens, J. L. And Loeb, gineering and Computing.33, pp. 537-564. G. E. (1992). Effect of velocity and mechani- Baron, R., Bachl, N., Petschnig, R., Tschan, cal history on the forces of motor units in the H., Smekal, G. and Pokan, R. (1999). Measure- catmedial gastrocnemius muscle. Journal of ment of maximal power output in isokinetic Neurophysiology. 68, pp. 1503-1515. and non-isokinetic cycling. A comparison of Hill, A. V. (1922). The maximum work two methods. International Journal of Sports and mechanical efficiency of human muscles, Medicine. 20, 532-537. and their most economical speed. Journal of Bobbert, M. F. and Ingen Schenau, G. J. Physiology. 56, pp. 19-41. van. (1990). Isokinetic plantar flexion: experi- Hill, A. V. (1938). The heat of shortening mental results and model calculations. Journal and the dynamic constants of muscle. Pro­ of Biomechanics. 23, pp. 105-119. ceedings of the Royal Society of London, B. Bosco, C. and Komi, P. V. (1979). Potentia- 126, pp. 136-195. tion of the mechanical behavior of the human Johansson, C., Lorentzon, R., Sjostrom, skeletal muscle through pre stretching. Acta M., Fagerlund, M. and Fugl-Meyers, A. R. Physiologica Scandinavica.106, pp. 467-472. (1987). Sprinters and Marathon Runners. Bourdin, M, Messonnier, L, Hager, JP, Does isokinetic knee extensor performance Lacour JR. (2004). Peak power output pre- reflect muscle size and structure?Acta Physi­ dicts rowing ergometer performance in elite ologica Scandinavica. 130, pp. 663-669. male rowers. Int J Sports Med 25(5): pp. 368- Jovanovic, M. and Eamonn P., Flanagan. 373. (2014). Researched Applications of Velocity Christov, R. (1997). „About percentage Based Strength Training. Journal of Austra­ activity and the characteristic function of the lian Strength and Conditioning, 22(2), pp. muscle groups” - FISA Coaches’ Conference, 58-69 Plovdiv. Rowing and Bulgarian sport science Katz, B. (1939). The relation between Christov, R., Christov, R., Zdravkov, N. force and speed in muscular contraction. (1988). „Selection and testing system based Journal of Physiology. 96, pp. 45-64. on biomechanical studies in racing boats and Kleshnev, V. (2000). Power in rowing. In on rowing ergometer” 17. FISA Coaches’ Y. Hong (Ed.) Proceedings of XVIII Interna­ Conference - Limerick, Ireland tional Symposium on Biomechanics in Sports, Christov, T. R., Christov, R. (1989). „Kraft Perth, pp. 224-228. training Im Rudern - vom isometrische zum Martin, A., Martin, L. and Morlon, B. izokinetischen” - RUDER SPORT 03. (1995). Changes induced by eccentric train- Gasser, H. S. and Hill, A. V. (1924). The ing on force-velocity relationships of the el- dynamic of muscular contraction. Proceed­ bow flexor muscles.European Journal of Ap­ ings of the Royal Society of London B. 96, plied Physiology. 72, pp. 183-185. pp. 398-437. Newton, R. U., Murphy, A. J., Humphries, Hartmann, U., Mader, A., Wasser, K. and B. J., Wilson, G. J., Kraemer, W. J. and Hak- Klauer, I. (1993). Peak force, velocity, and kinen, K. (1997) Influence of load and stretch power during five and ten maximal rowing shortening cycle on the kinematics, kinetics and ergometer strokes by world class female and muscle activation that occurs during explosive male rowers. International Journal of Sports upper body movements. European Journal of

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Applied Physiology. 75, pp. 333-342. power-velocity relationships during maximal Seger, J. Y. and Thorstensson, A. (2000). short-term rowing ergometry. MedSci Sports Electrically evoked eccentric and concentric Exerc 39(2): pp. 358-364 torque-velocity relationships in human knee Thomas, M., Fiatarone, M. A. and Field- extensor muscles. Acta Physiologica Scandi­ ing, R. A. (1996). Leg power in young wom- navica.169, pp. 63-69. en: relationship to body composition, strength Soper, C., &Hume, P. (2004). Towardsan and function. Medicine and Science in Sports Ideal Rowing Technique for Performance: and Exercise. 28, pp. 1321-1326. The Contributions from Biomechanics. Spor­ Wilkie, D. R. (1950). The relation between ts Medicine, 34(12), pp. 825-848 force and velocity in human muscle. Journal Sprague, R. C. 4th, Martin J. C., Davidson of Physiology. 110, pp. 249-280. C.J., Farrar R.P. (2007). Force-velocity and

Corresponding author:

Oleg Hristov Centre of Science and Applied Research in Sport National Sports Academy „Vassil Levski” Studentski grad, 21, Acad. Stefan Mladenov str. Sofia 1700, Bulgaria E-mail: [email protected]

107 TIME-MOTION ANALYSIS ... P. Peev, V. Tsvetkov, N. Youroukov TIME-MOTION ANALYSIS OF THE FOOTBALL WORLD CUP IN RUSSIA 2018 Petar Peev1, Vasil Tsvetkov1, Nestor Youroukov2 1 National Sports Academy „Vassil Levski”, Sofia, Bulgaria 2 University of Architecture, Civil engineering and Geodesy, Sofia, Bulgaria

ABSTRACT The focus of the research is the motion characteristics of the teams which participated in the World cup 2018 in Russia. For the purpose of the research we collected the data from all the matches in the knock out phase of the tournament. We divided the results for every position during the halves and calculated the total distance covered. This way we could get an idea of the intensity and the profile of elite soccer players. In the analyses we included 273 players that played in the knock out phase. As a result of the research, we found that the goalkeeper had total distance covered of 4061,59 metеrs; defenders had a 9352 metеrs; midfielders had a 10708 metеrs and strikers had a 9731 metеrs. It is interesting that the total distance covered during the second half is greater than in the first one. Conclusion of the research is that the total distance covered is different for all of the researched positions which is a predisposition for disclosing the motor profile of the players. From the study of motor activity in football at world championships we can draw the following conclusions: 1) The results are comfirmation that even at a World Cup the performance characteristics are greatly influenced by position of play; 2) The higher total distance covered during the second half suggests extremely high aero­ bic capabilities of elite football players.

Key words: football, time­motion analysis, motor activity, positional differences

INTRODUCTION the game. Gradually decade after decade, Over the years, there has been a large num- the game has evolved to the point where it is ber of studies about time-motion analysis in now, and the requirements to the players have soccer that has always been of interest to sports also increased. In the very beginning, aero- professionals since the onset of this type of bic capacity and its maximum distance were analysis (Bangsbo, 1994; Mohr et al., 2003; Di the most important, but in the last decade the Salvo et al., 2007; Randers et al., 2007; Rampi- sprint capabilities and the distance covered in nini et al., 2009; Harley et al., 2010; Lago et the high intensity zones were clearly increas- al., 2010; Carling, 2013; Bangsbo, 2014; Goto ing. The World Cup (WC’18) is considered to et al., 2015a; Goto et al., 2015b; Hewitt, 2016). be the culmination of the sport performance of Through time the football game has evolved, the players and as such it is a reference for the which has inevitably led to a change in the mo- motor skills in the development of the football tor activity of the players. This is because it game. It will be interesting to research the char- is a reflection of the tactical plan of the coach acteristics of the motion activity in the world executed by the players on the pitch during championship. All of this led us to the purpose

Journal of Applied Sports Sciences 108 DOI: 10.37393/jass.2019.01.11 2019, Vol. 1, pp. 108 -121 ISSN 2534-9597 (Print), ISSN 2535-0145 (Online) JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 of our research, namely to reveal the trends in age from selected tactical cameras. Also, they motor activity of professional football players use stereo technology to ensure that the entire at the highest level. playing surface is constantly filmed from sev- In order to accomplish the aim of the re­ eral angles. All these data are transferered to search, we performed the following tasks: a cutting-edge software analyses every image 1. Research of the variation of perfor­ to extract X, Y and Z positions for each object mance characteristics during matches resulting in true three-dimensional tracking in from the elimination phase of World real-time. The captured data is processed via Cup 2018; an open and versatile protocol allowing it to be 2. Comparison of performance character­ made available to any graphics rendering plat- istics among different positions recorded form. The insights from the technical informa- during the elimination phase of World tion and the provided communication link al- Cup 2018; low for constant real-time interaction that can 3. Comparison of performance character­ feed into their decisions during the match. The istics between halves and zones of inten- system has no influence of the weather, lighting sity observed during the elimination and stadia conditions. Also, it is compatable phase of World Cup 2018. with all the certified wearables and can create Local positioning system (LPS) for even more METHODS precise data. Unlike the previous World Cups, For the fulfillment of the research tasks five activity zones were used here (Peev, 2017; we used the following methods: observation Gadev and Peev, 2017). We divided the play- (time-motion analysis) and statistical proce- ers into four groups, which we borrowed from dures (descriptive statistics, Shapiro-Wilk test the statistics obtained - goalkeeper, defender, of homogenityand Independent T-test). midfielder and striker. Statistical procedures For the purpose of the study, we researched were performed with SPSS Statistics 19 (IBM, 273 cases of players who participated in a full Chicago, Illinois, USA) game from the elimination phase of WC’18 (without extra time). The performance char­ RESULTS acteristics of these cases was obtained from Thirty-two teams took part in the elimina- FIFA official statistics for every match with tion phase, with 16 games played with an aver- their different zones of intensity. The zones age game time of 96:57 minutes. The results of are as followed: Zone 1 – 0-7 km/h; Zone 2 the data processing can be seen in Table 1, 2, 3 – 7.1-15 km/h; Zone 3 - 15.1-20 km/h; Zone 4 and 4. All the data are presented as an average - 20.1-25 km/h; Zone 5 - 25+ km/h. They used (Mean result of all cases), maximal and mini- for all of the analysis TRACAB optical track- mal result, standart deviation and coefficien of ing system (ChyronHego Coorporation, New variation (CV). All of the results are presented York, USA). Positional data were collected in metеres and distance is rounded to the near- with Super-HD cameras and patented image est integer. processing technology to deliver livetracking In Table 1 we can observe the results of the of all moving objects with a maximum delay of distance covered in different zones and half of just three frames. They are located on the main 32 goalkeepers that played in the World cup. tribune that helps to track the players and the We can observe CV increases gradually with ball. They can be used for real time live foot- the increase of the speed.

109 TIME-MOTION ANALYSIS ... P. Peev, V. Tsvetkov, N. Youroukov

Table 1. Variability of performance characteristics of goalkeepers during matches from the elimi- nation phase of World Cup ‘18 Indicator Total Total Total Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone distance Distance distance 0-7 7-15 15-20 20-25 25+ Statistical covered covered covered km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h indicator 1st half 2nd half Mean 4062 1978 2084 3200 724 112 22 4 Std. Deviation 790.8 398.7 413.1 483.2 306.3 64.9 16.5 8.9 Range 3147 1536 1715 1911 1288 300 60 41 Minimum 2692 1396 1296 2365 225 17 Maximum 5839 2932 3011 4276 1513 317 60 41 CV% 19.5 20.2 19.8 15.1 42.3 58.1 75.3 213.4 A total of 118 defenders were researched the goalkeepers. The fact that in the second and their results can be found in Table 2. We half there is greater distance covered than in can observe the same trend here as we did with the first one is interesting.

Table 2. Variability of the performance characteristics of defenders during matches in the elimi- nation phase of World Cup ‘18 Tested indicator Total Total Total Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone distance Distance distance 0-7 7-15 15-20 20-25 25+ Statistical covered covered covered km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h  indicator 1st half 2nd half Mean 9352 4655 4697 3760 3907 1086 433 165 Std. Deviation 668.6 369.9 380.4 217.4 480.7 262.7 153.7 93.4 Minimum 7944 3820 3502 3314 2877 593 144 4 Maximum 11504 5691 5813 4228 5037 1857 909 415 CV% 7.2 7.9 8.1 5.8 12.3 24.2 35.5 56.5 A total of 78 midfielders played full game in the second half like the defenders. Also, in the elimination phase of the World cup (Ta- they had the greatest total distance covered of ble 3). They had greater total distance covered all the players. Table 3. Variability of the performance characteristics of midfielders during matches from the elimination phase of World Cup ‘18 Tested indicator Total Total Total Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone distance Distance distance 0-7 7-15 15-20 20-25 25+ Statistical covered covered covered km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h  indicator 1st half 2nd half Mean 10708 5336 5372 3621 4710 1629 566 182 Std. Deviation 845.5 490.7 423.1 343.4 656.5 399.90 161.9 110.9 Minimum 9216 4402 4608 2908 3469 956 262 11 Maximum 12435 6231 6425 4539 6127 2734 1085 531 CV% 7.9 9.2 7.9 9.5 13.9 24.6 28.6 60.9 Forty-five strikers were researched in the Also, it is interesting that they had the greatest study (Table 4). Again, in the second half we distance in high-intensity running and sprint- can observe greater total distance covered. ing zone. Another interesting point is that as

110 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 we proceeed from the goalkeepers to the strik- tion as regards the level of preparation is that ers we have smaller and smaller number of of the striker. players. So maybe the most demanding posi- Table 4. Variability of the performance characteristics of strikers during matches in the elimina- tion phase of World Cup ‘18 Tested indicator Total Total Total Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone distance Distance distance 0-7 7-15 15-20 20-25 25+ Statistical covered covered covered km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h indicator 1st half 2nd half Mean 9731 4859 4872 3906 3770 1210 591 254 Std. Deviation 786.9 473.7 405.1 233.9 638.0 243.0 127.1 110.3 Minimum 8240 3892 4056 3375 2778 717 356 5 Maximum 11626 5836 5843 4299 5029 1900 1000 502 CV% 8.1 9.8 8.3 6.0 16.9 20.1 21.5 43.4

In order to prove the homogenity of the that for all tested indicators, except for the samples, we used the Shapiro-Wilk coef- third and fifth zone of intensity, the ex- ficient and did the corresponding - analy amined samples have normal distribution sis shown in Table 5. From this we can see (p > 0,05).

Table 5. Normality of the distribution of the variables by the Shapiro-Wilk coefficient Position  Goalkeeper Defender Midfielder Striker CoefficientCoeffi- cient Shapiro-Wilk Shapiro-Wilk Shapiro-Wilk Shapiro-Wilk   Sta - Degree Level of Sta - Degree Level Sta - Degree Level of Sta - Degree Level of Indi- cator tistic of fre- signifi- tistic of fre- of signi- tistic of fre- signifi- tistic of fre- signifi- cator Indi edom cance edom ficance edom cance edom cance Total distance 0.978 32 0.724 0.985 118 0.261 0.973 78 0.094 0.974 45 0.442 covered (m) Distance covered 1st 0.950 32 0.148 0.990 118 0.555 0.972 78 0.082 0.978 45 0.571 half (m) Distance covered 0.977 32 0.713 0.984 118 0.216 0.971 78 0.069 0.959 45 0.140 2nd half (m) Zone 0-7 0.973 32 0.580 0.978 118 0.060 0.982 78 0.331 0.972 45 0.379 km/h (m) Zone 7-15 0.976 32 0.672 0.989 118 0.478 0.980 78 0.256 0.961 45 0.159 km/h (m) Zone 15-20 0.928 32 0.034 0.969 118 0.159 0.972 78 0.089 0.968 45 0.286 km/h (m) Zone 20-25 0.949 32 0.139 0.978 118 0.060 0.958 78 0.052 0.963 45 0.185 km/h (m) Zone 25+ 0.544 32 0.000 0.953 118 0.201 0.906 78 0,100 0.983 45 0.789 km/h (m)

111 TIME-MOTION ANALYSIS ... P. Peev, V. Tsvetkov, N. Youroukov

Due to the normal distribution of the vari- Tables 6, 7 and 8. ables, we also have the right to perform a We can find statistical differences in all the comparative analysis of the results of activity researched zone of intensity (p< 0,05) of the pattern between positions that you can see in goalkeepers from all of the other positions.

Table 6. Independence T-test of performance characteristics among defenders and midfielders  Statistical Position Defender Midfielder Difference Significance Sig.(2- Indicator  n X S n C S d d% t t 1 1 1 2 2 2 emp 0,05 tailed) Total distance covered (m) 118 9352 668.6 78 10708 845.5 1355.94 14.50 -11.84 1.97 0.000 Total distance covered 118 4655 369.9 78 5336 490.7 681.12 14.63 -10.39 1.97 0.000 1st half (m) Total distance covered 118 4697 380.4 78 5372 423.1 674.82 14.37 -11.51 1.97 0.000 2nd half (m) Zone 0-7 km/h (m) 118 3760 217.4 78 3621 343.4 139.03 3.70 3.16 1.97 0.002 Zone 7-15 km/h (m) 118 3907 480.7 78 4710 656.5 803.12 20.56 -9.23 1.97 0.000 Zone 15-20 km/h (m) 118 1086 262.7 78 1629 399.9 542.11 49.90 -10.51 1.97 0.000 Zone 20-25 km/h (m) 118 433 153.7 78 566 161.9 132.81 30.65 -5.74 1.97 0.000 Zone 25+ km/h (m) 118 165 93.4 78 182 110.9 16.93 10.25 -1.14 1.97 0.256 From the comparative analysis of motor in all tested parameters except in maximum activity between defenders and midfielders, speeds (25+ km/h). we have statistically significant differences Table 7. Independence T-test of performance characteristics among defenders and strikers Statistical Position  Defender Striker Difference Significance Sig.(2- Indicator  n X S n X S d d% t t 1 1 1 2 2 2 emp 0,05 tailed) Total distance covered (m) 118 9352 668.6 45 9731 787.0 379.1 4.1 -2.987 1.97 0.003 Total distance covered 118 4655 369.9 45 4859 473.7 204.5 4.4 -2.526 1.97 0.014 1st half (m) Total distance covered 118 4697 380.4 45 4872 405.1 174.6 3.7 -2.496 1.97 0.014 2nd half (m) Zone 0-7 km/h (m) 118 3760 217.4 45 3906 233.9 145.4 3.9 -3.625 1.97 0.000 Zone 7-15 km/h (m) 118 3907 480.7 45 3770 638.0 136.7 3.5 1.262 1.97 0.212 Zone 15-20 km/h (m) 118 1086 262.7 45 1210 243.0 123.5 11.4 -2.652 1.97 0.009 Zone 20-25 km/h (m) 118 433 153.7 45 591 127.1 158.1 36.5 -5.948 1.97 0.000 Zone 25+ km/h (m) 118 165 93.4 45 254 110.3 88.8 53.8 -5.003 1.97 0.000

From the comparative analysis of motor ac- all tested indicators, except for low-intensity tivity between defenders and strikers, we have running (7-15 km/h). a statistically significant difference between

112 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019

Table 8. Independence T-test of performance characteristics among midfielders and strike Statistical Position  Midfielder Striker Difference significance Sig. (2- Indicator  n C S n X S d d% t t 1 1 1 2 2 2 emp 0,05 tailed) Total Distance covered (m) 78 10708 845.5 45 9731 787.0 976.8 9.1 6.182 1.98 0.000 Total distance covered 78 5336 490.7 45 4859 473.7 476.6 8.9 5.136 1.98 0.000 1st half (m) Total distance covered 78 5372 423.1 45 4872 405.1 500.2 9.3 6.268 1.98 0.000 2nd half (m) Zone 0-7 km/h (m) 78 3621 343.4 45 3906 233.9 284.5 7.9 -5.361 1.98 0.000 Zone 7-15 km/h (m) 78 4710 656.5 45 3770 638.0 939.8 19.9 7.553 1.98 0.000 Zone 15-20 km/h (m) 78 1629 399.9 45 1210 243.0 418.7 25.7 7.121 1.98 0.000 Zone 20-25 km/h (m) 78 566 161.9 45 591 127.1 25.3 4.5 -.876 1.98 0.383 Zone 25+ km/h (m) 78 182 110.9 45 254 110.3 71.9 39.5 -3.394 1.98 0.001

The comparative analysis of motor activity of the half distance covered is interesting - the between midfielders and strikers showed a sta- distance covered in the second half is greater tistically significant difference between most than in the first half. Regarding the distribution of the surveyed indicators. The only exception of the level distance covered by zone, there is was high-intensity running (20-25 km/h). nothing that can surprise us. An impressive re- sult is the huge CV of zone 5 (sprinting - 25+ DISCUSSION km/h), which is 213.4%. It can be explained Total distance covered by the specific events or pieces of work with The distance covered can be determined maximum intensity, which in most cases is by the total distance covered and the inten- missing with the goalkeepers or is not of such sity by considering them in individual zones, duration to reach over 25 km/h. ranging from low intensive to highly intensity The total of 118 cases of defenders who actions. The total distance covered varies be- participated in the matches of the elimination tween 9-14 km depending on the level of play- phase of WC‘18 were investigated. The total ers and their condition (Bangsbo et al., 1994; distance covered is 9352 meters. The distance Mohr et al., 2003; Stølen et al., 2005; Dellal et varies from 7944 to 11504 meters. The co- al., 2010; Gregson et al., 2010; Bojkowski et efficient of variation is 7.15%, which - deter al., 2015). Most of the distances covered are in mines the sample as homogeneous. However, low intensity, but the more intense ones are the the range of the maximum and the minimum most important. The distance covered is about result is 3560 meters. This difference may be 2600-2800 meters for high-intensity actions due to defenders’ different kind and style of (14.8 km/h +) and between 200-260 meters for play. The total distance covered during the first maximum action or sprinting (25.2 + km/h). and second half shows a similar picture as the The total distance covered of the goalkeep- total distance covered – it is slightly higher ers (n=32) is lower than previously reported than the distance covered in the first part (7.95 in other similar studies, namely 4062 m. (Di and 8.10%). In earlier studies, the amount of Salvo et al., 2008). However, the distribution distance covered is greater in the first part but

113 TIME-MOTION ANALYSIS ... P. Peev, V. Tsvetkov, N. Youroukov we should mention that no national teams were covered in the different zones of intensity, we investigated (Di Salvo et al, 2007; Bradley et notice a similar trend for the defenders. The al., 2009; Andrzejewski et al, 2012; Bangsbo, largest distance covered is in the second zone, 2014; Andrzejewski et al., 2015; Bush et al., and a relatively low distance covered of run- 2015; Peev, 2018). Another interesting fact is ning with maximum intensity, but here it is at that the distance covered in the second zone the expense of higher distance covered values is greater than that in the first zone. From the in the middle zone and the high intensity area. point of view of the game, this shows its in- A total of 45 cases of WC‘18 attackers creased dynamics and speed, and hence the were investigated and the average values can need for greater activity of the players. It is be found in Table 4. From this it can be seen normal for the variance in distance covered in that the average distance covered by the at- the different zones of intensity to increase with tackers is 9731 meters with individual values the increase in the speed of the running due to ranging from 8240 to 11626 meters and the the intermittent character of the football game coefficient of variation CV = 8.09%) point- and the tactics and individual capabilities of ing to the homogeneous sample. The trend of the players that we see here as well. For de- half distance covered in each half remains the fenders we see a small amount of running with same, with an advantage of the distance cov- a maximum intensity (average 165 meters), ered in the second part of the match (4859 vs. which is less than the results so far. A certain 4872 meters). On the other hand, the strikers fault in this can be attributed to the fact that for do not keep the same trend as the defenders the first time there is a zone defined at speeds and midfielders. They have greatest distance above 25 km/h, until now it was 22 km/h. covered in the first zone. The largest recorded Based on the 78 cases of midfielders who distance covered in the zone of maximum in- played at the WC‘18 shown in Table 3, we can tensity of 254 meters draws one’s attention. see that the average overtaking distance for These two facts together show the specificity the midfielders (10708 meters) varies between of the role of the striker in today‘s football, 9216 and 12435 meters. The variance of the namely the slower general movement with indicator is 7.9%. The greater results is due to sharp inclusions of maximum intensity under the fact that they are the link in the two phases appropriate conditions. In other words – their of the game. The fact is, however, that we ob- main characteristic is linear velocity and fast serve the same trend for the defenders – in- accelerations. The attackers show the smallest creasing the speed of movement also changes homogeneity in the high intensity zones (CV the CV from 9.48 to 60.85%. Also, looking at = 21.51 and 43.44%). the distance covered halfway through, we see a In spite of the homogeneity of the sample, larger distance covered in the second half than a number of conditions associated with vari- in the first half with 36 meters (5336 vs. 5372 ous factors during a football match such as meters). The most likely cause of this trend is hosting, match development, enemy level in- the need to solve the match in the second half. fluence the time-motion (Lago et al., 2010). The coefficient of variation indicates that on According to Lago et al. (2010) when playing both indicators the aggregate is homogeneous against a stronger opponent, the overall dis- (CV = 7.88 and 9.20%). Looking at the distance tance is 15 meters more per match depending

114 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 on the difference with the opponent‘s ranking. support this thesis no matter that they are com- These tests, however, have been made in the pletely opposite in their statements. championships in Europe which have a differ- ent format and are not fully applicable in our Distance covered among different zones case. As can be seen from all surveyed groups Current studies of motor activity by zones with increasing speed, the coefficient of varia- in male footballers are missing, except for a tion, which is due to the needs of the game, in- few (Gregson et al., 2010; Dellal et al., 2011; creases. There is almost no information about Bojkowski et al., 2015; Chmura et al., 2017). national teams and motor activity. According to Dupont et al. (2010) there is a Interesting is the fact that no matter of the big difference between the coefficient of varia- position on the field during the second half the tion in the individual Sprint and Running with total distance is greater than the distance in high intensity. This may be due to the ability of the first one. This is in contradiction with the the investigated person to behave to the maxi- current understanding and research in football. mum speed, the strength of the opponent, or The reduction of the distance covered is con- the tactical intention of the coach (Gregson et trary to the data of other authors investigating al., 2010). motor activity of both men and adolescents A big part of the results from the research (Bangsbo et al., 1994; Mohr et al., 2003; Bar- is unique and there is no information about ros et al., 2007; Di Salvo et al., 2007, Bradley distance covered, but this is understandable et al., 2009, Rampinini et al., 2007; Rampinini due to the large number of different methods et al., 2009; Dupont et al., 2010; Carling and for determining the mobility zones and hence Dupont, 2011). Although statistically signifi- for the zones themselves (Peev, 2017; Gadev cant in scientific circles, there is a controversy and Peev, 2017). Table 9 shows some of the about whether this difference within 90 min- activity zones of professional football play- utes matters for the end result (Carling, 2013). ers in the world. There are certain similarities, From the data in some studies we can observe but also differences between the characteris- a decrease in the total distance between the tics. The most pronounced differences are between low-intensity actions, the distance first and second half between 2-7 % (Mohr et covered of which is considerably lower for al., 2003; Bradley et al., 2009; Dupont et al., competitors participating in WC‘18 regard- 2010; Carling et al., 2011). In our study there less of post. The total distance covered dif- is no decrease but an increase of the average fers within certain limits, but given that in of 0.26 to 5.26% for the different positions, our case they are divided into groups and in which is imposed by the need to solve the the other studies they are considered in gen- match. Also, under the influence of the tacti- eral, so we can not draw definite conclusions. cal concept and the specific needs of the tour- Table 9 shows the different categories in the nament, it can be assumed that there is some studies made. All the data are based on semi- storage and saving of power during the first automatic and automatic video-based method half of the WC‘18. Studies by Casamichana of data capturing. and Castellano (2014) and Lago et al. (2010)

115 TIME-MOTION ANALYSIS ... P. Peev, V. Tsvetkov, N. Youroukov

Table 9. Distance covered among different zones of intensity of major chanmpionships Tested Total indicator Total Total dis- Total dis- Total dis- dis tance distance tance tance co- tance co- covered in Total covered co vered vered in vered in max i mal Team/ Author Year Distance in low medium (m) in intensity intensity intensity in tensity Champion-Team/ walking running ru nning/ ship (m) running running (m) sprinting Championship (m) (m) (m) Goalkeepers Peev et al. 2019 4062 3200 724 11,8 22 4,2 Defenders Peev et al. 2019 9352 3760 3907 1086 433 165 Midfielders Peev et al. 2019 10708 3621 4710 1629 566 182 3906 3770 1210 591 254 Strikers Peev et al. 2019 9731 15.1-20 20.1-25 0-7 km/h 7.1-15 km/h km/h m/h 25+ km/h 6341 1870 1615 523 259 Bulgaria Peev 2017 10607 15.1-20 20.1-25 0-7 km/h 7.1-15 km/h km/h m/h 25+ km/h Premiership Bush et al. 2015 10659 11393 7080 1380 1257 397 215 Spain Di Salvo et al. 2007 0-0,6 0.6-7 7.2-14.3 14.4-19.7 19.8-25.1 25.2+ km/h km/h km/h km/h m/h km/h 5537 1731 1615 691 437 Brasil Barros et al. 2007 10642 0-11 11.1-14 14.1-19 19.1-23 23.1+ km/h km/h km/h m/h km/h Denmark Randers et al. 2004 10800 FC Barcelona Zubillaga et al. 2002 10339 6871 1293 1716 470 7159 1329 1650 410 FC Arsenal Zubillaga et al. 2002 10549 0-11 11.1-14 km/h km/h 14.1-21 km/h 21+ km/h

Distance covered in high-intensity and et al., 2017). Other authors, such as Green spri nting (1992), Tumilty (1993), disagree with this In recent years, however, there has been a view, but their research was made at a time tendency of reduction the absolute values of when football did not have such demands on the distance covered at the expense of intensi- the preparation of the player. In tactical terms, fication. The total distance covered is reduced, this is reflected in the absence of large empty but the average speed and maximum speeds spaces between players‘ lines and in their own are increased (Bush et al., 2015). This may half in defensive play, and in the foreground be due to the results achieved by Castellano the maximum speeds and the ability to show et al. (2014), which indicate a lack of statisti- speed. In fact, according to Bush et al. (2015) cal reliability of the distance covered between the Premier League sprints have increased by players at different levels. According to the au- 50% over the past 10 years. thors, the highly intensive actions that depend on the anaerobic energy system are those that Positional differences separate the successful teams from the others The midfielders have the greatest distance (Mohr et al., 2003; Rampinini et al., 2009; covered of motor mobility of all the other Bangsbo, 2014; Broich et al., 2014; Chmura players (Mohr et al., 2003; O‘Donoghue et

116 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 al., 2005; Rampinini et al., 2007; Vigne et al., ing position (Dellal et al., 2010; Andrzejew- 2010; Dellal et al., 2011; Andrzejewski et al., ski et al. 2015). They are the greatest for the 2015; Andrzejewski et al., 2016). An excep- strikers because as the authors point out they tion to this rule was presented in the study of are dependent on the position on the pitch Carling (2013). On the second place are the and the strikers are characterized with sharp- strikers, followed by the defenders and the ness and the ability to develop linear veloc- goalkeepers are with the lowest distance cov- ity (Dellal et al., 2011; Andrzejewski et al., ered of motor activity. 2015). This is due to strikers’need to transfer The smallest distance covered of motor ac- as fast as they can for the attack and conquer tivity is achieved by the defenders, this is pre- the free space and suprise the opposite team. determined by their role in the team - to give Similar research in the League of Europe, stability and to build the attack of the team. with a sprinting speed of 24 km/h, shows an Most of their activity is of low intensity, quite average of 237 ± 123 meters of distance cov- opposite to midfielders. ered, coinciding with Dellal et al. (2010) and On the other hand, we would also like to Dellal et al. (2011). note that despite the observed differences (not The smallest sprint and high-intensity dis- always statistically supported) in the activity tance covered are shown by the defenders of individual posts (Di Salvo et al., 2007; Bu- (Dellal et al., 2011 Andrzejewski et al., 2015), chheit et al. 2008; Bradley et al., 2009), we which is largely related to their positional play. believe it is wrong for a collective game to go Findings of Bush et al. (2015) support our re- to individualizing the workload in positions, sults. They have found the greatest increase and it is right for the players to prepare for each in these characteristics among full backs fol- of the types of motor activity. Some authors lowed by central defenders in last years. It go further by placing individual load zones for must be noted that these differences observed each competitor (Abbott et al., 2018) among the individual players‘ positions are a In this respect, we support the opinion of direct consequence of the tactics and the role Abt and Lovell (2009) and Siegel and Lames of the individual units in the team. (2010) expressing the need to use individual- Midfielders perform a relatively large dis- ised activity zones for individual age groups tance covered of work in high-intensity work and, at the same time, the need for individual zones, but because they work in zones where work zones for each competitor. there are not so many free spaces. Their sprint- High-intensity running and sprinting dis- ing activity is limited and determined by the tances are a widely-studied problem because specificity of their position of play i.e. partici- of their importance in football. However, pation in attacks and defence. these studies do not give a clear indication It is intresting that defenders (players that of the average distance covered of maximum have the smallest amount of sprint) face the intensity due to different measuring instru- players with the greatest volume of sprints - ments and zones of intensity, as well as the the strikers. This should be a topic for future constant division of the players into an in- studies, and it can be taken into account in se- creasing number of individual categories. lection of young players. Also, for the most part, the sprint distance and As a general constation, we can confirm that high-intensity running depend on the level of the total distance covered doesn’t differ from the players, the championship and their play- the one described in the literature. Suprisingly

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Corresponding author:

Petar Peev Track and field athletics department National Sports Academy „Vassil Levski” Studentski grad, 21, Acad. Stefan Mladenov str. Sofia 1700, Bulgaria E-mail: [email protected]

121 EVALUATING THE MOTOR COMPETENCE ... M. Hristova EVALUATING THE MOTOR COMPETENCE OF HEARING IMPAIRED PRIMARY SCHOOL STUDENTS Mirela Hristova National Sports Academy „Vassil Levski”, Sofia, Bulgaria

ABSTRACT Motor Competence (MC) is the ability to perform a wide range of motor activities, relying on adequate levels of motor coordination and physical capacity to achieve. The aim of this study was to assess the development of basic motor competence indicators among students with hearing impairment aged 7 to 11 years. The research was done among a total of 91 children aged 7 to 11 years, of whom 42 children with hearing impairment (14 girls, 28 boys) and 49 – with non-impaired hearing (26 girls, 23 boys). For the purpose of the study, the Kiphard and Schilling battery test – Körperkoordinations Test für Kinder (KTK, 1974) was used. It consists of 4 tests that were measured once. Based on these, four motor quotients were formed, which in turn formed the so-called “Gross Motor Quotient”. The results were processed statistically through variation and correlation analysis with the SPSS program. The results showed significantly lower development of motor competence among students with hearing impairment. The standardized motor quotients of the 4 tests (for boys - all 4; for girls - 3) and the total motor quotient were significantly lower than those of their hearing peers. The lack of significant differences in the mean values of the MQ3 in girls can be explained by the lower performance of the hearing girls compared to the KTK norms. As a conclusion, the motor competence of children with hearing impairment, assessed by both the overall motor quotient and the individual quotients obtained from the four tests is sig­ nificantly lower than that of children with non-impaired hearing in primary school age.

Key words: Motor Competence, Körperkoordinations Test für Kinder, Students with hearing impairments, Primary school age

INTRODUCTION In Bulgaria there are no statistics of the Loss of hearing among children is the most hearing-impaired people, but it is estimated common sensory disorder (among 2.5% of all that there are about 120 000 people out of a newly born), often referred to as “silent epi- population of 7 000 000 people. Approximate- demic” (Swanepoel, Störbeck, 2008; WHO, ly 8,000 are hearing impaired children, with 2008). Less than 10% of newborns have ac- 3,000 having severe and profound hearing loss. cess to early intervention. Data show that more (data from „Zaslushai se” foundation, 2017) than 90% of babies with hearing impairment Hearing impairment among children is a live in the developing world. (Friderichs, et major public health problem associated with al., 2012; McCormick, 2004; Olusanya, et long-term academic and communication-re- al., 2008; Olusanya, et al., 2009; Swanepoel, lated difficulties (Davis, 1997, McCormick, 2008; Swanepoel, Störbeck, 2008) 2004, Rajendran, Roy, 2011). Deafness and re-

Journal of Applied Sports Sciences 122 DOI: 10.37393/jass.2019.01.12 2019, Vol. 1, pp. 122 -130 ISSN 2534-9597 (Print), ISSN 2535-0145 (Online) JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 lated peculiarities in behavioral responses and people, however, operate at a significantly social adaptation have a varying impact on the lower level with simultaneous movements, physical ability of hearing impaired children. static and dynamic balance and speed. (Mykle- There is a higher risk for balance and gross bust, 1965) motor skills deficits compared to children with Hearing impairment slows down some re- incontinent hearing. flex movements and organization of coordina- Children with hearing impairment have the tion at a higher level due to the lack of sounds same opportunities for cognitive, linguistic, and other signals from the environment that social and physical development as hearing may be the cause of the slow development of children. A prerequisite for their development various motor skills. A number of authors re- is that they live in a favorable environment and port that hearing disturbances cause inability are offered incentives that are affordable and to properly perform the movements. Hearing- responsive to their reduced hearing. (Balkan- impaired people tend to be too loud and too ska, Trosheva-Asenova, 2014) noisy (throwing or striking objects) (Zwier- Motor Competence (MC) is the ability to zchowska, et al., 2008). perform a wide range of motor activities, rely- HYPOTHESIS ing on adequate levels of motor coordination It is clear from the literature review that and physical capacity. Therefore, in order for there are differences in some morpho-func- children to confidently carry out a wide range tional characteristics among children with im- of motor activities in everyday life, they must paired hearing. use adequate levels of motor coordination We assume that there are differences in and physical capacity (Magill and Anderson, the MC between the hearing- and hearing-im- 2007). An adequate level of motor competence paired students. The disclosure of the Motor allows children to easily refine new move- Competency Indicators of hearing-impaired ments needed to participate in a daily physi- children will allow for targeted activities and cal activity (Henderson and Sugden, 1992). improve their opportunities. It has been shown in various studies that the In Bulgaria there are no data available for motor competence is predisposed to changes motor competence studies of both groups – in age from 6 to 12 (Borms, 1986; Gallahue hearing- and hearing-impaired children aged and Donnely, 2007). Early identification of 7 to 11 years. We assume that there are also children with moderate motor competence fa- differences in term of gender and age in this cilitates early rehabilitation in this particular primary school years. group by using specific programs (Haga, 2009, The results we receive will benefit a number Bardid, et al., 2013). of specialists working in the field of education Hearing loss relates to the overall function and public health in order to create specialized of the central nervous system and the semi- programs for better adaptation of children with circular canals. The effect of the hearing state hearing impairment. on the central nervous system in many cases refers to motor skills such as equilibrium, lo- METODOLOGY comotion, and speed of movement. Myklebust The study was conducted in two schools states that the results of the deaf during testing on the territory of the city of Sofia – secondary of sitting and walking activities do not differ school for children with hearing impairment from those with normal hearing capacity. Deaf “Prof. Decho Denev” and secondary school

123 EVALUATING THE MOTOR COMPETENCE ... M. Hristova

№51 “Elisaveta Bagryana”, for the period Statistical Analysis from March to May 2017. The results of the study were subjected to mathematical and statistical processing with Participants the SPSS program: variance analysis and com- The study was conducted among 91 pupils parative analysis with Student’s t-criterion at a of both genders, aged 7 to 11 years, of whom level of significanceα =0.05 42 hearing impaired children (14 girls, 28 boys), without cochlear implants, and 49 chil- RESULTS AND ANALYSIS dren with intact hearing (26 girls, 23 boys). For The subject of our analysis is the motor the purpose of the study, the hearing-impaired coefficients of the four tested performance children and those with inconvenient hearing indicators, not the obtained test points. They were selected along 3 criteria: are based on the specific reference values for - Students fest für Kinder: KTKrom the first to the sex and age of the population on the basis the fifth grade of primary school of which the KTK was created. The sum of - Healthy, non-deficit (except auditory) the standardized results of the four test items - Not previously tested with KTK (Körperkoor- formed the so-called Gross motor quotient dinationst, 1974, 2007) (GMQ) with an average of 100. The coeffi- cients thus obtained allow comparisons to be Methods made between both sexes as well as between A total of 5 motor competence indicators the different age groups of students with im- were measured. For this purpose, four tests paired (IH) and non-impaired hearing (NIH). were applied to the test battery KTK: “Bal- ance backwards walking on beams” (MQ1); Analysis of Motor Competency Indicators “Hopping on one leg over an obstacle” (MQ2); among hearing (H) and hearing impaired “Jumping laterally” (MQ3); “Shifting plat- (HI) girls. forms” (MQ4). The results of the conducted study on mo- Each of the four efficiency indicators was tor competence indicators of girls with impaired then formulated against the specific gender and and intact hearing are presented in table 1 and 2. age reference values on which the KTK battery Girls reported values of motor quotients is established. The sum of the standardized re- with significant differences in favor of hear- sults of the four tests formed a Gross Motor ing students. Significant differences were ob- Quotient (GMQ), averaging 100 (SD = 15). served in 3 of the 4 indicators for motor com- The authors reported a “test-retest” corre- petence surveyed – MQ1 “Balance backwards lation coefficient between 0.80 and 0.96 for the walking on beams” (Pt = 97%), MQ2 “Hop- raw scores of the four tests and 0.90 for the total ping on one leg over an obstacle” (Pt = 99.9%) number of MQ points. Therefore, KTK is con- and MQ4 “Shifting Platforms”(Pt = 98.3%), sidered a reliable measurement tool. The gross as well as the gross motor quotient (GMQ Pt motor coefficient is considered to be a global = 99.6%). For the above-mentioned indicators indicator of motor competence, on the basis with a guarantee probability exceeding the of which children are divided into different critical 95%, we can assume with confidence categories: Impossible (MQ <56); Disturbed the rejection of the Zero hypothesis and the (MQ 56-70); Weak (MQ 71-85); Normal (MQ acceptance of the alternative one, verifying 86-115); Good (MQ 116-130); Very good (MQ the existence of significant differences for the 131-145). (Kiphard & Schilling, 2007) studied statistical samples.

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Table 1. Biostatistical data on motor competence coefficients among hearing impaired (HI) girls Indicators for HI girls MQ1 MQ2 MQ3 MQ4 GMQ X 94,6 86,6 79,9 92,1 85,6 S 17,4 18,6 18,3 18,1 19,5 V 18% 21% 23% 20% 23% Ex 1,8 0,6 -0,3 3,4 1,0 As -0,6 -0,5 -0,3 -1,6 -0,7 Max 123,0 117,0 109,0 115,0 114,0 Min 53,0 45,0 43,0 43,0 40,0 T 2,26 3,77 1,12 2,65 3,04 Pt [%] 97,0 99,9 73,1 98,3 99,6 Table 2. Biostatistical data on motor competence coefficients among hearing (H) girls Indicators for H girls MQ1 MQ2 MQ3 MQ4 GMQ X 105,3 109,0 85,7 105,8 101,7 S 12,3 17,5 13,7 12,1 13,9 V 12% 16% 16% 11% 14% Ex 1,2 0,5 -0,3 0,8 0,1 As -0,1 -0,7 -0,5 0,6 -0,7 Max 133,0 137,0 106,0 134,0 122,0 Min 74,0 65,0 54,0 84,0 69,0 T 2,26 3,77 1,12 2,65 3,04 Pt [%] 97,0 99,9 73,1 98,3 99,6 The mean values of hearing (H) and hear- in the “Normal” category (GMQ = 101.7). ing impaired (HI) girls were in the “Normal” category (MQ between 86 and 115) for mo- Analysis of Motor Competency Indicators tor competence in 3 of the 4 motor quo- among hearing (H) and hearing impaired tients tested: “Balance backwards walking (HI) boys. on beams” – HI (MQ1 = 94.6); H (MQ1 = The results of the conducted study of mo- 105.3); “Hopping on one leg over an obsta- tor competence indicators among boys with cle” – HI (MQ2 = 86.6); H (MQ2 = 109.0); impaired and intact hearing are presented in “Shifting Platforms” – HI (MQ4 = 92.1); H table 3 and 4. (MQ4 = 105.8). The mean values for the two The values obtained of the motor quo- groups of girls obtained in the test “Jump- tients in the hearing- and hearing-impaired ing laterally” (HI (MQ3 = 79.9), H (MQ3 = boys were predominantly in favor of the hear- 85.7)) were in the “Weak” category (MQ be- ing students. Significant differences were ob- tween 71 and 85) for motor competence. served in all of the 4 tested indicators: MQ1 The Gross motor quotient is considered (Pt = 99.9%); MQ2 (Pt = 100%); MQ3 (Pt to be a global indicator of motor competence. = 100%); MQ4 (Pt = 99.6%), as well as the The results obtained among girls showed sig- gross motor quotient (GMQ Pt = 100%). For nificantly lower performance of those with the above-mentioned indicators with a guar- hearing impairment compared to their hearing antee probability exceeding the critical 95%, peers. Mean values for the gross motor quo- we can assume with confidence the rejection tient (GMQ = 85.6) for hearing impaired girls of the Zero hypothesis and the acceptance of were in the “Weak” category for motor compe- the alternative one, verifying the existence of tence, while values for hearing students were significant differences for the studied statisti-

125 EVALUATING THE MOTOR COMPETENCE ... M. Hristova cal samples. Table 3. Biostatistical data on motor competence coefficients among hearing impaired (HI) boys Indicators for HI boys MQ1 MQ2 MQ3 MQ4 GMQ X 89,1 90,0 80,6 89,6 84,2 S 13,1 15,2 11,8 15,4 13,2 V 15% 17% 15% 17% 16% Ex -1,0 0,2 -0,3 -1,4 -0,9 As 0,2 0,2 0,1 -0,1 -0,1 Max 112,0 120,0 107,0 113,0 106,0 Min 70,0 54,0 58,0 66,0 59,0 T 3,70 4,32 4,27 2,99 4,78 Pt [%] 99,9 100,0 100,0 99,6 100,0 Table 4. Biostatistical data on motor competence coefficients among hearing (H) boys Indicators for H boys MQ1 MQ2 MQ3 MQ4 GMQ X 101,7 107,2 94,4 103,4 101,4 S 10,6 12,7 11,1 17,7 12,3 V 10% 12% 12% 17% 12% Ex -1,3 0,0 -0,5 2,2 -0,2 As 0,3 -0,9 0,3 -0,7 -0,1 Max 119,0 122,0 118,0 137,0 122,0 Min 87,0 76,0 76,0 53,0 74,0 T 3,70 4,32 4,27 2,99 4,78 Pt [%] 99,9 100,0 100,0 99,6 100,0 The mean values of boys with impaired with intact hearing (GMQ = 101.4) were in hearing were in the “Normal” category (MQ the „Normal” category for motor competence. between 86 and 115) for motor competence for 3 of the 4 motor quotients tested: “Balance Summary of motor competence indicators backwards walking on beams” (MQ1 = 89.1); for hearing- and hearing-impaired students “Hopping on one leg over an obstacle” (MQ2 in primary school. = 90.0); “Sifting Platforms” (MQ4 = 89.6). The execution of the tests requires a com- While the mean values obtained from the test bination of different physical qualities such “Jumping laterally” (MQ3 = 80.6) were in the as flexibility, explosive force of lower limbs, “Weak” category for motor competence. equilibrium resistance, planning and coordina- Among hearing boys, the mean values of the tion. We find significant differences between motor quotients of all 4 tests were in the „Nor- children with hearing impairment and hearing mal” category for motor competence (MQ1 children in terms of the results of the motor = 101.7; MQ2 = 107.2; MQ3 = 94.4; MQ4 = quotients. 103.4). The results of students with hearing im- In terms of the Gross motor quotient, the pairment of the 4 motor quotients (for boys – results obtained among the boys showed sig- all 4 for girls – 3) and the gross motor quotient nificantly lower performance of those with (GMQ) were significantly weaker than those hearing impairment compared to their hear- of their hearing peers. ing peers. The average values for boys with The absence of significant differences in impaired hearing (GMQ = 84.2) were in the girls from the test “Jumping laterally” MQ3 “Weak” category, while values for students may be explained by the lower performance

126 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 of some of the hearing girls compared to KTK tively on students with hearing impairment, standards. where the motor competence gradually goes From the analysis of the obtained results from normal to weak. we also find a gradual decrease of the average The classification of the values for the values of the motor competency quotients as Gross Motor Quotient (GMQ) for hearing (H) the age of the studied students of both sexes and hearing impaired (HI) students in prima- grows. This affects considerably more nega- ry school age is presented in table 5. Table 5. KTK standards for GMQ and distribution of the results obtained for hearing (H) and hearing impaired (HI) students HI H Values for GMQ % Category № % № % 131 – 145 2 Very Good – – – – 116 – 130 14 Good – – 7 14,3 86 – 115 68 Normal 22 52,4 37 75,5 71 – 85 14 Weak 13 30,9 4 8,2 56 – 70 2 Disturbed 6 14,3 1 2 MQ < 56 0 Impossible 1 2,4 – –

The results showed that good motor com- ing an “Impossible Motor Competence”, which petence was 14.3% of the hearing children, implies the existence of additional deficits for which completely matches the expected nor- which we were not aware of. mal percentage distribution on the KTK. None In his study, Long (1932) did not find sig- of the children with hearing impairment falls nificant differences between deaf and hearing into this category despite the fact that 11.9% children (aged between 8 to 17 years) in biman- of them are engaged in extra-sporting out-of- ual coordination, eye-arm coordination, and re- school activities. sponse time. But he reported significantly lower The main percentage of the children tested results for the deaf when walking back on the showed normal motor competence levels (HI beam, which overlaps with our results. (52.4%); H (75.5%)). We find that for HI this The motor development of hearing-impaired result is relatively lower than the average (68%), children from 4 to 12 years of age was also in- and for the H is relatively higher. vestigated by the Körperkoordinations Test für The percentage of children falling under the Kinder (1974), the researchers at the University “Weak Motor Competence” category is disturb- of Gent (Belgium) reported significantly weaker ing. It includes a significantly higher percentage results in two of motor tests for deaf children. of students with hearing impairment (30.9%) Hearing children had a significantly better result than the average (14%). As for hearing children, when walking back on the beams compared to their percentage is relatively low (8.2%), which those with impaired hearing. Also, significantly is a good indicator. weaker was the indicator among the children With “Disturbed Motor Competence” are without cochlear apparatus in “Hopping on one 14.3% of the surveyed hearing-impaired stu- leg over an obstacle” test. In all other results, dents, which is seven times the norm (2%), children with normal hearing performed slightly while the percentages of their hearing peers co- better than the deaf with and without cochlear incide with the average values. apparatus (Gheysen et al., 2007). Of the surveyed children with hearing im- Brunt and Broadhead (1982) examined the pairment, one child (2.4%) was rated as hav- motor coordination of 154 deaf children (aged

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7-14) through the short form of BOT-2 (Bruin- Cairney et al., 2007; Okely et al., 2001); over- inks, 1978; Bruininks & Bruininks, 2005). The weight (D’Hondt, et al., 2012) and psychologi- results revealed disadvantages of hearing-im- cal concepts as self-esteem and motivation for paired children in terms of balance, bilateral co- sports (Rose, et al., 1997; Vedul-Kjelsas, et al., ordination and reaction rate. Better values were 2011). A Haga study (2009) establishes a posi- obtained only in visual motor control, which tive link between motor competence and health- may be due to the continuous use of hands for related capacity (EDC) among 9-10-year-old communication. children. Other researchers explored separate fun- There is a hypothesis that children with low damental motor skills of children aged 3 to 14 MC are not physically active enough, which in through the SIGMA (Scale of Intra Gross Motor turn may lead to reduced levels of physical abil- Assessment, Loovis & Ersing, 1979) and report- ity compared to children with high motor com- ed that a large proportion of children aged 7 and petence (Hands and Larkin, 2006; Haga, 2009; 8 years old had not yet reached motor maturity Cairney, et al., 2011). Also, a combination of and were lagging behind the hearing children low physical activity and motor competence with regard to activities related to running, kick- can contribute to early exhaustion (Okely, et ing, gripping, throwing, skipping. (Butterfield, al., 2001; Hands & Larkin, 2006) and thus fur- 1986; Butterfield, et al., 1992). Fundamental ther reduce the possibilities for developing mo- motor skills and the ability to combine them are tor skills during playground play, leisure time required for developing good motor competence. sports, and more. In a vast study of the reliability of various postural stability tests, in addition to those of CONCLUSION posturography, De Kegel, et al. (2010) also ap- From the results obtained, we have reason plied 4 clinical balancing tests: standing on one to conclude that hearing impairment and limited leg with open eyes; standing on one leg with intentional and unintentional motor activity have closed eyes; 2 of the 4 KTK Tests (walking a significant influence on the motor competency along the beams, hopping on one leg over an of the students in primary school. obstacle). Clinical tests were those that showed Significantly poor results for hearing im- the highest reliability against other tests among paired children with almost all motor ratios (ex- children with impaired and intact hearing. They cluding MQ3 in girls) indicate significant health also reported a relatively lower performance of risks: direct (combining basic motor skills re- hearing-impaired children than the hearing, sug- lated to health-related capacity); indirect (in gesting children with hearing impairment were time, would have an impact as part of the motor able to compensate. capability). The influence of different variables (local- Changed motor activity in primary school ization of the damage, level of hearing loss, de- age compared to previous years does not stimu- velopment of fundamental motor skills, balance) late the development of motor competency of on MC of hearing-impaired children can be con- children, and this has a significantly negative sidered as future research directions for better impact on students with impaired hearing. understanding. Our research shows that children in primary Different authors focus on the negative ef- school age need additional motor activity. It is fect that low motor competence has on: physical recommended for the good psycho-physical ability (Hands & Larkin, 2006; Stodden et al., development and health of the hearing students 2008); physical activity (Cairney et al., 2006; and is obligatory for the hearing impaired.

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Corresponding author:

Mirela Hristova Theory and Methodology of Physical Therapy National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Studentski grad, 21, Acad. Stefan Mladenov str. Sofia 1700, Bulgaria E-mail: [email protected]

130 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE ENHANCING ACE, ACTN3, AMPD1 GENETIC MARKERS, FITNESS CHARACTERISTICS, C-REACTIVE PROTEIN AND URIC ACID OF CRICKET, NETBALL, RUGBY AND SOCCER PLAYERS: A REVIEW Sam Chenjerai Mugandani Center for Biokinetics, Recreation and Sport Science, School of Health Sciences, University of Venda, South Africa

ABSTRACT Sports is a large industry with vibrant leagues running in many countries. Some of the most popular sports are soccer, rugby, cricket and netball. To meet the demand for better performance of athletes and sustain this growing industry, coaches and trainers have depended on the manip­ ulation of factors such as physical and physiological parameters, nutrition, tactics, techniques and psychological factors to try and improve the performance of athletes. These have been referred to as the environmental or nurture constraints. The quest for better performance contin­ ues hence microtechnology such as accelerometers, heart rate monitors and global positioning systems are also being used to gather data to determine some of the physical and physiological demands of games. Evidence from studies with twins revealed that there are performance traits which are genetically determined. Research also shows that more than 60% of performance in sport and exercise is genetically determined. The unraveling of the human genome and advances in molecular biological studies resulted in the quest for knowledge relating to the influence of genes at the molecular level on performance in exercise and sport. The human genome project established approximately 20 000 genes in humans. To date, the gene map for performance and health-related fitness phenotypes has identified more than 200 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with some performance and fitness linked traits. Among the most studied gene polymorphisms are the angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) gene, the human α- actinin-3 (ACTN3) gene and the adenosine monophosphate deaminase (AMPD1) gene, as they relate mostly to anerobic and aerobic related activities. The use of hematological and biochemical indicators to identify injuries and exercise stress calls for exploration of association between gene polymorphisms and indicators such as C-reactive protein, uric acid and blood parameters such as red blood cells and sub-components of leukocytes.

Key words: Biomarkers, genes, polymorphism, sports, performance

INTRODUCTION In South Africa, rugby, soccer cricket and net- Sports have become a large industry with ball are very popular sports. In 2017, it was vibrant leagues running in many countries. Al- estimated that there were 9.1 million players though the population of participants is rela- among the world rugby union members in 121 tively low, female sport leagues are also begin- countries. Among these, 2.4 million were fe- ning to be taken as seriously as male leagues. male players and 603 455 of these were from

Journal of Applied Sports Sciences 131 DOI: 10.37393/jass.2019.01.13 2019, Vol. 1, pp. 131 -149 ISSN 2534-9597 (Print), ISSN 2535-0145 (Online) ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE ENHANCING ACE ... S. Mugandani

South Africa (World Rugby, 2017). South Af- cer is classified as IC, which means that it has rica hosted the world rugby cup in 1999 and a low anerobic, low maximal voluntary muscle the Soccer world cup in 2010. (Molly, Chetty, contraction with a high maximal oxygen con- 2015; World Rugby, 2017). The estimated sumption and high dynamic component, rugby number of people playing the game of soc- is IIB, Cricket is IA and netball is IIC (Mitchell cer world wide as of 2006 was 265 million. et al., 2005). This classification is largely phys- (McCabe, Collins, 2018). Netball has an esti- ical and physiological whereas in any exercis- mated 20 million players in 80 countries and ing scenario the muscles accomplish mechani- in 2010 South Africa had half a million players cal (physical) and metabolic (physiological) in schools and 9 700 adult players (Ferreira, demands (Houweling et al., 2018). The above Spammer, 2010; Mclean, 2019). classification suggests that cricket is low on As a result of the popularity of these sports, both its aerobic and anaerobic demands, net- training demands are becoming increasingly ball has moderate anaerobic demand and high complex and very scientific, calling for analy- aerobic demand. On the other hand, rugby is sis and structures to meet the specific needs of moderate on both anaerobic and aerobic re- each sport and player. There have been efforts to quirements. However, soccer like netball has improve sport performance utilizing scientific a high aerobic component but low anaerobic principles. Exercise and sporting movement ac- component. tivities are either dynamic or static. Dynamic To satisfy the ever-increasing demand for movements involve change in length of muscles better performance of athletes and sustain the with rhythmic joint movements and the energy growing industry of sport, coaches and trainers metabolic processes in dynamic movements are now depend on the manipulation of the physi- largely aerobic (Mitchell, Haskell, Snell & Van cal and physiological parameters, as shown in Camp, 2005). The increasing dynamic compo- the classification above. The physical, physi- nent is rated from the estimated percent of max- ological, nutrition, tactics, technique and psy- imal oxygen consumption (MaxO2) achieved chological factors are called environmental or during competition, ranging from low to high, nurture constraints (MacArthur, North, 2004; where A. Low is (<40% MaxO2), B. Moderate Gibson 2009; Pitsiladis et al., 2016). Family

(40% -70 MaxO2) and C. High (>70% MaxO2) studies in human movement covering identi- (Mitchell et al., 2005). Mitchell et al., also state cal and dizygotic twins over and above what that there are activities on the other end of the is mentioned above also show that genetics continuum whose muscle energy metabolism is has a contributing factor to the phenotype of mainly anaerobic, and that they develop force sport performance (Guth, Roth, 2013; Slizik with minimal or no change in muscle length or et al., 2017). Evidently, performance in sport joint movement. The contraction of muscles and physical activity is a factor of both envi- on this anerobic side of the spectrum is also ronmental or nurture constraints and genetic referred to as maximal voluntary contraction or nature constraints (Puthucheary et al.,2011; (MVC) and is also graded from low to high as Ahmetov & Fedotovska, 2015). The contribu- follows; I. low (<20% MVC), II. Moderate (20- tion of the genetic or nature factors to athletic 50% MVC) and III. High (>50% MVC) (Mitch- status is estimated to be more than 60% while ell et al. 2005). the environmental factors contribute a mere Cricket, netball, rugby and soccer can be one third (De Moor et al., 2007). As a result, classified by the above characterization. Soc- studies have progressed at the molecular lev-

132 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 el with the use of genotyping to identify the intolerance of differing degrees (Bray et al., genes and their variants which contribute to 2009; Ahmetov, Fedotovskaya, 2015). Energy the physical and physiological basis of human systems, considered in the association stud- performance in sport and exercise. Through ies, fit with the sport classification presented genetically profiling athletes, this knowledge above. Sport teams such as cricket, netball, would be critical and helpful towards talent rugby and soccer variously fit as already illus- identification, strengthening of the training trated (Mitchell et al., 2005). of athletes as well as identifying risks such Study approaches which are followed with as susceptibility to injuries (Davids, Baker, gene markers are mostly case-control studies 2007; Slizik et al., 2017). The use of genetic where mostly elite athletes (case) are com- information for research in exercise and sport pared to the general populations of non-ath- has been further facilitated and enhanced by letic individuals (control) and cross-sectional the completion of the human genome project studies where athletes and the general popu- in 2003 and the advancement of sequencing lation are measured quantitatively (Ahmetov, technologies (Houweling et al., 2018). Fedotovskaya, 2015; Houweling et al., 2018). The human genome project has shown Biomarkers are characteristics that are objec- that there are approximately 20 000 genes in tively measured and evaluated as indicators of humans. Gene nomenclature has been estab- normal biological processes, pathogenic pro- lished for each known human gene in the form cesses, or pharmacologic responses to an inter- of an approved gene name and symbol (short vention (IOM (Institute of medicine), 2011). form abbreviation). Each symbol is unique, There are several biomarkers which are vari- and each gene is only given one approved gene ously linked to physical performance and gene symbol (Carninci, Hayashizaki, 2007). Using polymorphisms among which are C-reactive information from the human genome project, protein and uric acid. Allgrove et al., (2012) scientists in sport science have investigated observe that exercise of elevated intensity com- the association or linkages of genes and per- promises the immune system leaving athletes formance as well as health related and fitness susceptible to illness. Therefore, hematologi- phenotypes. This resulted in the compilation cal parameters such as leucocytes have been of the human gene map for performance and used as possible markers of a compromised health- related fitness phenotypes and 120 immune system due to exercise (Mackinnon DNA polymorphisms related to sports genom- 1997; Gleeson, Walsh 2012). In this regard, ics had been identified by December 2014 (Ah- soccer and rugby players have regular aerobic metov, Fedotovskaya, 2015). Polymorphism and anaerobic training regimes which expose as a form of gene variation occurs when two or them to oxidative stress (Yamaner, 2010). more alleles exist in a population and is related to biodiversity. Alleles are one or two alterna- METHOD tives of the gene that occupy the same locus Data sources (place) on a chromosome. The data available Four hundred and fifty (450) searches were for physical performance phenotypes from the conducted and the following key words were genes studied are: cardio respiratory endur- used: ACE, ACTN3, AMPD1 polymorphisms; ance, elite endurance athletes’ status, muscle athletic performance; exercise, fitness and per- strength, speed and power together with some formance genomics; endurance and resistance muscle performance traits including exercise training; Uric acid and C-Reactive protein

133 ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE ENHANCING ACE ... S. Mugandani biomarkers in rugby, soccer and netball. Key- receptor alfa gene) and f) PRARD (peroxi- word searches identified articles from Med- some proliferator receptor delta gene). line (1987-), Research databases: Science di- DISCUSSION rect (2009-), Human Kinetics (2002-), Human Gene Map for Performance and Health-related Performance demands cricket, rugby, Fitness Phenotypes, the 2002 Update and the net ball and soccer 2006-2007 update and Research Gate (2015-). The discussion below further illustrates the performance demands of the four team sports Inclusion criteria which are both aerobic and anaerobic. This cor- The inclusion criteria for this review were responds with the polymorphisms of the genes a) ACE genotypes and associations with train- ACE, ACTN3 and AMPD1 which encode for ing response, aerobic endurance performance, either aerobic or anaerobic performance, ex- VO max, long distance athletes, games (rugby, 2 cept for AMPD1 which only encodes for an- cricket, soccer, netball), high intensity activi- aerobic performance. ties of short duration, power output, exercise efficiency, muscle efficiency; b) ACTN3 geno- Cricket type associations with anerobic performance; Modern cricketers are now exposed to isometric and isokinetic muscle strength, greater physical and physiological demands. properties of fast twitch and slow twitch mus- Heart rate can reach 190 beats/min and the cle fibers in short distance athletes, games, predominant contribution from the anaerobic Wingate test and pick power on response to energy systems can contribute up to 60% of strength training; c) AMPD1 genotypes and the total energy in multiple activities of short associations, anaerobic Wingate test for pow- duration of less than 40 seconds (Noakes, Du- er, pick power output, mean power, muscle fi- randt, 2000). Martens (2004) identified the fol- bers distribution and overall strength; d) As- lowing demands of cricket: low to moderate sociations of ACE, ACTN3 and AMPD1 genes aerobic capacity, moderate anaerobic capacity, with physical, physiological characteristics moderate strength and flexibility, low to mod- and blood parameters in various sports. The erate endurance and moderate to high speed. genotype frequencies of the polymorphisms Fast bowling has been linked with a mesomor- included are presented in accordance with phic somatotype, greater percentage of type II the genomic browsers of the USA, Indian and muscle fibers and superior phosphagenic and Arab populations (Bhagi et al.,2002; Al-Hinai glycolytic metabolic pathways together with et al., 2002; Salem, Batzer 2009). eccentric muscle strength (Stuelcken et al., 2007). A shorter stature and isokinetic knee Exclusion Criteria and shoulder strength were seen to be con- Excluded were other potential perfor- tributory to the success of batsman (Noakes, mance enhancing genes associated with train- Durant, 2000; Nunes, Coetzee, 2007). ing responses and health-related phenotypes in endurance and power athletes which include, Netball a) ADRB2 (adrenergic receptor beta 2 gene); Netball is a fast-paced contact sport (Soh et b) VEGFA (vascular endothelial growth factor al., 2007; Chandler et al.,2014). Players must gene); c) BDKRB2 (bradykinin beta 2 receptor be endowed with speed to run short distances gene); d) NOS3 (nitric acid synthase 3 gene); on the court. They perform repeated powerful e) PRARA (peroxisome proliferator activated jumps, well balanced landings, sudden chang-

134 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 es of direction and quick stops and starts which with or without the ball, jumps, sudden accel- require agility (McManus, Stevenson & Finch, eration or deceleration (Devrnja & Matkovic, 2006; de Villiers, Venter, 2014). Both aerobic 2018). Soccer players should have very high and anaerobic energy systems are a require- speed, power, strength and endurance (Gab- ment (Soh, Husain & Soh, 2006; Soh, Husain bett, Wiig & Spencer, 2013; O’Reilley, Wong, & Soh, 2007; Terblanche, Venter, 2009). Using 2012). During a normal game, they run a total time motion analysis, centers (C) were found of about 10 km and within that endurance con- to have the highest player load while the goal text, there are anaerobic explosive bursts, such keepers (GK) and the goal shooters (GS) had as sprinting, jumping and forceful contrac- the least player loads (Fox et al., 2013; Bai- tions. Thus, within an aerobic endurance con- ley et al., 2017). The distances covered dur- text, there are numerous anaerobic explosive ing matches are estimated to be 4210 meters bursts of activity (Stølen et al., 2005; Abbey, for GS and 7984 meters for C (Chandler et Rankin, 2011; Calahorro et al.,2013). The aver- al., 2014). Injuries occur mostly to ligaments age VO2max for elite male players is between of the ankle, knee, fingers, hands and wrists, 55 and 68 ml.kg-1.min-1, with individual val- (Langeveld, Coetzee & Holtzhausen, 2012; ues of more than 70ml.kg-1.min-1(Hoff, 2005). Hervert, Deakin & Sinclair, 2014). Aerobic endurance is therefore of paramount importance (Bradley, Noakes, 2013; Sarmento Rugby et al., 2014; Varley et al., 2016). Soccer is also Rugby is a high-speed contact sport that known to have eccentric movements such as involves aerobic and anaerobic fitness, there running backwards, sudden direction changes is a combination of both low and high inten- and tackles, which lead to muscle damage sity activities. In elite games running covers (Magalhães et al.,2010; Gravina et al., 2011). 5-8 km with speeds of 18-20 km/h. (Gabbett et al., 2007; Goh et al., 2009). Props are taller, The ACE gene heavier and their skin folds are thicker than The ACE gene is made up of 26 exons other positions, their higher body mass helps and 25 introns. Exons are coding sequences them with momentum for their larger tackling of DNA in the gene and introns are intragenic role (O’Connor, 1996; Gabbett, 2006). Brower sequence/regions inside the gene. It stretches et al., 1994 showed that hookers, centers and over 21 kilo bases on the chromosome 17q23. wingers have better performance times in the Its polymorphism consists of the presence of 10and 40-m speed tests than props who were the (490bp I allele) or absence (190bp D al- also slower than the back rowers and outside lele) of a 287-base pair Alu repeat sequence back positional groups, and backs showed resulting in three genotypes (DD and II ho- significantly faster times than forwards. The mozygotes, and ID heterozygote) (Lin et al., hookers/halves and outside backs had superior 2001; Sipahi et al., 2006). The I allele refers to

VO2max than the props positional groups with the presence of a 287 base Alu repeat segment the highest figures being around 55.2 ml.kg-1. in intron 16, the deletion or D is not likely to min-1 (O’Connor, 1996). be the result of an actual deletion event. The presence of the intron 16 Alu on ACE expres- Soccer sion is that of lowering activity levels of the Soccer involves physical efforts of an in- ACE enzyme for individuals with the I allele. termittent nature with, walking, runs, sprints Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) is

135 ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE ENHANCING ACE ... S. Mugandani part of the rennin-angiotensin-aldosterone- in the skeletal muscles and other peripheral system (RAAS). Renin converts angioten- apparatus key to aerobic and ‘cardiovascu- sinogen, to angiotensin I a peptide which is lar’ endurance. That would also explain the in turn converted by ACE to angiotensin II greater response to training in both the skeletal vasoactive peptide. Angiotensin II is the key muscle and cardiovascular systems (Lucía et agent of the RAAS. It mediates vascular resis- al., 2010). Athletes with the II genotype have tance by binding to endothelial receptors caus- greater aortic elasticity than the DD and ID ing vasoconstriction. ACE is a key enzyme in genotypes (Tanriverdi et al., 2005). The I al- the generation of angiotensin, a potent vaso- lele has also been associated with fatigue re- constrictor as well as effector of sympathetic sistance in skeletal muscle (Montgomery et al., tone, and aldosterone stimulating peptide. An- 1999). Greater percentage of the more aerobic giotensin also regulates salt and water balance type I skeletal muscle fibers have been found via the aldosterone pathway. Its action also dif- in athletes of the II genotype as compared to fers among individuals due to genetic differ- DD genotypes (Zhang et al., 2003). On the oth- ences (Gomez-Gallego et al., 2009). Several er hand, studies with Italian gymnasts showed studies have examined the effects of ACE on the DD genotypes exhibiting higher relative physical performance such as aerobic capacity, strength than the II, (Calo,Vona, 2008). Simi- muscle function, trainability, and athletic sta- larly, a study with Caucasian Turkish female tus (Scanavini et al., 2002; Lucia et al., 2005; athletes showed better performance improve- Amir et al., 2007). ment in endurance with those of II genotype The ACE insertion (ACE I) allele is preva- while those with the DD genotype improved lent in endurance athletes hence related with more in the shorter more power inclined events endurance ability (Nazarov et al., 2001). De- (Cam et al., 2007). In a study of 50 to 70-year- spite research being generally inconsistent, the old women the response to a 12-week varied widely held view is that the insertion (I) allele training program showed that the ACE DD is associated with improved performance in and ID did not show improvement from base endurance events whereas the “deletion” (D) line measurements in a sit to stand lower body allele is associated with better performance in strength test and aerobic test measured by a power events. However, it is not known how six-minute walk test respectively. They how- lower circulating ACE happens to improve ever showed improvements together with the performance (Wang et al., 2008). Nonetheless, II genotype group in an agility test and strength it can be inferred that lower ACE in circulation upper body arm curl test (Moraes et al., 2018). could mean less conversion of angiotensin I to The results show some inconsistence with ex- angiotensin II and therefore reduced vasocon- pected results, especially where DD would striction of blood vessels during endurance ac- have shown association with both upper and tivities. The I allele is theoretically associated lower strength and II not showing association with a decrease in circulating levels of angio- with agility. In an ACE I/D variant case control tensin II (a potent vasoconstrictor) and thus a study of Polish soccer players and controls, 106 reduction in vascular resistance which might players were divided into forwards, midfield- facilitate higher cardiac output during strenu- ers, defenders and goal keepers and there were ous exercise. There is an unrestricted flow of 115 controls. Genotype and allele frequencies oxygen and metabolic substrates necessary for were not significantly different among the the aerobic pathways for energy production play positions of players neither were there

136 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 differences between the athletes and controls of the Z line in the type IIb muscle sarcomere (Cięszczyk et al., 2016). In a similar study to form a structure that anchors together ac- with 375 Brazilian soccer players of whom tinin myofibrils and stabilizes the muscle con- 90 where professionals and the other players tractile apparatus (Squire, 1997). They also formed strata of under 14, 15, 17 and 20 years interact with other muscle proteins in carrying of age, with 100 controls, the genotypic and al- out some signaling and metabolic functions lelic frequencies of the players in the different (MacArthur, North, 2007). The frequency of categories did not differ significantly from the the 577X null allele differs among different controls (Coelho et al., 2016). human groups. It is approximately 10% among Africans and about 18% in Caucasian popula- ACTN3 gene tions (MacArthur et al., 2007; Norman et al., In humans, there are two genes encoding 2009). Its persistence over evolutionary time skeletal α- actinin: ACTN2 and ACTN3 both has been hypothesized to suggest that there for the structural Z discs (Bell et al., 2012). was need to have a muscle type which would The human α- actinin-3 (ACTN3) gene en- be efficient in conserving energy and resist fa- codes the structural protein α- actinin-3 in fast tigue (Calo, Vona, 2008; Head et al., 2015). skeletal muscle fibers. It is located on the long Several studies have shown substantial ev- arm of chromosome 11 (11q13-q14). A com- idence pointing to the association of ACTN3 mon polymorphism of the ACTN3 gene, 577X with physical performance. The presence of the is due to a premature stop codon which results ACTN3 protein (577R) has been shown to fa- in a loss of function nonsense mutation. The vor success in activities of sprint or power per- replacement of nucleotide C (Cytosine) with T formance (Macarthur, North, 2005; Calo, Vona, (Thymine) in exon 16 the normal codon (trip- 2008). For example, in a study of 992 Greek let) for Arginine (CGA) 577R is converted adolescents, male carriers of the XX genotype to the stop codon (TGA) 577X. This results recorded slower sprint times compared to their in non-synthesis of the protein α- actinin-3 RR counterparts, though this was not true for (North et al.,1999; MacArthur, North, 2007; the females (Moran et al., 2007). In another Moran et al., 2007). This allele (577X) is not study of both men and women, examining capable of encoding for α- actinin-3, however knee extensor concentric peak power, at base the presence of ACTN2 proteins in both type I line, the XX carriers showed greater strength and type II muscle fibers compensates for the but after a 10-week training, the RR showed absence of α- actinin-3 in individuals who are greater improvement compared to both the 577X homozygous (Calo, Vona, 2008). There XX and RX carriers (Delmonico et al., 2007). are two alleles R and X, and three possible However, in a study of East and West African genotypes for the ACTN3 gene, which are the athletes, there were no significant differences RR and XX homozygotes and the RX hetero- between sprinters of Nigerian origin with con- zygote. trols and the whole group showed a very low The actinins (encoded by the R allele) are a X-allele frequency. Similar results were real- group of ancient actin-binding proteins. They ized with elite Jamaican and US sprinters who are limited to fast muscle fibers (type IIb) classified themselves as at least 50% African capable of generating force at high velocity American. Japanese sprinters also showed bet- (Mills et al., 2001; Vincent et al., 2007). They ter performance by RR+RX genotypes com- make up the predominant protein component pared to ACTN3 XX genotypes (Yang et al.,

137 ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE ENHANCING ACE ... S. Mugandani

2007; Scott et al., 2009; Mikami et al., 2014). of chromosome one 1p13-p21 and consists In a study of 50 to 70-year-old women, the re- of 16 exons and 15 introns. A nonsense muta- sponse to a 12-week varied training program tion C to T in nucleotide 34 (C34T) in exon showed that the ACTN3 XX group did not 2 (rs 17602729) of AMPD1 converts the co- show improvement in the strength sit to stand don CAA into the premature stop-codon TAA test and the RR group did not show improve- which results in the premature cessation of ad- ment in the 6-minute walk test (Moraes et al., enosine monophosphate deaminase synthesis. 2018). This is what would be expected for XX This gives rise to three variants of the gene endurance genotype and RR power genotype. CC, CT and TT, where CC genotype is normal In a study of 51 untrained male Caucasians, and has no deficiency in the enzyme, and the the volume of the quadriceps was measured, presence of the T allele signals deficiency in knee extension, one repetition maximum and the enzyme (Cieszczyk et al., 2011; Feng et al., maximum power were measured through pedal 2017; McCabe, Collins, 2018). sprints on an isokinetic cycle ergometer. It was In a case control study of Israelis consisting established that the RR genotype was superior of endurance and sprinters competing at elite to the XX genotype in all the three parameters national level and a control group of non-ath- (Erskine et al., 2014). To enhance the power of letic healthy individuals, the results of the study association, studies which have been largely did not show any significant differences in the limited by small numbers, 550 best times of distribution of the three genotypes CC, CT and 346 elite Caucasian sprint athletes were col- TT. However, the TT genotype frequency was lected for 100m, 200m and 400m. On average, very low in all the groups (Meckel et al., 2012). these established that athletes with the ACTN3 A study of Lithuanian athletes and controls 577RR or the ACE DD genotype had superior showed a greater frequency of the CC genotypes best times than their ACTN3 XX and ACEII among sprint anaerobic athletes, as compared to counterparts (Papadimitriou et al., 2016). How- endurance, mixed athletes and controls. The TT ever, in six studies with soccer players, a distinct genotype was absent in all the athletes and with relationship could not be established for sprint only a 2.4% frequency in the non-athletic con- (anaerobic) or endurance (aerobic) performance trols (Gineviciene et al., 2014). Similar results (Santiago 2008; Pimenta et al., 2012; Pimenta et were obtained with student athletes engaged in al., 2013; Eyon et al., 2014; Massidda, Scorcu high speed and strength sport versus students & Calo, 2014; Coelho et al., 2016). not doing any sport. The TT genotype was total- ly absent among athletes with a 3.8% frequency Adenosine monophosphate deaminase among non-athletes, with power lifting athletes (AMPD1) gene registering a 100% CC genotype (Fedotovs- The gene AMPD1 encodes for the enzyme kaya, Danilova & Akhmetov, 2013). In another adenosine monophosphate 1 deaminase which study, the mutation TT did not manifest at all catalyzes the deamination of adenosine mono- in the Polish rowers but was present among the phosphate (AMP) to inosine monophosphate non-athletes at a percentage of 1.59% (Cieszc- (IMP) during the formation of adenosine tri- zyk et al, 2011). phosphate (ATP) in skeletal muscle and is therefore an important muscle energy regula- C-reactive protein (CRP) tor during exercise (Collins, 2017; McCabe, CRP is a protein of the pentraxin family and Collins 2018). The gene is in the short arm is produced by hepatic cells and its production

138 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 is regulated by several cytokines including IL- higher levels of body fat are likely to be as- 1, IL-6, and TNFα which are secreted locally sociated with higher levels of CRP (Plaisance, in the area of harmed tissue (Ablij, Meinders, Grandjean, 2006; Plaisance et al., 2007; Gi- 2002; Kitsios et al., 2013; Hayashino et al., annini et al., 2017). Some studies have shown 2014). It is made up of five identical subunits significant weight lose together with reduction (protomers) each of which is capable of bind- in CRP levels following physical activity or ing with two calcium units. The calcium al- diets lowering body fat (Plaisance, Grandjean, lows CRP to bind with the phosphocholine 2006; Saghebjoo et al., 2018). Other research ligands found in the cell membranes and plas- suggests that the increase in protein as a result ma lipoproteins and as a result of this binding, of exercise also contributes to the anti -inflam- phagocytosis of damaged cell materials and matory mechanisms of exercise, probably due pathogens is facilitated (Ablij & Meinders, to antioxidant proteins from the effects of the 2002; Michigan et al., 2011). The median con- exercise (Donges et al., 2010). Exercise gener- centration of CRP in serum is 0.8 mg/l. and ally has been shown to reduce resting levels of this concentration can increase drastically CRP (Mendham et al., 2011). following microbial infection, trauma and Aerobic based exercise programs have re- strenuous exercise by as much as 1000 times sulted in the reduction of CRP by various per- in a space of 48 hours (Heikkila et al., 2007; centages. Donges et al., (2011) observed a Jabs et al., 2005). These concentrations may 16.1% reduction following 10 weeks of aerobic remain high if exercise induced muscle dam- training. Increases of up to 266% above base- age remains in force (Gabay, Kushner, 1999). line have been noted after a marathon race but CRP is broken down in the liver, with a small returning to baseline levels by 48 hours. This proportion being taken care of by neutrophils has been postulated to be just a reaction to the and macrophages. The biological half-time of tissue damage which is concomitant with the in- the removal of the protein from blood serum tense aerobic exercise. The long-term reaction is 19 hours irrespective of the physiological or is a lowered baseline level (Devrnja, Matkovic, infection levels, and the significant determiner 2018). Resistance based training programs have of the serum levels of CRP is the rate at which also been shown to reduce the levels of CRP it is produced by hepatocytes. This makes it with reductions being as much as 32% in some a suitable marker or indicator of the inflam- cases (Martins et al., 2010; Donges et al., 2011). mation or disease activity in the body (Ablij, Some studies have shown that combining aero- Meinders, 2002). bic endurance and resistance training yields Several theories have been propounded to better CRP reducing results than for example shade light on how exercise is likely to reduce the utilization of endurance training on its own inflammation. Loss of fat has been suggested (Daray et al., 2010; Ricci et al., 2018). as one of them where low levels of fat are said As earlier indicated, C-reactive protein to reduce adipocytokines such as Interleukin 6 (CRP) is a biomarker signaling subclinical (IL-6) which stimulate the production of CRP in fla mmation and exercise induced oxida- from hepatocytes (Mora et al., 2006; Campbell tive stress in which regular physical activ- et al., 2009). Twenty five percent of the sys- ity of moderate intensity has been shown temic IL-6 is produced by adipocytes, and it is to reduce CRP (Mattusch et al., 2000; Fal- the IL-6 which is responsible for signaling the lon, Fallon & Boston, 2001). This suggests hepatocytes to secret CRP. It follows then that that physical activity has anti-inflammatory

139 ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE ENHANCING ACE ... S. Mugandani properties (Powers et al., 1999). catabolism, UA concentration increases in the There are however very high increases in organism due to physical activity (Barros et CRP post highly competitive games in elite al., 2012). Exercise may require the increase sports. This inflammatory response differs in the activity of adenylate cyclase acting as from sport to sport depending on the dura- an additional source of energy by producing tion of the games of the sport, the metabolic 1 ATP and 1 AMP from 2 ADP. While the load and the nature and intensity of the ac- ATP is used for energy, the AMP is degraded tivities during the games. Souglis et al., 2015 to IMP. The IMP is catabolized to hypoxan- compared CRP levels 13 hours post-match thine then xanthine, and ultimately to UA. between soccer, basketball, handball and vol- In other words, UA is a final product of ATP leyball players. Soccer players who, on aver- degradation and increased adenine nucleotide age, cover distances of 9.5 to 10.7 kilometers turnover or degradation (Gailiūnienė et al., per game had CRP increases of 290% from 2007; Tsalouhidou et al., 2007; Gatterer et al., base line. They were followed by basketball 2013). This would explain why its levels rise and handball players (120%) who, on aver- in proportion to exercise intensity because it is age, cover 4 to 4.5 km per game. The lowest a product of energy metabolism and hence an increase of 80% was observed among volley- antioxidant associated with the metabolic pro- ball players. cesses of energy production during physical Heightened levels of CRP have also been exercise (Svensson et al., 2002). The enzyme known to increase the risk of acute myocar- responsible for the conversion of xanthine dial infarction, ischemic stroke, peripheral to UA is xanthine oxidase and not xanthine artery disease, type 2 diabetes and metabolic dehydrogenase (González, et al., 2008). The syndrome (Hu et al., 2004). antioxidant capabilities of UA are achieved by its ability to scavenge free radicals such Uric Acid as xanthine oxidase-free-radicals and in this Uric acid (UA) is an endogenous antioxi- way, the damage to cells by these species is dant. Its levels in the body at rest are <7mg/dl minimized (Foksinski et al., 2007; Magalhães in men and <6 mg/dl in women and its levels et al., 2010). UA is taken up from plasma into have been shown to rise in proportion to exer- skeletal muscle where it reacts with reactive cise intensity and training levels due to oxida- oxygen species in its antioxidant reactions. tive stress imposed by physical activity (Brites, This is accompanied by increased formation 1999; Yamaner, 2010). It is recognized as one of allantoin an oxidation product of UA in the of the most significant antioxidants. It makes skeletal muscles (Svensson et al., 2002). The up the final product of purine bases (adenine rise in levels of UA due to exercise usually and guanine) metabolism (Van Hoorenbeeck do not exceed one day and they also do not et al., 2012). Its concentration levels are relat- normally go above normal plasma concentra- ed to the age, gender, body area, body weight, tion, a condition referred to as hyperuricemia ethnicity and geographical position of the in- (Tsalouhidou et al., 2007). Some studies have dividual. It also constitutes 70% of the sali- shown that chronic exercise has the effect vary antioxidant activity (Hadžović-Džuvo et of making the levels of UA in trained indi- al., 2011). The production of UA is stimulated viduals higher both at rest and after exercise by exercise and exercise increases purine oxi- than in untrained non exercising individuals dation. Since UA is the final product of purine (Tsalouhidou et al., 2007).

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Hematological acute and chronic res pon- factors and the nature or genetic parameters. se to exercise Research has established the association be- Hematological parameters, just like the tween genes and phenotype characteristics. biochemical factors, are more sensitive indi- However, it is not yet clear how the chemi- cators of responses to exercise than physical cal and metabolic pathways function exactly and body composition variables (Lombardi et to create a cause effect relationship. The ex- al., 2011). Exercise stress has been known to act role which genetic polymorphism plays in increase leukocytes and the increase is more exercise, in individual sport and team sport significant following intensive exercise. He- still needs to be researched. This suggests that moglobin and hematocrit on the other hand, attempts by direct to consumer genetics test- will decrease, a condition known as athlete ing by some companies to identify talent and anemia and this is as a result of hemolysis and establish what sports novice athletes may be hemodilution (Kargotich et al., 2007; Suhr et suited for through genetic profiling is rather al., 2009; Nazmi et al.,2014). Some studies early and not valid. In the same vain, linking with soccer players however have not shown sport and exercise stress to individuals’ genetic a decrease in hemoglobin, hematocrit and red disposition also requires further research. blood cells (Bekris et al., 2015; Santi Maria et REFERENCES al., 2013). This shows contradictions among Ablij, H.C. and Meinders, A.E. (2002), C- various studies. In most cases, however, reactive protein: history and revival, European all the subtypes of leukocytes (neutrophils, Journal of Internal Medicine, Vol.13, No.7 pp. monocytes, lymphocytes) increase during and 412–422. after physical exertion (Kakanis et al., 2010; Ahmetov, I.I. and Fedotovskaya, O.N. Morgado, et al., 2016). On the other hand, the (2015). Current progress in sports genomics, number of eosinophils remains unchanged or Advances in Clinical Chemistry, Vol. 70, pp. decreases (Kakanis, et al., 2010). 247–314. A single bout of 2 hours of exercise at 75% Al – Hinai, A.T., Hassan, M.O., Simsek, of heart rate maximum caused leukocytosis in M., Al – Barwani, H. and Bayoumi, R. (2002). female soccer players mainly due to a signifi- Genotype and allele frequencies of angioten- cant rise of neutrophils (Avloniti et al., 2007). sin converting enzyme (ACE) insertion/dele- Similar results were obtained with male young tion polymorphism among Omanis, Journal soccer players and the increase in neutrophils for Scientific Research. Medical Sciences,Vol. was ascribed to the inflammatory nature of 4, No. (1-2), pp. 25 – 27. muscle damage (Devrnja & Matkovic, 2018). Amir, O. Amir, R. and Yamin, R. (2007). A significant decrease in percentage of hema- The ACE deletion allele associated with Israeli tocrit was observed immediately after a soc- elite endurance athletes, Experimental Physi­ cer game of under 21 soccer players, and only ology, Vol. 92, No. 5, pp. 881-886. mean cell hemoglobin corpuscular increased Avloniti, A.A., Douda, H.T., Tokmakidis, significantly, with no change in the hemoglo- S.P., Kortsaris, A.H., Papadopoulou, E.G. and bin levels (Sporiš et al., 2016). Spanoudakis, E.G. (2007). Acute effect of CONCLUSION soccer training on white blood cell count in Performance in sport and exercise especial- elite female players, International Journal of ly at elite level is made up of a very complex Sports Physiology and Performance, Vol. 2, interaction of the environmental or nurture No. 3, pp. 239-249.

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Corresponding author:

Sam Chenjerai Mugandani Center for Biokinetics, Recreation and Sport Science, School of Health Sciences, University of Venda, Private Bag X5050, Thohoyandou, South Africa E-mail: sam.mugandani@univen .ac.za

149 PULSE TRANSIT TIME

PULSE TRANSIT TIME ... K. Rankov PULSE TRANSIT TIME - RELIABLE MARKER FOR SLEEP DISTURBANCES AMONG ATHLETES Krassimir Rankov National Sports Academy „Vassil Levski”, Sofia, Bulgaria

ABSTRACT Sleep is essential for everyone and is important for the normal human functioning. Lack of sleep, called sleep deprivation, is a condition leading to poor sports training and achievements. Different factors contribute to sleep deprivation among athletes. Respiratory sleep disorders such as Upper airway resistance syndrome (UARS) and Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA) are factors that rebound most to sleep deprivation for certain groups of athletes such as wrestlers, judokas and sumo wrestlers. The present study investigates the UARS and OSA occurrence in the above mentioned groups of athletes using Pulse Transit Time (PTT) as an early noninvasive indicator of respiratory effort and sympathetic nervous system activity. Sixty-seven elite athletes, practicing wrestling, sumo wrestling and judo were screened by enquiry for sleep breathing disturbances. The study involved the most suspicious ten cases for sleep-disordered breathing symptoms. They underwent full standard polysomnographic (PSG) examination using Alice 5 System Philips - Respironics Inc. with the registration of PTT. Among all athletes, regardless of the presence of changes in hemoglobin saturation or ap­ nea-hypopnea index changes (AHI), a significant drop in the PTT value with more than 8-15 ms for sleep stages N1 and N2 (p<0.005) was observed, as well as with more than 6-8 ms for sleep stage N3 (p<0.005). We found bigger dependence of PTT by Arousal Index (ArI) than AHI and Desaturation Index (DI). Therefore, PTT can be used as a good indicator of sleep fragmentation before the development of the clinical picture of UARS and OSA. As a good indicator for inspiratory effort and sympathetic changes in UARS and OSA, PTT gives an opportunity for early diagnosis of respiratory sleep disorders among athletes. Prevention, timely detection and appropriate treatment of sleep disorders before the development of their full clinical picture will improve the processes of recovery and performance in sports practice.

Key words: Sleep, Athletes, Pulse Transit Time

INTRODUCTION mance and achievements. Lack of sleep, called sleep deprivation, is Acute sleep deprivation leads to the obvious a high stress factor for an individual. It leads harmful physiological effects and altered mental to cognitive deficits, deterioration of memory status of athletes (VanHelder, Radomski, 1989). capacity, lowered immunity, heart problems, Various tests with loads, performed after sleep muscle tremors, increased reaction time etc. deprivation, showed decrease of fatigue onset This affects one’s performance and alertness. time (Myles et al., 1985; Martin, 1981), change In regard to sport, sleep is probably the most in morning levels of different hormones impor- important form of recovery and its absence tant for athletes (Remes et al., 1985) and abnor- has many negative effects on athletes’ perfor- mal metabolism, which hampers the delivery

Journal of Applied Sports Sciences 150 DOI: 10.37393/jass.2019.01.14 2019, Vol. 1, pp. 150 -156 ISSN 2534-9597 (Print), ISSN 2535-0145 (Online) JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 and storage of energy substrates to muscles so dicator - pulse transit time (PTT) (Naschitz, important for endurance (Soussi et al., 2003). 2004). The speed with which this wave trav- The assessment of sleep deprivation is both els is proportional to the rigidity of the arte- subjective and objective. Our goal is always rial wall. An acute rise in sympathetic activity to objectify the problem. In recent years, the which follows an airflow cessation constricts newest technique for sleep investigation has blood vessels, hence, the arterial wall becomes become advanced owing to the introduction stiffer causing the PTT to shorten. This also of more accurate methods and criteria for the interrupts sleep and the result is an increased objective study of sleep deficit. daytime sleepiness. Moreover, it appears that The concept of arousals has a long history autonomic arousal can be used as an early in- that is closely related to the development of dicator of respiratory disorders and cardiovas- the neurophysiology of sleep and wakefulness. cular risk among patients with mild forms of There are different definitions and different the Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA), particu- views on the criteria of their scoring (Schieber larly those with Upper Airway Resistance Syn- et al., 1971; Halász et al., 1979; Terzano et al., drome (UARS) (Pitson, Stradling et al., 1998). 1985; Atlas Task Force, 1992; Lofaso et al., Recurrent episodes of narrowing or com- 1998 etc.). Arousals during sleep are closely plete obstruction of upper airways that char- related to the pathophysiology of sleep disor- acterize OSA cause effects of acute stressors ders. The term “arousal” means a temporary such as hypoxemia, negative intrathoracic condition of awakening during sleep (Atlas pressure, micro-arousals, reoxygenation etc. Task Force, 1992). According to American As- (Caples et al., 2007). sociation of Sleep Medicine (AASM) (1992) There is evidence that people with OSA cortical arousals are pathological phenomena, have chronic impaired regulation of cardiovas- violating the proper functioning of sleep cycles cular homeostasis, as confirmed by disturbed and fragmenting their structure. They are also sympathetic regulation and heart rate variabili- defined as short (3-15 seconds) transient signs ty among OSA patients during the day (Somers of wakefulness during sleep, which in most et al., 1995, Narkiewich et al., 1998). Higher cases is unconscious and does not lead to be- sympathetic activity during autonomous mi- havioral awakening. Arousal stimuli may be of cro-arousal is the earliest indicator of the de- a different nature, but the result is always a sleep velopment of hypertension and increased car- fragmentation, which leads to poor quality in diovascular risk. Detecting autonomic arousals sleep with normal or even increased duration. by means of PTT allows a very elegant, patient Chronologically autonomic arousal pre- friendly and cheap way to assess sleep frag- cedes the cortical one (Catcheside al., 2002; mentation without the need of expensive and Krieger et al., 2003). It is expressed in awaken- time-consuming electroencephalogram (EEG) ing of the “subcortical” level, including the au- registration (Pitson D. et al., 1994). tonomic nervous system. We can judge about autonomic arousal especially on the increased AIM OF THE STUDY sympathetic activation in late apneic episodes. The study was designed to investigate the An important indicator of this is the time in prevalence of UARS and mild OSA among which the pulse wave travels from the aortic athletes from certain sports with the use of valve to the periphery (plethysmographic sen- PTT and to assess consequences for sports sor of the finger). This is a relatively new in- performance and recovery. The goal of the

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PULSE TRANSIT TIME ... K. Rankov present study was to establish whether PTT sleep, daytime fatigue and loud snoring). An can be used as an early indicator of sleep electronic screening device – portable pulse breathing disturbances among young athletes. oximetry instrument (OXY-100) was applied after the inquiry. The most suspicious cases METHODS (n=10) for sleep breathing disturbances un- Subjects derwent full standard overnight polysom- High-performance athletes (wrestlers, sumo nography (PSG) by means of Alice 5 Philips wrestlers and judokas) aged 25±5 years from -Respironics Inc. equipment. the National Sports Academy „Vassil Levski”, Sofia, Bulgaria were recruited for participa- Equipment and measurements tion in the study. Both an informed consent and The polysomnographic recordings consist- an institutional local research ethical approval ed of EEG, electrooculogram, electromyogram, were obtained for the present study. electrocardiogram (ECG), chest wall move- Protocol ment, nasal and oral air flow and oxygen satura- All subjects (67 elite athletes - 27 wres- tion. The following parameters were estimated: tlers – 23 ± 3 years; 15 sumo wrestlers – 23 PTT – the distance from the top of the R- ± 6 years; 10 judokas - 18 ± 4 years) were wave of the ECG to half of the peak of the screened by enquiry for sleep-disordered pulse wave (Plethysmogram) (Figure 1). Nor- breathing (daytime sleepiness, disturbed mal velocity of PTT is 250-280 ms;

Figure 1. Measurement of PTT.

• Apnea/hypopnea index (AHI) – number minimum of 10 sec per hour of sleep; of apneas (cessation of both nasal and oral • Arousal index (ArI) – number of desynchro- airflow for a minimum of 10 seconds), and nizations in EEG for at least 3 sec after 10 sec hypopneas (a reduction in airflow to 50% of period from beginning of given sleep stage. baseline in association with oxygen desatu- Indexes AHI, DI and ArI ≤ 5 are consid- ration) per hour of sleep; ered normal. • Desaturation index (DI) – number of decre- A native PSG record of one of the athletes ment in oxygen saturation below 4% for a is shown in Figure 2.

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Figure 2. Row PSG data. The highlighted cortical arousals (orange), the desaturation (aqua blue) and PTT shortening (gray) are clearly visible. RESULTS norm. We found significant PTT shortening During sleep a normal fluctuation in the with more than 15 ms for sleep stages N1 and value of PTT is observed. The following lev- N2 and with more than 8 ms for stage N3 (Fig- els of PTT, according to the relevant stages of ure 3). In all of the investigated athletes (n=10) sleep, are considered as normal: PTT shorten- PTT shortening was observed, regardless of ing with up to 15 ms for sleep stages N1 and the presence of change in AHI or desaturation N2 and with up to 8 ms for stage N3. changes. This proves the occurrence of respi- Figure 3 shows the PTT drop compared to ratory sleep disturbance in early stage.

Figure 3. PTT shortening for sleep stages N1, N2 and N3 (n=10). We compared PTT shortening in correla- The Pearson correlation analysis demon- tion with AHI, ArI and DI. Pearson correlation strated greater dependence of PTT shortening analysis is shown in Table 1. on ArI than AHI and DI. Correlation between

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PULSE TRANSIT TIME ... K. Rankov

PTT and ArI was very significant (p = .0001). fragmentation (ArI is an indicator of disturbed The correlations PTT/AHI (p = .032) and PTT/ sleep) before the deployment of the clinical DI (p = .017) were also great, but not with as picture of apneic pauses (AHI and DI). PTT is much significance. as good as EEG micro-arousals at predicting Dependence of PTT by ArI means that subjective sleepiness. So PTT detects subcorti- PTT can be used as a good indicator of sleep cal/autonomic arousals. Table 1. Pearson correlation analysis between PTT, AHI, ArI and DI (n=10). PTT AHI ARI DI Pearson 1 .675* .922** .728* PTT Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) 0.032 0 0.017 Pearson .675* 1 .798** .781** AHI Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) 0.032 0.006 0.008 Pearson .922** .798** 1 .847** ARI Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) 0 0.006 0.002 Pearson .728* .781** .847** 1 DI Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) 0.017 0.008 0.002 *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

DISCUSSION 36 hours of sleep deprivation. Elite athletes are not spared the problem of Plasma cortisol levels rise during periods sleep deprivation. In some sports, especially of disturbed sleep and can lead to injuries and judo, heavy athletics, etc. the percentage of overtraining. High levels of cortisol explain those suffering from sleep disorders is higher the increased irritability and irascibility among than that of those not engaged in sport (Rankov sleep-deprived athletes. et al., 2010). Аs we already mentioned above, Sleep deprivation worsens coordination for athletes the loads performed after sleep de- and accuracy in sports like hurdles and sports privation showed a decrease in the fatigue on- games. Another effect is the reduction of reac- set time (Myles et al., 1985; Martin, 1981); and tion time. There is a general deterioration in the period of sensitive perceptions is extended. the sport tactical opportunities and proper ad- Remes, et al. (1985) investigate plasma levels versarial decision making. of certain androgens important for athletes af- Slow-wave sleep is critical for athletes ter 21 km march with 11 well-trained and 11 because it covers part of the cycle in which poorly trained military newcomers after sleep- Human growth hormone is secreted by the deprivation. They found that morning levels pituitary gland. Human growth hormone not of testosterone, luteinizing hormone and an- only has an anabolic effect, but also stimulates drostenedione had significantly diminished af- fat burning and normalization of muscle bio- ter sleep-deprived stress. Souissi et al. (2007) chemistry and therefore is considered as one of monitored anaerobic reduction of force after the key recovery hormones.

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Alternating exercise to sleep and rest is vasive Cardiovascular markers of acoustically an important aspect of the recovery process induced arousal from non-rapid-eye-move- and developing a greater sports opportunity. ment sleep. Sleep. No 25(7), pp. 797-804. Chronic lack of sleep, especially in heavy train- Halász, P., Kundra, O., Rajna, P., Pál, I., ing regime before competition, leads to seri- Vargha, M. (1979). Micro-arousals during ous negative consequences. An active sports nocturnal sleep. Acta Physiol Acad Sci Hung. person needs a longer sleep than the usual 6-9 Vol. 54, No 1, pp. 1-12. hours per day particular of those not engaged Krieger J, Schröder C, Erhardt C. (2003). in sport. Cortical arousal, autonomic arousal. Evalua- Among young athletes, sleep breathing tion techniques and clinical importance. Rev disorders are characterized by discrete chang- Neurol (Paris). No 159 (11 Suppl), pp. 6S107- es. The standard screening methods for these 112. Review. French. sleep disturbances detect airflow change (AHI) Lofaso, F., Goldenberg, F., d‘Ortho, M.P., or saturation changes (DI). Based on correla- Coste, A., Harf A. (1998). Arterial blood pres- tion analysis, however, we found that changes sure response to transient arousals from NREM in these parameters are at later stage of disease sleep in nonapneic snorers with sleep fragmen- development and are unreliable for early ob- tation. Chest. Vol. 113, No 4, pp. 985-991. servation of sleep deprivation. Martin, B.J. (1981). Effect of sleep depri- vation on tolerance of prolonged exercise Eur CONCLUSION J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. Vol. 47, No 4, PTT proves a reliable, easy to use, non- pp. 345-354. invasive and inexpensive method for early Myles, W.S., (1985). Med. Sleep depriva- screening of sleep breathing disorders. There- tion, physical fatigue, and the perception of fore, we strongly recommend its wide use in exercise intensity. Sci. Sports Exerc. Vol. 17, monitoring athletes’ sleep. No. 4, pp. 580-584. In conclusion - prevention and advanced Narkiewicz, K., Pesek, C.A., Kato, M., detection of discrete sleep deprivation with Phillips, B.G., Davison, D.E., Somers, V.K. the use of relatively simple methods would (1998). Baroreflex control of sympathetic undoubtedly help answer many questions re- nerve activity and heart rate in obstructive lated to poor recovery in sport. The adequate sleep apnea. Hypertension. Vol. 32, No 6, treatment of the problem of sleep deprivation pp.1039-1043. would improve not only performance but also Naschitz JE, Bezobchuk S, Mussafia- athletes’ quality of life. Priselac R, Sundick S, Dreyfuss D, Khorshidi REFERENCES I, Karidis A, Manor H, Nagar M, Peck ER, Atlas Task Force of the American Sleep Peck S, Storch S, Rosner I, Gaitini L. (2004). Disorders Association. (1992). Sleep., Vol. 15, Pulse transit time by-wave-gated infrared pho- No 2, pp. 173-184. toplethysmography: review of the literature Caples, S.M., Garcia-Touchard, A., and personal experience. J Clin Monit Com­ Somers, V.K. (2007). Sleep-disordered breath- put. No 18 (5-6), pp. 333-342. Review. ing and cardiovascular risk. Sleep., Vol. 30, Pitson, D., Chhina, N., Knijn, S., van Her- No 3, pp. 291-303. Review. waaden, M., Stradling, J. (1994). Changes in Catcheside PG, Chiong SC, Mercer J, pulse transit time and pulse rate as markers of Saunders NA, McEvoy RD. (2002). Nonin- arousal from sleep in normal subjects. Clin Sci

155 PULSE TRANSIT TIME

PULSE TRANSIT TIME ... K. Rankov

(Lond). Vol. 87, No 2, pp. 269-273. potential clinical applications. Thorax. Vol. 54, Pitson, D.J., Stradling, J.R., Pitson, D.J., pp. 452–457. Stradling, J.R. (1998). Autonomic markers Somers, V.K., Dyken, M.E., Clary, M.P., of arousal during sleep in patients undergo- Abboud, F.M. (1995). Sympathetic neural ing investigation for obstructive sleep apnoea, mechanisms in obstructive sleep apnea. J Clin their relationship to EEG arousals, respiratory Invest. Vol. 96, No 4, pp. 1897-1904. events and subjective sleepiness. J Sleep Res. Souissi, N., Bessot, N., Chamari, K., Vol. 7, No 1, pp. 53-59. Gauthier, A., Sesboüé, B., Davenne, D. (2007). Rankov, Kr., Nikolova, M., Stanchev, N., Effect of time of day on aerobic contribution Mihajlov, V., Kirov, P. (2010). Sleep apnea prev- to the 30-s Wingate test performance. Chrono­ alence among elite athletes, Sport&Science, biol Int. Vol. 24, No 4, pp. 739-748. Extra issue. Souissi, N., Sesboüé, B., Gauthier, A., Remes K., Kuoppasalmi, K., Adlercreutz, Larue, J., Davenne, D. (2003). Effects of one H. (1985). Effect of Physical Exercise and night‘s sleep deprivation on anaerobic perfor- Sleep Deprivation on Plasma Androgen Lev- mance the following day. Eur J Appl Physiol., els: Modifying Effect of Physical Fitness. Int J Vol. 89, No 3-4, pp. 359-366. Sports Med., Vol. 6, No 3, pp. 131-135. Terzano, M.G., Mancia, D., Salati, M.R., Schieber, J.P., Muzet, A., Ferriere, P.J. Costani, G., Decembrino, A., Parrino, L. (1971). Phases of spontaneous transitory ac- (1985). The cyclic alternating pattern as a tivation during normal sleep in humans. Arch physiologic component of normal NREM Sci Physiol (Paris). Vol. 25, No 4, pp. 443-465. sleep. Sleep. Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 137-145. French. VanHelder, T., Radomski., M.W. (1989). Smith, R.P., Argod, J., Pepin, J.L., Levy, Sleep deprivation and the effect on exercise P.A. (1999). Pulse transit time: an appraisal of performance. Sports Med, Vol. 4, pp. 235-247.

Corresponding author:

Krassimir Rankov Department of Physiology and Biochemistry National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski” Studentski grad, 21, Acad. Stefan Mladenov str. Sofia 1700, Bulgaria E-mail: [email protected]

156 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 GENERAL HEALTH PREDICTION FROM BURNOUT AND EMPLOYMENT STATUS OF PRIVATE HEALTH AND FIT- NESS CENTERS’ EMPLOYEES Yannis Georgiou1, Aggeliki Fotiou2 1 School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece 2Business Administration, Hellenic Open University, Patras, Greece

ABSTRACT The aim of the present study was to investigate the prediction of the General Health from Burnout Syndrome’s (BS) dimensions, and from the employment status of the private health and fitness center employees. We used a stratified random sampling method, and a sample of 205 private health and fitness centers employees completed the Maslach Burnout Inventory–Gen­ eral Survey (MBI–GS), and the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12), and the Demographic Questionnaire. The statistical analysis showed that gender and employment status do not predict decrease in General Health (GH) levels, while exhaustion and depersonalization dimensions of BS create the background for emergence of the GH levels’ decrease.

Key words: Health, Burnout, Employment status

INTRODUCTION problems (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). According to Shirom (2005), the concept of The contemporary theory of BS provides a syndrome refers to a set of signs and symp- a framework within which can be understood toms that characterize a particular malfunc- the relationship between the employees’ par- tion. Burnout Syndrome (BS) is characterized ticular characteristics and the working envi- by emotional exhaustion, depersonalization/ ronment, in which this dynamic phenomenon cynicism and reduced professional achieve- evolves (Maslach & Leiter, 2008; Schaufeli & ments and is derived from chronic exposure to Bakker, 2004). Certain features of the occupa- stressors (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001). tional environment can be seen as contributing Occupational factors that act as stressors factors to the emergence of BS. One of the key are referred both in the personal and the work- determinants of health and BS is employees’ ing environment variables. Chronic exposure employment status. As an example, flexible to these factors leads to chronic stress, to the forms of work, which do not include stable manifestation of BS, and to a negative effect work structures such as part-time or fixed-term concerning the physical, the psychological employment contracts, have often been de- and the mental health of the employee. The scribed as insecure forms of employment and three-dimensional syndrome is responsible have been linked to the risk of specific health for a multitude of physical, psychological and problems (Armaou & Antoniou, 2011). mental-intellectual disorders, which lower the The rapid increase in flexible forms of em- general health’s levels. The employees’ health, ployment and unemployment could be con- in the physical, the psychological and the men- sidered the most important development in tal level, is at stake. Based on research results, the structure of the employment and the labor BS is closely linked to the emergence of health market during the crisis’ years in Greece. The

Journal of Applied Sports Sciences 157 DOI: 10.37393/jass.2019.01.15 2019, Vol. 1, pp. 157 -163 ISSN 2534-9597 (Print), ISSN 2535-0145 (Online) GENERAL HEALTH PREDICTION ... Y. Georgiou, A. Fotiou significant effects of this increase have been Mather, Lindfors, Bergström, & Blom, 2018). highlighted in numerous studies and are un- In addition to insecurity, part-time employ- doubtedly linked to the deterioration of the ees are likely to experience other psychologi- living conditions of a significant part of the cal pressures. These may come from the social country’s population. Flexible forms of em- isolation imposed on them by their colleagues, ployment, i.e. part-time and labor rotation are the limitation of the autonomy and the control stabilized in the preferences of the employers they wish to practice and implement on their and businesses, since they account for a per- work, their stigmatization by others for lack of centage more than 50% over the past 4 years. a similar level of skills, and finally the lack of Similarly, full-time recruitment is steadily de- support in general, by their counterparts and clining, since their percentage is reduced from the management of the organization in which 79% in 2009 to 45% in 2017. At the same time they work (Crozier & Davidson, 2009). Such the percentage of new recruits with flexible experiences can make a significant contribu- forms of employment is more than doubled. tion to increasing levels of perceived stress on While in 2009 flexible working forms’ recruit- part-time employees and are closely linked to ment were up to 21% of the total recruitment, the emergence of BS. in 2017 they corresponded to 54.9% (INE- On the other hand, there is a long list of sci- GSEE, 2018). Services, as a privileged area entific research on different types and results for the development of flexible forms of em- which agreed that there is a strong relation be- ployment, have been identified in the relevant tween BS and employment status. Some of the literature (Efstratoglou, 2015, 2017). authors present in their results a statistically sig- Part-time or temporary employment, which nificant difference between full-time and part- can be defined as an employee having a con- time employment, concerning BS subscales. tract which is clearly limited in time and with Such a survey is this of Cao and Naruse (2019), a specific end date, compared to permanent among health care hospital employees, where employment status, is associated with feelings it was found that the full-time nurses reported of insecurity in the occupational environment, significantly higher exhaustion and deperson- increased levels of sadness, somatization, de- alization scores than the part-time nurses. Na- pression, anxiety and hostility (Crozier & Da- ruse, Taguchi, Kuwahara, Nagata, Watai and vidson, 2009; Probst, 2011). Moreover, part- Murashima (2012), presented higher scores in time employees experience far less sense of exhaustion of full-time home visiting nurses in commitment to the organization in which they their survey results. Some other results establish work and are involved in withdrawal behav- that part-time employees are more likely to ex- iors such as absence from work (Oke, Braith- perience job dissatisfaction, stress, and burnout waite, & Antai, 2016), slow pace of work or (Toh, Ang, & Devi, 2012) and especially higher even the avoidance of fulfilling their work du- levels of both emotional exhaustion and deper- ties (Probst, 2011). There are also ambiguous sonalization than staff members who work full- research results where temporary employment time (Van der Colff & Rothmann, 2014). was associated with an increased risk of absen- World Health Organization (WHO) defined teeism due to sickness, while both part-time health as a global state of complete physical, employment and self-employment were as- mental, and social well-being, and absence sociated with a lower risk when compared to of disease as well as presence of well-being full-time employment (Helgadóttir, Svedberg, (WHO, 1948). General health is a multidimen-

158 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 sional state which consists of physical, mental participants, 82.9% (81 men and 89 women) and social variables which are extremely influ- belong to the 18-37 age group and 17.1% (23 ential on individual’s quality of life (Lazarou men and 12 women) are aged 38 to 67 years. & Patsantaras 2013, Kamberidou & Patsanta- The age groups are based in the split of the ras, 2007). Although there is no agreement of working life until the age of 67 years with 45 the scholars globally, concerning the meaning years of working life, when you can get a pen- of social health and an internationally accept- sion, in three periods. The first period includes able way to measure it, there is a complex link, 4 years of education. So, if it starts at the age which is accepted from the majority of the re- of 18 as an adult and with 4 years of study, then searchers of the field, between psychopathology the first period ends when one is 37 years old. and physical and social health (Larson 1993). The second is from 38-53 and the third is from In Greece there is an increasing research 54-67 or even 69 years old if somebody needs interest, concerning burnout in sports envi- to complete the prerequisites for pension. In ronment (Georgiou, Patsantaras, Koustelios, terms of employment status, 51.2% (60 men & Antoniou, 2017; Koustelios, 2010; Kous- and 45 women) are permanent employees and telios, Zounatzi, & Karabatzaki, 2012), both 48.8% (44 men and 56 women) are of a cer- in the public and in the private health and fit- tain contract employment. A total of 50.7% ness centers. There is still no clear image of (54 men and 50 women) declared full-time the prediction factors of the General Health of employment, 29.3% (35 men and 25 women) private health and fitness centers employees part-time employment and 20% (15 men and from burnout subscales and employment sta- 26 women) were with hourly wage payment. tus. The aim of this study was to investigate A total of 81.5% (167) were hired as an expert the prediction of General Health from BS and staff member, 10.2% (21 persons) were own- employment status among in employees in pri- ers or partners and the rest were of different vate health and fitness centers, in the region of supporting duties (technicians, general duties, Attica, Greece. Based on the previous discus- etc.). A total of 72.7% (149 persons) had a sion, it was expected that burnout dimensions Higher Education degree, 10.2% (21 persons) and employment status would be predictive were Technical Institutes graduates, 11.7% (24 factors of General Health. persons) had a Secondary Education, 3.4% (7 persons) had completed postgraduate studies, METHODOLOGY (1 person) had a PhD and 1.5% (3 persons) had A total of 205 individuals, 104 male a Compulsory Education Certificate. A total of (50.7%) and 101 female (49.3%) employees 70.7% (82 men and 63 women) were Physical of private health and fitness centers participat- Education experts and 29.3% (22 men and 38 ed in this study. With regard to the age of the women) declared other specialties. Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the participants Males Females Total n % n % n % Gender 104 50.7 101 49.3 205 100 Age 18-37 81 89 170 82.9 38-67 23 12 35 17.1 Employment Status Permanent 60 45 105 51.2

159 GENERAL HEALTH PREDICTION ... Y. Georgiou, A. Fotiou

Determined contract 44 56 100 48.8 Full-time 54 50 104 50.7 Part-time 35 25 60 29.3 Hourly wage paid 16 25 41 20 Staff Experts 167 81.5 Owners - partners 21 10.2 Several 17 8.3 Education Secondary Education 24 11.7 Technical Institutes gradu- ates 21 10.2 Higher Education 149 72.2 Post graduate 7 3.4 PhD 1 0.5 Compulsory Education Certificate 3 1.5 P.E. Experts Yes 82 63 145 70.7 No 22 38 60 29.3 Instruments in this study was α = .77. The score was used Three instruments were used in this study. to generate a total score ranging from 0 to 36, The Maslach Burnout Inventory - General Sur- with higher scores indicating worse conditions vey (MBI - GS) (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, of general health. Demographic variables 1996) used in its Greek version (Antoniou consisted of questions, including gender, age, and Xenou, 2008) for the measurement of BS. marital status, and work contract. The questionnaire which consists of 16 ques- The demographic questionnaire contained tions, evaluates the three dimensions of the general questions about demographic vari- syndrome, as five questions refer to emotional ables such as gender, age of the participants, exhaustion, six questions refer to deperson- specialty, and the years of employment in the alization, and five questions refer to personal current employer, their education level, and achievements. Respondents expressed their their marital status. opinion on a seven-point scale, where 1 meant The method chosen to measure burnout “never” and 7 “every day”. The credibility of was that of self-completed questionnaires. Re- internal consistency was found to be satisfac- searchers contacted health and fitness centers tory for emotional exhaustion α = .83, de-rep- owners to ask for their contribution in the re- resentation α = .71, and personal achievements search. After the owners’ granting agreement, α = .81. researchers delivered questionnaire packages The General Health Questionnaire (GHQ- to them so as to distribute them to their employ- 12) (Goldberg & Williams, 1988) consists of ees. The questionnaires included an introduc- 12 items, each assessing the severity of a men- tion letter which informed all possible partici- tal problem over the past few weeks using a pants that their participation was completely 4-point scale (from 0 to 3). The scale points voluntary, and the individual responses would are described as follow: “less than usual”, “no be held in confidence. The questionnaires were more than usual”, “rather more than usual”, distributed and collected by the health and fit- “much more than usual”. The alpha coefficient ness centers’ owners so as the researchers nev-

160 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 er to come in contact with employees. The data multiple regression was used with the enter were analyzed with the Statistical Package for method. In the first step gender entered, in the the Social Sciences. Descriptive statistics and second the employment status and in the third regression analysis were chosen as the most one the BS subscales (emotional exhaustion, appropriate statistical procedures for the pur- depersonalization and personal achievements). poses of this study. As shown in Table 1, emotional exhaustion β = .35, t = 5.09, p < .001 and depersonalization RESULTS AND ANALYSIS of β = .17, t = 2.48, p < .01 contribute posi- In order to investigate the question regard- tively to the deterioration of the overall health ing the statistical prediction of the health con- status with overall contribution R2 = 18%. The dition (dependent variable) of the participants Personal Accomplishments factor fails to con- from the factors of BS, gender and employ- tribute to predicting the general health status ment status (independent variables), a stepwise (see Table 2). Table 2. Regression analysis of the General Health from Burnout subscales General Health Prediction factors β t R2 F 1. Gender -0.09 -1.32 0.01 2.00 2. Work status -0.03 0.52 0.004 0.73 3. Burnout Emotional Exhaustion 0.35*** 5.09 0.18 14.98*** Depersonalization 0.17** 2.48 Personal Accomplishments -0.04 0.62 Note: ** p < .01. *** p < .001 DISCUSSION suffering (Keyes, 2002). The aim of this study was to investigate Employment status does not seem to be a the prediction of General Health from the sub- predictor variable of General Health. The re- scales of BS and from the employment status. sults showed that part-time employment does The results of the study confirmed the relation- not give any statistically significant prediction ship between BS and GH levels. The findings for the General Health. are consistent with the hypothesis that BS and The present study had some limitations. particularly the dimensions of exhaustion and The sample was selected only from private depersonalization are predictors of impaired health and fitness centers. Private health and health (Schaufeli & Buunk, 2002). Psycholog- fitness centers are only part of the sports indus- ical and mental imbalance affects an individ- try spectrum and there is a good opportunity ual’s social health causing bad moods, among to extend the research within different sport other things, which lead to negative perfor- workplaces. Using only self-report question- mance in his/her social roles (as employees, naires, one must be cautious about common professionals, parents, etc.) and consequently methods bias. Furthermore, the variables were difficulties in adjusting to his/her social envi- measured at only one point in time. Longitu- ronment. Psychological and mental imbalance dinal design can help in better understanding – as a persistent and substantial deviation from of the impact of job burnout to the employees’ healthy functioning - impairs the execution of health among sports service professionals. social roles and it is associated with emotional

161 GENERAL HEALTH PREDICTION ... Y. Georgiou, A. Fotiou

REFERENCES egsee.gr/ekdosi/apascholisi-kai-epaggelmata- Antoniou, A-S. & Xenou, M. (2008). Effects to-neo-aiona-stin-ellada/. of Burnout Syndrome on Employees’ General General Confederation of Greek Employ- Health Levels and Stress Management Strate- ees (GSEE) – Institute of Labor (ΙΝΕ). (2018). gies, in BURNOUT - Occupational Exposure Greek Economy and Employment. Annual Syndrome, Research Approaches. (Auth. Alex- report 2018 [In Greek]. Retrieved on the 19th andros-Stamatios Antoniou). Thessaloniki: of May 2019 from https://www.inegsee.gr/ University Studio Press. [In Greek]. ISBN13 ekdosi/etisia-ekthesi-2018-ine-gsee-i-elliniki- 9789601217062. ikonomia-ke-i-apascholisi/. Armaou, M. & Antoniou, S-A. (2011). Georgiou, Y. S., Patsantaras, N., Koustelios, The changing world of work and occupa- A., & Antoniou, A-S. (2017). Burnout, Gen- tional health, In A-S. Antoniou & G. Coo- eral Health and Coping Strategies among Em- per (Eds.), New Directions in Organiza- ployees in Private Health and Fitness Centers. tional Psychology and Behavioral Medicine International Journal of Humanities & Social (43-61). Gower Applied Research. https://doi. Studies, 5(3), 252-257. org/10.4324/9781315597942. Helgadóttir, B., Svedberg, P., Mather, L., Cao, X. & Naruse, T. (2018). Effect of time Lindfors, P., Bergström, G., & Blom, V. (2018). pressure on the burnout of home‐visiting The association between part-time and tem- nurses: The moderating role of relational co- porary employment and sickness absence: ordination with nursing managers. Japan Jour- a prospective Swedish twin study. European nal of Nursing Science. https://doi.org/10.1111/ journal of public health, 29(1), 147-153. DOI: jjns.12233. 10.2307/3090197. Crozier, S. E. & Davidson, M. J. (2009). The Keyes, C. L. M. (2002). The Mental Health challenges facing the temporary workforce: Continuum: From Languishing to Flourishing an examination of stressors, well-being out- in Life. Journal of Health and Social Research, comes and gender differences. In Antoniou, C. 43:207-222. DOI: 10.2307/3090197. Cooper, G. Chrousos, C. Spielberger, & M. Ey- Koustelios, A. (2010). Burnout among senck. Handbook of Managerial Behavior and football coaches in Greece. Biology of Exercise, Occupational Health (206-217). Northamp- 6(1), 47-54. ton, USA: Edward Elgar. ISBN 1848447213, Koustelios, A., Zournatzi, E., & Karabatza- 978184844721. ki, D. (2012). Burnout and autonomy among Efstratoglou, A. (2015). Economic cri- Phy sical Education teachers in Greece. In ter- sis, flexible forms of employment and national Journal of Physical Education, 2. productivity in the sectors of the Greek Maslach, C., Jackson S. E., & Leiter M. P. economy, Study 36, Economic and Social (1996). Maslach Burnout Inventory Manual Developments, GSEE Institute of Labor [In 3rd ed. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psycholo- Greek]. Retrieved on the 19th of May 2019 gists Press. from https://www.inegsee.gr/wp-content/up- Maslach, C., & Leiter, M. P. (2008). The loads/2016/02/MELETH-36.pdf. truth about burnout: how organizations cause Efstratoglou, A. (2018). Employment and personal stress and what to do about it (2nd occupations of the New Century in Greece. Eds.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. ISBN GSEE Institute of Labor [In Greek]. Retrieved 978-0-78790-874-4. on the 19th of May 2019 from https://www.in- Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B. & Leiter, M.

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Corresponding author:

Yannis S. Georgiou National and Kapodistrian University of Athens Physical Education and Sport Science 43, Ethnikis Antistaseos av., Dafni, Athens, Attica 17237, Greece E-mail: [email protected]

163 STANDARTS AND DYNAMICS ... E. Karanfilov STANDARTS AND DYNAMICS IN SPORTS WEBSITES ONLINE EDITING Efrem Karanfilov Sofia University „St. Kliment Ohridski”, Bulgaria

ABSTRACT This text covers theoretical and practical problems of the sport’s editor work in the conditions of media convergence. It provides analysis of issues, such as the trustworthiness of journalistic sources, the use of the social networks, the editor’s new functions and responsibilities. Another approach is the tendency for emphasizing more on the visualization as a message, which reveals completely new influence over the perception of the information and its influence for mind shaping among the society. The methods of research are based on content analyses, comparative analyses and historical review. The main researched objects are the technology of editing and framing the information in the modern media. The text combines theoretical knowledge and description of typical practical solutions, which editors may wish to apply in their day-to-day work. The main importance is given to presenting the rules and practices which combine the jour­ nalistic principles and the requirements of the technologies, which are challenging the personal­ ity of the journalists to have a wider and deeper all round preparation both in the humanitarian area and in the specific aspects of sport competition, and second – the operation skills, taking into consideration the modern aesthetical and technological tendencies in the media based on Internet communications. The research is based on the keys of media journalism in Bulgaria and selected media from Europe and USA from the recent years. It is the first investigation in the field of online editing in the sports media in Bulgaria and will serve as a guideline for further scientific research. It is also considered to be informative for the methodical practical preparation of sports journalists.

Key words: Sports journalism, editing, trustworthiness of sources, headline variability, facts check-up

INTRODUCTION job is editing, selecting topics and presenting There is no need to prove the link between them in a manner most accessible to the audi- media and sports. It is obvious and constitutes ence. This is the big responsibility of a sports an integral part of the social impact of sports. journalist and journalism in the contemporary Every achievement, sports record or victory is society. made known to the public through the media. It is a challenge in the modern changing This is a key reason why many ex-sports-per- world for an online editor to epitomize the sons would opt for sports journalism after they main skills indispensable to the sports media end up their active career. As it is well known, while the new technologies require a com- to be an anchor, author and sports caster is the pletely different qualitative and conceptional facade and the most popular aspect of a sports approach of online journalism. journalist’s profession. But the basic part of the

Journal of Applied Sports Sciences 164 DOI: 10.37393/jass.2019.01.16 2019, Vol. 1, pp. 164 -179 ISSN 2534-9597 (Print), ISSN 2535-0145 (Online) JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019

New challenge lysed this process. It was not so far back over the years, in Today, journalism and the Internet are 1992, when, with AOL support, the Chicago closely interconnected. It might be symboli- Tribune uploaded its first information pages on cally described as a marriage of convenience, the web. A year later, the San Jose Mercury where classical journalism retreats from its po- News became the first edition granting free sition to gain the advantage of immediate re- online access to its readership. The relation- sponse to events, so that readers get the infor- ship between the media and the Internet started mation right away. The big global crisis which coyly, went through various stages and devel- struck the printed media, however, shows how oped rapidly. There were triumphant times, but much journalism had actually lost in terms of also times of doubts whether they were made jobs, falling circulation, a shrinking share of for each other. In 2000, the CNN employed ad income. Meanwhile, a number of editions 750 staff members for the television’s interac- overcame the effects of the shock. tive division (as it used to be called back then). The journalism-Internet bonding faced edi- Newspapers followed in the wake. Over 60 tors with new professional challenges, mostly journalists worked only for the Internet version related to checking the credibility of online cir- of the Wall Street Journal, 50 were employed culated information, the elimination of the so for the USA Today, 40 joined the New York called “fake news” disseminated in the pursuit Times (DeTarle, 2006). The media’s “jump” of certain political or economic interests. Also, into the network was not a financially lucra- “civil journalism’ appeared as a reflection of tive move. The New York Times, the flagman of readers” square refusal to be the mere passive American journalism, had a 50-million-dollar consumers of information. Special attention loss in the same year resulting only from the had to be given to social networks as the pool redeployment and management of online jour- for winning a broader readership, but also as nalistic resource. Users were few and so were a vast information resource, which could be ads. utilised with caution and measure. In 2003, the media-technologies affair had Purpose and objectives of the study its sudden upturn. Web 2.0 was launched al- This research aims to present the tenden- lowing for a qualitative technical upgrade. cies of development of online editing in sports ADSL networks were in mass distribution. journalism concerning the development of the They handled the transfer of large data vol- modern media technologies and their reflec- umes to people with ease and speed. The tion over the classical methods of editing in Google search engine was launched making it sports journalism. easier than ever to locate online content. Large Major attention will be given to presenting photo and music platforms became operation- the different models of contemporary online al, such as Flickr and YouTube. Amazon and editing techniques in the media. eBay established themselves as the first giant e-trade brands. The world took a sudden turn Main thesis and hypothesis of the research to its virtual self and journalism had nothing Modern sports journalism is a dynamic else to do but follow it. The mass penetration profession which is challenged from the rapid, of contemporary mobile phones allowed ac- multicultural, and social development of sport cess to everything for everybody, the incred- as a world phenomenon undertaking new func- ible spread of the social networks only cata- tions in its social impact of the modern civili-

165 STANDARTS AND DYNAMICS ... E. Karanfilov zation. At the same time, the technological and does not mean to tell the truth, but to render conceptual development of modern media as a best approximation of it. When sports jour- factor for designing the mind and behavior of nalists in a particular edition (print or online) the societies, its concentration in international try to approximate the truth in every text they media industry is placing the sport journalist write, this means that the edition is a reliable in a very dynamic and responsible position – source. It can be trusted and quoted. Mostly to operate and design information. The sport because reliability is not a one-off act, but cor- journalist now must accept the idea of life-long responds to the mission, the essence and the learning and gaining knowledge, skills and ex- style of the edition. perience not only about the great diversity of Certain western surveys have introduced sport as cultural phenomenon, but also about the term “credibility” (Wathen et Burkell, the editing, framing and presenting the great 2002). They maintain that “The credibility of amount of information about the development a message is the result of the interaction be­ of modern sport. This is why, the modern sport tween the characteristics of a source and those journalist must be prepared to operate techni- of the recipient” (cultural background, initial cally with information and be capable to con- attitudes, etc). Reich subscribes to a similar vey the messages dealing with the native so- statement (Reich, 2011). cio cultural function of sport as phenomenon Life in the Clickstream, a report by Este, in the modern civilization, to spread human Warren et al. (2010), reveals and analyses the values, and to give the society and especially results of indicative polls. In Australia, radio the young generation the strive for perfection, stations have earned the greatest share of pub- moral skills aiming to create a more peaceful lic confidence – 84%, respectively, 81% of the world. audience trust the Internet, 80% trust televi- sion and 70% trust the printed media. Europe- METHODS an surveys reveal more shocking results. The Checking information sources, concepts, Gallard et Petit TNS barometer (2015) shows and research that 57% believe that the radio provides them Contemporary online journalism presumes with credible information, while only 35% “piling dead stock in the editorial office” (Es- trust websites. tienne, 2007), whereby the perception of mod- Regular social surveys in all EU member ern information sources is getting more and states show similar results. Radio is the pub- more „visualised” (Davis, 2009). This new lic trust leader with over 50%, followed by pace of work, the avalanche amassment of the the printed media with 45%, televisions with information flow, the social networks – it all 42% and websites rank last with only 33% pertains to the issue of source credibility, in- (Eurobaromеter 72, 2009, 2011, 2015). Doz- asmuch as the presentation of facts could be ens of similar surveys present similar data. A trusted and correspond to the objective truth large share of the audience obtains informa- about the event occurring. tion from the web but mistrusts the sources. I would uphold that achieving full objec- The audience trusts certain editions or certain tiveness is a hard thing. To say the least, a jour- people. nalist conveys reality in words or photography In my opinion, the reason for these results, and chooses what to voice and what to silence. which reveal people’s lack of certainty about To abide by professional standards though, online information, is that this information is

166 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 not reliable, it is not secure, it is not “credible”. brought the continents, states and “hot spots” closer, while through the social networks, (al- The verification problem in journalism most) every human being has become a broad- Every specialist in the profession would caster of information. This is a fact because be aware that the problem arises mostly from a mobile phone with an inbuilt Internet con- time pressure. The major tools for verification, nection can be used both as a telephone and a writing and editing are the same as in printed tuner, it can receive photos, radio and televi- journalism, but on the Internet it all happens sion transmissions. These changes have creat- (as a technological process) over a critically ed the opportunity for developing new content abridged timescale. Competing to be the first and services and have dramatically changed who posted the news in the media market often consumer behavior, as well as the media-con- triggers a violation of good practices. sumer relationship, which has become inter- Moreover, most web pages have less “lev- active - consumers have become “the media” els of review” and “validation” for a text than and the media have begun to use consumers’ printed media. Editors are overloaded with messages. more tasks and, adding the time pressure, we Sometimes photography and a summary have the reasons for errors, impressions, post- of a “hot event” (an accident, a terrorist act, ing unchecked information, etc. a murder, etc.) which are, naturally, subjec- It is an interesting fact that information tive and often imprecise and not based on agencies tend to occupy a yet bigger share in trusted and verified sources, would appear in the transfer of information to the end user. Web- the social networks before even the best global sites act as intermediaries and they often rely agencies’ response. Sometimes, however, this on the fact that their colleagues have already information is the same as the one an agency checked the initial information which does not would publish in the first minutes of a certain always occur in practice. Also, journalists of- unforeseen event. ten seek tacit assistance from their competitors However, an eye-witness has already post- by finding out if they have checked and pub- ed a video on the networks, which was seen lished the information. and shared by thousands and any follow-up Another source of information has also information from an agency or any other me- emerged for journalists, which is tending to dia is treated as secondary, no matter it may less and less be treated as merely “a source of contain the exact number of victims. information” pending to be checked and vali- More and more editors-in-chief or editors- dated by journalists. It is beginning to trans- in-charge would assign journalists with com- form into the „editor-in-chief” – the social ments and analysis of topics spurring the most networks. comments of “likes” in the social networks. Due to the radical change brought forth Where do we draw the boundaries of editorial by information technologies not merely in the policy then, what about the social function of area of communications, but in any sector of the media? The news of a blood-soaked kill- human life, the world has “shrunk”. The pen- ing would gather a much higher number of etration of new technologies has changed the readings on the Internet than the debate over market, the impact of the branches of power a differentiated VAT rate for Bulgarian books. and consumer behavior. Therefore, the need for a healthier dosing of The new generation of mobile phones has the networks dictates the “rating” of news,

167 STANDARTS AND DYNAMICS ... E. Karanfilov which are to be delved into, analyzed and com- con duc ting a check: through hyperlinks and mented on. There is no accurate prescription metadata analysis, an IP address check, where for the ratio; it depends on editors’ preparation possible. In the case of suspicious photos or and experience. videos, specialized software could be used Not a single editor or a website would err to check if they have been tampered or even if they based their actions on healthy skepti­ to trace the transformations a certain image cism and on the basic founding rules of press might have undergone. journalism. The Internet has given us a lot of oppor- There are different techniques for checking tunities, but it has gradually transformed part information sources on the Internet. As a first- of the profession in desktop journalism, which step, New York Times journalist Stephen Miller acts as the intermediary between the reader- suggests checking MIDIS (Miller Internet Data ship and the information sources. In any case, Integrity Scale), a website scale. It is based on some more healthy skepticism to the news flow the website URL extension. The author claims will always be of good use. This rule applies that the most reliable sites are those ending in mostly to the editorial websites claiming to “gov”, “govt” or in national acronyms, such disseminate true and verified information, and as “bg”. These are followed by the websites of not to those with the fake news, rumors or sen­ various organizations or interest groups end- sations. ing in “org”, “net”, etc. The author warns that Civil journalism and the editorial process they might often defend private interests. The The beginning of the 21st century saw real sites ending in ‘com’, ‘co’, etc. are labeled as disruptions in journalism. It was not merely the least reliable. Other researchers (Friend and existence of the Internet. The dissemination of Singer, 2007) accept this qualification without modern technologies lead to two new phenom- claiming that it is universally applicable. ena: civil journalism and the social networks. If editors look for information on the web People have already abandoned their pas- and come across a certain website, they should sive-news-consumer patterns but began to ne cessarily ask themselves the following ques- create media content themselves. The media tions: themselves have evolved from their full domi- Who works for it? Most websites have a nance over information to a domain shared “Who are we?”, “About”, “Team”, etc. tab. with readers. This process resulted in actual If no such reference is available and there is changes of the conventional labor organization only an e-mail for contacts, the irregularity schemes and audience public relations. A lot of suspicion is confirmed. A website contain- practices have changed. „Journalism and the ing only unsigned information postings and journalist as a professional had become the comments is more than suspicious. focal point of a transformation, which chal­ Who says this? The website must provide op - lenges the customs and traditions untouched portunities to trace back quoted information: by today, whereby the civil media hold the cen­ a governmental department, an insti tu tion, a tral position.” (Shudson, 2003). public figure, another website. There are various opinions about the origin When was this website last updated? This is of „civil journalism”. Some say (Curran and also an important indication about its per- Seaton, 2010) that it shares certain features formance. of the reformation newspapers in England at Of course, there are also other ways of the beginning of the 19th century. The journal-

168 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 ists in those papers „proclaimed themselves news” (Bowman and Willis, 2003). Of course, non-professionals but stood rather as people dozens of definitions exist, and they have their upholding a civil position” (Harrison and Bar- scientific value. thel, 2009) maintain almost the same view Readers enjoy a growing share in drafting believing that even back then, citizens some- the media agenda. But not an absolute one. In how assisted in the creation of media products 2011, a survey was conducted among 20 na- „for the benefit of community initiatives and tional dailies in 10 EU member states. The goal social products”. It is interesting to observe was to study the audience participation in the that the desire for equality between a journalist creation of the final product. The process was and the audience emerged in the USA private split in the following stages: access and moni- radio stations, as propounded by “New Jour­ toring, selection and filtering, processing and nalism” and the local media in the US in the publishing and interpretation. The results were 60s (Paullussen et al., 2007). Others (Douglas, similar, and they showed that “the first and the 2006) state that ‘Civil journalism was born on last stages were most open to reader participa­ 7 July 2005’. This was the date of the London tion” (Singer, 2011). This shows that the true subway attacks. There were no official shots, publishing process was left to the professional but the BBC was overwhelmed by 22 thousand editors. Along the same lines, all ranking sys- text messages and 300 photographs and videos tems have adopted the criterion of “most read” by eye-witnesses. The corporation had been or “most commented on” text as an important, showing these for a full day and according to but not a critical one for the editorial. Defi- the author „this was the first official amassment nitely, the number of visits to a certain website of information and its use in official channels”. and the span of readers’ attention for a certain Practice reveals that this was the right deci- text have an influence on advertisers, but do sion. Williams (Williams et al., 2010) summa- not play a decisive reason. rizes that ‘The BBC choice then was in favor The combination of professionally pro- of the audience revolution.” Although it was cessed information products and user-prompt- exactly the BBC, which had been blamed of ed content seems to be the best-balanced using information from Twitter in its coverage com promise between the time for checking a of the Bombay 2008 attacks, the corporation particular fact and its publication. If the me­ continues its practice of referring to unofficial dia do not want to spread rumors and inven­ information sources. tions and if editors want to work professionally Nowadays, we can hardly imagine journal- with news and not fakes, then the principle of istic activity without the use of the readers and “Publish first, check second” must be forgot­ the social networks. The first media responses ten. This practice is the precisely the detona- to the collapse of the Tunisia and Egypt re- tor, which can blast any edition’s media repu- gimes or to natural disasters, such as the Fuku- tation. It is the editor’s role and responsibility shima accident or the Haiti earthquake, came to prevent this. exactly from these sources. Thereby, I shall ac- Social networks – resource and circula- cept as correct Bowman and Willis’ definition tion of civil journalism: “An action enabling one Many social surveys show that the social citizen or a group of citizens to play an ac­ media have become the main media channel. tive role in the process of creation, selection, It is still being debated whether they com- analysis and distribution of information and prise individual media or merely a channel,

169 STANDARTS AND DYNAMICS ... E. Karanfilov but practice shows that 75% of the American don’t believe that these observers are right, as Internet users receive their media information similar concerns spread around when the Inter- on the Internet (Purcell et al., 2010). Almost net widely penetrated journalist practices (the half of the Canadians, 43%, also receive it end of the 90s) and when blogs appeared at the through sharing or a friend’s recommenda- turn of the century. Then, they also became a tion (Hermida et al., 2012). Most developed key information source and did not distort the countries show similar results. Something like profession’s major principles. a secondary or tertiary news market seems to The multitude of social networks only pro- exist. On the one hand, news is published in vides a wider range of information sources. printed issues or on websites. Thereafter, they Of course, an editor must be on the alert, as penetrate the social networks with headlines these sources also multiply the opportunities and layout inviting the audience to share, thus to manipulate the media. The routine: a social re-expanding the reader base. network posting which is circulated by the me- On the other hand, social networks are a dia and thus institutionalized, followed there- vast information resource for the media. There after by a governmental decision, is a classi- they can find everything – from political state- cal scheme of promoting political, economic ments (President Trump’s tweets are a particu- or personal interests. It should not be forgot- lar case), opinions and comments of leading ten that any account on social networks can experts and colleagues. They can find image be hacked and that celebrities have numerous material and various videos. The typical thing fake accounts. is that authors in the social networks respond However, when fundamental editing rules very fast, and their messages outreach a sig- and professional ethics are rigorously ob- nificant number of people. served, then it is all to the reader’s benefit. More and more factors of social, political and sports life tend to express themselves in RESULTS AND DISCUSSION the social networks as the most direct chan- The online sport’s editor functions and nel of gaining direct impact on their audienc- duties es’ eyes and minds. This, however, eliminates Editing online publications depends on the journalists as the intermediaries and it also factors shown below. Firstly, it’s the website eliminates the opportunity for asking inconve- type. Websites are mainly: informative, infor - nient or clarifying questions on a certain topic mative-analytical, informative-entertainment, or issue. Facebook and/or Twitter statements niche (such as recipes, leisure, travel, sports, exclude the “friendly media”, since their ef- technological, financial, etc.). fectiveness is significantly minimized. A typical feature of niche websites is the It is for a reason that journalists are requirement for editors and journalists’ expert „friends” (Facebook) or followers (Twitter) of knowledge as these sites are presumably read many politicians and sports and show-business by people with specific knowledge on the sub- stars. And they gladly circulate their respons- ject, who prefer to gain more added value on it. es on numerous problems. Some say that the The website type predetermines its target au- mass use of the social networks as an informa- dience groups: age, social and/or professional tion source results in the erosion of the profes- features. The website layout is also technically sion’s fundamental principles, such as check- important – a homepage, a mobile app, etc. For ing the facts, the use of documents, inquiry. I financial reasons, many sites in Bulgaria have

170 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 no mobile app or social network sharing op- down if he fails next week”. tions (Facebook, Twitter, Google+). What us- Where there are developments in an ongo- ers see online is predetermined by the graphic ing event, it is recommended that information design of a website. be updated at least every 20 minutes. If the Informative websites – publish up-to-date event is exceptionally dynamic – a terrorist information in the subject area of the website. act, a natural disaster, etc., then its updating In addition to ensuring information flow cov- is almost continuous. The lead is changed and erage, the staff of these sites is supposed to the headline states that information has been track the developments of any current events. updated. The old headline may be preserved. Lead Video embedding is also necessarily men- The structure of a lead is similar to that in tioned in the header. the printed press – in reply to the 5 questions. Sometimes, the new information is com- In formation here, though, changes “on the go”, pletely the opposite of what was initially stat- with the change in circumstances. Commen- ed. In such cases, certain sentence qualifiers taries and analyses are supplemented. expressing doubt should be used from the very The advantage of this site is that you can beginning: “Initial data shows” „is/are known put anything in the text: a video, an audio file, at this time…” etc. statistics in the form of info-graphics, etc., i.e. If it is an important piece of news, but little the rules of press journalism are violated. is known yet, only a lead is published plus: However, you have to know the rules very Details to come. well to be able to break them the right way. Example: The language of news writing invariably Boryana Kaleyn and Katrin Taseva lead the follows several requirements: clarity and sim- ranking in two apparatuses of the Rhythmic plicity, in the first place, noting that these rules Gymnastics 2019 World Cup. Details coming are twice as strong on the Internet. Always use soon. the words in their primary and not in their figu- If there is a qualitative change in the cir- rative meaning, avoid complex words and con- cumstances of the event being tracked, the cepts which the reader would find difficult to header is changed. However, it is important understand - neither jargon nor vernacular reg- that the revised title contains some key words isters, but just ordinary informative language. from the first one. (Usually, a geographical Unlike the printed editions, which allow location, a personal name, etc. clearly distin- for a more sophisticated and lofty style, on- guishable and established for the user’s mind.) line news and information must first satisfy the Example: requirement of clarity and simplicity, which Revision 1, at the beginning of the event: brings them closer to the language of radio and Ludogorets is losing by 0:1 with CSKA after television news scripts. playing for 45 minutes in the Bulgaria Cup A commentary and information lead is only match between the two teams. possible if the author has enough expertise on Revision 2: Ludogorets were yet not able the subject. to gain supremacy over the CSKA in the sec- Example: ond half. „Grigor Dimitrov dropped to be 43rd on Revision 3: CSKA plays at the Bulgaria the ATP rankings, scoring his poorest since Cup semi-finals after winning by 1:0 against 2012, with the prospect of sliding even further Ludogorets.

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Revision 1, at the beginning of the event: fected parties, eye-witnesses. This can be done PAOK about to become champions after 34 by using: years. A chronological approach, tracking the de- Revision 2: A wild party in Thessaloniki! velopment of an event by hours. PAOK won the championship for the first time Introducing a commentary element: this century. statements of officials, experts, affected The information update includes: a fact- persons, eye-witness reports, including box (the editor gathers all known facts in the tweets, using the embed function, videos. case and complies them in a separate box). If A reference link to previous publications is no such option is available on the website in- a must, or the preceding publications must terface, they could be highlighted by a varied be uploaded and visible in the current pub- background, font, etc. or separated in a sepa- lication. rate subtitle. The desirable volume is the length of a Practice shows that a lead, which is of ex- newspaper page, about 30 lines. treme importance for Internet disseminated From a commercial viewpoint, the reader’s information, must be up to three lines long, attention must be kept for longer than 30 at best (from 10 to 15 words, including con- seconds. This depends on the content you junctions). Its importance is that it can invite a offer. It is well known that on the Inter- reader to continue reading or make them move net, content is ‘the king’. Google prefers elsewhere, which is registered in the time spent content-rich websites, a survey points out. on each item. It is unlike the newspaper: once (The SEM Group analyze the top 10 search you have bought it, you read it, sooner or later. results for over 20 000 key words and identify Quotations are generally avoided in leads. a repeated pattern.) It could be informative, or it could have a com- The average length of a web page content mentary aspect, but preferably, precision and ranked in Google’s top 10 key-word search clarity are sought. hits would be 2000 words at least. The higher Example: up you climb on the ranking list, the bulkier CSKA published quite an interesting video content sites offer, Webcite.bg says. on the social networks showing the referees’ There are numerous click bait headlines, bias against the team in the matches with Levs- which appetize readers’ interest, but they are ki and Botev (Plovdiv). more typical of the sensational pages (“yel- CSKA’s leadership published a video on low”, fake news, etc.). Their goal is to trick the social networks showing selected footage the reader into visiting a web page and gener- from games where it believed the team had suf- ate traffic. On many occasions, the informa- fered damages from referees’ bias. (informa- tion supplied is different from the title, far less tion lead) “sensational” that the headlines claim. No edi- It is recommended that the reader has a full tors are required for such websites. They ben- view of the sentence and would not need to use efit from people with perverted minds, unscru- expanding options for reading it to the end. pulous morals, who entirely lack professional Every 2 hours, if the team is sufficiently ethics. The present pages are not intended for staffed, the known facts and comments are them... summarized and the most important and sig- Examples: nificant ones are sorted out: institutions, af- 1) An insult against Beckham! Supposedly,

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he would look like this in 2020… (PHO- acters), which contains the key words. This is TO) similar to a subtitle in newspapers and differ- 2) You won’t believe it! Russia’s French ent from a lead. passion in is so strong that... Example: 3) A big-boobed chick blames a football star Title: Real (Madrid) made binding 1.6 bil- of sexual harassment (PHOTO) lion dollar arrangements with Adidas. Traffic generation is aimed at advertisers, Subtitle: “The white ballet” will sign its but real and serious advertisers do not adver- biggest ever deal with the sportswear company tise on yellow pages. Some are interested in for the following 12 years. the number of visits (unique visits), the more A headline is very important on the Internet serious ones consider the time a reader spends because it gives users a clue, while in newspa- on a website. pers they can see the full publication at once. It is good to know that all refreshments are However, if a reader doesn’t get to the end of visits, but only one counts as “unique”. For a certain newspaper article/story, he or she instance, if you visit a web page twice from doesn’t dispose of the paper all together but the same IP-address, this makes two visits, but jumps to another article, unlike on the Internet, only one is unique. where, if a reader doesn’t like the information, An important specific feature for the on- he/she merely goes to another website, where line editor’s work is to be aware of the brand’s the same information might be better elabo- positioning on the Internet. Content matters rated. immensely for the search engines because it There is no need for an informative header, has a decisive say in the websites index rank- but, for the sake of search engines, it might ing. Keywords and inbound links are the other have to contain keywords used multiple times important components, which help brands es- and to pursue uniqueness. Similarly to press tablish on the Internet. journalism, quotation headlines should be How this will be approached depends on avoided except if they are very strong. As it is the SEO – the search engine optimization strat- well known, a quotation in the headline shows egy devised by the web makers to get the web- the editor’s helplessness. site established. After the end of the information, the editor As it can be seen, the so called “search en- adds the keywords (tags, labels) – the more, gines” play a key role. Google evaluates more the better. Their right choice is critical for the than 200 components of a website in order to website’s good positioning. position it on the index. These components are Editor’s responsibility relevant both to the site itself, its code, meta To be well acquainted with the website’s tags and structure, but also to the links cross- interface (the web interface is a set of tools referencing it from other websites, its activity helping users to interact with the website on social networks, viral marketing, etc. The or with any app through a browser); wider the link building from prestigious web- To write headlines and subtitles in the des- sites, the higher the confidence in the website, ignated boxes; which boosts visits. To add tags (tags, key words or phrases). Search engines show the headline, someti- This is of particular importance for search mes, the lead or a part of it. Certain search engines. The more tags, the better. engines show a text abstract (140-160 char- To add a fact box or the so called ‘back-

173 STANDARTS AND DYNAMICS ... E. Karanfilov

ground’ information. posts can be used; no permission is re- To cross-reference other sites or documents quired if such statements were published by inserting text hyperlinks. on the web accounts of institutions or poli- To find an illustration and also describe it, ticians); which is important for the website. Each Text organization photo, which has been entitled and des cri- On the web, it is important that a text be bed can be helpful, because a web image allowed some space to “breathe”. This is why search might transfer users to the website. it has to be split into short paragraphs, 3-4 sen- To format the text and attach the illustra- tences each. Certain websites contain a spe- tion. cial graphic form for quotations. One of the The illustration finding task can be handled advantages of a website is that illustrations by subscribing to photo agencies or using non- can be wrapped in the publication itself and copyrighted images. Photography can also be thus make it a more enjoyable and easy to read. purchased from specialized online stores. The For instance, there are a lot of accessible info Internet abounds in opportunities to richly il- graphics on the websites of institutions, such lustrate a publication. In addition to one image as Eurostat, the World Bank, the IMF, etc. or a gallery, videos, audios, tweets or Face- Target group book posts can be added. Technical options Accurate assessment of the target group is are available thereto. Such illustration spares of high importance. There are approximately the need of using more text. 5 billion websites in the world. The difference The advantage of the social networks is between a website and a page, according to Bg- that where no subscriptions to agencies are af- pro.bg, is like the difference between a maga- fordable or a low cost is targeted, Twitter and zine and a page. “A page is simply part of the Facebook images and videos are made usable website, while a site is a system of interlinked through the embedding option. This is already pages with common design and navigation”. being done by institutions, who are the first Preferably, a target group should not be ones to upload images and videos on their very broad so that the team could focus and social network accounts and they often do it streamline its efforts. ahead of agencies. The target group profile sets additional re- Choice of information quirements to the online editor, such as: …is mainly entrusted to: To be familiar with a maximum number Verified and highly reputable sources, usu- of sources of specialized information (for- ally international agencies and global me- eign sources included), which, in addition dia. They all have websites, they publish to expertise, involves the command of for- video materials. Sources should be quoted eign languages; or, more convincingly, cross-referenced To have a fast response, a good general and by links; linguistic culture; Own production (if any); To have the required technical skills for po- Television and radio stations, referencing sitioning a text in the virtual domain. For is mandatory (although domestic practices the sake of the best positioning and the in- show otherwise); crease of the number of users, in addition Expert or recognized specialist opinions to the website, the text must also be pub- (with permission, tweets or Facebook lished in the social media, which opens at

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least three other communication channels: social networks. There is no website without an Facebook, Twitter, Google+. The website account on Facebook, Twitter and/or Google+. interface has a predesigned description When posting information on Facebook, form, which allows for devising an ab- one publishes it with a header and illustration stract of the article of up to 140 charac- assigned to it “by birth”, but the important ters in the very course of the preparation, aspect here is what text would the networks prior to publication. Twitter uploads this posting contain. The editor has several options abstract. Facebook offers at least two op- to choose among: first and easiest, the full in- tions for publishing this information: formation goes on Facebook, we abridge it to The full information is not posted (as we the lead and leave it like this; second, we sum- already noted, long texts put readers off). marize it in an interesting way, taking 3, up to You either summarize the publication in two 4-5 lines, i.e. within the volume of a normal sentences or you use a provocative question, post, which can be read in full without the “See tease, comment, etc. Your smartness and re- more” click; third, we publish an appetizer, a sourcefulness matter if you want to make a question, some joke tied to the information, a reader click on a Facebook post and read it. mere tease or an interesting quotation, smileys Example One: can be added and, based on the information, a Newspaper title: Krasimir Bezinski, one of hashtag, etc. CSKA’s legends, passed away It all depends on editors’ inventiveness Website title: One of CSKA’s legends lost and their intellectual and emotional capacity, the fight against cancer and on the extent of their grasp of the Internet Facebook title: The tragic news, which language, which is different from that in the made Berbatov shed tears newspapers. The Internet allows you to use Twitter title: Former CSKA back player smileys, hashtags and other options, which are Krasi Bezinski dies aged 57. He will be buried available in networks to express thoughts, sta- in his home city of Blagoevgrad. tus, etc., while a newspaper has a more limited Second example: expressive resource in stock. Newspaper title: Grigor Dimitrov scores Twitter publishes a 140-character abstract, his poorest ranking since 2012. which editors write before publishing the ar- Website title: Grigor collapses in yet an- ticle in the assigned box of the administrative other freefall. panel. Facebook title: For once, Grigor managed Here is a funny, but true Instagram exam- to get out of the “pit”, will he make it again? ple of the various headline types in the social Twitter title: Grigor Dimitrov dropped to networks: be 43rd on the ATP rankings. Too bad if he Facebook: I love muffins fails to defend 90 points in Barcelona. Twitter: I eat #muffins To publish information in a newspaper, Foursquare: Where I eat my muffin Facebook or Twitter one must follow different YouTube: Me eating a muffin principles in order to gain maximum outreach. LinkedIn: My skills include: eating muf- Let us take an example. Certain informa- fins tion is pending for publication and it seeks to The ending of a text is of no less impor- get to a broad audience, regardless of whether tance. An article’s conclusion has to be devised it is published in a newspaper, a website or in in a way to make sense and allow for rendering

175 STANDARTS AND DYNAMICS ... E. Karanfilov the information in its completeness. Prior to they primarily focus on the illustrative or other that, the editor must also have ensured that it type of graphical imagery. supplies logical answers to all questions raised in the lead: who, what, where, when, why. CONCLUSIONS Tabs/Sections An editor must be literate (linguistically Tabs or sections are an important element and technically). Online editors handle more of the website as they provide the reader with tasks in a shorter time than their paper counter- instant navigation about where to locate each parts, which entangles better organization and type of information, just as the sections of a flexibility. newspaper correspond to its page headers. A fast response is a recommendable asset Therefore, it is of importance how they would for the profession, including communicative- be worded and laid out and working with a ness and cooperativeness, provided that the graphic designer since the very early stages job requires good teamwork organization, fast of creating the website and its navigation is thin king and writing skills, an ability to ana- critical. There is a widespread perception that lyze and reflect on the information, as there a staggering high-end design boosts the rate of are practically an indefinite number of sources website visits. Actually, what matters is con- on the Internet. tent. There are websites of far inferior graph- Paradoxically, but in the fastest media (the ics, which generate higher readership due to Internet), a piece of news travels a longer route their content. to reach people. Professionals are exposed to It is good to brainstorm the entire team in the highest time pressure and competition is the creation of sections/tabs. Unlike a newspa- huge. Online editors must be able to handle per, where one flips the pages to find the police every step of the process: from the choice of chronicles or technology reviews, in a website information to text editing, illustration pro- it is all on the homepage, which leads to all cessing and video embedding (if any). They other pages. have to work in teams because everyone does When the website is informative or infor- everything. They have to find time to develop mative and analytical, a section must be un- theirs and their colleagues’ ideas, to moderate ambiguously clear to help readers locate the forums, to handle technical difficulties. And information they need. Preferably, it should be mostly, they should not forget that they have a a single-word header, or, if this is impossible, responsibility to their users. it should consist of two, but short, words. The Sport journalists are placed in a very sensi- comments section must be taken good care of. tive position to be able to combine the infor- Provided today’s news oversupply, this is a mation operating technologies with present- good way to take the reader by surprise. ing social position and development of social The section split-up and entitling is gov- message according to the fundamental human erned by the type of site and what it offers. En- principles. The combination between these tertainment websites may have a more varied two directions – technological knowledge and language in view of their users’ lifestyle and conceptual ability to present and defend socio- also allow some freedom in the employment of cultural and moral cause is the main challenge graphical elements, text and the overall web- for the future generation of sports journal- site structure. The relative share of textual in- ists. This is why the academic scholarship for formation is much lower on such websites as sports journalists must take more dynamic

176 JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 01/2019 forms, causality-functional methods of study Domingo, D. (2008). „Inventing online and should ensure a wide platform for sports journalism: A constructivist approach ton the journalism students to experiment with new developing of online news”, in Paterson, C., creative ideas and decisions. Domingo, D. Making online news: The eth- nography of new media production. NewYork. REFERENCES Douglas, T. (2006). „How 7/7 democra- Appel, V., Boulanger, H., Masou, L. (2010). tized the media news”, BBC, 04 July, 2006. Les dispositifs d’information et de communica­ Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/ tions: Concepts, usages et objects. Bruxelles. uk_news/5142702.stm (accessed 27 February Baskette, F., J. Sissors, B. Brooks. (2015). 2019). The Art of Editing in the Yearas of Conver­ Este, J., Warren, C., Connor, L., Brown, M. gence. New York. (2010). Life in the clickstream II: The future of Boczkowski, P. (2005). Digitizing the journalism. London. News: Innovation in online newspapers. Cam - Estienne, Y. (2007). Le journalism après bridge. Internet. Paris. Boczkowski, P. (2010). News at Work-Imi- Eurobarometer 72 (2009, 2011, 2015). L`O­ ta tion in Age of Information Abundance. Chi- p i nion publique dans L`Union Europeenne, cago. TNS Opinion Social, realize a la demande de Bowman, S., Willis, C. (2003). „We Me- la Commission Europeenne. Bruxelles, 2009, dia: How audiences are shaping the future of 2011, 2015. news and information”, The Media Center, Feldman, E. (2002). The Writer’s Guide to 2003. Available at: http://www.hypergene.net/ Self-Promotion & Publicity. wemedia/weblog.php (accessed 27 February Fogel, J., Payino, B. (2005). Une presse 2019). sans Goutenberg. Paris. Bruno, N. (2011). Tweet first, verify later: Friend, C., Singer, J. (2007). Online jour­ How real time information is changing the nalism ethics: Tradition and Transmision. couverage of worldwide crisis events. Paris: New York. Institut Reuters pour letude de journalism. Gallard, M., Petit, G. (2011). Barometre Curran, J., Seaton, J. (2010). Poewr with­ de confidence dans les media realise pour La out responsibility: Press,broadcasting and the Croix. Internet in Britian. 7th ed. London. Ganny, D. (2009). Nouveaux medias: Mode Davis, A. (2009). „Politics,journalism and d’emploi. Liege. news media: Virtual iron. Cages in new culture Harison, T., Barthel, B. (2009). „Wield- of capitalism”, New media, old news: Journal­ ing new media in the Web 2.0 Expoloring the ism and democracy in the digital age. London. history of engagement with the collaborative DeTarle, A. (2006). Presse et Internet: Une construction of media products”, New Media chance, un defi: enjeux economiques, enjeux and Society, No 11. democratiques. Paris. Hermida, A. (2011). „Tweet the news: So- Deuze, M. (2008). „The Professional Iden- cial media streams and the practice of jour- tity of Journalists in the Context of Conver- nalism”, The Routledge Companion to News gence Culture”, Observatorio, No 7.

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Journalism. 2. ed. New York. Guide for Magazine Editors. London. Hermida, A., Fletcher, F., Korell, D., Lo- Paulssen, S., Heinonen, A., Domingo, D. gan, D. (2012). „Share, Like, Recommend: (2007). „Doing together: Citizen participation Decoding the social media news consumer”, in the professional news making process”, Ob­ Journalism studies. servatorio, No3. Hicks,W. and Holmes,T. (2002). Subedit­ Plotnik, A. (1992). A modern Guide for ing for Journalists. London. Editors and Journalists. New York. Hoebeke, S., Mouffe, B. (2012). Le droit Poulet, B. (2009). La fin de journaux et de la presse: Presse ecrtite. Presse audiovi­ Lávenir de l’infiprimation. Paris. suelle. Preese electronique, 3th ed. Bruxeeles. Purcell, K., Rainine, L., Mitchel, L., Rosen- Holm, K. (ed.) (2000). Writer’s Market stiel, T., Olmstead, K. (2010). „Understanding 2011: 8000 Editors Who Buy What You Write. the participatory news consumer”, Pew Inter­ Writer’s Market. net and American Life project. Available at: Jacobi, P. (1997). The Magazine Article: http://www.prewInternet.org/Re ports/2010/ How to Think It, Plan It, Write It. Online-News.asph (accessed 27 February Jeaneret, Y., Souchier, E. (2003). Lire, 2019). ecrire. Recrire: objets, signes et pratiques des Quinn, S. (2005). Convergent Journalism: medias informatises. Paris. The Fundamentals of Multimedia Reprting. Jenkins, H. (2006). Convergence Culture. New York. New York. Rebillard, F. (2007). Le WEB 2.0 en per­ Leiter, K., et al. (2003). The Complete spective: Une analyse socio­economique de Reporter: Fundamentals of News Gathering. l’Internet. Paris. Writing and Editing. 9th ed. Reich, Z. (2011). „Source credibility and Livingstone, S. (2003). Тhe Changing Na- jou rmalism: Betwwen visceral and dicoretio- ture of Auidences: From Mass Audience to the nal judgement”, Journalisme practice, No 5. Interactive Media User in A companion to Me- Shaw, E. (2009). The Successful Writer’s dia Studies. London. Guide to Publishing Magazine Articles. Maigret, E. (2008). Sociologie de la com­ Shudson, M. (2003). The Sociology of munication et des medias. Paris. news. New York. Meikle, G. Redden, G. (2010). News on­ Singer, J., Hermida, A., Domingo, D., Hei- line: transformations and continuities. New nonen, D., Paulussen, S., Reich, Z. (2011). York. Participatory journalism: Guarding open Miller, S. (2004). „Miller Internet Data gates at online newspapers. New York. Integrity Scale”, The New York Times, Mars Steinberg, S. (1996). Five Hundred Years 2004. of Printing. London. Newman, N. (2004). The rise of social me­ Stepp, C. S. (ed.) (1989). Editing for Today’s dia and its impact on mainstream journalism. Newsroom: New Perspectives for Changing Institut Reuters, Oxford. Profession. Communication Textbook Series. Patterson, B. R., E. Coleman, P. Patterson Strunk, W. Jr. and E. B. White (2000). The (2003). The Editor in Chief: a Management Elements of Style. New York: Macmillan.

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Corresponding author:

Efrem Efremov Karanfilov Faculty of Journalism and Mass Communication Sofia University „St. Kliment Ohridski”, 49 Moskovska Str Sofia 1000, Bulgaria E-mail: [email protected]

179 AUTHORS GUIDELINE’S

AUTHOR’S GUIDELINES

GENERAL INFORMATION

Journal of Applied Sports Sciences accepts for review articles (original articles, reports, discussions, studies, editorial materials) in any of the following research areas: sport, sports excellence, sport medicine, sports physiology, biomechanics, nutrition, sports education, sports psychology, sports management and sports training, applied health and medical sciences related to the sports practices, social dimensions of sport and European dimensions in organizing mod- ern sport. The volume of the articles should not exceed 20 standard pages. Publications in Journal of Applied Sports Sciences should be written in English language. Submissions to Journal of Applied Sports Sciences are made using ScholarOne Manuscripts, the online submission and peer review system. Registration and access is available directly at https://mc04.manuscriptcentral.com/jasportssciences Full information and guidance on using Scholar One Manuscripts is available at the Emerald ScholarOne Manuscripts Support Centre: http://mchelp.manuscriptcentral.com/gethelpnow/ training/author/.

REGISTERING FOR MANUSCRIPTS SUBMISSION If you have not yet registered on ScholarOne Manuscripts, please follow the instructions below: ● Please go to: https://journal.nsa.bg. On the left side you will see “Send your manuscript here” button. ● The system will offer you to enter to your Account or to Create Account. If you already have a registration you may enter with your e-mail and password. ● If you are going to create an account, please follow the on-screen instructions, filling in the requested details before proceeding ● Your username will be your email address and you must input a password of at least 8 char- acters in length and containing two or more numbers ● Click Finish and your account has been created.

MANUSCRIPT SUBMISSION PROCESS The proposed papers are submitted to the Editorial Board of the Journal of Applied Sports Sciences. Article submissions should be only made through electronic submission module on. To submit a paper for publication in the journal, the submitting author should log in the Schol- arOne Manuscripts platform. We kindly request authors to carefully read Instructions &Forms before submitting their articles for review. Once logged in, the author can see a chronology of submitted manuscripts and send a new one through “Start New Submission” => “Begin Sub- mission”. The process of sending a new manuscript includes 7 basic steps: Step 1: Select type of the manuscript, fill in the title and abstract in English language. Step 2: File Upload. Here you may upload the Main Document, Title page, files with tables and figures. Remember, that the Main document should be anonymous. If you are submitting a revision, please include only the latest set of files. If you have updated a file, please delete the original version and upload the revised file.

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Step 3: Attributes. Write and/or choose keywords. (The number of the keywords should not exceed 5 words). Step 4: Authors & Institutions. Enter your co-authors' information by searching on each of their email addresses below. If they have an existing account, their information can be easily imported to the submission. If necessary, you may add a co-author as a new user in the system by clicking "Create New Author". Step 5: Reviewers. To suggests a reviewer or request the exclusion of a reviewer, click the Add Reviewer button below and enter their information along with the desired designation. Step 6: Details and Comments: The submitting author may enter or paste a cover letter text into the "Cover Letter" box. The cover letter may also be attached. Answer any remaining ques- tions appropriately. Step 7: Review & Submit. Review the information below for accuracy and make changes as needed. After reviewing the manuscript proofs at the foot of this page, you MUST CLICK 'SUBMIT' to complete your submission. The received manuscripts are reviewed in accordance with Author’s Guidelines by a mem- ber of the Editorial Board. Manuscripts that do not comply with the requirements shall be returned to the authors for revision. Manuscripts that meet the requirements shall be admitted for review. For each of the submitted and approved articles the Editorial Board shall assign minimum two reviewers. Reviews shall be made in terms defined by the Editorial Board and in accord- ance with its requirements to the reviewers. Reviewing of articles shall be done in accordance with the standards for the evaluation of manuscripts through the double-blind peer review system. The reviewers give their assessment of the manuscripts in terms of the following criteria: scope of the research, novelty of the ex- amined issues, originality, accuracy and clarity of the abstract describing the main text, logic structure and sequence of the submission, relevance of the methodology, validity of the results, proving the thesis, applicability of the results, validity of findings and conclusions, propriety and relevance of citations, accuracy and clarity of language. The Editor-in-Chief commits the final decision for publication, based on the conclusions of the reviewers. The decision can be: publish it without revisions, publish it after revision in accordance with the recommendations made in reviews, refuse to publish. If the Editorial Board commits a decision to publish the manuscript after revision upon recommendations, authors should review and answer to the Editorial Board’s e-mails. The authors have to re- vise their manuscripts and present a report of the revisions they made in terms defined by the Editorial Board, upon which the Editorial Board commits a decision whether to publish it or refuse to publish the manuscript. If there are contradictions of the reviews, the Editorial Board may determine an additional reviewer (reviewers).

SUBMISSION AND STRUCTURE REQUIREMENTS OF THE ARTICLES The article submissions shall be provided in Microsoft Word format, as follows: Font: Times New Roman 12; Format of the pages: Page Setup: Top: 2,5 cm, Bottom: 2,5 cm, Left: 2,5 cm, Right: 2,5 cm Line Spacing: 1,5 lines; First Line: 1,5 cm; Paper Size: A4. The main structure of the article shall include:

181 AUTHORS GUIDELINE’S First page; Introduction Main text Conclusions References TITLE PAGE (PAGES) The Title page/s includes: Title of the article (it is recommended the title of the article be short (5-10 words) and pre- sent the main topic of the study); Abstract. The abstract of the articles, whose main text is in Bulgarian language should be written in English. For publications that are all in English language, the abstract should only be in English language. It should be short and clear and concisely contain the following elements: Introduction (“background” of the study) (required); Purpose and objectives of the study (required); Applied methodology (“staging of the research”) (required) Achieved major results (required) Leads (conclusions) (required); Limitations of the research and consequences (if any) Practical implications (if any); Originality/Value (required); The maximum length of the abstract should not exceed 300 words. Keywords (specify up to 5 keywords in English). Article Classification. Authors must categorize their paper as part of the ScholarOne sub- mission process. The category which most closely describes their paper should be selected from the list below: Original Article/Research paper. This category covers papers which report on any type of research undertaken by the author(s). The research may involve the construction or testing of a model or framework, action research, testing of data, market research or surveys, empirical, scientific or clinical research. Reports. These papers describe scientific research, presented on a scientific forum/confer- ence. Discussions/Conceptual paper. These papers will not be based on research but will devel- op hypotheses. The papers are likely to be discursive and will cover philosophical discussions and comparative studies of others’ work and thinking. Studies. The papers covered by this category shall analyse actual and important issues, the study should be with high scientific value and proven practical value. Editorial Materials/General review. This category covers those papers which provide an overview or historical examination of some concept, technique or phenomenon. The papers are likely to be more descriptive or instructional (“how to” papers) than discursive. MAIN TEXT Introduction The purpose of the introduction is to convince readers that the published research contains novelty and it is applicable. It answers the following questions: What is the main problem? Are there any existing solutions (indicates the level of study the problem at the moment)? What are the best solutions according to the author/s?

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What is the main limitation of the research? What is expected to be achieved by the author of the research? The main text is structured into separate sections, distinguished by their titles (headings should be brief, with clear indication of the differences between their hierarchy). The preferred format for writing the main titles is to be bold format and subtitles to be written in italics. font – Times New Roman 12, capitals, left alignment). The main text should include: Purpose and objectives of the study. The purpose and objectives of the study should en- sure the understanding of the publication’s focus and should justify its structure. After that, authors should specify: What is the significance of the publication? Why the publication is important and original? To whom is the publication designed? Additionally, can be discussed potential utility of practice, importance for future studies, detailed limitations of the study and others. Main thesis and hypothesis of the research. Authors’ arguments about their merit are presented. Applied methodology and methods. The author should indicate the main methods used by him in a separate title. Author should demonstrate that the methodology is robust and appropri- ate to achieve the objectives. It is expected by the author to focus on the main theme, to point the main stages of his research, to show the used methods and influences that determine the chosen approach by him, to give arguments why he has chosen specific examples and others. Achieved major results. When presenting the results, it is important that authors focus on the essentials. The publication must contain only the essential facts and those with a wider meaning, without giving many details of every possible statistics. If development is full of statistics, it is possible to prevail over the conclusions and after all the publication to be seen primarily as an enumeration of facts, not as a scientific study. The main thesis of the author must be clearly traceable and steadily established. When describing the results author should seek answers to the following questions: Do you provide interpretation for each of the submitted results you want? Are the results consistent with what other researchers have found? Are there any differences? Why? Are there any limitations? Does the discussion logically lead the reader to your conclusion? It is important when presenting the results not to make statements that go beyond what re- sults can acknowledge. Conclusion The general rule is that the conclusion should not only contain a summary of the research (it can be found in the abstract). The conclusion should give answers to the set at the beginning of the publication questions and to indicate opportunities for further research. It would be better to reveal how the achieved results will be applied in practice and to identify constraints in this regard. While indicating how this research can be applied and extended in future studies, it is not accepted in the conclusion to introduce new material or state the obvious. In the conclusion it should be emphasized what is different in the research results, what stands out in the design or is unexpected.

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Notes Notes or Endnotes should be used only if absolutely necessary and must be identified in the text by consecutive numbers, enclosed in square brackets and listed at the end of the article. Funding agencies The funding agencies of the scientific research should be added in Step 6 of the submission process on ScholarOne system. Figures All Figures (charts, diagrams, line drawings, web pages/screenshots, and photographic im- ages) should be submitted in electronic form. All Figures should be of high quality, legible and numbered consecutively with Arabic nu- merals. Graphics may be supplied in colour to facilitate their appearance on the online database. ● If possible, the figures should be made in graphical programs (Corel Draw, Adobe Illus- trator, Adobe PhotoShop) or Excel. The figures should not be in Picture format. They should be numbered consecutively in order of citation in the text. Numbers and titles of the figures are placed below them. Authors should avoid many inscriptions inside the figures. ● Pictures and scanned images can be made into separate files, preferably in JPG or TIFF format, not embedded in the text. Photos must be of good quality and suitable for printing. Colour illustrations are accepted in exceptional cases after special agreement and eventual ad- ditional costs! ● If authors make a blueprint they should use Word Equation. The numbers of formulas should be written in brackets in the left side of the page! Tables Tables should be typed in Word Table or Excel format. They should be numbered consecu- tively according to citation in the text. Each table should have a title. Numbers and titles of the tables are placed over them. It is preferable that it fit on the page without turning widest part of the sheet horizontally. The necessary explanations are given below by means of appropriate symbols / characters. References References to other publications must be in Harvard style and carefully checked for com- pleteness, accuracy and consistency. The cited authors should be presented in any of the following ways: ● Surname and year of publish (ex. Adams, 2006) ● Citing both names of two and year of publish (ex. Adams, Brown, 2006) ● When there are more than three authors, it is typed the surname of the first author and year of publish (ex. Adams et al., 2006) At the end of the paper a reference list in alphabetical order should be supplied.

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Surname, Initials (year). Title of Book, Publisher, Place of publication. For books e.g. Harrow, R. (2005). No Place to Hide, Simon & Schuster, New York, NY. Surname, Initials (year). Chapter title, Editor’s Surname, Initials, Title oj Book, Publisher, Place of publication, pages.

For book chapters e.g. Calabrese, F.A. (2005). The early pathways: theory to practice - a continuum, in Stankosky, M. (Ed.), Creating the Discipline of Knowledge Management, Elsevier, New York, NY, pp. 15-20.

Surname, Initials (year). Title of article, Journal Name, volume, number, pages.

For journals e.g. Capizzi, M.T. and Ferguson, R. (2005). Loyalty trends for the twenty- first century, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 22 No. 2, pp. 72-80.

Surname, Initials (year of publication), Title of paper, in Surname, Initials (Ed.), Title of published proceeding which may include place and date(s) held, Publisher, Place of publication, Page numbers. For published conference e.g. Jakkilinki, R., Georgievski, M. and Sharda, N. (2007). Connecting proceedings destinations with an ontology-based e-tourism planner, in Information and communication technologies in tourism 2007 proceedings of the international conference in Ljubljana, Slovenia, 2007, Springer-Verlag, Vienna, pp. 12-32.

Surname, Initials (year), Title of paper, paper presented at Name of Conference, date of conference, place of conference, available at: URL if freely available on the internet (accessed date). For unpublished conference e.g. Aumueller, D. (2005). Semantic authoring and retrieval within a wiki, paper proceedings presented at the European Semantic Web Conference (ESWC), 29 May-1 June, Heraklion, Crete, available at: http://dbs.uni- leipzig.de/file/aumueller05wiksar. pdf (accessed 20 February 2007).

Surname, Initials (year). Title of article, working paper [number if available], Institution or organization, Place of organization, date. For working papers e.g. Moizer, P. (2003). How published academic research can inform policy decisions: the case of mandatory rotation of audit appointments, working paper, Leeds University Business School, University of Leeds, Leeds, 28 March.

Title of Encyclopedia (year) Title of entry, volume, edition, Title of Encyclopedia, Publisher, Place of publication, pages. For encyclopedia entries e.g. Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926) Psychology of culture contact, Vol. 1, 13th (with no author or ed., Encyclopaedia Britannica, London and New York, NY, pp. 765- 71. editor) (For authored entries please refer to book chapter guidelines above)

Surname, Initials (year). Article title, Newspaper, date, pages. For newspaper articles e.g. Smith, A. (2008). Money for old rope, Daily News, 21 January, pp. 1,3- 4. (authored)

185 AUTHORS GUIDELINE’S

Newspaper (year). Article title, date, pages. For newspaper articles (non- authored) e.g. Daily News (2008). Small change, 2 February, p. 7.

Surname, Initials, (year). Title of document, Unpublished Manuscript, collection For archival or name, inventory record, name of archive, location of archive. other unpublished e.g. Litman, S. (1902). Mechanism & Technique of Commerce, Unpublished sources Manuscript, Simon Litman Papers, Record series 9/5/29 Box 3, University of Illinois Archives, Urbana-Champaign, IL.

If available online, the full URL should be supplied at the end of the reference, as well as a date that the resource was accessed.

e.g. Castle, B. (2005). Introduction to web services for remote portlets, available For electronic at: http://www-128.ibm.com/developerworks/library/ws-wsrp/ (accessed 12 November sources 2007).

Standalone URLs, i.e. without an author or date, should be included either within parentheses within the main text, or preferably set as a note (roman numeral within square brackets within text followed by the full URL address at the end of the paper).

For each source quoted in Cyrillic - in Bulgarian language should be given the same source, written in the regulations of the transliteration. 3a източници на български език e.g. Erhard, L., 1993. Blagodenstvie za vsichki, Sofia,UI „Stopanstvo” // Ерхард, Л., 1993. Благоденствие за всички, София, УИ “Стопанство”.

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Notes:

187 AUTHORS GUIDELINE’S

Notes:

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