Emographic Aspects of Migration Nest Africa-Volume 1

emographic Aspects of Migration Nest Africa-Volume 1

109

Public Disclosure Authorized SWP414

Id Bank Staff Working Paper No. 414

(ember 1980

Joint I> i 0 Public Disclosure Authorized

Ad by K. C. Zachariah Development Economics Department Public Disclosure Authorized Julien Conde OECD Development Centre, Paris N. K. Nair Chike S.Okoye Eugene K. Campbell M. L Srivastava Kenneth Swindell Consultants Development Economics Department

,yright (D1980 World Bank _ BH Street, N.W. 'shington, D C. 20433, U.S.A. Public Disclosure Authorized

Ie views and interpretations in this document are those of the authors d should not be attributed to the World Bank, to its affiliated 'rizations, or to any individual acting in their behalf.

183112 If;51 ~oi k ! The views and interpretations in this document are those of the authors and should not be attributed to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to any individual acting in their behalf.

WORLD BANK

World Bank Staff Working Paper No. 414

September 1980

DEMOGRAPHIC ASPECTS OF MIGRATION IN WEST AFRICA - VOLUME 1

This working paper brings together country-level analyses of the demographic aspects of migration in English-speaking West Africa. They are written by Bank staff and consultants under the overall direction of K. C. Zachariah. Eight country studies, including 2 annexes, have been prepared on West Africa migration and are issued in two volumes. Volume 1 (World Bank Staff Working Paper No. 414) is devoted to the English-speaking countries: Ghana, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and the Gambia. Volume 2 (World Bank Staff Working Paper No. 415) covers the French-speaking countries: the Ivory Coast, Upper Volta, Senegal, and Togo.

Each country analysis focuses on the volume and direction of external and internal migration in that country and the demographic and socio-economic characteristics of migrants and non-migrants. These data yield insights concerning population distribution and the effects of migration on population growth. They also provide the background data necessary for further analysis of the economic consequences of migration in the region -- a study which is now being initiated by West African scholars as a follow-up to these country studies.

A complementary regional-level analysis based on the findings contained in the country studies is found in Migration in West Africa: Demo- graphic Aspects by K. C. Zachariah and Julien Conde (London: Oxford University Press, 1980).

Prepared by: Copyright Q 1980 The World Bank K. C. Zachariah 1818 H Street, N.W. Development Economics Department Washington, D.C. 20433

Julien Conde OECD Development Centre, Paris

N. K. Nair Chike S. Okoye Eugene K. Campbell M. L. Srivastava Kenneth Swindell Consultants Development Economics Department DEMOGRAPHIC ASPECTS OF MIGRATION IN WEST AFRICA: Volume 1

ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES

Ghana by K. C. Zachariah and N. K. Nair Sierra Leone by Chike S. Okoye, Annex by Eugene K. Campbell Liberia by M. L. Srivastava The Gambia by K. C. Zachariah, Annex by Kenneth Swindell

Prepared as part of a joint World Bank/Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Research Project.

World Bank Staff Working Paper No. 414

The World Bank Washington, D.C. July 1980 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No.

Preface ...... iii-iv

Acknowledgments ...... v-vi

Demographic Aspects of Recent International and Internal Migration in Ghana by K. C. Zachariah and N. K. Nair ..... Gh.i-Gh.128

Migration in Sierra Leone by Chike S. Okoye ...... S.L. i-S.L.40

Annex: Some Aspects of Migration in the Western Area of Sierra Leone by Eugene K. Campbell.. S.L.41-S.L.88

Migration to Liberia by M. L. Srivastava ...... L. i-L.80

Migration in the Gambia by K. C. Zachariah ...... G. i-G.31

Annex: A Report on Migrant Farmers in the Gambia by Kenneth Swindell ...... G.32-G.66

Bibliography ...... 1 - 7

- ii - PREFACE

Migration patterns across and within national boundaries affect the distribution of resources -- especially human capital. When, as in West Africa, millions of people are involved, the economic and social effects of migration are significant to the development of both the countries of origin and those of destination. Data from the 1960 and 1970 series of censuses and surveys in West Africa indicate the magnitude of the flow. From 1965 to 1975, six countries (the Ivory Coast, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo, Liberia and the Gambia) had a net gain of 1.3 million people from migration alone while three countries (Upper Volta, Ghana, and Mali) experienced a net loss of 1.2 million. About 4.4 million people migrated within their respective countries. For both international and internal movements, the direction of the flow -- from the interior toward the coast and from rural to urban areas -- affects the regional development of the individual countries and con- tributes to the problems of urban growth.

For these reasons the World Bank and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) agreed in 1975 to sponsor a research project to investigate regional migration patterns and trends in West Africa. It was the first such study ever attempted regarding this area of the world where migration is of great important to national development.

The project was originally designed as an ambitious two-part study. The first part was to measure the demographic dimensions and characteristics of migration, and the second part was to analyse the causes and consequences of migration in three countries in West Africa -- namely Ghana, the Ivory Coast, and Upper Volta. The demographic aspect was to be studied from data existing at that time and population censuses that were soon to be available. The analytical part was to be based on data especially collected for the purpose through sample surveys in selected eco-regions in the three countries.l/ Plans for these sample surveys were abandoned, however, because of disagreement on the arrangements with potential collaborating organizations in the region. The proposal to go ahead with the demographic element of the project was approved by the World Bank's Research Committee in 1975, and the OECD agreed to provide the services of a francophone demographer. Within a few weeks, the study was initiated with analysis of the census data for Ghana, but the project was prolonged for two and a half years because the principal countries, the Ivory Coast and Upper Volta, took their first census in 1975, and these data were not available until May 1977.

1/ An eco-region is a geographically limited area with a common system of economic production or natural resource base, or both; that is, sharing an economic and ecological base.

- iii - - iv -

This volume includes the country reports and bibliography for the English-speaking countries: Ghana, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and the Gambia. The country studies of the French-speaking countries (the Ivory Coast, Upper Volta, Senegal, and Togo) are found in Volume 2 (Working Paper No. 415). Available data for Mali are analyzed in an unpublished paper by Michele Fieloux available through the Population and Human Resources Division of the World Bank. 1/ In addition, a regional volume based on the findings of the nine country studies has been published by the Oxford University Press.2/

According to the United Nations' grouping of countries, West Africa includes sixteen countries with a 1975 total population of 115 million. The selection of the nine countries included in the research project was based on the availability of recent reliable published or unpublished census and survey data featuring information on migration. For some countries, notably Mali and Senegal, the data from recent censuses are not yet available. The most populous country in the region, Nigeria, was excluded because of the controversy regarding its recent census data, particularly those concerning its total population and geographic distribution. Niger, Benin, Guinea, and Guinea Bissau are excluded mainly because of the lack of recent data and the unavailability of scholars familiar with the migration situation in these countries. Nevertheless, a great deal of information on emigration from Guinea is presented.

Each of the country reports included here contains sections on national demographic background, international migration, rural-urban and inter-regional migration, and the socioeconomic characteristics of the migrants in the specific country. Pagination is separate for each study and the bibliography.

Although there is some attempt to point out how recent migratory flows represent changes from historical trends and reflect current patterns of economic opportunity and political stability, the purpose of this research is not to analyze the causes and consequences of migration. Statements on these issues are incidental to the primary concern. The individual country studies and regional analysis do, however, provide a necessary base for further research into the underlying reasons for migration and its social and economic effects. It is hoped that the findings will also be an asset to researchers and planners of economic and social policy in the countries considered.

1/ Michele Fieloux, 1978. "Mali: Internal and International Migration," Washington, D. C.: World Bank, Development Economics Department, June (unpublished, restricted circulation document).

2/ K. C. Zachariah and Julien Conde, 1980. Migration in West Africa: The Demographic Aspects, London: Oxford University Press.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many people and institutions have contributed to the fulfillment of these studies. The Liberia Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs and the Gambia Central Statistics Division, Ministry of Economic Planning and Industrial Development, provided us with unpublished results from their latest censuses. In addition, E.A. Colecraft, Head of the Demographic and Social Statistics Division, Ghana, Central Bureau of Statistics, and B.G. Garbrah, Research Fellow of the Regional Institute of Population Studies, Legon, gave us tabulations of data from the two most recent censuses in Ghana. Needless to say, these studies would not have been possible without these data and the generosity and interest of the government of the countries of West Africa.

Readers in the World Bank and other institutions shared with us their expertise on the countries we studied, giving us their insightful criticisms and suggestions for improvement of the manuscript. These have minimized our errors and added a depth to our findings and conclusions that we could not have achieved otherwise. Among the Bank staff, we would like to thank Johan de Leede, Althea Hill, Michael Lav, David Bovet, and Dean Jamison, in particular. R. Mansell Prothero of the University of Liverpool, Department of Geography; K. T. de Graft-Johnson, deputy chief, Statistics Division, the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa; and N. 0. Addo of the University of Ghana, were most kind in giving their time and knowledge in this regard.

The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the Government of Upper Volta, and the World Bank jointly sponsored a seminar in Ouagadougou on the findings of our research. Its 83 participants represented statistical offices and research institutes in the region, as well as concerned international organizations. The criticisms and comments of the participants provided many ideas for improving our analyses, especially the interpretation of our findings, for which we are most grateful.

Our warmest thanks are offered to the Government of Upper Volta for its co-sponsorship of the migration seminar in West Africa. The many kindnesses of the people and officials of that country shown toward the participants were largely responsible for the success of the conference. Florent Agueh, the World Bank resident representative in Ouagadougou, was most generous in providing the services of his office and staff to those of us attending as representatives of the Bank. - vi -

Nancy Birdsall, Smithsonian Interdisciplinary Population Project, and Robert Lucas, Economics Department, Boston University, provided knowledge- able assistance in the preparation of the research proposal. Remy Clarin provided an historical background report on migration in the region. We are very appreciative of these efforts. We also wish to thank Michael Owoeye and James F. Kaye for providing research assistance on the Liberian data.

Bonnie Newlon provided research and editorial assistance for the regional and nine country reports prepared under this research project. She participated in the seminar and revised the manuscript on the basis of the comments received there, as well as those from other readers. We are extremely thankful for her substantive and editorial contributions.

The Administrative Services Department of the World Bank has given us inestimable assistance throughout the project. We would particularly like to thank Ulrich P. Boegli, Louis J. Valenti, and Pilar Garcia of the Cartography Division for producing the maps.

Subathra Thavamoney provided secretarial assistance, as the many drafts of the country and regional reports were produced. Her enthusiasm and attention to detail were an asset to our research.

We are deeply grateful to Timothy King, chief of the Population and Human Resources Division, Development Economics Department, for his help and encouragement throughout.

To the many who have contributed, our sincere thanks.

K. C. Zachariah and Julien Conde DEMOGRAPHIC ASPECTS OF RECENT INTERNATIONAL

AND INTERNAL MIGRATION IN GHANA

K. C. Zachariah

and

N. K. Nair

Prepared as part of the World Bank/Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Research Project: "Demographic Aspects of Migration in West Africa."

World Bank Development Economics Department Population and Human Resources Division Washington, D.C.

DEMOGRAPHIC ASPECTS OF RECENT INTERNATIONAL

AND INTERNAL MIGRATION IN GHANA

K. C. Zachariah

and

N. K. Nair 1/

Table of Contents

Page No.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 1 - 5

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ...... 6

CHAPTER II. DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND ...... 8

CHAPTER III. INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION ...... 16

CHAPTER IV. INTER-REGIONAL AND INTRA-REGIONAL MIGRATION...... 34

CHAPTER V. RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION ...... 55

CHAPTER VI. CHARACTERISTICS OF MIGRANTS ...... 66

STATISTICAL ANNEX: GHANA ...... 95

1/ Tabulations of data from the 1960 and 1970 Population Censuses of Ghana were provided by E. A. Colecraft, Head, Demographic and Social Statistics Division, Ghana Central Bureau of Statistics, and B.G. Garbrah, Research Fellow, Regional Institute of Population Studies, Legon; editing of the manuscript by Bonnie L. Newlon. The draft of the report was reviewed by N.O. Addo, and several additions and revi- sions he suggested were incorporated in this final version. Page No.

List of Maps and Figures

Map 1. Ghana. Population Density by Local Authorities, 1970. 11

Map 2. Ghana. Foreign Nationals in Ghana by Country of Origin, 1970. 22

Map 3. Ghana. Lifetime Interregional Migration to Accra and Brong- Ahafo, 1960 and 1970. 36

Figure 1. Age Distribution of In-Migrants to and Out-Migrants from Accra and Volta Region, 1970. 69 Page No.

List of Tables

Table 1. Population Growth in Ghana, 1921-1977. 9

Table 2. Regional Distribution of the Population, Percentage Increase, and Density, 1960 and 1970. 10

Table 3. Value Added to Gross National Product by Regions, 1960. 15

Table 4. Distribution of Lifetime West African Immigrants Aged 15 Years and Over in Ghana by Time of Migration, 1960 and 1971. 19

Table 5. Foreign Nationals Born in Ghana and Abroad, Pre-1900-1969. 20

Table 6. Foreign Nationals and Foreign-Born Persons in Ghana by Country of Origin, 1960 and 1970. 23

Table 7. Foreign Nationals as Percent of Total Population by Regions, 1960 and 1970. 25

Table 8. Distribution of Foreign National Immigrants by Region of Enumeration, 1960 and 1970. 26

Table 9. Net Emigration Among Foreign-Born by Region, 1960-1970. 27

Table 10. Index of Concentration of Immigrant Groups by Region, 1960 and 1970. 29

Table 11. Region of Enumeration of Foreign-Born Popu- lation by Place of Previous Residence, 1960. 30

Table 12. Foreign Nationals Enumerated in Urban Areas, 1960 and 1970. 31

Table 13. Net International Migration to Ghana, 1960-70. 33

Table 14. Lifetime Inter-Regional Migration, 1960 and 1970. 35

Table 15. Lifetime Inter-Regional Migration Ratios by Region, 1960 and 1970. 37

Table 16. In-Migrants to Accra by Origin, 1960 and 1970. 39 - iv -

List of Tables, continued

Page No.

Table 17. In-Migration to Ashanti Region, 1960 and 1970. 40

Table 18. In-Migration to Brong-Ahafo Region, 1960 and 1970. 41

Table 19. Out-Migration from Eastern Region, 1960 and 1970. 42

Table 20. Efficiency of Migration for Population Growth, 1960 and 1970. 43

Table 21. Net Migration, 1960-70. 45

Table 22. Migration Between Accra and Other Regions During 1960-70. 46

Table 23. Migration Between Brong-Ahafo and Other Regions During 1960-70. 47

Table 24. Major (10,000 plus) Migration Flows During 1960-70. 48

Table 25. Estimates of Net Migration by Region, Age, and Sex, 1960-70. 49

Table 26. Intra-Regional Lifetime Migrants by Sex, 1960 and 1970. 50

Table 27. Lifetime Intra-Regional Migrants Expressed as Proportion of the Enumerated Population Excluding Foreign Born in Each Region of Ghana, 1960 and 1970. 51

Table 28. Lifetime Intra-Regional Migrants and Inter- Regional Out-Migrants Expressed as Proportion (%) of the Total Population Born in Each Region of Ghana, 1960 and 1970. 53

Table 29. Population of Each Region of Ghana Classified by (Lifetime) Migration Status, 1960 and 1970. 54

Table 30. Urban Localities and Urban Population, 1948, 1960 and 1970. 56

Table 31. Proportion of Urban Population in Each Region of Ghana, 1948, 1960 and 1970. 57 v

List of Tables, continued

Page No.

Table 32. Lifetime Immigrants by Country of Birth and Place (Urban-Rural) of Enumeration, 1960 and 1970. 58

Table 33. Urban Population of Ghana by Lifetime Migration Status and Region, 1960 and 1970. 59

Table 34. Adult Lifetime Migrants by Rural- Urban Origin and Destination, 1960 and 1970. 60

Table 35. Net Migration to Urban Areas by Region, 1960-70. 63

Table 36. Net Migration to Urban Areas by Age, 1960-70. 65

Table 37. Age Composition of Lifetime Migrants and Non-Migrants, 1960 and 1970. 67

Table 38. Age Distribution of Male Lifetime Migrants by Urban-Rural Origin and Destination, 1970. 68

Table 39. Males per 100 Females by Migrant Type, 1960 and 1970. 70

Table 40. Sex Ratio by Age and Lifetime Migration Status, 1960 and 1970. 71

Table 41. Sex Ratio of Lifetime Rural-Urban Migrants Aged 15 Years and More in Ghana by Origin and Destination of Migration, 1960 and 1970. 72

Table 42. Sex Ratio of Immigrants by Country of Birth, 1960 and 1970. 73

Table 43. Index of Educational Attainment of Migrants and Non-Migrants, 1960 and 1970. 76

Table 44. Index of Educational Attainment of Migrants and Non-Migrants by Urban- Rural Nature of Birthplace, 1960. 77 - vi -

List of Tables, continued

Page No.

Table 45. Index of Educational Attainment of Male Adult Migrants and Non-Migrants by Region of Birth, 1960. 78

Table 46. Index of Educational Attainment of Male Adult Migrants and Non-Migrants by Urban-Rural Nature of Birthplace and Place of Enumeration, 1960 and 1970. 79

Table 47. Difference Between Indices of Educational Attainment of Out-Migrants from a Region and Non-Migrants in the Region, by Region of Destination of the MIigrant, 1960. 80

Table 48. Difference Between Indices of Educational Attainment of In-Migrants to a Region and Non-Migrants in the Region, by Region of Origin of the MIigrant, 1960. 81

Table 49. Index of Educational Attainment of Migrants and Non-Migrants by Origin and Destination, 1960. 83

Table 50. Educational Attainment of Migrants and Non-Migrants by Duration of Residence, Rural-Urban Status of Origin and 84 Destination, 1960.

Table 51. African Immigrant Workers in Ghana by Industry, 1960 and 1970. 86

Table 52. Difference Between the Percentage of Male Immigrants and Total Male Population Engaged in Specific Industries, by Region of Enumeration, 1960. 87

Table 53. Occupational Sub-Groups of Farmers, 1960 (Males). 90

Table 54. Occupational Sub-Groups of Craftsmen, Pro- duction Process Workers, Etc., 1960 (Males) 91

Table 55. Percentage of Migrants and Non-Migrants in Non-Agricultural Sectors, 1960 and 1970. 93

Table 56. Percent in Farming Occupations by Migrant Status, 1960. 94 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

International Migration

Ghana is one of the richest and most populous countries in West Africa; and until recently, it was a country of immigration. The average rate of population growth from 1920-60 was 2.8 percent per year, a rate that could not have been sustained over this long a period under the prevailing high mortality conditions of the region without significant immigration. In the 1960 census of Ghana, 828,000 foreign nationals (about 12 percent of the total population) were enumerated. Thirty-five percent of them (291,000) had been born in Ghana, with over 10,000 born before 1920. Thus, substantial numbers of foreigners (estimated at more than 70,000) were living in Ghana even before 1920. The rate of population growth continued to be high during 1948-60, estimated at 2.7 percent per year, indicating continued net immigration to Ghana during the period.

By 1970, the number of foreign nationals had decreased to 562,000 (7 percent of the population) and the foreign nationals born in Ghana to 247,000. The number of Nigerians in Ghana declined by 71 percent, Ivorians by 66 percent, Upper Volta nationals by 22 percent, and the Togolese nationals by 13 percent. The intercensal rate of growth declined to 2.4 percent, somewhat below the rate of natural increase. Undoubtedly, during recent years the migration tide has turned away from Ghana. For the first time in this century, Ghana experienced some net emigration. A rough estimate of the net loss is about 400,000.

The immigrants do not appear largely concentrated in any particular area of the country. They are fairly evenly distributed between the regions and by urban-rural locale. The region having the largest percentage of immigrants in relation to total population in 1960 and 1970 was Accra (22 percent and 10 percent, respectively). After Accra, Eastern and Volta regions had large percentage shares of immigrants in their populations in 1960; and Volta and Ashanti regions in 1970.

There does appear to be a selectivity of region by nationality of the immigrants, however, which seems related to ethnic affiliations and closeness to homeland. Similarly, there is a selectivity operating in choice of urban or rural area by nationality of immigrant. For instance, while 29 percent of the Ghanaian population were urban in 1970, more than half of the Liberian, Malian, and Nigerian nationals were urban residents. On the other hand, more than half of the Ivory Coast, Togo, and Benin nationals were rural residents.

Important questions related to developmental policy in Ghana are (1) what are the causes of the recent reversal of the immigration trend in Ghana? And (2) what are the consequences?

The major causes are undoubtedly economic in nature. Until recently Ghana was the richest country in the region, the principal producer of cocoa

- Gh.1 - - Gh.2

in the world; it had the best educational system, the best medical facilities, etc. Although Ghana still retains supremacy in some of these areas, the economic situation has undoubtedly changed for the worse. At present, both the Ivory Coast and Liberia have a higher per capita income. Ghana's GNP per capita did not grow at all during 1960-73 while that of the Ivory Coast grew by 3.1 percent per year and that of Togo, by 4.4 percent. The Ivory Coast is catching up with Ghana as a leading producer of cocoa. Ghana's currency is weak and its purchasing power has decreased to a fraction of its official exchange rate. At the same time, the currency of all its neighbouring countries is strong and freely exchangeable. The economic deterioration in Ghana in conjunction with the relatively rapid improvement in its neighbouring countries has been the main cause of the reversal of the migration trend. The precipitating factor was, of course, the enforcement of the Alien Compliance Order issued in 1969, but the factors leading to the promulgation of the order were undoubtedly the deteriorating economic and employment situation within the country.

In assessing the consequences of the recent emigration from Ghana, it is useful to evaluate the characteristics of these migrants. Emigration from Ghana during 1960-70 was almost entirely of foreign nationals returning to their country of origin; few Ghanaian nationals emigrated in recent years. The economic consequence of emigration thus depends very much on the migrant's economic contributions before migration.

Most of the immigrants in Ghana were nationals of the neighbouring countries - Togo, Upper Volta, and Nigeria in particular. Their age-sex composition indicated that the migrants composed more than a proportional share of the labour force. They had much less educational attainment than the native Ghanaians; in fact, their average educational attainment was lower than that of the rural non-migrants in Ghana. They were employed in relatively low status occupations: as agricultural labour, particularly on cocoa farms, in petty trading, etc. Ghana may well afford the loss of immigrants engaged in petty trading, but the situation with respect to agricultural labour is somewhat different. Although population density and rural growth are quite high in Ghana, surveys conducted in recent years indicate that the return migration of the foreign farm workers has adversely affected cocoa production in the country. The rural Ghanaian youths would rather try their luck in Accra or some other town than undertake the hard work involved in cocoa farming. Agricultural production in Ghana and other West African countries is quite sensitive to labour input during certain critical agricultural cycles.

What is the prospect for future international migration to and from Ghana? There is evidence that even during the past decade when net migration was negative, substantial numbers came to Ghana. Migration begets migration, and the presence of a large number of foreigners is one factor which will ensure a continuation of immigration to Ghana. Secondly, the need for foreign farm workers in Ghana has not disappeared; the local people have not fully filled the gap left by the foreign nationals who emigrated under the Alien Compliance Order. Thirdly, the economic conditions - Gh.3

in Upper Volta, one of the major countries sending migrants to Ghana, are worse than those in Ghana; and alternate avenues of migration for these individuals are meeting with increasing resistance. Thus, migration to Ghana is likely to continue, but unlike the early decades of the country when Ghana was consistently gaining through migration, or the most recent decade when there was a significant net loss, future migration is likely to have little net demographic impact on Ghana. Immigration is likely to be cancelled by a more or less equal volume of emigration from the country.

Internal Migration

Rural-rural movers represent the largest share of lifetime internal migrants in Ghana in 1970 (52 percent). However, in terms of net gains over the most recent intercensal period (1960-70), internal migration in Ghana appears to have been primarily urban in focus and directed toward large towns like Accra. There also has been some movement toward the rural areas, in the Brong-Ahafo and Ashanti regions in particular.

In 1960, 13 percent of the Ghanaian population were inter-regional migrants, and in 1970, 17 percent were. The regions showing net gains due to internal migration in 1970 were Accra (+273,000), Ashanti (+72,000), and Brong-Ahafo (+117,000). All others showed net losses, with the largest net outflow in 1970 from Northern region (-186,000). The largest net stream of internal migrants ran from Eastern region to Accra (+79,000). Thus, Accra and Ashanti regions were the major attractors of both immigrants and internal migrants in 1970.

The urban population of Ghana increased from 525,000 to 1,551,000 between 1948 and 1960 and further to 2,472,000 in 1970. The rate of urban growth decreased from 9 percent per year during 1948-60 to 4.7 percent during 1960-70. But such a drastic decline is not likely to continue; in fact, from 1970-80 the rate is likely to remain at least at the 1960-70 level adding about 116,000 persons per year to the urban population.

Some of the urban growth has been due to reclassification of localities (the number of towns increased from 98 to 135 during 1960-70). Excluding this factor, considering the localities which were urban in 1970, only about 30 percent of their growth was due to migration and the balance due to natural increase. Net rural-urban migration was about 226,000 - about half the net emigration from the country during the period. Not all regions or size classes of towns shared the urban growth due to migration. Urban areas in regions around Accra (Central, Eastern and Volta regions) experienced net losses due to migration. Similarly, smaller towns lost population due to migration. For towns with populations less than 10,000 the net loss was about 152,000. The growth of Accra was not only at the expense of rural areas but also of smaller towns, particularly those in the adjoining regions.

Migration to the towns was not a one-way stream of traffic; considerable numbers returned to the villages. Net migration to the urban areas was positive at ages below 35 years (totalling 256,000). Nearly - Gh.4

70 percent of the net gain was concentrated in a 10-year age span, 15-24 years. The overall sex composition of the migrants was fairly balanced but there was considerable difference by age group. Among those in the age group 10-19 years, females out-numbered males by a ratio of 100:71; and in the age group 25-44 years, males out-numbered females by a ratio of 166:100.

In the 1960s internal migrants were better educated than non- migrants; but by 1970 the highest educational level was found among urban non-migrants. Compared with the rural non-migrants, the rural-urban migrants had on average 2.8 years more schooling in 1960; and compared with the non-migrants in the urban areas, they had an additional 0.4 years of schooling. The relative educational attainment of the internal migrants seems to have declined during 1960-70, however. By 1970, the educational attainment of the urban non-migrants was higher than that of the migrants.

Relatively fewer of the internal migrants were employed in agriculture compared with non-migrants in 1960 and 1970. The industrial groups where inter-regional migrants had a relatively higher representation than non-migrants were services (+13 percent), manufacturing (+4.3 percent), and commerce (+2.5 percent). Excluding the deficit in agriculture and the excess in services, internal migrant/non-migrant differentials were not very great. While rural-urban migrants have tended to occupy relatively higher status occupations than non-migrants, with the deterioration in their relative educational attainment, more of the rural-urban migrants may be entering relatively lower status occupations in recent years.

While rural and small town Ghanaians have been moving to Accra and other major towns in recent years, there has been a simultaneous counter movement toward the rural areas in some parts of the country. Three pieces of evidence can be given to support this counter movement. Reference is already made to the negative net rural-urban migration at ages above 35 years. Besides Accra there was one other region, Brong-Ahafo, which experienced net in-migration during 1960-70. This region has no major urban centre; the largest town is Sunyani with a population of 24,000 in 1970. Thirdly, in 1970 there were 581,000 adult (15+ years) lifetime migrants in the rural areas who were born in urban areas. The corresponding figure for 1960 was only 193,000.

Urban-rural migrants were not just persons returning after a term of work in the urban areas. Their proportion of younger persons was less than that of rural-urban migrants, although 90 percent of the urban-rural migrants were under 55 years of age. The data on their educational attainments in 1960 and 1970 show trend reversals. In 1960, urban-rural migrants had a lower educational attainment than rural-urban migrants; but by 1970, the opposite was true. Urban-rural migrants enumerated in the rural areas in 1970 had on average 5.3 years of schooling. In spite of their high average number of years of schooling, about 15 percent of them were farmers. However, they also included a relatively high proportion of professional, technical and related workers, and craftsmen. - Gh.5

Thus, recent internal migration in Ghana is characterized by a large and increasing movement from rural areas and small towns to cities and large towns, and reverse movement to the rural areas. The economic consequences of each trend are different. Rural-urban migration reduces population pressure in the rural areas. The rural growth rate is reduced significantly, but economic problems are not solved, only transferred to urban areas. The need for urban manpower is met adequately by urban natural increase which, during 1970-80, is estimated at 75,000 per year. 1/ The recent trend toward migration of relatively less educated persons only adds to the pressure on informal employment in the urban sector. On the other hand, the employment of the urban-rural migrants as farmers, craftsmen, and professional personnel indicates that they are serving a useful economic service in the rural sector. At the same time the gap left by the exodus of foreign farm workers has not been filled.

1/ Based on the percentage of urban growth due to natural increase during 1960-70 in those areas classified as urban in 1970.

I. INTRODUCTION

Ghana is one of the richest and most populous countries in West Africa. Only Nigeria exceeds its population size, and only the Ivory Coast and Liberia exceed its per capita income. Upper Volta, Ghana's northern neighbour had a per capita income of only $70 compared with Ghana's $300 (in 1973), and Togo, its eastern neighbour has a per capita income of only $180. Although the per capita income in the Ivory Coast is slightly higher than that of Ghana at present, this was not the case in the past. Fifteen years ago, the average income of a Ghanaian was 25 percent higher than that of the average Ivorian. Ghana was indeed the "gold coast" of Western Africa and the Mecca for young adult migrants in the region looking for employment and cash wages.

Since the early 1900s, large numbers of migrant workers from neighbouring countries, Togo and Upper Volta in particular, have moved into Ghana. At the time of the 1960 census, there were over 800,000 foreign nationals in Ghana who constituted about 12 percent of the total population. Since then, there has been a reversal of the past migration trend. Ghana's economy has been sluggish in recent years; its GNP per capita did not grow at all during 1960-73, while that of its western neighbour (Ivory Coast) increased by 3.1 percent per year; and that of its eastern neighbour (Togo) by 4.4 percent. Among the neighbouring countries of Ghana, only Upper Volta experienced a slower economic growth. Mostly as a result of economic and employment problems, the government of Ghana began restrict- ing migration into Ghana. In 1969 it issued what is generally known as the Alien Compliance Order by which foreign nationals without valid resident permit were required to leave the country. The result is partly reflected in the 1970 census which enumerated only 536,000 foreign nationals in Ghana. Ghana has had an unfavourable balance of migration with its neighbouring countries since the end of the 1960s and possibly during the early 1970s. One of the principal objectives here is to analyse these changing patterns of migration between Ghana and its neighbouring countries in West Africa.

Within Ghana itself there are vast climatic and economic differences. The Accra plains in the south and the northern half of the country are covered by savannah vegetation. Part of the Upper region belongs to the Sudanian Zone. The southwestern part of Ghana is covered with tropical rain forest.

Partly as a result of these climatic differences, economic conditions in the various regions of the country are vastly different. For example, the per capita gross value added to the economy in 1960 was about 176 (6G) in Accra, 68 in the Western region, and only 30 in the Northern region. But the rates of natural increase in the population of various regions have not been very different, with the result that the pressure of population on local resources has been very uneven. Thus, economic opportunities in richer regions have attracted migrants from relatively poorer regions. These movements have been partly within the same geographic region, and partly between regions. Some were movements from one village to another or from

- Gh.6 - - Gh.7 - one town to another. Others were from villages to towns or from towns to villages. This study will be concerned with all such internal population movements in Ghana in recent years - their magnitude, trend, characteristics, causes, and consequences. II. DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND

Ghana's demographic and socio-economic conditions are better documented than those of the other West African countries. It had its first population census as early as 1891. Although several other censuses have been taken since then, Ghana did not have a reasonably detailed and accurate description of its population until 1960, when the first census under self government was taken. Its latest census was taken ten years later in 1970.

The population of Ghana is estimated (circa 1977) to be about 10 million which is more than four times that of Togo, and more than one and a half times that of Upper Volta or the Ivory Coast. With a land area of 238,524 sq. kilometers, this gives a density of 42 persons per square kilometer.

During 1960-70 Ghana's population grew at an average rate of 2.4 percent per year. The birth rate was estimated to be about 50, and the average death rate during 1960-70 was probably around 23. Net emigration from the country reduced a potential rate of growth (natural increase) from about 2.7 or 2.8 percent to the observed rate of 2.4 percent. The current growth rate should be close to the rate of natural increase as net migration is likely to be negligible. Between 1965 and 1977, the death rate should have declined by 3 or 4 units. With a relatively constant birth rate, this should result in an increase in the rate of natural increase estimated at about 3.0 percent per year. The corresponding vital rates are a birth rate of 49 and a death rate of 19 per 1,000 population.

While census results for earlier periods reflect a higher growth rate than during 1960-70 (Table 1), this finding has been challenged on the basis of enumeration errors. Some analysts believe a truer pattern of growth would be, as follows:

Period Annual Growth Rate

1921-30 3.2 1931-47 1.6 1948-60 2.7 1961-70 2. 6

If we estimate the average rate of growth during 1921-60, it was about 2.8 percent per year. This is a relatively high rate of growth for the period, and given the high death rate that prevailed in the region during this time, it could not have been sustained except through immigration.

The population of Ghana is unevenly distributed; the density and rate of population growth vary greatly by geographic region (Table 2). The country was divided into seven administrative regions in 1960 (see Map 1), but after 1960 the Western region was split into the Western and Central regions, and the Northern region was split into the Northern and Upper regions. For the purposes of this study, the original seven regions of 1960 are retained.

- Gh.8 - - Gh.9 -

Table 1: POPULATION GROWTH IN GHANA, 1921-1977

Population Average Annual Year (in thousands) Growth Rate (%)

1921 2,296 3.2 1931 3,164 1.6 1948 4,118 4.1 a/ | 1960 6,727 2.4 a/ 1970 8,559 2.9 1977 10,502

a! The growth rates above are based on Census results for the years shown (except 1977). The recorded growth rate of 4.1 percent between 1948 and 1960 is felt to be exaggerated by some experts. If allowance is made for under-enumeration in 1948 and a slight over-enumeration in 1960 (estimated at between 0.6 and 2.5 percent), the growth rate is about 2.7 percent. Again, the figure of 2.4 percent as the growth rate between 1960 and 1970 is felt to be too low. If allowance is made for over-enumeration in 1960 and under-enumeration in 1970, the growth rate is at least 2.6 percent (K.T. de Graft-Johnson, personal communication, October 26, 1978).

Sources: J.C. Caldwell, 1967. "Population Change", in W. Birmingham, et al. (ed.), Study of Contemporary Ghana, Vol. II, London: George Allen and Unwin, Tables 1.1 and 1.2; and derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1972. 1970 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. II. Accra: Census Office; and United Nations. Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, 1975. Selected World Demographic Indicators by Countries, 1950-2000, ESA/P/WP/55, New York: United Nations, (May 28, 1975). - Gh.10 -

Table 2: REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATION, PERCENTAGE INCREASE, AND DENSITY, 1960 AND 1970.

Density per l Percent Growth 1960 1970 Population ('000) of Total Rate sq. sq. sq. sq.1 | Region 1960 1970 1970 1960-70 mi. km. mi. km.1

IWestern & Central 1,377 1,660 19.4 1.9 106 41 128 49 |

IGreater Accra 492 851 9.9 5.5 486 191 842 330 | lEastern 1,094 1,261 14. 7 1. 4 142 55 163 63 |

IVolta 777 947 11.1 2.0 98 38 120 46 I lAshanti 1,109 1,481 17.3 2.9 118 45 158 61 I

|Brong-Ahafo 588 766 9.0 2. 7 38 15 50 19 |

INorthern & Upper 1,289 1,590 18.6 2.1 34 13 42 16 |

|All Regions 6,727 8,559 100.0 2.4 73 28 93 36 |

Note: After 1960, the Western region was split into the Western and Central regions, and, similarly, the Northern region was split into the Northern and Upper regions. For the sake of easy comparison with the 1960 position, we present the 1970 position for appropriately grouped region (as shown above).

Sources: Ghana. Census Office, 1972. 1970 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. II, Accra: Census Office, Table 3.2.

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Table 2 gives some basic population data for these regions in 1960 and 1970. The largest regions by size of population are the Western (including Central) and the Northern (including Upper); Accra and the Brong- Ahafo regions are the smallest. The rate of growth varies from 1.4 percent per year in Eastern to 5.5 in Accra. Three regions, Accra, Ashanti, and Brong-Ahafo had a higher than average growth rate, while the remainder had lower than average growth rates. Population densities are lower in the interior (northern) regions and higher in the coastal regions.

In 1960, there were 98 urban localities (localities with a popula- ion of 5,000 or more) with a total population of 1,551,000. By 1970, the number of urban localities had increased to 135 and the population to 2,472,000. These figures imply an increase in the proportion urban from 23 percent in 1960 to 29 percent in 1970. At present, Ghana is one of the most urbanized countries in Africa. Between 1960 and 1970, the urban population increased by 59 percent (4.7 percent per year) partly due to natural increase (54 percent of the total gain), partly due to migration (17 percent of the total), and partly due to reclassification of localities (29 percent of the total growth). By contrast, the rate of growth of the rural population was only 1.6 percent per year.

Ghana is also one of the most advanced countries in the region from the point of view of educational attainment of its population. In 1948, only 4 percent of the population had some schooling. By 1960, 27 percent of the population aged 6 years and over had attended school, and the corresponding proportion in 1970 was 43 percent. Proportionately, more males than females had schooling (54 percent vs. 34 percent in 1970; 37 percent vs. 17 percent in 1960), but the improvement in female education was greater than that of males during 1960-70. Education is more widespread in urban areas than in rural areas (59 percent compared to 36 percent in 1970).

In 1970, 84 percent of the males and 64 percent of the females aged 15 and over were classified as economically active. The corresponding proportions in 1960 were 89 percent and 57 percent respectively. About 8 percent of the male labour force and 4 percent of the female labour force in 1970 were unemployed. The corresponding proportions in 1960 were 7 percent and 5 percent respectively. The increase in male unemployment, it may be noted, occurred despite a decrease in the male labor force participation rate.

Agriculture was the principal employment sector for workers both in 1960 (62 percent) and 1970 (57 percent). Proportionately, more male workers than female workers were in this sector. Between 1960 and 1970, however, there was a significant shift in employment rates by sex in agriculture; during the period, the female agricultural labour force increased by 26.7 percent (2.4 percent per annum) compared with an increase of only 1.5 percent among males (0.1 percent per annum). As a result, while the female component accounted for 43.7 percent of the agricultural work force in 1960, in 1970 the group accounted for 49.2 percent. To some extent this shift resulted from the departure of a sizeable number of alien agricultural laborers, who were almost exclusively male (Rourke, 1974). - Gh.13 -

The average contribution of agriculture to the country's GDP during 1965-72 was 44.4 percent, while mining, manufacturing, and construction together contributed only 17.5 percent. 1/ Ghana's economic growth in the foreseeable future therefore depends on the course of its agricultural sector.

The growth rate of the national economy has fluctuated considerably during the past two decades. The annual growth rate of the GDP reached a high of 7.0 percent in the immediate post-Independence period, 1957-1961/62, and a low of -4.3 percent in 1966. Thereafter, the rate increased considerably after a change of government and economic policies, reaching about 5.9 percent in 1969. The average rate of economic growth for the two decades after Independence, 1957-1977, was 3.1 percent. During the 1960s, however, when the present recession began, the annual growth rate of the economy was 2.5 percent, lower than the annual rate of natural increase of the population. 2/ The 1970s started with bright prospects; however, the post-19 75 period has seen a further deterioration in the economy, with super inflationary levels reaching over 116 percent after 1977.

Cocoa is by far the most important export commodity of Ghana, and the national economy has been and still is considerably dependent on cocoa. Apart from its large share of export earnings, cocoa influences government revenues, farm incomes, employment, and the overall well-being of Ghana-s people. However, Ghana's earnings from cocoa dwindled during the 1960s after attaining a peak level during 1960-61. 3/ This resulted from both a decline in cocoa cultivation (as farmers increasingly shifted to the cultivation of other crops), a lack of new expansions, and destruction by disease and pests. The laying-off of cocoa farm workers in this process, most of whom were immigrants, strained the already tight employment conditions in the country, and eventually the foreign workers began leaving the country of necessity.

One of the most serious problems facing agriculture in Ghana is that of land tenure. With the exception of a few areas, land is every- where owned communally, and it is extremely difficult for outsiders or even individuals within a community to secure outright purchase of land. Even where land is available for sale or rent, the legal acquisition of it is usually difficult because of disputes arising from the undefined or un- established original ownership of the land. This factor has clearly affected population distribution and movement within the country.

1/ World Bank, 1976b. World Tables 1976. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press for the World Bank, Table 4, pp. 418-419.

2/ World Bank estimates.

3/ World Bank estimates. - Gh.14 -

As mentioned in the introduction, the regions differ considerably in their socio-economic development. One measure of their relative economic development is given in the value added by the various regions to the gross national product (Table 3). According to data for 1960, Accra is the most advanced region and Northern is the least advanced. Recent indicators showing levels of development for the regions again confirm that the Accra Capital District, which includes the Tema industrial area, is relatively the most developed region of the country. Accra Capital District is followed by Ashanti, Eastern, Volta, Western and Central, Brong-Ahafo, Northern, and, lastly, Upper Region. Development differs from one region to another; moreover, development is grossly uneven within regions. With the exception of the Accra Capital District, the fortunes of the regions in terms of development keep shifting from period to period. The more urbanized, industrialized regions and areas with substantial commercial agriculture are more wealthy and the people's standards of living are much higher compared with areas having no such activities. In spite of efforts made over the years by various governments to eliminate or minimize the unevenness of development, a few areas continue to increase their relative share of the scarce development resources, thus widening the gap even further between the relatively rich and the relatively poorer areas. National social and economic policies, however, recognize the need to bring equitable development to all regions and communities, although inadequate social, economic, and geographic resources impede progress. In addition, administrative difficulties slow the implementation of government policies, and political instability, evident in the frequent changes of government, hampers progress toward achieving a stable, peaceful atmosphere for development. All these factors have influenced population movements in the country in recent years. - G.15 -

Table 3: VALUE ADDED TO GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT BY REGTONS, 1960

Gross Value All Sectors Added Per Capita Region (E G Million) Percent (E G) Rank

Western 93.5 22.2 68 2

Accra 86.5 20.6 176 1

Eastern 57.5 13.7 53 5

Volta 33.5 8.0 43 6

Ashanti 75.2 17.9 68 3

Brong-Ahafo 35.6 8.5 61 4

Northern 38.8 9.2 30 7

Ghana 420.6 100.0 63 -

Source: Walter Birmingham, et al., 1966. "Regional Aspects of the Structure of the Economy", in Walter B. Birmingham, et al., (eds.) Study of Contemporary Ghana, Vol. I, London: George Allen and Unwin, Table 4.3. III. INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

Until the 1960s, Ghana was a country of immigration attracting workers mainly from its neighbouring countries. The immigrants came as farm workers and for petty trading and diamond mining. Some stayed for long periods, bearing children in Ghana, but others returned after varying periods of work in Ghana. 1/ The net effect of these movements before 1960 was reflected by the presence of 828,000 persons of foreign origin (12 percent of the total population of the country), in Ghana at the time of the 1960 census. All these persons, however, did not actually migrate to Ghana; about 291,000 (35 percent) of them were born in Ghana to parents of foreign origin, as shown below:

1960 1970

Foreign nationals in Ghana 2/ 828,000 562,000

Born in Ghana 291,000 247,000 0-9 years 151,000 10+ years 96,000

Born outside Ghana 537,000 315,000 0-9 years 31,000 10+ years 284,000

At the time of the 1960 census, much of the immigration was shown to be of recent origin, with about four-fifths of all immigants who were aged 15 years or above having been in residence for less than 18 months prior to the census. The rapid influx of migrant workers into Ghana was directly

1/ E.A. Boateng, 1972. "Agriculture and Population Growth in Ghana", in S.H. Ominde and C.N. Ejiogu, (eds.), Population Growth and Economic Development in Africa, New York: Heinemann with Population Council.

2/ The 1960 census of Ghana attempted to identify the non-Ghanaians in the country by collecting information on the "country of origin" of respondents. Country of origin was defined as the country of birth of one's father (if that was Ghana, father's father) or, in matrilineal societies one's mother (or mother's mother). Those who reported this as a foreign country were considered "foreign origin". the 1970 census used a different procedure to determine nationality of respondents. A set of criteria was fixed for Ghanaian nationality, and those who did not satisfy them were considered foreign nationals. Needless to say, because of the difference in procedures, a person described as "foreign origin" in the 1960 census would not necessarily be a "foreign national" in the 1970 census. Comparisons between these two population subgroups is therefore difficult. Furthermore, the 1970 census count of foreign nationals is of doubtful quality because the Alien Compliance Order of 1969 would have encouraged some foreign nationals to either declare themselves as Ghanaian or avoid being enumerated.

- Gh. 16 - - Gh.17 -

associated with the achievement of political independence by the country. Independence brought with it a rapid economic boom, which lasted 4-5 years, after which internal and external factors began to affect the economic prosperity of the nation. The country has experienced increasing economic difficulties since then, and many observers believe the situation has achieved almost unmanageable dimensions in recent years.

The flow of immigrants to Ghana was interrupted during the 1960s, first by economic problems in Ghana which appeared during the first half of the decade, accompanied by better economic opportunities in other countries in the region (especially Nigeria and the Ivory Coast), and secondly and more abruptly, by the enforcement of the Alien Compliance Order, issued by the Government in November 1969. According to this order, all foreign workers without a valid residence permit were required to obtain one, and failing, should leave the country within a period of two weeks from the publication date of the order. The actual number of foreign nationals who left the country because of the order is not known, but there is enough evidence to indicate that the number was substantial. According to the 1970 Census, the total number of foreign nationals in Ghana decreased to 562,000 (from 828,000 in 1960), and the number of foreign-born persons to 315,000 (from 537,000 in 1960). The gross flows are not known, but a few observations about their magnitude can be made:

1. At least 198,000 of the foreign-born who were enumerated in Ghana in 1960 moved out of the country between 1960 and 1970.

2. At least 166,000 among the persons born in Ghana to foreign nationals moved out of Ghana between 1960 and 1970.

3. At least 13,000 foreign-born Ghanaians returned to Ghana between 1960 and 1970.

4. Net migration of foreign nationals 10 years of age or more in 1970 between 1960 and 1970 was on the order of 364,000.

5. Immigration to Ghana continued during 1960-70; at least 31,000 children under 10 years of age, and an unknown number of adults who accompanied them, moved into Ghana during the period.

These categories do not cover all the migration streams and, therefore, are insufficient to arrive at an estimate of the net effect of migration on the population growth of the country. But they seem to indicate that the country had a negative migration balance during 1960-70 and that almost all of this was due to the return migration of foreign nationals. Indeed, it has been estimated that the annual flow of foreign migrants into Ghana was at least between 25,000 and 30,000 during various periods between 1960 and 1969, before the Alien Compliance Order of 1969. By the end of 1969, probably between 1-1.2 million persons of foreign nationality resided - Gh.18 -

in Ghana. Hence the negative migration at the end of 1969 was due directly to events only four months prior to the 1970 census, namely the Alien Compliance Order. Ghanaians themselves were not very migratory; international migration to and from Ghana during 1960-70 was essentially a movement of non-Ghanaians.

Period of Migration

Immigration to Ghana is not a recent phenomenon. Historically, foreign immigration into Ghana began long before Europeans arrived to trade with and eventually colonize the country. Migration increased slowly but systematically after the last quarter of the 19th century, interrupted only temporarily during the First and Second World Wars. Immigration probably reached its peak around 1969; before then, there were no restrictions placed on entry of foreign migrants. The Alien Compliance Order of 1969 brought the laissez-faire attitude toward immigration to a halt. The sudden enactment and enforcement of the order has changed substantially the part played by immigrants in the socio-economic and demographic transition of the country since 1970.

Three pieces of evidence can be given to show that considerable numbers have been moving into Ghana for quite a long time; first, the duration of residence of migrants enumerated in the 1960 and 1970 censuses (Table 4). About 129,000, or 30 percent, of the migrants enumerated in 1960 had come to the country before 1947. Making allowance for deaths and return migration, the number who actually immigrated should be very much larger. Indeed, various estimates have been recorded about the extent of movement of foreign nationals into Ghana at various periods during the past. For instance, as far back as 1905, some 3,500 labourers were entering the Gold Coast Colony (present southern Ghana) each year for employment in the mines or as carriers, labourers, or scavengers (Gold Coast, 1905, Colonial Report, No. 534). Kimble (1963:43) also reports that the recruitment of labour by the colonial government reached its peak by 1917 of 15,000 annually. French nationals from Upper Volta, the Ivory Coast, etc., began to migrate southward in greater numbers in the mid-1930s. Figures available for 1931-1935 show an average of 40,000 French nationals annually coming to the southern areas of Ghana. These statistics were computed at the Yeji ferry crossing (in Ghana), and exclude other persons who may have come to the south by other routes.

In addition, the 1971 Supplementary Enquiry data indicate considerable past movement, but a recent decline. During 1959-60, the average number of immigrants was about 40,000, but the corresponding number during 1966-70 was only about 10,000.

A final piece of evidence indicating the historical aspects of migration to Ghana is the presence of large numbers of older foreign nationals born in Ghana (see Table 5). These persons are children of immigrants who came to Ghana in the past. At least 10,000 persons who were born to foreign nationals during 1925-29 were living in Ghana at the time of the 1960 census. This would indicate that at least 75,000 foreign nationals were living in - Gh.19 -

Table 4: DISTRIBUTION OF LIFETIME WEST AFRICAN IMMIGRANTS AGED 15 YEARS AND OVER IN GHANA BY TIME OF MIGRATION, 1960 AND 1971

Period of Immigration Lifetime Immigrants as of 1960

1947 or before 29.9

1948 - 1956 35.9

1957 - 1958 15.4

1959 - 1960 18.8

All 100.0

N = 432,550

Period of Immigration Lifetime Immigrants as of 1971

1945 or before 20.3

1946 - 1955 18.2

1956 - 1960 15.7

1961 - 1965 17.6

1966 - 1970 21.6

1971 6.6

All 100.0

N = 222,480

Sources: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1971. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. VI. Post-Enumeration Survey, Accra: Census Office, Table H25; Ghana. Census Office, forthcoming. 1971 Supplementary Enquiry. Accra: Census Office. - Gh.20 -

Table 5: FOREIGN NATIONALS BORN IN GHANA AND ABROAD, PRE-1900 - 1969

B o r n in G h a n a B o r n A b r o a d Percentage Percentage of Population of Population Year of Number Enumerated Born in Ghana Number Enumerated Born Abroad Birth 1960 1970 1960 1970 1960 1970 1960 1970

1965-1969 - 85,202 - 86.8 - 13,008 - 13.2 1960-1964 - 65,372 - 78.4 - 18,018 - 21.6 1955-1959 113,296 32,086 83.5 68.7 22,450 14,593 16.5 31.3 1950-1954 66,812 19,254 70.2 49. 1 28,433 19,994 29.8 50. 9 1945-1949 32,028 12,438 53.7 30.2 27,627 28,714 46.3 69.8 1940-1944 19,147 10,527 31.1 20.8 42,359 40,139 68.9 79.2 1935-1939 16,810 8,084 20.1 16.6 66,893 40,752 79.9 83.4 1930-1934 14,759 5,530 15.0 13.2 83,550 36,352 85.0 86.4 1925-1929 9,896 3,247 12.1 10.4 71,873 28,056 87.9 89.6 1920-1924 6,638 2,046 10.5 8. 8 56,727 21,174 89.5 91.2 1915-1919 4,311 1,284 9.2 7.0 42,639 16,979 90.2 93.0 1910-1914 2,597 661 8.3 6.1 28,598 10,241 91.7 93.9 1905-1909 1,804 490 7. 7 4. 7 21,554 9,981 92. 3 95. 3 1900-1904 868 806 7.0 4.5 11,484 17,104 93.0 95.5 Before 1900 2,472 - 7.0 - 31,956 - 93.0 -

Total 291,338 247,029 35.2 43.9 536,143 315,105 64.8 56.1

Sources: Derived from Ghana Census Office, 1964a. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Table 15; and Ghana. Census Office, 1975. 1970 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Table C13. (Courtesy of N.O.Addo). - Gh.21 -

Ghana during 1925-29. Table 5 demonstrates that successive generations of foreign nationals are composed largely of individuals born locally. During the thirty years before 1970, 62.6 percent of foreign nationals were local born residents; whereas, of the generation before them, only 12 percent had been born locally, in Ghana. The 1970 situation was significantly influenced by the Alien Compliance Order, because most of the aliens who left the country were those born abroad. The local-born largely stayed behind; some of them considered Ghana their home.

Origin of the Migrants

Most of the immigrants to Ghana came from neighbouring countries, 75 percent in 1970 and 65 percent in 1960 (refer to Map 2). Togo has been and still is the principal source of immigration; its share of the total migrants to Ghana increased from 34 to 44 percent between 1960 and 1970. 1/ The Togolese are kith and kin of Ghanaians; family members live across the artificial borders created through colonization. Naturally, both countries have maintained very close links and interaction socially, economically, and even politically.

Second in importance were the Upper Volta nationals who contributed 24 percent in 1960 and 28 percent in 1970. The Nigerians were the third largest group in 1960, 23 percent of the total; but their number decreased to 10 percent in 1970. The distribution of foreign nationals by country of origin is given in Table 6. These figures indicate that the number of immigrants from West African countries decreased during 1960-70, and the migration streams most significantly affected were those of Nigerians and the Ivory Coast nationals. (More details about each migration stream are given in Annex Tables 2-4. It might be argued that the Alien Compliance Order essentially precipitated the return of nationals from the countries in question; many of them would have left anyway even had the Order not been issued since Ghana's economy was progressively deteriorating and would not have provided any incentive for them to remain.)

1/ This relative increase is not due to an increase in the number of Togo nationals in Ghana, but to a lesser decrease in their number compared to that of nationals from some other countries. For example, the number of Nigerian nationals decreased by 71 percent, while the number of Togo nationals decreased by 13 percent only. 13' \\ 12° XEA~, /+ i F 0 SEPTEMBER1977

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Table 6: FOREIGN NATIONALS AND FOREIGN-BORN PERSONS IN GHANA BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN, 1960 AND 1970

Foreign Nationals Percentage Foreign Born Number (in '000) Percentage Change Percentage Country of Origin 1960 1970 1960 1970 1960-70 1960 1970

Togo 280 245 34 44 -13 33 38

Upper Volta 195 159 24 28 -22 25 30

Nigeria 192 55 23 10 -71 21 9

Ivory Coast 54 18 7 3 -66 6 5

Other African Countries 90 70 11 13 -22 13 14

Non-African Countries 16 15 2 3 - 6 3 5

TOTAL 827 562 100 100 -32 100 100

Sources: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1964a. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol.III, Accra: Census Office, Table 11; Ghana. Census Office, 1975. 1970 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Table C 13. - Gh.24 -

A rough estimate of the net emigration among persons aged 10 years and over in 1970, during 1960-70, by nationality is shown below:

Nigeria 134,000

Togo 97,000

Upper Volta 58,000

Ivory Coast 36,000

Others 39,000

TOTAL 364,000

Distribution of Immigrants Within Ghana

No extreme concentration of immigrants is noticeable within Ghana; they are fairly evenly distributed among the regions and between rural and urban areas. Ashanti had the largest number of foreign-born both in 1960 and 1970, but in terms of the highest proportion in relation to total population of the region, Accra was first in 1960 as well as 1970 (Table 7).

Between 1960 and 1970, the number of migrants decreased in all regions, but the decrease was much larger in some regions than others; this resulted in a substantial change in the pattern of distribution among immigrants in the country. On the national level, the number of foreign- born decreased by 41 percent, and the number of foreign nationals born in Ghana by 15 percent. But the decrease of foreign-born was as much as 63 percent in the Northern region and 58 percent in the Eastern region. Volta, Ashanti, Accra and Brong-Ahafo were the least affected. In fact, the number of foreign nationals born in Volta increased by 34 percent, while that in Ashanti by 10 percent (see Table 8). It would appear from this picture that local-born immigrants remained behind, while those foreign-born left in large numbers after the Alien Compliance Order.

A rough estimate of net emigration among the foreign-born from the various regions is given in Table 9. The regions most affected by emigration were Eastern, Northern, and Western regions. Accra, Volta, and Brong-Ahafo had relatively few losses due to return migration of the foreign-born. 1/

Migrants from the different countries were unevenly distributed among the different regions. Two factors appear to influence the spatial

1/ The total emigration includes a considerable number of Ghana-born foreign nationals also. These are not shown here. - Gh.25 -

Table 7: FOREIGN NATIONALS AS PERCENT OF TOTAL POPULATION BY REGIONS, 1960 AND 1970

1960 1970 Ghana Foreign Ghana Foreign Region Born Born Total Born Born Total

Western 2.8 6.0 8.8 1.5 2.4 3.9

Accra 6.9 14.8 21.7 4.1 6.3 10.4

Eastern 5.1 8.5 13.6 3.3 3.1 6.4

Volta 4.4 8.9 13.3 4.9 5.4 10.3

Ashanti 4.2 8.7 12.9 3.5 4.5 8.0

Brong-Ahafo 3.5 9.3 12.8 2.9 5.0 7.9

Northern 4.7 4.7 9.4 1.5 1.6 3.1

GHANA 4.3 8.0 12.3 2.9 3.7 6.6

Sources: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1964a. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Table 11; Ghana. Census Office 1975. 1970 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Table C 14. - Gh.26 -

Table 8: DISTRIBUTION OF FOREIGN NATIONAL IMMIGRANTS BY REGION OF ENUMERATION, 1960 AND 1970

FOREIGN NATIONALS BORN IN G H A N A O U T S I D E Percentage Percentage Change Change Region 1960 1970 1960-70 1960 1970 1960-70

Western 38,894 25,419 -35 82,860 39,981 -52

Accra 33,873 35,156 + 4 72,696 53,713 -26

Eastern 55,842 41,971 -25 93,236 39,412 -58

Volta 34,827 46,810 +34 69,180 50,712 -27

Ashanti 47,010 51,650 +10 96,430 67,557 -30

Brong-Ahafo 20,583 22,310 + 8 54,404 38,643 -29

Northern 60,309 23,711 -61 67,337 25,087 -63

GHANA 291,338 247,027 -15 536,143 315,105 -41

Table 9: NET EMIGRATION AMONG FOREIGN-BORN BY REGION, 1960-1970

Net Emigration Region 1960-70

Western - 40,000

Accra - 16,000

Eastern - 50,000

Volta - 15,000

Ashanti - 25,000

Brong-Ahafo - 13,000

Northern - 39,000

TOTAL -198,000

Sources: Derived from Ghana.Census Office, 1964a. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Table 11; Ghana. Census Office, 1975. 1970 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Table C 14. - Gh.28 -

distribution in Ghana of foreign nationals, especially those from West Africa; these factors are geographic proximity to the home area of the migrant and ethnic affiliation (Ghana, Census Office, 1964b, Tribes in Ghana; Addo, 1967). For example, immigrants from Togo were living predominanatly in Volta which lies along the Togo border, and the Eastern region, and Accra Capital District, both of which also are not far from Togo. Those from Upper Volta were living predominantly in Ashanti, Northern, and more recently in Brong- Ahafo regions; these are the regions closest to their own home area. Proxi- mity facilitates easier communication with home; in a sense, proximity also minimizes problems of adjustment for these migrants. More than half the Nigerians were living in Accra and Eastern regions.

In 1970, the Benin nationals were the most evenly distributed migrant group in Ghana showing little concentration in any particular region. The Nigerians were also fairly evenly distributed in 1960, but they became more concentrated after the exodus of a good number of them during 1960-70. An index of uneven distribution of the different immigrant groups by region is given in Table 10. The figures indicate the minimum percentage of immigrants who should be redistributed so that their distribution by region resembles that of all migrant groups. According to this, the Liberians are the most concentrated immigrants and their principal region of residence was the Western region. Between 1960 and 1970 there was very little change in this index of concentration for most of the migrant groups; one noteworthy exception is the Nigerians whose index increased from 18 to 30 (becoming more concentrated).

The immigrants have been slightly more urbanized than the natives in the past; but between 1960 and 1970, the difference narrowed down considerably. In 1960, 23 percent of the population in Ghana were urban, while 33 percent of the foreign nationals were living in urban areas. By 1970, 29 percent of the Ghana population were in urban areas, an increase of about 6 percentage points; while the proportion of immigrant population in urban areas remained more or less the same, 35 percent. This finding suggests that the vast majority of foreign nationals came from rural areas in their own countries of origin. A 1963 migration survey conducted by Caldwell showed that 69 percent of foreign migrants came from rural areas in their countries of origin, but on reaching Ghana, 86 percent of them went first to the towns and the remainder went to the mines, cocoa growing areas, and other parts of the country (Caldwell, 1969). Later, new dispersions occurred; in other words, once in the country the immigrants moved about in search of better opportunities. Evidence of this is partly obtained from the 1960 census where 42.6 percent of all foreigners in Ghana aged 15 or over with previous residence in Ghana were enumerated in a region different from the one where they were previously enumerated. A majority of this group took residence in one of the two major cocoa growing regions (Ashanti and Brong-Ahafo) at some time during their stay in Ghana before they moved to another region; presumably, they had been working on cocoa farms. A rather high proportion of aliens in the Accra Capital District resided in other areas of Ghana before coming there. Some of these had served as laborers on farms before moving to the city to work in similar unskilled activities. The movement generally represents a horizontal mobility; in the process, however, many of them better their incomes. - Gh.29 -

Table 10: INDEX OF CONCENTRATION OF IMMIGRANT GROUPS BY REGION, 1960 AND 1970

Region of highest relative concen- Region 1960 1970 tration

Liberia 67.4 67.4 Westerp

Ivory Coast 49.8 47.8 Northern

Mali 30.1 35.0 Accra

Upper Volta 30.9 31.1 Ashanti

Niger 33.1 30.6 Accra

Nigeria 18.4 30.0 Western

Togo 24.8 24.0 Volta

Benin 20.6 17.1 Eastern

Sources. Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1964a. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Table 11; Ghana. Census Office, 1975. 1970 Population Cen- sus of Ghana, Vol. III, Accra: Census Of- fice, Table C 14. - Gh.30 -

Movement of aliens within Ghana is both intra-regional and inter- regional. However, 74.5 percent of all foreigners aged 15 or more in 1960 moved directly from abroad to their place of enumeration (Table 11).

Table 11: REGION OF ENUMERATION OF FOREIGN-BORN POPULATION BY PLACE OF PREVIOUS RESIDENCE, 1960

Place of Previous Residence Ghana Abroad Region of Same as Region In Another All Regions Enumeration of Enumeration Region of Ghana

Western 15,100 9,090 24,190 47,910 Accra C.D. 550 4,210 4,760 45,810 Eastern 13,760 8,020 21,780 45,390 Volta 9,190 4,270 13,460 49,680 Ashanti 12,980 12,210 25,190 53,410 Brong-Ahafo 6,980 7,800 14,780 28,980 Northern 6,350 2,560 8,910 58,560 Total 64,910 48,160 113,070 329,740

Source: Ghana. Census Office, 1971. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. VI, Post-Enumeration Survey, Accra: Census Office, Table H25. (Courtesy of N.O. Addo.)

The different migrant groups are highly heterogeneous with respect to their proportion living in urban areas. Among immigrants from Liberia, Nigeria, and Niger, more than half their number live in urban areas. On the other hand, migrants from Togo, Benin, and the Ivory Coast live mostly in rural areas (Table 12). These patterns of concentration may reflect the occupation of the various nationals.

Urban preference in the residential pattern of immigrants is seen especially among certain groups: females, the young, the more educated, and those local born (i.e., those born in Ghana), a pattern of behavior also shown by local Ghanaians. This urban preference shown by immigrant groups may be an indicator of rapid absorption into Ghanaian society. Further, there is a direct relationship between the level of urbanization and the proportion of foreign nationals resident in towns; in other words, the larger towns and regions with high levels of urbanization have proportionately more immigrants compared with the smaller towns and regions having relatively low urbanization. (See Addo, 1975; Caldwell, 1967).

Immigrants of non-African origin represent a very small minority of the total immigrant population in the country. The entire group represented 2 percent of total foreign nationals in 1960 and 2.6 percent in 1970. These came from the United Kingdom and other European countries, such as West - Gh. 31 -

Table 12. FOREIGN NATIONALS ENUMERATED IN URBAN AREAS, 1960 AND 1970

Proportion of Total Foreign-Nationals Numbers From Each Country Nationality 1960 1970 1960 1970

Ivory Coast 6,344 2,915 11.7 15.9

Liberia 6,288 3,431 75.2 74.8

Mali 11,362 9,286 58.7 69.2

Upper Volta 47,003 45,281 24.1 28.4

Togo 67,276 58,535 24.0 23.9

Benin 7,443 8,140 23.7 24.4

Niger 11,635 7,988 47.6 49.4

Nigeria 104,515 39,643 54.5 71.4

TOTAL 261,866 175,219 33.0 34.5

Sources: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1964a. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. TII, Accra: Census Office, Tables 1 and 11; Ghana. Census Office, 1975. 1970 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Table C 13. - Gh.32 -

Germany, France, Holland, Italy, the Soviet Union, Poland, Switzerland, and Czechoslovakia. They numbered 10,751 in 1960 and 7,584 in 1970, showing a decline of 30 percent. Persons from North and South American countries, such as the United States, Canada, the West Indies, Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, and other Caribbean areas numbered 2,366 in 1960 and 2,279 in 1970, showing no appreciable change. Those from Asian countries -- India, China, Pakistan, Japan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, and Burma -- numbered 1,191 in 1960 and 2,692 in 1970, more than doubling over the decade. A small group, numbering 121 in 1960 and 94 in 1970, came from Australia, New Zealand, and Oceania. In spite of the small numerical impact of non-Africans among total foreigners, they were represented among the most highly skilled personnel in the country. They lived mainly in urban areas, and worked as professionals, administrators, managers, technicians, and executives.

Net Migration

A rough estimate of net immigration during 1960-70 and its distribution by age and sex is given in Table 13. The total loss during the 10-year period was 400,000, probably a majority of this taking place toward the end of the decade. The age structure of net migration indicates that large numbers of immigrants came to Ghana during 1960-70, but even larger numbers left. In spite of the Alien Compliance Order, at least 50,000 males in the age group 25-34 years and at least 162,000 females in the age group 20-29 years came to Ghana during 1960-70. The losses due to emigration were principally that of children and youths under 20 years of age and adults above 35 years of age. These figures, and some given earlier, clearly indicate that the net emigration of 400,000 during 1960-70 results from very much larger numbers in migration streams in either direction. The census data are, however, inadequate to describe these streams more fully. Esti- mates (Gaisie and de Graft-Johnson, 1976) indicate that the maximum number of aliens affected by the Alien Compliance Order was 600,000 of whom 500,000 were foreign-born.

The total growth of Ghana's population during 1960-70 was 1,832,000 or 27.2 percent. Had there been no migration during the period, the growth would have been 2,232,000 or 33 percent. Thus, emigration reduced 18 percent of the intercensal growth; that is from a potential growth rate (rate of natural increase) of 2.9 percent per year to the actual 2.4 percent. The years 1960-70 were perhaps the first decade in recent Ghanaian history in which the population of the country decreased due to migration. It should, however, be noted that these migrants were mostly foreign nationals (and their children) who came to Ghana sometime in the past. International migration among the Ghanaians has been and still is relatively negligible in terms of the total population of the country. With the acute recent economic problems in the country, and the relatively much faster economic growth of bordering countries on the east and west, the present decade might witness a large emigration of Ghanaian nationals to neighbouring countries. - Gh.33 -

Table 13: NET INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION TO GHANA, 1960-70

Age in 1970 Total Males Females

0- 9 - 3,800 - 1,900 - 1,900 10-14 -181,900 - 72,300 -109,600 15-19 -194,600 - 93,900 -100,700 20-24 + 36,000 - 33,400 + 69,400 25-29 +126,400 + 33,100 + 93,300 30-34 + 14,900 + 16,400 - 1,500 35-39 - 95,900 - 32,200 - 63,700 40-44 - 89,800 - 42,500 - 47,300 45-49 - 61,500 - 29,000 - 32,500 50-54 - 36,200 - 20,200 - 16,000 55-59 - 36,600 - 21,800 - 14,800 60-64 + 9,800 + 3,600 + 6,200 65+ +113,300 + 55,600 + 57,700

All Ages -400,000 -238,700 -161,300

Sources: Derived from Ghana.Census Office, 1971. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. VI, Post Enumeration Survey, Accra:Census Office,Table H 24; Ghana. Census Office, forthcoming. 1971 Supplementary Enquiry Accra: Census Office. IV. INTER-REGIONAL AND INTRA-REGIONAL MIGRATION

Inter-Regional Migration

The seven geographic regions of Ghana differ considerably in terms of total area, shape, population density, economic resources, and growth. Naturally, they differ substantially with respect to their attractiveness to migrants. Some of them have consistently drawn migrants from other parts of the country, while others have consistently sent out migrants. A few of the regions have changed their status over the years with respect to sending or receiving migrants. We begin with a description of historical patterns.

Lifetime Migration

In 1960, about 834,000 Ghana-born persons were living in a region different from their region of birth; that is, they migrated from their region of birth to another region sometime during their lifetime. These inter-regional lifetime migrants constituted about 13 percent of the total population of the country. Although comparisons with other countries are difficult, a 13 percent inter-regional lifetime migration rate indicates fairly substantial population mobility.

Inter-regional population mobility increased during 1960-70. The number of such migrants increased to 1,402,000, or by 68 percent, and their proportion from 12 percent in 1960 to 17 percent in 1970. While in 1960 one in every 8 persons in Ghana was an inter-regional migrant, by 1970 one in every 6 persons was such a migrant (Table 14).

The regions differ considerably with respect to their volume of in- or out-migration, or their net balance. Three regions - Accra, Ashanti, and Brong-Ahafo - had net gains due to migration both in 1960 and 1970 while the other regions had net losses (see the following map). The largest gain occurred in Accra in 1970 (about 273,000), and the largest loss in the Northern region in 1970 (about 186,000). Both in- and out-migration increased considerably in all the regions between 1960 and 1970. Regions which had net losses in 1960 has even greater losses in 1970, and regions which had net gains in 1960 had even greater gains in 1970. One exception is the Ashanti region where the net gain decreased from 97,000 in 1960 to 72,000 in 1970. This region was probably a net in-migration region until 1960 but became a net out-migration region afterwards.

In terms of population growth due to migration in the regions, the greatest impact occurred in Accra where 45 percent of the population were in-migrants in 1970 (Table 15). As mentioned earlier Accra had the largest proportion of international migrants also. Volta and Northern regions were least affected by in-migration. Out-migration was more uniform, the highest rate was in Eastern, 23 percent, and the lowest in Brong-Ahafo, 11 percent.

- Gh.34 - - Gh.35 -

Table 14: LIFETIME INTER-REGIONAL MIGRATION, 1960 AND 1970

1960 1970 In- Out- Net- In- Out- Net Region Migration Migration Migration Migration Migration Migration

7,377 Western 138,722 140,288 - 1,566 223,425 230,802 - +272,809 Accra 149,025 58,916 + 90,109 359,621 86,812

305,008 - 99,645 Eastern 157,574 176,093 - 18,519 205,363

Volta 42,043 136,495 - 94,452 70,757 239,846 -169,089 72,402 Ashanti 205,066 108,503 + 96,563 283,978 211,576 +

Brong-Ahafo 109,300 24,381 + 84,919 182,813 65,522 +117,291 -186,391 Northern 32,106 189,160 -157,056 75,905 262,296 - TOTAL 833,836 833,836 - 1,401,862 1,401,862

Sources: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1962b. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Advance Report of Vols. III and IV, Accra: Census Office, Table 13; Ghana. Census Office, 1975. 1970 Ghana Population Census, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Table C 8.

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- Gh.37 -

Table 15: LIFETIME INTER-REGIONAL MIGRATION RATIOS BY REGIONS, 1960 AND 1970

In-migration Out-migration Net-migration- Region 1960 -1970 1960 1970 1960 1970

Western 10.8 13.8 10.9 14.2 0.1 - 0.4

Accra 35.8 45.4 18.1 16.7 +17.7 +28.7

Eastern 15.8 16.8 17.3 23.1 - 1.5 - 6.3

Volta 6.0 7.9 17.1 22.7 -11.1 -14.8

Ashanti 20.3 20.1 11.9 15.8 + 8.4 + 4.3

Brong-Ahafo 20.5 25.2 5.5 10.8 +15.0 +14.4

Northern 2.6 4.9 13.8 15.1 -11.2 -10.2

All Regions 13.5 17.1 13.5 17.1 - -

1/ As percent of total Ghana-born persons in the region.

2/ As percent of total born in the region.

3/ Difference between in-migration and out-migration ratios.

Sources: Derived from Ghana Census Office, 1962 b. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Advance Report of Vols. III and IV, Accra: Census Office, Table 13; Ghana. Census Office, 1975. 1970 Ghana Population Census, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office. Table C 8. - Gh.38 -

The regions of origin of inter-regional migrants to Greater Accra are shown in Table 16. About 150,000 persons born in other regions were living there in 1960. By 1970 their number increased to 360,000 or an increase of 140 percent. The principal origins of these migrants were the neighbouring regions: Eastern region, 36 percent; and Western region (including Central), 24 percent. Between 1960-70 about 233,000 persons born outside Accra had moved into this region. Although all the regions contributed to the population gain in Accra during this period, about 80 percent of it was due to the nearby regions. The contributions of these nearby regions are, however, decreasing as in-migration becomes increasingly of a long-distance nature, namely from regions further away.

Ashanti is another region which had net gains in 1960 as well as 1970. As shown in Table 17 the largest number of migrants to Ashanti came from the Northern region, although it had no common borders with it. Employ- ment opportunities in Ashanti include cocoa farming and mining. A third region of net gain was Brong-Ahafo. The principal origins of migrants to this region were its neighbouring regions to the north (Northern region) and south (Ashanti region). Brong-Ahafo, like Ashanti, offers the possibility of employment on its cocoa farms. These two together contributed 70 percent of the net gain (Table 18).

Among the regions of net out-migration, the leader was the Eastern region which had a lifetime out-migration of 305,000 in 1970. The principal destination of its migrants was Accra which received 129,000 or 42 percent of the total. During 1960-70 about 155,000 persons born in this Eastern region migrated out, 79,000 to Accra (51 percent), and 31,000 (20 percent) to Western region. Migrations to other regions were relatively small in number (see Table 19).

Volta and Northern were the other major regions of out-migration. The destinations of migrants from Volta were mainly Accra and the Eastern regions; and those from Northern region, Ashanti and Brong-Ahafo.

Migration did not always affect population growth in the various regions. In some, in-migration was more or less equal to out-migration, and migration contributed little to population growth. This was the case in the Western region (see Table 20), where out-migration and in-migration were fairly large, but the net change was negligible. An index of the efficiency of migration for population redistribution in this region was only 0.6 in 1960 and 1.6 in 1970 (on a scale ranging from 0 to 100). (See Table 20.) In 1970 migration was most efficient in Accra (61 percent); and between 1960 and 1970, the efficiency increased substantially for Accra. The Eastern region had a relatively poor degree of efficiency in 1960; this was partly due to a decline in the cocoa industry following an outbreak of swollen shoot disease which led to large-scale devastation of farms. Together with shortages of new cocoa farming lands, this resulted in a substantial exodus from the region to interior areas in search of new farm land. By 1970, however, migration had a substantial influence on population growth in the Eastern region. The index of migration efficiency decreased considerably in Ashanti, - Gh.39 -

Table 16: IN-MIGRANTS TO ACCRA BY ORIGIN, 1960 AND 1970.

Net Migration Region of of out born, Origin 1960 1970 1960-70

Western 32,772 85,893 + 58,037

Eastern 58,802 128,672 + 78,691

Volta 30,925 77,379 + 51,093

Ashanti 12,231 38,059 + 27,663

Brong-Ahafo 1,178 5,629 + 4,628

Northern 13,126 23,889 + 12,732

All Regions 149,034 359,521 +232,844

Sources: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1962 b. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Advance Report of Vols. III and IV, Accra: Census Office, Table 13; Ghana. Census Office, 1975. 1970 Ghana Population Census, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Table C 9. - Gh.40 -

Table 17: IN-MIGRATION TO ASHANTI REGION, 1960 AND 1970

Net-migration of out-born Region of persons origin 1960 1970 1960-70

Western 47,916 62,309 + 21,581

Accra 8,340 12,095 + 5,006

Eastern 47,152 59,885 + 19,806

Volta 16,498 24,503 + 10,480

Brong-Ahafo 16,215 32,020 + 18,237

Northern 68,945 93,166 + 34,563

All Regions 205,066 283,978 +109,673

Sources: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1962 b. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Advance Report of Volunes III and IV, Accra: Census Office, Table 13; Ghana. Census Office, 1975. 1970 Ghana Population Census, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Table C 9. - Gh.41 -

Table 18: IN-MIGRATION TO BRONG-AHAFO REGION, 1960 AND 1970.

Region of NetAmigration of out- origin 1960 1970 born persons 1960-70

Western 9,718 14,320 + 6,060

Accra 3,167 4,358 + 1,666

Eastern 12,395 19,577 + 9,042

Volta 6,895 16,852 +10,981

Ashanti 39,751 59,260 +25,482

Northern 37,376 68,446 +36,677

All Regions 109,302 182,813 +89,908

Sources: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1962 b. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Advance Report of Vols. III and IV, Accra: Census Office, Table 13; Ghana. Census Office, 1975. 1970 Ghana Population Census, Vol.III, Accra: Census Office, Table C 9. - Gh.42 -

Table 19: OUT-MIGRATION FROM EASTERN REGION, 1960 AND 1970.

Net-migration Region of of in-born Destination 1960 1970 persons 1960-70

Western 39,638 64,738 - 31,046

Accra 58,802 128,672 - 78,691

Volta 14,052 23,261 - 11,317

Ashanti 47,152 59,885 - 19,806

Brong-Ahafo 12,395 19,577 - 9,042

Northern 4,054 8,875 - 5,430

All Regions 176,093 305,008 -155,332

Sources: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1962 b. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Advance Report of Vols. III and IV, Accra: Census Office, Table 13; Ghana. Census Office,l1975. 1970 Ghana Population Census, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Table C 9. - Gh.43 -

Table 204 EFFICIENCY OF MIGRATION FOR POPULATION GROWTH, 1960 AND 1970

Net-Migration as Percent of the sum of In- and Out-Migration Region 1960 1970

Western 0.6 1.6

Accra 43.3 61.1

Eastern 5.5 19.5

Volta 52.9 54.4

Ashanti 30.8 14.6

Brong-Ahafo 63.5 47.2

Northern 71.9 55.1

All Regions 32.6 33.0

Sources: As in Table 14. - Gh.44 -

Brong-Ahafo, and the Northern regions. On balance there was little change for the country as a whole. About 33 percent of inter-regional lifetime migration resulted in population redistribution between the regions, and the balance (67 percent) was cancelled by movements in the opposite direction.

Inter-Censal Migration

Lifetime migration is not always a good index of current migration but such data can be used to estimate inter-censal migration. Table 21 gives the inter-censal migration computed from these data for the period 1960-70. Only two regions had net gains; Accra with a net in-migration of 196,000 and Brong-Ahafo with 45,000. All the other regions, including Ashanti, had net losses. The largest losses were in Volta, 89,000, and in Eastern, 84,000. The origins of the migrants to Accra as shown in Table 22 indicate that all the other regions contributed to the population growth in Accra, but the gains from the neighbouring regions were much larger than those from regions further away. On the other hand, Brong- Ahafo had net losses to the Western region and Accra, but net gains from the others. The principal contributor of this gain is the Northern region which accounts for two-thirds of the total net gain (see Table 23).

The principal inter-regional migration streams between 1960-70 are shown in Table 24. The largest movement during this period was from the Eastern region to Accra (79,000). These are, however, net movements during the 10-year period; the total number of persons who moved between the regions would be much larger.

Some additonal details of net gains and losses between these regions are available in Table 25. Accra's net gain of 186,000 was more or less equally distributed between the sexes and age groups. A different picture emerges for the Western region where there was a small net gain of males and a larger net loss of females. The Western region seems to have gained some children and men in the age group 15-24 years. In the Eastern region, which also had a net loss, the loss is evident among both sexes and in all age groups, but particularly in the ages 15-34.

Intra-Regional Migration

Intra-regional lifetime migrants are persons enumerated in localities different from the ones in which they were born all within the confines of a region. Over a fifth of the Ghana-born population in 1960 were lifetime intra-regional migrants and this proportion remained practically the same in 1970 (Tables 26 and 27). The regions vary in their proportion of lifetime intra-regional migrants, and there appears to be a positive relationship between the population size of a region and its proportion of lifetime intra-regional migrants. It should be stressed, however, that the proportion of lifetime intra-regional migrants in a region is a function of several factors besides its population size, such as the - Gh.45 -

Table 21: NET MIGRATION, 1960-70

Net-Migration Among Out-born In-born Region Persons Persons Total

Western +105,510 -111,532 - 6,022

Accra +232,844 - 36,734 +196,110

Eastern + 71,431 -155,261 - 83,830

Volta + 35,024 -123,831 - 88,807

Ashanti +109,673 -119,335 - 9,662

Brong-Ahafo + 89,908 - 44,799 + 45,109

Northern + 48,585 -101,483 - 52,898

Total 692,975 692,975

Sources: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1962 b. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Advance Report of Vols. III and IV. Accra: Census Office, Tables 10 and 13; Ghana. Census Office, 1975. 1970 Ghana Population Census, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Table C7 and C9. - Gh.46 -

Table22: MIGRATION BETWEEN ACCRA AND OTHER REGIONS DURING 1960-70

To Accra From Accra Net Region From: To: Migration

Western 58,037 8,923 + 49,114

Eastern 78,691 12,228 + 66,463

Volta 51,093 5,394 + 45,699

Ashanti 27,663 5,006 + 22,657

Brong-Ahafo 4,628 1,666 + 2,962

Northern 12,732 3,517 + 9,215

Total 232,844 36,734 +196,110

Sources; Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1962 b. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Advance Report of Vols. III and IV, Accra: Census Office., Table 13; Ghana. Census Office, 1975. 1970 Ghana Population Census, Vol.III, Census Office, Table C 9. - Gh.47 -

Table23 MIGRATION BETWEEN BRONG-AHAFO AND OTHER REGIONS DURING 1960-70

To Brong From Brong Net Region From: To: Migration

Western 6,060 10,100 - 4,040

Accra 1,666 4,628 - 2,962

Eastern 9,043 3,705 + 5,337

Volta 10,981 1,574 + 9,407

Ashanti 25,482 18,237 + 7,245

Northern 36,677 6,555 +30,122

Total 89,908 44,799 +45,109

Sources: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1962 b. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Advance Report of Vols. III and IV, Accra: Census Officd , Table 13; Ghana. Census Office, 1975. 1970 Ghana Population Census, Vol.III, Accra: Census Office, Table C 9. - Gh.48 -

Table24: MAJOR (10,000 plus) MIGRATION FLOWS DURING 1960-70

Eastern to Accra 79,000 Western to Accra 58,000 Volta to Accra 51,000 Northern to Brong-Ahafo 37,000 Northern to Ashanti 34,000 Ashanti to Western 34,000 Eastern to Western 31,000 Ashanti to Accra 28,000 Volta to Eastern 27,000 Ashanti to Brong 25,000 Western to Ashanti 22,000 Eastern to Ashanti 20,000 Brong-Ahafo to Ashanti 18,000 Ashanti to Northern 16,000 Western to Eastern 15,000 Volta to Western 14,000 Northern to Accra 13,000 Accra to Eastern 12,000 Ashanti to Eastern 12,000 Eastern to Volta 11,000 Volta to Brong-Ahafo 11,000 Volta to Ashanti 11,000 Volta to Northern 10,000 Brong-Ahafo to Western 10,000

Sources: Derived from Ghana,Census Office, 1962b. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Advance Report of Vols. III and IV, Accra: Census Office, Table 13; Ghana. Census Office, 1975. 1970 Ghana Popula- tion Census, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Table C 9. - Gh.49 -

Table 25: ESTIMATE OF NET MIGRATION BY REGION, AGE, AND SEX, 1960-70 1/

| ~~~~~RE G I O N Sl lAge Groups Greater East- Brong- Western Accra ern Volta Ashanti Ahafo Northern |

MALES I

0 - 4 + 903 + 4,554 - 2,887 - 3,430 - 2,883 + 3,707 + 36 5 - 9 - 291 + 6,516 - 3,319 - 5,925 - 3,279 + 5,574 + 724 10 - 14 + 85 + 5,759 - 2,589 - 3,650 - 1,519 + 1,687 + 227 15 - 24 + 1,277 +39,919 -12,819 -15,148 + 3,838 + 7,368 + 24,435 25 - 34 - 479 +30,098 -13,459 -15,237 + 138 + 7,204 - 8,265 35 - 64 + 973 + 8,469 - 7,261 - 4,263 - 4,915 + 3,700 + 3,297 65+ - 42 + 399 - 138 - 259 + 71 + 159 - 190

| All Ages + 2,426 +95,714 -42,472 -47,912 - 8,549 +29,399 - 28,606 |

FEMALES

0 - 4 + 626 + 4,847 - 2,482 - 3,491 - 2,645 + 3,559 - 414 5 - 9 - 2,762 +11,891 - 3,972 - 7,454 - 1,463 + 5,251 - 1,491 10 - 14 - 4,245 +15,181 - 5,059 - 5,388 - 503 + 459 - 445 15 - 24 - 2,309 +33,425 -14,478 -12,824 + 5,210 + 6,199 - 15,283 25 - 34 - 1,111 +15,545 - 9,374 - 8,596 - 1,436 + 3,708 + 1,264 35 - 64 + 1,066 + 8,711 - 3,620 - 1,657 - 2,916 + 683 - 135 65+ - 150 + 781 - 221 - 196 + 157 - 75 - 296

All Ages -11,017 +90,381 -39,146 -39,606 - 3,596 +19,784 - 16,800 | Males plus Females - 8,591 +186,095 -81,618 -87,518 -12,149 +49,183 - 45,406 |

1/ The totals in this table differ from those in Table 20 because of slightly different survival ratios used to estimate net migration.

Source: A.F. Hamadtto, 1975. Interregional Migration and Urbanization in Ghana, 1960-70, Legon: Regional Institute fog Population Studies, University of Ghana, Table 14. - Gh.50 -

Table 26: INTRA-REGIONAL LIFETIME MIGRANTS BY SEX, 1960 AND 1970

1960 1970 Region Males Females Total Males Females Total

Western 156,249 177,791 334,040 204,408 233,059 437,467 Accra 13,435 15,650 29,085 19,248 22,048 41,296 Eastern 139,397 158,883 298,280 171,605 194,925 366,530 Volta 68,275 85,872 154,147 98,924 121,348 220,272 Ashanti 106,064 110,176 216,240 154,780 166,922 321,702 Brong-Ahafo 34,791 39,833 74,624 63,802 73,325 137,127 Northern 88,005 211,319 299,324 119,640 280,241 399,881

All regions 606,216 799,524 1,405,740 832,407 1,091,868 1,924,275

Sources: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1962 b. 1960 Population Census Of Ghana, Advance Report of Vols. III and IV, Accra: Census Office, Table 13; Ghana. Cefisui Office, 1975. 1970 Ghana Population Census, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Table C 9. - Gh.51 -

Table 27: LIFETIME INTRA-REGIONAL MIGRANTS EXPRESSED AS PROPORTION OF THE ENUMERATED POPULATION EXCLUDING FOREIGN-BORN IN EACH REGION OF GHANA, 1960 AND 1970

1960 1970 Proportion Proportion l who are who are l | Intra-regional Intra-regionall | Region Population Migrants (%) Population Migrants (%) |

I Western 1,289,949 25.9 1,615,313 27.1 l | Accra C.D. 416,256 7.0 792,641 5.22 | Eastern 999,982 29.8 1,221,009 30.0 l I Volta 702,265 21.9 889,060 24.8 l | Ashanti 1,011,301 21.4 1,412,127 22.8 l I Brong Ahafo 532,117 14.0 726,337 18.9 l | Northern 1,215,234 24.6 1,552,952 25.77 l l I All regions 6,167,104 22.8 8,209,439 23.4 l

geographic size of the region and the number of residential localities in it, the spatial distribution, changes in economic opportunities, homogeneity of residents in the region and their mutual compatibility and acceptance, etc. In Ghana, tribal homogeneity, and intertribal acceptance and linguistic identity are powerful determinants of both inter- regional and intra-regional migration.

Accra region has the lowest proportion of intra-regional migrants compared to the other regions in Ghana. This is mostly because of its small geographical size. The highest proportion of intra-regional migrants is observed in the Eastern region and may be attributed to the shifting of agricultural areas in that region in the past. For example, people living on the Akwapim ridge where cocoa cultivation quickly exhausted the land, and those in the Krobo areas, spread to other parts of the region, especially to the Akim Abuakwa area to gain more farm land.

Are people born in certain regions more prone to migrate than those born in other regions? Or do the regions give differential stimulus to (the native) people to migrate? The data in Table 28 show that the regions do differ in this regard as far as internal migration is concerned; some regions have a much higher incidence of migration than others (such as the Eastern region compared to Brong-Ahafo region). It is interesting to note that the proportional distribution of intra-regional migrants remained virtually unaltered between 1960 and 1970. Eastern, Western, and Volta regions remained in the lead, giving a stimulus to migrate both in 1960 and 1970, whereas Accra and Brong-Ahafo regions lagged behind consistently. There was also an increase in the overall proportion of internal migrants in the population during 1960-1970, which seemed to be indicative of an increasing propensity of people in Ghana to migrate. However, there appears to be no significant relationship between the proportion of intra-regional migrants and the proportion of out-migrants from a region.

A somewhat detailed picture of population composition by lifetime migration status in each region of Ghana for 1960 and 1970 is presented in Table 29. The share of international lifetime migrants in the total population of each region declined during 1960-70, while the shares of intra-regional and inter-regional migrants generally increased during this period. Population redistribution occurs continually, with persons moving mainly to the most developed regions and areas of greatest economic activity, such as the new forest regions. How much of the population redistribution which occurred between 1960-70 resulted from the Alien Compliance Order is unknown; but, it has been shown that a large number of Ghanaians took the place of alien workers on the farms and in the towns (Addo, 1972; Adomako- Sarfoh, 1974). - Gh.53 -

Table 28: LIFETIME INTRA-REGIONAL MIGRANTS AND INTER-REGIONAL OUT-MIGRANTS EXPRESSED AS PROPORTION (%) OF THE TOTAL POPULATION BORN IN EACH REGION OF GHANA, 1960 AND 1970

Population Intra- Inter-regtonal Total Born in Regional Out- Internal Region the Region Migrants Migrants Migrants

Year 1960

Western 1,291,515 25.9 10.9 36.8 Accra 326,147 8.9 18.1 27.0 Eastern 1,018,501 29.3 17.3 46.6 Volta 796,717 19.3 17.1 36.4 Ashanti 914,738 23.6 11.9 35.5 Brong-Ahafo 447,198 16.7 5.5 22.2 Northern 1,372,288 21.8 13.8 35.6

All regions 6,167,104 22.8 13.5 36.3

Year 1970

Western 1,622,690 26.9 14.2 41.1 Accra 519,832 7.9 16.7 24.6 Eastern 1,320,654 27.8 23.1 50.9 Volta 1,058,149 20.8 22.7 43.5 Ashanti 1,339,725 24.0 15.8 39.8 Brong-Ahafo 609,046 22.5 10.8 33.3 Northern 1,739,343 23.0 15.1 38.1

All regions 8,209,439 23.4 17.1 40.5

Sources: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1962 b. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Advance Report of Vols. III and IV, Accra: Census Office, Table 13; Ghana. Census Office, 1975. 1970 Ghana Population Census, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Table C 9. - Gh.54 -

Table 292 POPULATION OF EACH REGION OF GHANA CLASSIFIED BY (LIFETIME) MIGRATION STATUS, 1960 AND 1970

Intra- Inter- Inter- Non- regional regional national Region Migrant Migrant Migrant Migrant /1 All N =

Year 1960

Western 59.3 24.2 10.1 6.4 100.0 1,377,544 Accra 48.4 5.9 30.3 15.4 100.0 491,817 Eastern 49.7 27.3 14.4 8.6 100.0 1,094,196 Volta 65.1 19.8 5.4 9.7 100.0 777,285 Ashanti 53.2 19.5 18.5 8.8 100.0 1,109,133 Brong-Ahafo 59.2 12.7 18.6 9.5 100.0 587,920 Northern 68.6 23.2 2.5 5.7 100.0 1,288,917

All regions 58.4 20.9 12.4 8.3 100.0 6,726,815

Year 1970

Western 57.5 26.3 13.5 2.7 100.0 1,660,222 Accra 46.0 4.9 42.2 6.9 100.0 851,614 Eastern 51.4 29.1 16.3 3.2 100.0 1,261,661 Volta 63.1 23.3 7.5 6.1 100.0 947,268 Ashanti 54.4 21.7 19.2 4.7 100.0 1,481,698 Brong-Ahafo 53.0 17.9 23.9 5.2 100.0 766,509 Northern 67.7 25.1 4.8 2.4 100.0 1,590,341

All regions 57.0 22.5 16.4 4.1 100.0 8,559,313

/1 Estimated as a residual category for year 1960.

Sources: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1962 b. 1960 Population Census of Ghana Advance Report of Vols. III and IV, Accra: Census Office, Table 13; Ghana. Census Office. 1975. 1970 Ghana Population Census, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Tables C 7 and C 9. V. RURAL - URBAN MIGRATION

As mentioned in Chapter II, with about 29 percent of its population in urban areas (localities with 5,000 or more population) in 1970 and about 32.5 percent in 1975, Ghana is one of the most urbanized countries in West Africa. Between 1948 and 1970, the urban population in Ghana grew very rapidly from about 525,000 in 1948, to 1,551,000 in 1960, and 2,472,000 in 1970, a five-fold increase over a 22-year period (Table 30). Only a part of the growth is due to migration (internal or external). The balance is due to natural increase, and reclassification of localities. Some details of the relative importance of these components are discussed later in this section.

The names of towns (urban centers) in 1970 and their populations in 1960 and 1970 are shown in Annex Table 7.

The regions differ in degree of urbanization (Table 31 and Annex Table 8). In 1970, Accra was the most urbanized region in the country (85 percent urban), and the Upper region was the least urbanized (7 percent). These regions held the same rank in 1948, but the trend of urban growth in other regions varied considerably. Brong-Ahafo had only a little over 2 percent of its population in urban centers in 1948; whereas by 1960, this proportion had risen to nearly 16 percent, and further to 22 percent by 1970. A similar growth pattern occurred in the Northern region also. In other regions, by contrast, the growth of urbanization seems to be tapering off lately (for example, in the Central, Eastern and Volta regions). This has taken place despite the fact that these regions are far from highly urbanized, like Accra, for example.

Lifetime Migrants

Lifetime immigrants have contributed in some measure to the growth of the urban population. In 1960, roughly a third of the lifetime immigrants were enumerated in urban areas, and by 1970 this proportion had increased but little (Table 32). A third of the lifetime internal migrants (intra- and inter-regional) in 1970 were also enumerated in urban centers. Thus, there was very little diffrence between the international migrants and internal migrants in regard to the type (rural-urban) of place they were enumerated. Internal migrants were as prone to move to urban areas in Ghana as international migrants. However, in terms of the total urban population, there was a substantial decline in the proportion of international migrants in the urban population between 1960 and 1970. The reason for this was either return migration of the immigrants, or their moving into rural areas of the country, or both (see Table 33).

Among persons 15 years and above, there were about 3,481,000 inter-locality lifetime migrants in Ghana in 1970 (Table 34). Most of these (52 percent) had moved from one village to another but about 578,000 (17 percent) had moved from a village to a town. A surprising feature of Ghana migration is that about 581,000 persons born in a town were living in

- Gh.55 - - Gh.56 -

Table 30: URBAN LOCALITIES AND URBAN POPULATION, 1948, 1960 AND 1970 l l 1948 1960 1970 l

Total Number of Localities 15,121 30,397 47,769 I Urban Localities 39 98 135 Rural Localities 15,082 30,299 47,634

| Total Population 4,111,348 6,726,815 8,559,313 I Urban Population 524,918 1,551,174 2,472,456 | Rural Population 3,586,430 5,175,641 6,086,857

I Proportion Urban 12.8 23.1 28.9 II

Sources: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1962a. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. I, Accra: Census Office, Table 1; Ghana. Census Office,1973. 1970 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. I, Accra: Census Office, Table 2. - Gh.57 -

Table 31: PROPORTION OF URBAN POPULATION IN EACH REGION OF GHANA, 1948, 1960 AND 1970

-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Proportion (%) Urban | Region 1948 1960 1970

I All regions 12.8 23.1 28.9

Source: Annex Table 8. Table 32: LIFETIME IMMIGRANTS BY COUNTRY OF BIRTH AND PLACE (URBAN-RURAL) OF ENUMERATION, 1960 AND 1970

Other West Other Place of All Coun- Ivory Upper African African Non-African Enumeration tries Coast Liberia Mali Volta Togo Benin Niger Nigeria Countries Countries Countries 1/ Year 1960

Urban 176,961 3,931 4,691 8,684 29,563 43,907 4,746 9,473 58,576 1,914 11,476 Rural 359,182 28,128 1,546 5,943 103,343 131,600 17,232 10,172 55,863 2,814 2,541

Total 536,143 32,059 6,237 14,627 132,906 175,507 21,978 19,645 114,439 4,728 14,017- Year 1970

0u Urban 120,835 3,550 3,027 6,668 26,235 33,537 5,416 4,568 22,023 1,098 891 13,822 Rural 229,039 12,740 1,057 2,831 78,919 99,717 5,597 15,204 9,545 1,005 290 2,134 Total 349,874 16,290 4,084 9.499 105.154 133,254 11,013 19,772 31,568 2,103 1,181 15,956

1/ Lifetime immigrants for 1960 include only those among persons identified as of "Foreign Origin".

Sourees: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1964a. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Table 13; Ghana. Census Office, 1975. 1970 Ghana Population Census, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Table C 6. - Gh.59 -

Table 33 : URBAN POPULATION OF GHANA BY LIFETIME MIGRATION STATUS AND REGION, 1960 AND 1970.

Lifetime Migration Status Intra- Inter- Inter- Non- regional regional national Region Migrant Migrant Migrant Migrant All N =

Year 1960

Western 53.6 22.7 14.7 9.0 100.0 365,023 Accra 47.8 3.3 32.3 16.6 100.0 393,383 Eastern 45.2 23.2 19.9 11.6 100.0 220,765 Volta 55.5 24.6 8.6 11.3 100.0 102,101 Ashanti 38.6 19.4 29.6 12.4 100.0 276,772 Brong-Ahafo 59.4 12.8 19.7 8.0 100.0 91,491 Northern 55.4 20.7 13.9 10.0 100.0 101,639

All regions 48.9 16.7 22.4 12.0 100.0 1,551,174

Year 1970

Western 55.1 16.0 25.0 3.9 100.0 465,979 Accra 45.1 3.3 44.6 7.0 100.0 726,553 Eastern 14.6 7.8 6.5 1.1 100.0 310,073 Volta 56.1 27.5 10.5 5.9 100.0 151,096 Ashanti 45.9 22.9 26.7 4.5 100.0 440,526 Brong-Ahafo 56.1 16.5 24.0 3.5 100.0 169,072 Northern 57.7 19.1 20.2 3.0 100.0 209,157

All regions 50.1 15.7 29.3 4.9 100.0 2,472,456

Notes: (i) Western includes the central region also and Northern includes the Upper region also of 1970.

(ii) The lifetime international migrants for 1960 shown here are based on the whole population rather than only on population identified as of "Foreign origin" (see also Table 31).

Sources: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1971. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. VI, Post Enumeration Survey, Accra: Census Office, Table H 1; Ghana. Census Office, 1975. 1970 Ghana Population Census, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office., Tables C 6 and C 8. - Gh.60 -

Table 34 ADULT LIFETIME MIGRANTS BY RURAL-URBAN ORIGIN AND DESTINATION. 1960 AND 1970.

Migrants among persons 15 years or more Types 1960 1970

Rural-Rural 1,006,000 1,798,000

Rural-Urban 297,000 578,000

Urban-Rural 193,000 581,000

Urban-Urban 187,000 523,000

Total 1,683,000 3,480,000

Sources: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1971. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. VI, Post Enumeration Survey, Accra: Census Office, Table H 2; Ghana~ Census Office, forthcoming. 1971 Supplementary Enquiry, Accra: Census Office. - Gh.61 -

a village in 1970. This is slightly more than the number of village-born persons living in towns. Over the period 1960-70, all the migration streams showed substantial increases but the highest growth rate was among urban- rural migrants. These figures cannot be interpreted, however, to mean that during 1960-70 urban-rural migration was larger than rural-urban migration, and that net migration was in favor of the rural areas. As is shown later, this was not true. Lifetime migration figures, as above, are affected by many other factors such as the increase in number of urban localities from 98 to 135, return migration, misreporting of place of birth, and so on. Misreporting is a strong possibility in Ghana; rural Ghanaians may tend to report an urban rather than a rural place of birth.

Net Rural-Urban Migration

There were 135 towns in 1970. Some of these were not towns in 1960, and therefore part of the urban growth between 1960 and 1970 was due to reclassification of localities which were rural in 1960. For the localities which were urban in 1970, the total growth was about 798,000. An approximate distribution of this growth is shown below:

Total Population in 1960 of 1970 Urban areas 1,674,000

Total Urban Population in 1970 2,472,000

Total Growth, 1960-70 798,000

Net-Migration, 1960-70 226,000

Natural Increase 572,000

Increase due to migration, 1960-70 13 percent of 1960 population, 28 percent of total growth

Increase due to natural 34 percent of 1960 increase, 1960-70 population, 72 percent of total growth.

Thus, the major component of urban growth in Ghana during 1960-70 was natural increase (72 percent of the total); migration contributed less than a third. This finding, derived from the censuses of 1960 and 1970, should be interpreted with caution. The true relative contribution of net-migration and natural increase to the growth of Ghanaian towns during the 1960s has not been fully established, in part due to disturbances which occurred in the population during the period, such as the effect of the Alien Compliance Order. The order sent thousands of foreign migrants away, perhaps in particular those living in towns. As indicated earlier, one study showed that 86 percent of immigrants in 1963 reported migrating directly to a Ghanaian town, a phenomenon which would add significantly to the proportion of growth - Gh.62 - in Ghanaian towns due to net migration. Alternately, the departure of those migrants would reduce considerably the urban growth component due to net- migration. In addition, the fact that a large number of Ghana-born immigrants lived in towns and that many of them remained in the country after the order would tend to raise the natural increase component of urban growth during the period. Another factor which may affect the growth of towns is the transfer of children between urban and rural areas and vice-versa. The net effect of these transfers on population growth is unknown.

A regional breakdown of urban growth indicates that the urban population in some regions had net losses due to migration. For instance, the towns in the Western region had a net loss of about 48,000 for this reason. Eastern and Volta regions also had net out-migration from their urban areas. Most of the rural-urban migration was directed toward the Accra region, which had a net gain of 200,000 as compared with a net gain of 226,000 for all urban localities combined. The urban areas of the Northern region also gained considerably, receiving as much as 23 percent of the total rural-urban migration.

A comparison of the net gains in urban areas of the regions (Table 35) with net migration for the rural and urban areas combined (Table 21) indicates the extent of migration from the rural areas. For the Accra region which is predominantly urban, there is no difference between these two values. There are, however, considerable differences for other regions. For example, the Northern region had a net loss of 53,000 but its urban centers had a net gain of 52,000. Thus, the rural areas of the Northern region had a net out-migration of at least 105,000. In the Western region, the total loss was only 6,000, but the urban areas lost about 48,000. Thus, the rural areas of this region should have gained some population due to migration. The net gain of Brong-Ahafo was much larger than the gains of its towns indicating that in this region the rural areas had net in-migration.

Net gain due to migration was directly proportional to the size of town, as shown below:

Size and Class of Town Net Migration, 1960-70

100,000+ +238,000 50,000 - 100,000 + 82,000 10,000 - 50,000 + 58,000 Below 10,000 -152,000

Total +226,000

In fact, the smaller towns (population below 10,000) had a net loss of about 152,000 which eliminated about 40 percent of their natural increase. Cities (100,000 plus) and large towns had relatively the same degree of net in-migration. More than half their inter-censal growth (58 percent) was due to migration. Net migrants represented about 25 percent of their 1970 population. - Gh.63 -

Table 35: NET MIGRATION TO URBAN AREAS BY REGION, 1960-70.

Net Migration Region 1960-70

Western - 48,000

Accra +200,000

Eastern - 25,000

Volta - 3,000

Ashanti + 39,000

Brong-Ahafo + 11,000

Northern + 52,000

Total +226,000

Sources: Ghana.Census Office, 1962 b. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Advance Report of Vols. III and IV, Accra: Census Office, Table 2; Ghana. Census Office, 1975. 1970 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Table C 8. - Gh.64 -

Disaggregation of total net migration by age indicates that most of the migrants are in the 15-24 age group, by as much as 68 percent of the total (Table 36). In fact, among the higher ages (ages above 40), the urban areas had a net loss. The total gain of 226,000 was a balance of a net gain of 256,000 at ages below 35 years and a net loss of 30,000 at ages above 35 years. - Gh.65 -

Table 36: NET MIGRATION TO URBAN AREAS BY AGE, 1960-70

| Age Net-Migration l

O - 4 + 11,000 l

5 - 9 + 11,000

I 10 - 14 + 62,000

I 15 - 24 +154,000

I 25 - 34 + 18,000

135 - 44 - 15,000

45 - 54 - 5,000

155 - 64 - 5,000

I 65 + - 5,000

| Total 226,000

Sources: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1962b. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Advance Report of Vols. III and IV, Accra: Census Office, Table 7; Ghana. Census Office, 1975. 1970 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Table C8. VI. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MIGRANTS

Differences between the characteristics of migrants and non- migrants and among different types of migrants indicate factors associated with migration. The following analysis of the characteristics of migrants in 1960 and 1970 is done principally to obtain some insight into the determinants and consequences of migration in Ghana. (See also Caldwell, 1968 and 1969; and Addo, 1975.)

Age Composition

Ghana migrants included a relatively larger proportion of young adults compared to non-migrants at origin and destination over the last decade. There were, however, differences between migrant groups, but all of them shared a characteristic bulge in the young adult ages (Table 37). Migrants who moved into urban areas during the 1960-70 decade showed a much greater concentration in the young adult ages (15-34 years) than those who moved into the rural areas. In fact, almost the entire net positive migration to urban areas shown in Table 36 was contributed by the age group 15-24 years. This was mostly due to in-migration at these young ages and return migration at relatively older ages. The origin of migrants (rural or urban) has been less important than the destination in determining their age distribution (see Table 38).

In-migrants and out-migrants differed by region with respect to the degree of age differential. In a predominantly in-migration region such as Accra, in-migrant age distributions showed a bulge in the working ages, but out-migrant age distributions were smoother. The opposite was true in the Volta region, a predominantly out-migration area. In this case, the out-migrants were concentrated in the young adult ages while the in-migrants were more evenly distributed (see Figure 1).

The concentration of migrants, particularly those moving to Accra and other urban centers, in young working ages indicates that many of these migrations are due to economic factors -- to take up new jobs or look for employment, etc.

Sex Composition

The sex ratio of migrants in Ghana varied by type over the past decade. Immigrants were predominantly male; so were inter-regional migrants. But short distance intra-regional migrants were predominantly female. The national picture is shown in Table 39.

Excepting minor aberrations, possibly due to differential misstatement of age, there has been a regular increase in the sex ratios of international and inter-regional migrants with advancing age. For instance, immigrant children under 15 years have a very balanced sex composition (101) but the proportion of males increases more or less continuously up to the ages

- Gh.66 - Table37: AGE COMPOSITION OF LIFETIME MIGRANTS AND NON-MIGRANTS, 1960 AND 1970

1960 1970 Intra- Inter- Inter- Intra- Inter- Inter- Non- Regional Regional National Non- Regional Regional National Age Migrant Migrant Migrant Migrant Migrant Migrant Migrant Migrant

0- 4 26 11 11 4 26 9 9 5

5-14 30 21 20 11 34 23 23 11

15-24 14 19 24 20 14 20 23 16

25-54 24 40 40 57 20 39 40 56

55+ 6 8 5 8 6 9 5 12

All Ages 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Sources: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1962 b. 1960 Population Census of-.Ghana.. Advance Renort of Vols. III and IV. Accra: Census Office, Table 13;Ghana. Census Office, 1975. 1970 Ghana Population Census, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Tables C7 and C8. - Gh.68 -

Table 38 AGE DISTRIBUTION OF MALE LIFETIME MIGRANTS BY URBAN-RURAL ORIGIN AND DESTINATION, 1970

Rural Rural- Urban- Urban- Rural- Urban Rural Urban Age Migrants Migrants Migrants Migrants

15-24 27 39 31 37

25-34 27 34 29 33

35-44 20 15 20 17

45-54 12 7 10 8

55-64 7 3 5 3

65+ 7 2 5 2

15+ 100 100 100 100

Source: Ghana. Census Office, forthcoming. 1971 Supplementary Enquiry, Accra: Census Office. - Gh.69 -

AGE DISTRIBUTION OF IN-MIGRANTS TO AND OUT-MIGRANTS FROM ACCRA AND VOLTA REGION, 1970

In-or Out-migrants 70,000

60,u00

50,000 i* i. , Accra-in-migration

40,000 -.

30,000 -i- --- ; ! v volta-out-migration

20,000 - .-.------

.Accra-out-migration

I10,000 'I_I ^. .0,000*-* |Volta-in-migration

U-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 2b-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 Age

World Bank-16948 - Gh.70 -

Table 39: MALES PER 100 FEMALES BY MIGRANT TYPE, 1960 AND 1970

Sex Ratio I | Migrant Type 1960 1970 |

International In-migrants 175 152 I . I l l | Inter-regional 129 120 | I .I I Intra-regional 76 76 -

Source: As in Table 37. of 40-50 and stabilizes thereafter. At older ages, there are about 3 males for every female immigrant (see Table 40). A similar relationship may be observed among inter-regional migrants, but not among intra-regional migrants.

Rural-rural migrants have been predominantly female, but males have outnumbered females among rural-urban migrants, urban-urban migrants, etc. (see Table 41). The conclusion from this, seen as well in studies elsewhere, is that there is a tendency for long-distance migration to be selective of males and short-distance migration to be selective of females. With intra- regional migration, the distances covered by migrants are often short, sometimes between adjacent villages. Most female migration involves marriage, especially in the northern part of the country. Aside from marriage, many of the inter-community movements may result from redistribution of settlements, or the breaking apart of families or village populations, which leads to the scattering of people among other localities.

Among the immigrants, there was not a single stream where an excess of males was not observed over the last decade (Table 42). In 1960, however, the immigrants from Togo, Nigeria, and Benin (all the countries to the east), had a more balanced sex composition than those from other countries. The sex imbalance was greatest among migrants from Niger and Mali. Between 1960 and 1970, the imbalance between the sexes became more acute for immigrants from Togo and Nigeria, but among others the ratio became more balanced (e.g. Upper Volta, Niger, Mali). One cannot easily provide an explanation for these changes; however, it is possible that more females than males emigrated from Ghana during the period; for example, wives and daughters may have emigrated after the Order of 1969, leaving their husbands and sons to remain temporarily to take care of whatever economic activity was being pursued. - Gh.71 -

Table 40: SEX RATIO BY AGE AND LIFETIME MIGRATION STATUS, 1960 AND 1970

AGE Lifetime Migration 55 and .All Status 0-4 5-14 15-24 25-54 over Ages

Year 1960

Non-Migrant 99 114 90 93 105 101

Intra-regional Migrant 93 88 72 66 86 76

Inter-regional Migrant 96 87 121 171 182 129

International Migrant 102 101 125 214 332 175

Year 1970

Non-Migrant 100 110 98 87 97 100

Intra-regional Migrant 95 90 77 64 81 76 Inter-regional Migrant 97 88 107 155 183 120

International Migrant 99 96 91 174 304 152

1/ Males per hundred females.

Sources: .Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1962 b. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Advance Report of Vols. III and IV, Accra; Census Office, Table 13; Ghana. Census Office, 1975. 1970 Ghana Population Census, Vol. III. Accra: Census.Office, Tables C 7and C 8. - Gh.72 -

Table 41: SEX RATIO OF LIFETIME RURAL-URBAN MIGRANTS AGED 15 YEARS AND MORE IN GHANA BY ORIGIN AND DESTINATION OF MIGRATION, 1960 AND 1970

I Males per 100 l | Type of Females l | Migration 1960 1970 l l l | Rural-rural 71 73 l

| Rural-urban 129 107 l l l I Urban-urban 134 113 l l I Urban-rural 127 111 l

Source: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1971. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. VI, Post-Enumeration Survey, Accra: Census Office, Table H2; Ghana. Census Office, forthcoming. 1971 Supplementary Enquiry, Accra: Census Office. - Gh.73 -

Table 42: SEX RATIO OF IMMIGRANTS BY COUNTRY OF BIRTH, 1960 AND 1970

Sex Ratio | Immigrants From 1960 1970

I Togo 123 137

I Upper Volta 275 209

| Nigeria 146 194

I Ivory Coast 154 155

I Benin 146 149

I Niger 802 677

I Mali 674 557

| Liberia 200 196

I All Countries 175 175

Sources: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1962b. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Advance Report of Vols. III and IV, Accra: Census Office, Table 10; Ghana. Census Office, 1975. 1970 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Table C7. - Gh.74 -

Education

Among the West African countries, Ghana is educationally the most advanced. It is therefore no surprise that immigrants to Ghana from West African countries are not as well educated as the average Ghanaian. The differentials in terms of the proportion ever attending school are shown below:

PERCENT EVER ATTENDING SCHOOL AMONG PERSONS SIX YEARS AND ABOVE, 1960 AND 1970

1960 1970

Immigrants to Ghana from Western Africa 15 21

Total Ghana Population 27 43

The proportion ever attending school was higher among the Ghanaian population than among the immigrants in 1960 and 1970. Moreover, the gap between the two groups has widened in recent years.

Internal migrants present a different picture. With few exceptions, migrants are better educated than non-migrants. Measuring educational attainment by number of years of schooling, migrants had on average one year more schooling in 1960 and one and a half years more schooling in 1970 than non-migrants. 1/

The average years of schooling attained by the adult male population of Ghana in 1960 was about 2.32 years; but those who were enumerated in their region of birth had only 2.28 years of schooling compared with about 3.31 years for those who were enumerated outside their region of birth. However, the migrant groups were not homogeneous with respect to their educational attainment.

1/ The index is computed by assigning weights (average years of schooling) to the various educational categories and calculating a weighted average. The weights used were: 0 for those who never attended school, 4 for "Primary and Arabic", 7 for "Middle, Commercial, and Technical", and 10 for "Secondary, Teacher Training and University" in 1960. In 1970 different categories were used. The weights for these categories were 0, 6, 9, and 12. These weights are only approximate but small errors in the weights do not affect very much differences between the two weighted averages. However, since the categories in 1960 and 1970 were different, comparison of the 1960 index with the 1970 index is not valid. Comparison between migrants and non-migrants and among migrant groups for the same census year is valid. - Gh.75 -

To illustrate, the external migrants born in other countries in Africa were the least educated of all migrant groups. In fact, their educational attainment was very much less than the non-migrants in Ghana. However, external migrants from outside Africa had a very high educational attainment, the difference being 6.4 years more than the non-migrant population in the country (see Table 43).

The educational attainment of migrants from within Ghana is affected by the place where they were born (Table 44). For example, those born in urban areas had a higher attainment than those born in rural areas; the difference was about 2 years more schooling for the former in 1960 and probably more since 1970. But in each of the groups, migrants had a higher attainment than non-migrants. The differential propensity for the educated to migrate was greater in rural areas where the migrants led the non-migrants by about 1. 1 years of schooling in 1960. In urban areas, the differential was marginal, about 0.1 year, but as will be shown below, the small difference was due to contrasts in the level of attainment of urban migrants going to rural areas and those going to urban areas.

Further evidence of the influence of birthplace is shown in Table 45 where migrants and non-migrants are classified by their region of birth and educational attainment. In all regions, non-migrants had a lower educational attainment compared to migrants who moved out of the region. However, the magnitude of this difference varied from one region to another, with the highest difference in Brong-Ahafo and the lowest in the Northern region. There is no indication of any association between the magnitude of the difference and the overall educational level of the region.

Educational attainment of migrants is affected by their place of destination as well. Those moving to urban areas and regions with a relatively higher proportion of non-agricultural occupations had a higher attainment than those moving to rural areas and regions with a higher proportion of agricultural jobs. Figures supporting such differentials are shown in Table 46.

Although migrants are generally better educated than non-migrants, the extent of difference varies considerably by destination. In 1960, rural-urban migrants had the maximum difference with almost 3 years more schooling compared to the non-migrant rural population. Urban-born migrants moving to other towns or cities also showed a clear-cut difference with about 1. 2 years more of schooling. On the other hand, urban-born migrants moving to villages were less educated than non-migrants in towns and cities. Thus, although migrants are generally superior in their educational attainment, the pattern does not hold for all migrant sub-groups. This is an important finding and has methodological relevance when migration rates are subjected to correlation analysis.

Additional evidence supporting the fact that migrants are heterogeneous with respect to educational attainment is given in Tables 47 and 48 where differentials are calculated for inter-regional streams. Compared - Gh.76 -

Table 43. INDEX OF EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT OF MIGRANTS AND NON-MIGRANTS, 1960 AND 1970.

Index of Educational Attainment (No. of Years of Schooling)

1960

Total Adult Population 2.32

Enumerated in the region of birth (non-migrants) 2.28

Enumerated outside the region region of birth (lifetime migrants) 3.31

Born Outside Ghana 1.31

Immigrants from Africa 1.06

Immigrants from outside Africa 8.68

1970

Non-migrants 3.02

All migrants 3.50

Intra-regional migrants 3.36

Inter-regional migrants 3.60

Sources: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1971. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. VI, Post-Enumeration Survey, Accra: Census Office, Table H 28; Ghana. Census Office, forthcoming. 1971 Supplementary Enquiry, Accra: Census Office. - Gh.77 -

Table 44: INDEX OF EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT OF MIGRANTS AND NON-MIGRANTS BY URBAN-RURAL NATURE OF BIRTHPLACE, 1960

Index of Educational | Migrant Status Attainment

| 1. Born in Rural Areas 2.08

| Non-migrants 1.55 | Migrants 2.67 | Difference 1.12

I 2. Born in Urban Areas 3.97

| Non-migrants 3.91 | Migrants 4.02 I Difference 0.11

Source: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1971. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. VI, Post-Enumeration Survey, Accra: Census Office, Table H19. - Gh.78 -

Table 45r INDEX OF EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT OF MALE ADULT MIGRANTS AND NON-MIGRANTS BY REGION OF BIRTH, 1960

Index of Educational Attainment Non- Region of Birth Migrants Migrants Difference

Western 4.24 2.59 1.65

Accra 4.75 4.38 0.37

Eastern 4.63 3.16 1.47

Volta 3.94 3.05 0.89

Ashanti 4.39 3.09 1.30

Brong-Ahafo 3.80 1.78 2.02

Northern 0.59 0.25 0.34

Source: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1971. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. VI, Post-Enumeration Survey, Accra: Census Office, Table H 18. - Gh.79 -

Table 46: INDEX OF EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT OF MALE ADULT MIGRANTS AND NON-MIGRANTS BY URBAN-RURAL NATURE OF BIRTHPLACE AND PLACE OF ENUMERATION, 1960 AND 1970

Index of Educational Attainment | Migrant Status 1960 1970

| 1. Rural-born Non-Migrants 1.55 2.51 a/ | I | 2. Rural-born Migrants 2.67 2.66 Rural-Rural Migrants 2.02 2.51 Rural-Urban Migrants 4.31 3.10 II | 3. Urban-born Non-Migrants 3.91 a/

I 4. Urban-born Migrants 4.02 4.91 l | Urban-Rural Migrants 2.96 5.28 I Urban-Urban Migrants 5.09 4.67

a/ Includes urban-born non-migrants.

Source: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1971. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. VI, Post-Enumeration Survey, Accra: Census Office, Table H18; Ghana. Census Office, forthcoming. 1971 Supplementary Enquiry, Accra: Census Office. - Gh.8O -

Table 47.; DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INDICES OF EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT OF OUT-MIGRANTS FROM A REGION AND NON-MIGRANTS IN THE REGION, BY REGION OF DESTINATION OF THE MIGRANT, 1960

Out-Migration from the Region Region of Brong- Destination West Accra East Volta Ashanti Ahafo North

Western - +1.99 +1.41 +1.28 +1.52 +1.49 +0.15

Accra +2.58 - +2.35 +2.12 +3.32 +5.01 +0.73

Eastern +1.01 -0.80 - -0.28 +1.78 +2.69 +0.20

Volta +1.41 +1.02 +1.19 - +0.07 -0.57 +1.99

Ashanti +1.61 +1.21 +0.70 +0.89 - +1.68 +0.18

Brong-Ahafo +2.50 +0.10 +0.11 -0.43 +0.04 - +0.03

Northern +3.53 +0.77 +2.90 +1.75 +1.69 +2.33 -

Source: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1971. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. VI, Post-Enumeration Survey, Accra: Census Office, Table H 17. - Gh.81 -

Table 48: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INDICES OF EDUCATICNAL ATTAINMENT OF IN-MIGRANTS TO A REGION AND NON-MIGRANTS IN THE REGION, BY REGION OF ORIGIN OF THE MIGRANT, 1960

In-Migration to; (Region) Region of Brong- Origin West Accra East Volta Ashanti Ahafo North

Western - +0.80 +0.44 0.95 +1.11 +1.06 +5.87 Accra +3.77 - +0,42 +2.35 +2.50 +2.70 +4.89 Eastern +1.98 +1.13 - +1.30 +0.77 +1,49 +5.81 Volta +1.74 +0.79 -0.39 - +0.85 +0.84 +4.54 Ashanti +2.02 +2.03 +1.71 +0.11 - +1.35 +4.53 Brong-Ahafo +-0.68 +2.42 +1.31 -1.95 +0.37 - +3.85 Northern -2.19 -3.39 -2.70 -0.80 -2.66 -1.50 -

Source: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1971. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. VI, Post-Enumeration Survey, Accra: Census Office, Table H 17. - Gh.82 -

to non-migrants at the region of origin, in 4 out-migration streams the educational attainment of migrants was less; in all the other 38 streams, the expected higher attainment among migrants was observed. The out-migrants from Accra to the Eastern regions, from Volta to the Eastern and Brong-Ahafo regions, and from Brong-Ahafo to Volta had the lower attainments (Table 47).

In addition, migrants from the Northern region to all the other 6 regions had a lower educational attainment compared with non-migrants at destination. In these cases, the differences were quite large, amounting to 3. 4 years in Accra, 2. 7 years in the East and Ashanti, and 2. 2 years in the case of the Western region (Table 48).

Other research has found that educational differentials are usually larger for long distance migrants than for short distance migrants. The Ghanaian data do not support this pattern. In Table 49, it is shown that migrants originating in a region different from the region of enumeration had a higher educational attainment than those originating in the same region. But more detailed analysis, given in the same table,, shows that such a pattern is due to the different mix of rural-rural, rural-urban, urban-rural, and urban-urban migration in the 2 streams. When these 4 streams are analysed separately, in each of the streams the long distance migrants (those born in another region), had less educational attainment. At the same time, in each of the streams the non-migrants (at destination) were the least educated.

Length of residence is also a differential affecting migration. Recent migrants had, on the whole, a higher educational attainment than those who migrated in the past; and in general, the former exhibited larger differentials compared to non-migrants as well. However, with respect to differentials, those of intra-regional migrants were usually larger than those of inter-regional migrants. Among inter-regional migrants although the index of educational attainment was low among past migrants, they usually exhibited a higher attainment than non-migrants. It may also be noted that the educational attainment of a few migrant sub-groups, from rural areas, was lower than the attainment of non-migrants (see Table 50).

Economic Characteristics

Immigrants:

The economic significance of immigration can be partly understood by analysing the economic activity of immigrants. In 1960, about 89 percent of adult male immigrants and 40 percent of female immigrants were employed. Compared with the native population of the country the employment ratio was higher for male immigrants (89 percent versus 83 percent), but considerably lower (40 percent versus 54 percent) among female immigrants. Similar relative positions held for the unemployed: a relatively higher unemployment rate among male immigrants (6. 4 percent versus 5.8 percent), and a relatively lower unemployment rate among female immigrants (2. 4 percent versus 3.0 percent). Adding the employed and the unemployed, nearly every adult male - Gh.83 -

Table 49: INDEX OF EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT OF MIGRANTS AND NON-MIGRANTS BY ORIGIN AND DESTINATION. 1960

1960

Total Population

Non-Migrants 1.59 Migrants from the same region 2.89 Migrants from another region 3.27

Urban Areas

Non-Migrants in Urban Areas 3.91

Migrants from another town in the same region 5.26

Migrants from another town in another region 5.02

Migrants from another village in the same region 4.40

Migrants from another village in another region 4.24

Rural Areas

Non-Migrants in Rural Areas 1.55

Migrants from another town in the same region 3.41

Migrants from another town in another region 2.64

Migrants from another village in the same region 2.07

Migrants from another village in another region 1.88

Source: Derived from Ghana.Census Office, 1971. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. VI, Post-Enumeration Survey, Accra: Census Office, Table H 18. Table50,: EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT OF MIGRANTS AND NON-MIGRANTS BY DURATION OF RESIDENCE, RURAL-URBAN STATUS OF ORIGIN AND DESTINATION, 1960.

Total Population Urban Population Rural Population Duration Duration Duration Duration Duration Duration Migrant Status <5 5+ <5 5+ <5 5+

INDEX OF EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT

Born in the same locality (Non-Migrants) 1/ 3.24 1.92 4.73 3.87 2.80 1.49

Migrants from Urban Areas

in the same region 5.09 3.24 5.78 4.74 4.60 2.19 in another region 4.30 3.35 5.42 4.45 3.06 1.95

Migrants from Rural Areas

in the same region 3.87 1.63 5.16 3.64 3.44 1.18 in another region 3.32 2.15 4.69 3.48 2.30 1.28

DIFFERENCE FROM THE NON-MIGRANTS

Migrants from Urban Areas

in the same region +1.85 +1.32 +1.05 + .87 +1.80 + .70 in another region +1.06 +1.43 + .69 + .58 + .26 + .46

Migrants from Rural Areas

in the same region .63 - .29 + .43 - .23 + .64 - .31 in another region .08 + .23 - .04 - .39 - .50 - .21

1/ Includes return migrants. Source: Derived from Ghana.Census Office, 1971. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. VI, Post- Enumeration Survey, Accra: Census Office. Table H 18. - Gh.85 -

immigrant is employed or looking for a job. But among Ghanaians only 89 percent of the adult males are in the labor force. The lower activity rate of the Ghana population is due mainly to the higher proportion of students among the native male population and higher proportion of "homemakers" among female immigrants.

In 1960, nearly two-thirds of the employed males in Ghana were working in the agricultural sector, about 9 percent each in manufacturing and services, 5 percent each in transport and construction, 6 percent in commerce, 3 percent in mining, and one percent in utilities. The predominant industrial sector of African immigrants also was agriculture, in which nearly half the male immigrants were working. Next in order of importance was commerce (15 percent), then services (10 percent), manufacturing (8 percent), mining and construction (7 percent each), transport (4 percent), and utilities (1 percent) (see Table 51 and Annex Table 9). Thus, for immigrants as well as non-migrants, agriculture was the most important industry, and utilities the least important. The difference between the migrants and non-migrants was greatest in agriculture. In relative terms, about 15 percent less immigrants were employed in agriculture; however, the extent of difference varied considerably between regions, with the maximum difference (25 percent) in the Western region and the minimum in the Brong-Ahafo and Volta regions. In the last two regions more or less the same proportion of immigrants and non-migrants were employed in agriculture (Table 52).

In contrast to agriculture, commerce employed relatively more of the immigrant population than of the non-migrant population. The proportion of immigrants employed in commerce was more than double the proportion of the general population. A somewhat similar situation held for the mining and services industries. While only 3 percent of the Ghanaian population was employed in mining, nearly 7 percent of immigrants from West Africa were employed in this industry. Similarly, while 8 percent of the local population was employed in services, nearly 10 percent of the immigrants were so employed. The predominance of commerce and services as migrant-employing industries is observed in all regions, but that of mining is limited to the Western and Eastern regions.

If the agricultural sector is excluded from consideration and the 7 non-agricultural industrial sectors are compared (Annex Table 9), the predominance of the immigrants in commerce (29 percent versus 17 percent), and mining (14 percent versus 9 percent) becomes more apparent. On the other hand, the excess of immigrants in the service industries disappears. Most of the other industrial groups -- transport, manufacturing, etc. -- remain as less of migrant-employing industries.

More detailed information on economic differentials between immigrants and the native population may be obtained by comparing ratios of the number of immigrants to the total population in specific industries (Annex Table 9). Considering all industries together, about 17 percent of the employed males and 6 percent of the employed females were immigrants. - Gh. 86 -

Table 5_1: AFRICAN IMMIGRANT WORKERS IN GHANA BY INDUSTRY, 1960 AND 1970

1/ Percent Relative Total Change Change Industry 1960 1970 1960-70 (percent)

Agriculture 151,540 117,845 -22 +20

Mining 20,040 4,906 -76 -62

Manufacture 26,460 23,349 -12 +36

Utilities 3,070 1,159 -62 -42

Construction 18,940 8,033 -58 -34

Commerce 74,840 23,680 -68 -51

Transport 9,670 7,564 -22 +21

Services 29,620 29,495 - +54

Total 334,180 216031 -35 -

1/ Relative change is calculated by estimating an expected number in each category on the basis of change in the total for all industries and excess or deficit in the observed number in 1970. Thus, for agriculture: /117.845 Relative Change: 20 = 100 151,540 x 216,031 - 1 334,181

Sources:Annex Table 9; derived from Ghana.Census Office, 1962 b. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Advance Report of Vols. III and IV, Accra: Census Office; Table 38; and Ghana. Census Office, forthcoming. 1970 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. IV, Accra: Census Office. - Gh.87 -

Table52: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PERCENTAGES OF MALE IMMIGRANTS AND TOTAL MALE POPULATION ENGAGED IN SPECIFIC INDUSTRIES, BY REGION OF ENUMERATION, 1960

Industrial Groups Agri- Manu- Construc- Trans- culture Mining facturing tion Utility Commerce port Service

PERCENTAGE OF MIGRANTS MINUS PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL POPULATION

Ghana -14.9 + 4.2 -1.0 +1.5 +0.2 + 8.7 -0.7 +2.0

Western -24.8 + 8.3 -1.0 0.0 0.0 +12.2 +2.8 +2.5

Accra - 9.7 + 1.4 +0.5 +2.4 - +1.2 + 5.3 -3.0 +1.9

Eastern -17.4 +14.5 -2.4 +0.5 +0.3 + 6.9 -2.2 +0.6

Volta - 1.0 - 0.1 -4.4 -0.1 +0.5 + 5.3 -0.3 +0.1

Ashanti - 6.8 + 0.4 -3.9 +0.6 -0.6 + 8.3 -2.7 +0.4

Brong-Ahafo + 0.1 + 0.1 -3.0 +0.8 0.0 + 4.6 -1.6 -0.9

Northern -15.1 - +3.1 -0.1 +0.2 +11.1 -0.1 +0.9

Source: Annex Table 9. - Gh.88 -

But in diamond mining, nearly 64 percent of the employed males and 38 percent of the employed females were immigrants. Some of the specific industrial sub-groups in which migrants dominated in 1960 were:

EMPLOYED IMMIGRANTS AS PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL WORKERS BY SEX, 1960

Industry Males Females

Diamond mining 64.4 38.1.

Manufacturing of miscellaneous food preparations 58.6 20.1

Livestock production 39.8 12.5

Slaughtering, preparation of processed meat 51.1 12.1

Manufacturing of non-metalic mineral products 31.2 1.6

Wholesale trade 32.6 23.0

Petty trading, hawking and peddling 54.8 12.2

Retail trade of motor vehicles 48.0 21.2

Personal services 49.8 16.1

Domestic services 36.9 9.5

All Industries 17.1 6.4

Within agriculture, about 51 percent of the immigrants were engaged in cocoa growing, while only 41 percent of the general population were so engaged. This shows the importance of immigrants in cocoa farming. About 59,000 male immigrants and 7,000 female immigrants were engaged in this important economic activity in 1960. About 75,000 immigrants were engaged in commerce in 1960 of whom nearly 69,000 were engaged in retail trade (61,000 in petty trading, hawking, and peddling). In the service industries, which employ 10 percent of the immigrants, nearly 40 percent were engaged in personal services (11,000 males and 3,000 females). The representation of immigrants in government services and community services was relatively smaller compared with non-migrants in 1960.

Less details are now available with respect to the employment of immigrants in 1970. Table 51 above gave the change in the number of - Gh.89 -

immigrant workers from 1960 to 1970. The total number decreased by 35 percent, but the change in some of the industrial categories was much larger. While in all the industrial categories there was some decline in the number of foreign workers, those industries most affected were mining (76 percent decline), commerce (68 percent decline), and construction (58 percent decline). The industries least affected were services, where there was no decrease at all, manufacturing, agriculture, and transport. The return migration from agricultural, services, transport, and manufacturing occupations was much less than for other industries.

Occupation

About 47 percent of the male immigrants in Ghana in 1960 were farmers compared to 63 percent of the general population (Table 53). Such a result should be expected given the industrial classification scheme. Within farming, there are sub-categories where immigrants are relatively more numerous than non-migrants.

Nearly 38 percent of the immigrant "farmers, fishermen were actually farm workers while the corresponding proportion among the general population was only 11 percent. A similar situation held among "craftsmen and production process workers, etc.,". The proportion of "laborers not elsewhere classified" was as high as 45 percent of the total number of "craftsmen, production process workers ... " among immigrants, but only 21 percent among natives. In general, immigrants occupied low status jobs (see Table 54).

Internal Migrants:

Agriculture is also the major activity of internal migrants, but compared with non-migrants, there are relatively fewer of them in agriculture. Among the different types of internal migrants, the proportion in agriculture is lower for long distance migrants than for short distance migrants, as shown below (and in Annex Table 11):

PERCENT IN AGRICULTURAL SECTOR

1960 1970

Non-migrants 72 66

Intra-regional 63 59

Inter-regional 44 40

Although the proportion in agriculture has decreased between 1960 and 1970, the relative distribution of migrants and non-migrants, and between the different migrant groups has remained unaffected. - Gh.90 -

Table 53: OCCUPATIONAL SUB-GROUPS OF FARMERS, 1960 (MALES)

Percent of Total Workers Per Cent of Total Farmers Total Total Farmers by Sub-Groups Immigrant Population Immigrant Population

Total of farmers, fishermen, etc., (males only) 47.4 62.9 100 100

Farmers and farm managers 27.6 51.5 58.2 82.0 in food stuff 14.7 29.5 31.1 46.9 in cocoa 11.0 20.0 23.2 31.8 in others 1.9 2.0 3.9 3.3

Farm workers 17.9 6.7 37.7 10.6

Others 1.9 4.7 4.1 7.4

Source: Annex Table 10. - Gh.91 -

Table 54: OCCUPATIONAL SUB-GROUPS OF CRAFTSMEN, PRODUCTION PROCESS WORKERS, ETC., 1960 (MALES)

Craftsmen, Production As Percent of Total Workers As Percent of "Craftsmen" Process Workers Total Total by Sub-Groups Immigrant Population Immigrants Population

Craftsmen, production process workers, etc. 22.9 18.6 100 100

Tailors, cutters, etc. 2.0 1.9 8.8 10.2

Toolmakers, machinists, etc. 1.0 1.5 4.3 8.2

Carpenters, joiners, etc. 2.1 3.2 9.3 17.0

Painters, etc. 0.4 0.4 1.8 2.0

Bricklayers, etc. 2.0 2.0 8.7 10.8

Millers, bakers, etc. 1.4 0.6 6.2 3.3

Butchers, etc. 1.1 0.4 4.9 2.0

Longshoremen 1.5 0.9 6.7 5.1

Labourers 10.4 4.9 45.3 26.3

Source: Annex Table 10. - Gh.92 -

Among non-agricultural sectors, service was the principal inter- regional migrant employing sector in 1970, while commerce was the principal employing sector of intra-regional migrants. Ten years earlier, both migrant groups were principally employed in commerce. Compared with non- migrants, the proportion of migrants in commerce was much lower both in 1960 and 1970 (Table 55).

Among females, commerce is a major sector of activity. In fact, the proportion of inter-regional female migrants in commerce was as high as that in agriculture; and the proportion of migrants in commerce far exceeded non-migrants (see Annex Table 11).

The differential in industrial employment between migrants and non-migrants is a function of the distance the migrants move. The direction of the differential is not affected by distance, but the degree of the differential increases with distance. Thus, the intra-regional migrants fell inbetween the non-migrants and the inter-regional migrants, a single exception being female migrants in commerce. Intra-regional female migrants had the lowest proportion in commerce; both non-migrants and inter-regional migrants had higher proportions.

As we have seen, the principal occupation of both migrants and non-migrants in Ghana has been farming, but relatively more non-migrants are in this occupation than migrants (Table 56). However, there is one category of migrants, the rural-rural migrants, who had a relatively higher proportion of workers in farming in 1960 compared with non-migrants.

Among the non-agricultural occupations, the largest differentials were noticed among craftsmen in 1960 (see Annex Table 12). While about 12-13 percent of non-migrants and rural-rural migrants were craftsmen, as much as 30 percent of rural-urban or urban-urban migrants were in this occupational group. A somewhat similar differential was noticed among sales workers, clerical workers, and service workers. The dominant factor in determining the occupational composition of migrants is their destination, whether it is a town or a village.

The general conclusion which emerges from the analysis of economic characteristics of external and internal migrants in Ghana is that although migrants are engaged to some extent in all economic activities in Ghana, there are typical industrial sectors and occupations in which they are relatively more concentrated. In 1960, mining and commerce were the major industries in which immigrants had a substantial edge over natives. By 1970, the dominance in mining decreased considerably, and that in commerce became more pronounced. At the same time, their importance in the service sector increased. Analysis of specific industrial subgroups indicated that the major industrial sectors in which immigrants dominate are among farm workers in the agricultural sector and among unskilled laborers. Thus, the immigrants who remain in Ghana are employed in relatively low status occupations compared to the native population.

A somewhat opposite picture emerges from the analysis for internal migrants, especially inter-regional migrants, and rural-urban migrants. They tend to occupy relatively higher status occupations compared to the non-migrants. - Gh.93 -

Table 55.: PERCENTAGE OF MIGRANTS AND NON-MIGRANTS IN NON-AGRICULTURAL SECTORS, 1960 AND 1970

1960 1970 Intra- Inter- Intra- Inter- Non- regional regional Non- regional regional Sector Migrant Migrants Migrants Migrants Migrants Migrants

Manufacturing 29 29 22 32 31 25

Construction 8 8 13 5 4 7

Commerce 44 37 29 40 34 28

Transport 7 8 8 6 6 7

Services 11 16 25 16 24 32

Utility 1 1 3 1 1 1

TOTAL 100 100 100 100 100 100

1/ Mining excluded due to small percentage of work force so engaged.

Sources: Derived from Ghana.Census Office, 1962 b. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Advance Report of Vols. III and IV, Accra: Census Office, Table 38; Ghana. Census Office, forthcoming. 1970 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. IV, Accra: Census Office (unpublished). - Gh.94 -

Table 56: PERCENT IN FARMING OCCUPATIONS BY MIGRANT STATUS, 1960

Migrant Status Males Females Total

Non-migrants 67.1 58.1 63.5

Migrants 48.9 58.3 53.0

Rural-Rural Migrant 70.6 74.9 72.7

Rural-Urban Migrant 12.5 16.4 13.9

Urban-Rural Migrant 55.4 55.5 55.4

Urban-Urban Migrant 8.3 3.9 6.7

Source: Derived from Ghana Census Office, 1971. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. VI, Post-Enumeration Survey, Accra: Census Office, Table.H 44. - Gh.95 -

STATISTICAL ANNEX: GHANA

List of Tables

Page No.

Annex Table 1. Population of "Foreign Origin" (1960) and Foreign Nationality (1970) in Ghana by Region of Residence, Country of Origin/Nationality. 97

Annex Table 2. Togo Migrants in Ghana, 1960 and 1970. 98

Annex Table 3. Upper Volta Migrants in Ghana, 1960 and 1970. 99

Annex Table 4. Nigerian Migrants in Ghana, 1960 and 1970. 100

Annex Table 5. A. Lifetime In-migrants by Region of Origin, Out-Migrants by Region of Destination, and Net Lifetime Streams of Migration, Western Region, 1960. 101

B...... 0, Greater Accra Region, 1960. 102

C...... , Eastern Region, 1960. 103

D ...... , Volta Region, 1960. 104

E...... , Ashanti Region, 1960. 105

F...... , Brong-Ahafo Region, 1960. 106

G ...... , Northern Region, 1960. 107

Annex Table 6. A. Lifetime In-Migrants by Region of Origin, Out-Migrants by Region of Destination, and Net Lifetime Streams of Migration, Western Region, 1970. 108

B...... , Greater Accra Region, 1970. 109

C...... , Eastern Region, 1970. 110

D...... , Volta Region, 1970. 111

E...... , Ashanti Region, 1970. 112

F...... , Brong-Ahafo Region, 1970. 113

G...... , Northern Region, 1970. 114 - Gh.96 -

STATISTICAL ANNEX: GHANA - (Continued)

List of Tables

Page No.

Annex Table 7. Total Population in 1960 and 1970 of Each Locality Defined as Town in 1970 Whatever Its Status in 1960, by Region. 115-118

Annex Table 8. Total Urban and Rural Population by Region, 1948, 1960, and 1970. 119

Annex Table 9. Selected Industries of Employed Immigrants and the Total Population, 1960. 120-124

Annex Table 10. Selected Occupations of Employed Immigrants and the Total Population, 1960. 125-127

Annex Table 11. Percent Distribution of Migrants and Non-Migrants by Major Industrial Groups, 1960 and 1970. 128

Annex Table 12. Percent Distribution of Migrants and Non-Migrants by Major Occupational Categories, 1960. 129 Annex Table 1: POPULATION OF FOREIGN ORIGIN (1960) AND FOREIGN NATIONALITY (1970) IN GHANA BY REGION OF RESIDENCE, COUNTRY OF ORIGIN/NATIONALITY

A F R I C A Europe All Foreign Ivory Upper Other America Region Countries Total Coast Liberia Mali Volta Togo Benin Niger Nigeria Countries Asia and Oceania

1960 (Country of Origin)

Western 121,754 118,429 7,258 5,524 4,064 19,787 21,905 4,360 3,370 50,197 1,964 457 2,868 Accra Capital District 106,569 98,457 758 2,343 4,705 10,848 37,893 3,034 7,108 30,596 1,172 2,109 6,003 Eastern 149,078 148,397 1,067 281 2,365 18,805 66,208 10,459 8,407 40,034 771 104 577 Volta 104,007 103,699 101 27 191 3,049 85,924 3,207 1,524 9,576 100 57 251 Ashanti 143,440 140,863 4,551 173 5,597 55,704 29,749 7,123 2,345 33,954 1,667 926 1,651 Brong-Ahafo 74,987 74,823 10,339 9 1,813 35,186 12,358 2,952 725 10,771 670 16 148 Northern 127,646 127,035 30,119 5 632 51,778 26,070 281 976 16,674 500 54 557

All regions 827,481 811,703 54,193 8,362 19,367 195,157 280,107 31,416 24,455 191,802 6,844 3,723 12,055

1970 (Nationality)

Western 45,180 43,696 2,239 2,658 1,829 14,993 5,567 1,180 1,962 12,990 278 450 1,034 @ Central 20,220 19,513 495 251 553 4,950 8,674 1,206 972 2,237 175 170 537 Accra Capital District 88,869 79,987 347 1,443 5,973 12,229 33,932 4,100 4,892 16,393 678 3,010 5,872 _ Eastern 81,383 80,616 456 89 965 11,190 51,088 7,395 3,628 5,602 203 238 529 Volta 97,522 97,257 30 14 145 1,292 85,607 5,471 1,437 3,194 67 47 218 Ashanti 119,207 117,137 3,004 113 2,166 55,797 36,928 9,183 1,370 8,104 472 892 1,178 Brong-Ahafo 60,953 60,777 5,983 8 1,025 33,765 12,587 4,714 657 1,921 117 18 158 Northern 28,465 28,131 5,216 7 396 9,464 9,502 149 397 2,963 37 77 257 Upper 20,333 20,035 531 1 360 15,619 850 49 472 2,135 18 24 274

A]l regions 562,132 547,149 18,301 4,584 13,412 159,299 244,735 33,447 15,787 55,539 2,045 4,926 10,057

Note- In the 1960 census, "country of origin" was defined as the country of birth of one's father (or, if that was Ghana, father's father) or, in matrilineal societies, mother (or mother's mother) and this information was sought to determine indirectly the nationality of respondents. In the 1970 census information on nationality was directly obtained and the criteria adopted were different (see Ghana, 1970 Census Vol.III, p.xvii-xviii). Thus, che definitionsof "foreign origin" at the 1960 census and "foreign national" at the 1970 census differ.

6 4 Sources: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 19 s. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Table 11; Ghana. Census Office, 1975. 1970 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office. Table C 13. - Gh.98 -

Annex Table 2: TOGO MIGRANIS IN GHANA, 1960 AND 1970

1970 1960 All 10+

1. Togo nationals 280,107 244,735 154,980

2. Togo-born Togo nationals 175,507 122,116 74,253

3. Ghana-born Togo nationals 104,600 122,619 80,728

4. Togo nationals in urban places 67,276 58,529 39,794

5. Togo nationals in Rural places 212,831 186,195 115,177

6. Proportion of Togo nationals in urban 24.0 23.9 -

7. Sex Ratio: (Males per 100 females) Togo nationals 116 112 Togo-born 123 114 Ghana-born 106 92

8. Age distribution 0-14 43.0 46.9 15-64 55.1 51.0 65+ 1.9 2.1

9. Net Migration during 1960-70 among persons 10+ in 1970: Among: Togo nationals -97,000 ToRO-born TogO nationals -83,000 Ghana-born Togo nationals -14,000 Togo nationals in urban places -20,000 Togo nationals in rural places -77,000

10. Regional Pattern of Migration

Deviation of % of Togo Percent Percent Migrants from % Distribution Change of all Migrants Region 1960 1970 1960-70 1960 1970

Western 8 6 -35 - 7 - 6 Accra 13 14 -10 + 1 - 2 Eastern 24 21 -23 + 5 + 6 Volta 31 35 - +18 +18 Ashanti 11 15 +24 - 7 - 6 Brong-Ahafo 4 5 + 2 - 5 - 6 Northern 9 4 -60 - 6 - 4

Ghana 100 100 -13 +24 24

Sources: As in Annex Table 1; derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1964a.1960 Popu- lation Census of Ghana, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office; Tables 11, 13, 14, and 15; and Ghana. Census Office, 1975. 1970 Ghana Population Census, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Tables C 13 and C 15. - Gh.99 -

Annex Table 3: UPPER VOLTA MIGRANTS IN GHANA9 1960 AND 1970.

1970 1960 All 10+

1. Upper Volta nationals 195,157 159,291 111,744 Urban 47,003 45,281 32,159 Rural 148,154 114,010 79,588 Ghana-born 62,251 62,714 22,645 Upper Volta born 132,906 96,577 89,102

2. Percent enumerated in urban 24.1 28.4 -

3. Sex Ratio: (Males per 100 females) All Upper Volta nationals 201 157 Urban 203 163 Rural 200 154 Ghana-born 111 104 Upper Volta born 275 209

4. Age composition 0-14 26.3 36.4 15-64 70.3 59.3 65+ - 3.4 4.3 All 100.0 100.0

5. Net Migration during 1960-70 anbng persons 10+ in 1970' All Upper Volta nationals -64,000 Upper Volta-born -31,000 Ghana-born -33,000 Upper Voltans in Urban -10,000 Upper Voltans in Rural -54,000

6. Regional Pattern of Migration:

Deviation of % of Upper Percent Percent Volta Migrants from % Distribution Change of all Migrants Region 1960 1970 1960-70 1960 1970

Western 10 13 + 1 - 5 1 Accra 6 8 +13 - 6 - 8 Eastern 10 7 -40 - 9 - 8 Volta 2 1 -38 -11 -17 Ashanti 29 35 - +11 +14 Brong- Ahafo 18 21 - 4 + 9 +10 Northern 27 16 -52 +11 + 7

Ghana 100 100 -18 +31 +32

Sources: As in Annex Tables 1 and 2. - Gh.100 -

Annex Table 4: NIGERIAN MIGRANTS IN GHANA, 1960 AND 1970. 1970 1960 All 10+

1. Nigerian Nationals 191,802 55,539 38,965 Urban 104,519 39,643 27,430 Rural 87,287 15,896 11,535 Ghana-born 77,363 26,656 14,609 Nigerian-born 114,439 28,833 24,356

2. Percent enumerated in urban 54.5 71.4

3. Sex Ratio: Nigerian nationals - Total 127 147 Ghana-born 105 111 Nigerian-born 146 194

4. Age distribution 0-14 38.2 38.4 15-64 59.4 58.0 65+ 2.4 3.6

5. Net Migration during 1960-70 among those 10+ in 1970: All Nigerian nationals -133,000 Nigeria-born nationals - 67,000 Ghana-born nationals - 66,000 Nigerian nationals in Urban - 55,000 Nigerian nationals in Rural - 78,000

6. Regional Pattern of Migration:

Deviation of % of Nigerian Percent Percent Migrants from % Distribution Change of all Migrants Region 1960 1970 1960-70 1960 1970

Western 14 19 -70 +12 +16 Accra 29 31 -46 + 4 +14 Eastern 34 23 -86 + 3 - 4 Volta 6 9 -67 - 8 -12 Ashanti 10 9 -76 - - 7 Brong-Ahafo 3 4 -82 - 4 - 7 Northern 4 5 -69 - 7 -

Ghana 100 100 - +19 30

Sources: As in Annex Tables 1 and 2. - Gh.101 -

Annex Table 5A: LIFETIME IN-MIGRANTS BY REGION OF ORIGIN, OUT-MIGRANTS BY REGION OF DESTINATION, AND NET LIFETIME STREAMS OF MIGRATION, WESTERN REGION, 1960

REGION OF ORIGIN SiX LIFETIME LIFETITT[ lET LIFETfliE A2'D DESTIN;,TI0N IN-4iMGRANTS OUT-MIGRARTS MIGRATION

GRtATER ACCRA M 7,848 18,534 -10t686 F ~6,131 14,229 - 8,098

,IASTZRN M 22,068 21,404 + 664 F 17,570 20,401 - 2,931

VOLTA M 12,291 1,825 +10,466 F 9,691 1,669 + 8,022

ASHAliTI M 15,698 23,792 - 8,094 F 11,713 24,124 -12,411

BRCNG-AHAFO M 1,259 5,325 - 4,066 F 828 4,393 - 3,565

NORTHERN it 22,976 2,638 +20,338 F 10,649 1t954 + 8,695

TOTAL b. 82,140 73,518 + 8,622 .F . 56,582 66,770 -10,188

Source: Ghana. Census Office, 1971. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol.VI., Accra: Census Offices Table H 1. - Gh.102 -

Annex Table 5B: LIFETIME IN-MIGRANTS BY REGION OF ORIGIN, OUT-MIGRANTS BY REGION OF DESTINATION, AND NET LIFETIME STREAMS OF MIGRATION, GREATER ACCRA REGION, 1960

Ri,GION OF CRIGIT SE LIFETIL.E LIFETIThE INsT LIFLTD. A1iD LESTINATICh S.X Il-MIGRAhlS CUT-kIGRAI TS 'M1G11A1.TS

WhSTERK pi 18,534 7,848 +10,686 F 14,229 6,131 + 8,098

EASThRN X 30,1d8 12,899 +17,289 F 26,614 13,151 +15,463

VOLTA M 16,682 2,279 +14,403 F 14,243 2,090 +12,153

ASHANTI X 7,518 4,363 + 3,155 F 4,713 3,977 + 736

BRCNG-AHAFO X 803 1,677 - 874 F 375 1,490 - 1,115

NORTHE'RN M 8,440 1,645 + 6,795 F 4,686 1,366 + 3,320

ALL REGIONS M 82,165 30,711 +51,454 F 66,860 28,205 +38,655

I_ _ .-

Source: As in Annex Table 5A. - Gh.103 -

Annex Table SC: LIFETIME IN-MIGRANTS BY REGION OF ORIGIN, OUT-MIGRANTS BY REGION OF DESTINATION, AND NET LIFETIME STREAMS OF MIGRATION, EASTERN REGION, 1960

REGION OF ORIGIN . LIFFTIVCI LIFETIME NE' LIFETIME AND DESTIITATION S X 1IN-MIGR1lTS OUT-MIGRALTS MIGRATICN

!iESTEMRSi M 21,404 22,068 - 664 F 20.401 17,570 +2,831

GR.ITER ACCRA M 12,899 .30,p18 +17,289 F 13,151 28,614 -15,463

VOLTA MI 27,233 7,117 +20,116 F 24,530 6,935 +17,595

ASHA"TI M 9,139 23,986 -14,847 F 7,159 23,166 -16,007

BRUG-AHAF0 M 909 6,798 - 5,889 F 600 5,597 - 4,997

NORTHERN M 13,986 2,284 +11,702 F 6,163 1,770 + 4,393

TOTAL M 85,570 92,441 - 6,871 F 72,004 83,652 -11,648

Source: As in Annex Table 5A. - Gh.104 -

Annex Table SD: LIFETIME IN-MIGRANTS BY REGION OF ORIGIN, OUT-MIGRANTS BY REGION OF DESTINATION, AND NET LIFETIME STREAMS OF MIGRATION, VOLTA REGION, 1960

R2GI0N OF ORIGIN _ 1LIFETIME LIFPTIEh PTET LIFIIDIME AND DESTINATION S IN-KIGRANTS OUT IGRANTS MIGR TION..

rESTERN M 1,825 12,291 -10,466 F 1,669 9,691 - 8,022

GREATER ACCRA M 2,279 16,682 -14,403 F 2,090 14,243 -12,153

EASSIRN M 7,117 27,233 -20,116 F 6,935 24,530 -17,595

ASHANTI M 1,848 9,138 - 7,290 F 1,598 7,360 - 5,762

BRONG-AHAFO 11 380 3,753 - 3-373 F 361 3,142 - 2,781

NORTHERN M 8,602 4,728 + 3,874 F 7,339 3,704 + 3,635

TOTAL M 22,051 73,825 -51,774 F 19,992 62,670 -42,678

Source: As in Annex Table 5A. - Gh.105 -

Annex Table 5E: LIFETIME IN-MIGRANTS BY REGION OR ORIGIN, OUT-MIGRANTS BY REGION OF DESTINATICN, AND NET LIFETIME STREAMS OF MIGRATION, ASHANTI REGION, 1960

R&GICN OF ORIGIK s E x LIFETIME LIFETINE YET I IFETIME AND DESTIliATION Il-4¶IGFL TTS CUT-MIGRAYITS IMIGRATICN

-WESTORN M 23,792 15,698 + 8,094 F 24,124 11,713 +12,411

GREATER ACCRA M 4,363 7,518 - 3,155 F 3,977 4,713 - 736

±7RSIT M 23,986 9,139 +14,647 F 23,166 7,159 +16,007

VOLTA M 9,138 1,848 + 7,290 F 7,360 1,598 + 5,762

BRO1YG-AHAPO M 8,2U2 20,996 -12,794 F 8,013 18,755 -10,742

EiCRTHERN M 46,152 5,308 +40,644 F ! 22,793 4,058 +18,735

TOTAL N 115,633 60,507 +55,126 F 89,433 47,996 +41,437

Source: As in Table 5A. - Gh.106 -

Annex Table 5F: LIFETIME IN-MIGRANTS BY REGION OF ORIGIN, OUT-MIGRANTS BY REGION OF DESTINATION, AND NET LIFETIME STREAMS OF MIGRATION, BRONG-AHAFO REGION, 1960.

REGION OF ORIGINI s TEx LIFETIME LIFETIME NLT LIFJTIME AND DESTINATION 1I1T-MIGRI.liTS OUT-MIGRI.NTS MIGRLTION

dESTERK M 5,325 1,259 + 4,066 F 4,393 828 + 3,565

GRETER ACCRA M 1,677 80_ + 874 F 1,490 375 + 1,115

EASTERN M 6,798 909 + 5t889 F 5,597 600 + 4,997

VOLTA M 3,753 380 + 3,373 F 3,142 361 + 2,781

ASHANTI M 20,996 8,202 +12,794 F 18,755 8,013 +10,742

NORTHERN M 25,172 1,413 +23,759 F 12,202 1,238 +10,964

TOTAL M 63,721 12,966 +50,755 F 45,579 11,415 +34,164

Source: As in Annex Table 5A. - Gh.107 -

Annex Table 5G: LIEYIME 3N-JIIGRANT6 BY RDION OF ORIG11N OUT-MIGROE; BY REGION OF DEBTINATIDN AND NET LnPiTIF E STREA OF MIGRATIDN, NORTERMN RIEGION, 196

HJION OF ORIG: LIN EM IIM 3IME N LImDD1} AND DE;TItNATION SE MIXGRAN OOUTJlMIGRANTS MIGRATION

M 29638 212976 - 20,338 1 19954 10,649 8,695

GRFaTM ACCRA | N 1,645 8,440 6,795 7 1,366 4,9686 -3932)

N 2,1284 13,i986 - 11,70? | 1,770 6,163 _ 4, 393

V x 4,728 8i602 - 3,874 VOIJIA F 3,704 7,339 _ 3,635

ASSNS!I 1 N 5,308 46, 152 - 404844 p 4,058 2.2,793 -189735

BRONGWAHAVO M 1,413 250172 - 23,759 BF~~NG-.ANA~ P 1,238 12,2-02 - 1,964

TOTAL M 18,016 125,328 -107,312 7 14,090 63.832 -49,742

Source: As in Annex Table 5A. - Gh.108 -

Anye,c Table 6A: LIMIME IMIGRATS BY REGION OF ORIGIN, OUT-MIGRANIS BY REION OF DSTINATION AND NET LIEINE STRJWA1f OF MIGRATION, TERN REGION, 190-

"'RErTON OF ORIGIN S LIErI'IE LIFIME NEI-LIFIE AND DESTINATIW IN-vMIGRAS OUT-MIGRAMff MIGRATION

ORATE ACR 4 11,434 44,835 -33,401 ' 91371 41,158 - 31,787

ERSTERN M 35,722 25,593 + 10 129 B' 29,016 24,915 + 4,101

VOLTA M 17i737 3,465 + 14,272 X 14,538 3,287 + 11,251

ASHAI 1M 32,889 30,526 + 2,363 P 24,512 31,783 - *,271

BRONGAHM 14 6,901 7,712 - 1 BROW3 ANLEO | BM | 4,973 6,608 - 1,635

NORTHEM m~1 24,348 5t959 + 18,389 p 11,984 4,961 + 7,023

MOTAL M 129,031 118,090 + 10,941 F 94,394 112,712 - 18,318

Source: Ghana. Census Office, 1972. 1970 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. III, Accra: Census Office, Table C 9. - Gh.lO9 -

Annex Table 6B: LIFETIME IN-MIGRANTS BY REGION OF ORIGIN, OUT-MIGRANTS BY REGION OF DESTINATION AND NET LIFETIME STREAMS OF MIGRATION, GREATER ACCRA REGION, 1970

REGION OF ORIGIN LIFETIME LI2lrIME NET LIFETIME AND DESTINATION IN-_IGRANTS OUT-I1GRANTS MIGRATION

t!ESTER (INCLUDING M 44,835 11,434 4- 33,401 CENTRAL) F 41,158 9,371 + 31,787

64t938 17,464 + 47,474 F 63,734 16,906 + 46,828

VOLTA M 40,447 4,596 + 35,851 F 36,932 4,512 + 32,420

M 21,957 6,297 + 15,660 P 16,102 5,798 + 10,304

BRONG-AHIAO M 3,344 2,272 + 1,072 F 2,285 2,086 + 199

NORT1ERN (INCLUDRNG M 15,350 3,290 + 12,060 UPPER) P 8,539 2,786 + 5,753

ALL REGIONS MI 190,871 45,353 + 145,518 P 168,750 41,459 + 127,291

Source: As in Annex Table 6A. - Gh.11O -

Annex Table 6C: LIFETIME IN-MIGRANTS BY REGION OF ORIGIN,OUT-MIGRANTS BY REGION OF DESTINATION AND NET LIFETIME STREAMS OF MIGRATION, EASTERN REGION, 1970

Pt= Ox OE)0 LyIM'rIF LIFMIMU N;'T LIFE1IM3 ANDMM XlS!E IN-MIGRANTS OU'MIGRANTS MIGRATION

Wes-tern N 25,593 35,722 - 10,129 p 24t915 29,016 - 4,101

Greater Acora MYP 16,90617,464 63,73464,938 - 46,82847,474

Volta x 37,431 11,634 4 25,797 Volta t 34,168 11,627 + 22,541

Ashanti lt 13,954 30,236 - 16,282 ylPs n 11,701 29,649 - 17,948

Brong Ahafo | 21699 10,462 - 7,763 F 2,289 9,115 - 6,826

Northern M 12,135 4,841 + 7,294 NorternP 61608 4,034 + 2,074

TOTAL M j 109 276 157,833 - 48,557 IOTALP 96087 147,175 - 51,08

Source: As in Annex Table 6A. - Gh.lll -

Annex Table 6D: LIFETIME IN-MIGRANTS BY REGION OF ORIGIN, OUT-MIGRANTS BY REGION OF DESTINATION AND NET LIFETIME STREAMS OF MIGRATION, VOLTA REGION, 1970

R3:ION OF ORIGIM LIEMI LIPMINE NET LIFETIME AND DESTINATION I-MIGRANT OUT11MIGRJOTT IVGRATION .~ . ~ - . - S_ -

Western M 3t465 17,737 - 14,272 F 3,287 14,538 - 11,251

Greater Aoora M 4,596 40,447 35,851 F 4,512 36,932 -32t420

Bastern 14 11j634 37,431 - 25,797 P 11,627 34,168 - 22,541

Ashanti M 3,710 13,535 - 9,825 F 3,503 10,968 - 7.465

Brong hafo 14 1M115 9307 - 8 192 F 1,088 7,545 -6,457

Northern M 11,344 9,407 + 1,937 F 10,876 7,831 + 3,045

[OTAL I1 35,864 127,864 - 92,000 F 34,893 111,982 - 77,089

Source: As in Annex Table 6A. - Gh.112 -

Annex Table 6E: LIFETIME IN-MIGRANTS BY REGION OF ORIGIN, OUT-MIGRANTS BY REGION OF DESTINATION AND NET LIFETIME STREAMS OF MIGRATION, ASHANTI REGION, 1970

Rl3ION OF ORIGIN SEK L IISDE LIFETI0 N: LIIETfl AND DBSTATION IN-.I.RANTS OUTIoMGRANT0 MIGRATION

Di 301526 32,889 -2,363 Western F 31,783 24,512 + 7,271

M 6,297 21,957 - 15,660 Greater Acora M 5,798 16,102 _ 10,304

Eastern M 30,236 13,954 + 16,282 SaY 29,649 11,701 + 17,948

+ Volta M Volta 10,96813,535 3,5033,710 + 7,4659,825

Brong Ahafo 15,882 30,576 - 14,694 F ~~16,138 28,684 -12,546

Northern M 58,941 12,882 + 46,059 F 34,225 11,106 + 23,119

TOTAL M 155,417 115,968 + 39,449 F 128,561 95,608 + 32,953

Source: As in Annex Table 6A. - Gh.113 -

Annex Table 6F: LIFETIME IN-MIGRANTS BY REGION OF ORIGIN, OUT-MIGRANTS BY REGION OF DESTINATION AND NET LIFETIME STREAMS OF MIGRATION, BRONG AHAFO REGION, 1970

RBGION OF ORIGIUT IlI * FT NLT L=INI AND DSTINATION SI 1-IGRANT OUT-MIGRANTS MIGRATION

Western I 1 7Y712 69901 + 811 NesternS | 61608} l 4,973 + 1,635

Greater hAMcra 2,272 3j344 - 1,072 P J 2,086 2,285 - 199

Eastern MMI 10,462 2,699 + 7t763 ; 9,115 2,289 + 6,826

Volta N~M 9,307 1i115 + 8,192 F 7,545 1.088 t 6,457

Ah nt30,576 15,832 + 14,694 Dshantl| 1d28,684 16t138 + 12,546

Northern 4M 43,354 4i584 + 38t770 NorherF? ; 25,092- 4,224 : + 20,868

OTAL M 103,683 34,525 + 69,158 FLL X 79,130 30,997 + 48,133

Source: As in Annex Table 6A. - Gh.114 -

Annex Table 6G: LIFETIME IN-MIGRANTS BY REGION OF ORIGIN, OUT-MIGRANTS BY REGION OF DESTINATION AND NET LIFETIME STREAMS OF MIGRATION, NORTHERN REGION, 1970

RGICN OF ORIGIN LIMETIKE LIFETDKE MET LIRETDMI AND DSTINATILSE IN-MIGRANTS OU¶LMIGRANTS MIGRATI(W

wentem M 5,959 24j348 - 18j389 Westerc F 4,961 11,984 - 7,023

Greater Aoora F | 3 290 15,350 - 12,06O ' 2,786 8,539 - 5,753

Eastern 1 4j841 12j135 - 7,294 aF 4,034 6,108 - 2,(74

Volta 4M 9407 11,344 - 1,937 1 7,831 10,876 - 3FC45

Ashan-ti M 12j882 58,941 - 46,059 F 119,1Q6 34,225 - 23,119

Brng Ahafo 14 4,584 43354 - 38,770 F 4,224 25,092 - 20,868

IOTAL x 40j963 165,472 - 124,509 p 34,942 96,824 - 61,882

Source: As in Annex Table 6A. Annex Table 7: TOTAL POPULATION IN 1960 AND 1970 OF EACH LOCALITY DEFINED AS TOWN IN 1970 WHATEVER ITS STATUS IN 1960, BY REGION

Vlhethler Wrhether town or not town or not Region and in 1960 Population in: Region and in 1960 Popul-ation inT mame of town Yes/No 1970 1960 name of town Yes/No 1970 1960

1, WESTERN 207,343 166,936 _2_ CENTRAL 258,636 221,351

Half-Assini No 5,429 4,575 Komenda No 5t966 41261 Axim Yes 8,107 5,619 Elmina Yes 11,.1 1 8,534 Kwasimitsim Yes 9t747 6,333 Cape Coast Yes 51,653 41,230 Takoradi Yes 58,161 41,089 Moree Yes lO,o86 7,634 Sekondi Yes 33,713 34,513 Anomabo Yes 5,931 5 1 23 Effie-Kuma Yes 20, 182 10,167 Saltpond Yes 11,849 9,869 Shama Yes 7,739 6,918 Bisease Yes 7 ,451 7,542 Prestea Yes 15,143 13,246 Odoben No 5, 101 4,723 Tarkwa Yes 14,702 13,545 Bralca No 5,499 4,064 Samreboi No 7,151 49514 Asikuma Yes 6,948 5,356 Asankrangua Yes 6,571 5 , 497 Foso Yes 7,249 5,284 Sefwi-Wiawso No 59558 40430 Mumford Yes 8,566 8,666 Bibiani Yes 9,691 12 942 Apam Yes 8,903 8,728 Awaso No 5,449 3,548 Winneba Yes 30,778 25,376 Senya-Breku Yes 91921 7,984 Bewjiase Yes 6,183 5,723 Bobikuma No 5,097 4,726 Abodom Yes 5,195 5,O85 Kwanyako Yes 6,648 6,694 Swedru Yes 21,522 18,293 Nyakrom Yes 11,252 13, 467 Dunkwa Yes 15,437 12,689

(continued) Annex Table 7, continued.

Whether * I hether town or not I to.tn or not Region and in 1960 Poo at:cnt no 3 ReL, on and in 1960 PopLlatiori irn nane of town Yes/No 1970 i960 6 najnl of to-.n Yes/No 1970 1960

3.GREATER ACCRA 726,553 392,274 a, El;STERN 310,073 235,832

Madina No 7,480 - Oda Yes 20,957 '19666 Accra Yes 564,19 4 337,828 Akroso Yes 5,741 5,398 Teshie Yes 39,382 19,823 Achiasi Yes 8,466 9,760 Nungua Yes 13,839 7,o68 Swedlru Yes 6,037 6,881 Tema Yes 60,767 14,937 Akwatia Yes 12,177 12,592 Tema New Town Yes 13,176 7,662 Kade Yes 61627 6,274 Ashiaman No 22,549 2,624 Asamankese Yes 16,905 16,718 Old Dingo No 5,166 2,332 Nsawam Yes 25,518 20,2ZP Aburi No 71656 4,715 MJamnpong No 5,818 3,731 '3. VOLTA 151,096 116,556 Larteh Yes 6,725 6,381 Anloga Yes 14,032 11,038 Akropong Yes 7 , 426 5,606 Tegbi Yes 6,628 5,924 Koforidua Yes 4,235 34,356 Afiadenyigba No 5,424 41920 Effiduase No 6,207 3,604 Dzelukope Yes 5,153 5,511 Somanya Yes 9,326 9,258 Keta Yes 14,446 16,719 Odumase No 6,343 4,519 Aflao Yes 11,397 7,439 Asesewa No 6,111 4,282 Dzodze Yes 10,390 5,776 Akosombo No 7,716 52 Ho Yes 24,199 15,519 Suhwn Yes 12,421 10,193 Kpedze No 5,062 4,576 Kukurantumi Yes 6,o67 5,o61 Peki Yes 8,054 5,154 Kibi Yes 5,S 08 5,069 Hohoe Yes 14,775 9,502 New Tafo Yes 11,114 10,557 Kpandu Yes 12,842 8,070 Begoro Yes 11,043 9,289 Jasikan No 6,403 4,989 Nkawkaw Yes 23,219 15t627 Kadjebi Yes 7,194 7 , 491 Obo No 5,328 3,983 Kete-Krachi No 5,097 3,928 14praeso Yes 5j908 5,193 Bepong No 5,265 4,178 .______ll______- - I ~kwatia No 6,285 49826 Abetifi No 6,024 4t973

(continued) Annex Table 7, continued.

W4hether Wlhether town or not town or not Region and in 1960 Population in: Rcgion and in 1960 Population in: name of town Yes/No 1970 1960 name of town Yes/No 1970 1960

6. ASHANTI 440,526 3032038 7. BRONG-AHAFO 169,072 119,519

Juaben No 5,018 3,426 Mim Yes 9,630 6,805 Kumasi Yes 260o,286 180 642 Goaso No 5,001 3,454 Old Tafo Yes 33,661 10,909 Bechem Yes 7,770 5501 Bckwai Yes 11,287 9,093 Techimantia Yes 7,207 5,583 Obuasi Yes 31,005 22,813 Yamfo No 59474 4,264 Konongo Yes 10,881 10,771 Duayaw-Nkwanta Yes 6,585 5,576 Odumasi Yes 5,209 5,540 Chiraa Yes 7,355 5,672 Agogo Yes 14,710 10,356 Sunyani Yes 23,780 12,160 Mampong Yes 13,895 7,943 Nsoatre Yes 8,467 6,262 Effiduasi Yes 6,967 6,213 Jinjini NJo 6,164 4,288 Kumawu No 6,670 4t,962 Berekum Yes 14,296 11 ,1488 Wiamoase . No 6,185 4,843 Wamfie No 6,025 4,963 Sekodumasi No 5,075 4,710 Dormaa-Ahenkro Yes 8t959 7,107 Ejura Yes 10,664 7,078 Wenchi Yes 13,836 10,672 Nkenkaso No 5,007 31483 Techiman Yes 12,o68 8,722 Akumadan No 7,310 41847 Nkoranza Yes 7,191 6,250 Teppa Yes 6,696 5,409 Kintampo No 7,149 4,678 Qttebubu No 6,630 4,216 Yeji No 5,485 2,198

(continued) Annex Table 7, continued.

WNhether .wn or not town or not town or not RThgion and in 1960 Population in: Region and in 1960 Population in: name of town Yes/No 1970 1960 name of town Yes/N*o 19'f0 1960

8. NTO-:LTIMN 141,8,320 86,i450 9. UPPEm 60,837 32,576

Damongo Yes 7 760 6,575 l.a Yes 21,374 14 3.',2 Salaga No 6,413 4,199 Bolgatanga Yes 18,896 5,515 Bimbilla N1o 8,o68 4,1214 Bawku Yes 20 ,567 12,719 Yendi Yes 22,072 16,096 Savel ugu Yes 989 5 5 9 49 Tamale Yes 83,653 z),443 lKumbugu IJo 5,157 4,481 Walewale No 5, 32 4,493

Sources: Ghana. Census Office, 1961. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. II, Accra: Census Office; Tables D; Ghana. Census Office, 1972. 1970 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. II, Accra: Census Office, Tables E. - Gh.119 -

Annex Table 8: TOTAL URBAN AND RURAL POPULATION BY REGION, 1948, 1960 AND 1970

P O P U L A T I O N Region 1948 1960 1970 Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban_Rural

Western 80,037 297,989 154,612 471,543 207,343 562,744

Central 91,574 391,311 210,411 540,981 258,636 631,499

Greater Accra 138,439 83,175 393,383 98,434 726,553 125,061

Eastern 64,564 602,778 220,765 873,431 310,073 951,588

Volta 22,863 473,094 102,101 675,184 151,096 796,172

Ashanti 80,897 498,575 276,772 832,361 440,526 1,041,172

Brong-Ahafo 5,378 241,391 91,t491 496,429 169,072 597,437

Northern 29,122 351,966 69,063 462,510 148,320 579,298

Upper 12,044 646,151 32,576 724,768 60,837 801,886

ALL REGIONS 524,918 3,586,430 1,551,174 5,175,641 2,472,456 6,086,857

Source: Ghana. Census Office, 1962a. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. I, Accra: Census Office, Table 1; Ghana. Census Office, 1973. 1970 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. I, Accra: Census Office, Table 2. - Gh.120 -

Annex Table 9: SELECTED INDUSTRIES OF EMPLOYED IMMIGRANTS AND THE TOTAL POPULATION, 1960

Il M A L E S F E M A L E S I Immigrants Total | Immigrants Total | Industries Population [ Population|

I 1. All Industries I 268,028 1,567,965 I 62,945 491,418 |

| 2. Agriculture, forestry, hunting and fishing I 127,813 1,002,300 I 19,104 579,031

| 3. Agriculture I 115,806 888,907 | 18,848 573,253 |

5. Tea and coffee plantation | 2,782 14,525 | 591 8,641 |

I 6. Cocoa growing I 59,494 372,769 I 7,452 148,873 I

7. Livestock production I 2,338 5,870 I 83 661 |

8. Agricultural services I 3,962 30,530 I 31 562 |

| 9. Forestry | 1,063 10,215 | 96 1,221 |

10. Logging | 3,438 11,501 | 21 118 |

11. Hunting, trapping and game | | propagation | 267 1,307 1 23

| 12. Fishing | 939 53,970 | 24 3,193 |

| 13. Mining and quarrying | 19,379 45,628 | 751 2,593 |

| 14. Metal mining | 6,453 25,159 | 27 194 |

I 15. Diamond mining | 11,856 18,405 | 646 1,692 |

| 16. Manufacturing | 20,401 135,198 | 5,406 98,749 |

(Continued) - Gh.121 -

Annex Table 9, (Continued):

M A L E S F E M A L E S I Immigrants Total | Immigrants Total | Industries I Population | Population|

17. Food manufacturing indus- | I tries (except beverage If industries) I 4,009 10,008 I 1,554 26,154

| 22. Manufacture of textiles I 895 12,326 | 331 1,428 |

| 23. Manufacture of footwear; other wearing apparel and made-up textile goods 1 5,708 35,087 1 1,498 46,886

| 26. Manufacture of wood and I cork (except manufacture I of furniture) | 2,334 14,326 I 43 362 |

| 27. Manufacture of furniture | and fixtures I 3,124 26,864 | 17 177 |

(Continued) - Gh.122 -

Annex Table 9, (Continued):

M A L E S F E M A L E S I | Immigrants Total | Immigrants Total I Industries j Population ( Populationi

I 28. Manufacture of chemicals and chemical products | (mainly palm oil soap and | related products) I 159 818 | 1,070 7,107 |

| 29. Manufacture of non-metallicI I mineral products (mainly I I clay products), except pro-I | ducts of petroleum and I coal i 195 624 I 130 8,118

| 30. Manufacture of metal pro- I ducts (except machinery and transport equipment) I 623 7,644 i 5 60 |

| 31. Manufacture of transport I equipment I 1,419 12,168 I 10 73

32. Miscellaneous manufactur- I ing industries (mainly | jewellery, clock and watch I I repairing, metal and | rubber stamp making, and I I I signs and advertising I | I displays making) I 842 8,924 I 22 1,365 I

| 33. Construction j 18,946 86,022 I 206 2,631 |

| 34. Electricity, gas, water | and sanitary services I 2,994 14,015 | 17 174

I 35. Commerce | 40,988 95,798 I 33,767 275,333 I

I 36. Wholesale trade I 5,281 16,163 | 82 356 I

| 37. Retail trade | 35,274 77,508 j 33,668 274,742 |

(Continued) - Gh.123 -

Annex Table 9, (Continued):

39. Petty trading, hawking and | peddling I 27,481 50,073 I 33,353 272,052

40. Retail trade of motor | vehicles and spare parts I 592 1,231 I 7 33 |

I 41. Banks and other financial | institutions - 433 1,694 | 17 190 |

| 42. Transport, storage and | communication I 10,311 66,749 | 77 1,074 |

| 43. Transport | 8,512 59,081 | 54 518 |

| 44. Railway transport I 2,566 10,499 I 22 131 |

I 45. Passenger trucks and | "mammy" lorries including | I small passenger buses I 2,758 38,314 I 6 154

46. Services incidental to I I transport; Storage and I I warehousing; Communication I I | (telephone, telegraph and wireless) I 1,799 7,668 | 23 556

| 47. Services I 27,196 122,255 | 3,617 31,833 |

48. Government services I 6,778 42,174 I 132 1,831 |

}I I I

(Continued) - Gh.124 -

Annex Table 9, (Continued):

M A L E S F E M A L E S I Immigrants Total I Immigrants Total Industries I Population | Population|

49. Central government- I I | | administrating I departments I 1,421 5,907 I 82 791

| 50. Defense, incl. army, navy | and air force (except police) I 1,695 6,915 I 17 57

I 51. Justice, police and prisonsl 1,386 9,379 1 16 150 1

52. Local government (admini- | stration) j 2,276 16,232 I 17 440

I 53. Community services I 7,405 49,575 I 821 13,374 I

54. Education services | 2,940 28,774 I 401 6,889 |

55. Medical and other health | services (excluding all sanitary services) I 2,596 12,079 I 279 4,216

| 56. Religious organisations | 1,381 5,166 | 125 1,774 |

| 57. Business services I 869 4,275 I 25 159 |

| 58. Recreation services | 680 3,228 | 13 182 |

59. Personal services | 11,464 23,003 | 2,626 16,287 |

| 60. Domestic service | 2,889 7,812 | 432 4,511 |

Source: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1964a. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. IV, Accra: Census Office, Tables 3 and 17. - Gh.125 -

Annex Table 10: SELECTED OCCUPATIONS OF EMPLOYED IMMIGRANTS AND THE TOTAL POPULATION, 1960 1/

M A L E S F E M A L E S I Immigrants Total | Immigrants Total Occupation Population | Populationl

1. All occupations | 268,028 1,567,965 | 62,945 991,418 |

2. Professional, technical | and related workers I 5,881 48,175 | 722 11,830 |

| 3. Architects, engineers and | I surveyors I 1,228 2,542 I 6 20

I 4. Professional medical workers not elsewhere | specified and medical | technicians I 1,499 6,400 | 34 755

| 5. Teachers I 1,284 20,902 | 354 5,739 |

| 6. Administrative, executive | | and managerial workers I 3,452 12,939 I 157 415 |

I 7. Clerical workers I 2,240 40,160 I 188 3,188 I

| 8. Sales workers j 32,117 67,909 | 33,974 277,696 I

| 9. Working proprietors (whole | sale trade) j 2,810 6,295 | 78 287

| 10. Working proprietors (retaill | trade), street vendors and I newsvendors I 27,272 51,498 I 33,466 229,206

| 11. Farmers, fishermen, | hunters, loggers and | related workers I 126,977 986,193 | 18,859 577,340

| 12. Farmers and farm managers | 73,940 808,328 | 16,395 566,873 |

| 13. Farmers and farm managers | | (foodstuffs) I 39,512 462,730 I 9,404 385,499

(Continued)

1/ Persons aged 15 years and over. - Gh.126 -

Annex Table 10, (Continued):

M A L E S F E M A L E S Immigrants Total | Immigrants Total Occupation J Population | Population|

| 14. Farmers and farm managers | I (cocoa) I 29,446 313,922 I 5,663 143,234

| 15. Farmers and farm managers | | n.e.s. (other crops) | 2,197 5,484 | 78 642

I 16. Farm workers and agricul- | | tural labourers not else- | where specified I 47,893 104,992 I 2,377 6,698 i

| 17. Hunters and related workersl 3,678 19,083 | 60 984 |

| 18. Loggers | 2,882 7,876 | 12 55 |

19. Miners, quarrymen and I | related workers | 15,757 32,050 | 656 1,757 |

I 20. Diamond diggers | 7,514 10,874 I 335 892 I

| 21. Mine labourers (mainly I unskilled) I 6,370 15,184 I 105 238

I 22. Workers in transport and i communication occupations I 4,699 50,022 | 36 1,313 |

23. Drivers (road transport) | 2,433 38,977 | 11 143 |

I 24. Craftsmen, production | | process workers and | labourers not elsewhere I classified I 61,257 291,316 | 5,850 101,762

| 25. Tailors, cutters, furriers | I and related workers I 5,376 29,701 I 1,503 48,061

26. Toolmakers, machinists, I plumbers, welders, platers I and related workers I 2,816 23,811 I 10 125

(Continued) - Gh.127 -

Annex Table 10, (Continued):

Il M A L E S F E M A LE S I I Immigrants Total | Immigrants Total I Occupation I Population I Populationi I I I | 27. Carpenters, joiners, I | cabinet-makers, coopers I I I I and related workers I 5,697 49,602 I 27 260 | I 28. Painters and paperhangers I 1,094 5,739 I 5 39 |

| 31. Oil-makers I 24 251 I 1,213 5,878 |

I 32. Butchers and meat cutters | 3,027 5,806 | 18 93 |

| 33. Longshoremen and related | freight handlers I 4,085 14,928 | 19 197

| 36. Fire fighters, policemen guards and related workers | 8,129 20,574 27 117

I 37. Policemen and detectives I 1,589 9,308 | 8 60 |

38. Housekeepers, cooks, maids | and related workers I 3,349 9,181 | 929 9,783 |

Source: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1964a. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. IV, Accra: Census Office, Tables 7 and 19. - Gh.128 -

Annex Table 11: PERCENT DISTRIBUTION OF MIGRANTS AND NON-MIGRANTS BY MAJOR INDUSTRIAL GROUPS, 1960 AND 19701/

1960 1970 Intra- Inter- Intra- Inter- Non- Regional Regional Non- Regional Regional Industry Migrant Migrants Migrants Migrant Migrants Migrants

Agriculture 71.9 62.7 44.2 66.4 59.0 39.8 Mining 0.3 1.3 4.0 0.3 0.8 2.1 Manufacturing 8.2 10.7 11.2 10.5 12.6 14.8 Construction 2.2 2.8 6.7 1.7 1.6 3.9 Utilities 0.2 0.5 1.4 0.2 0.3 0.8 Commerce 12.5 13.4 15.4 13.4 13.7 15.9 Transport 1.9 2.9 4.2 1.9 2.3 4.1 Services 3.0 5.7 12.8 5.6 9.7 18.6 ALL INDUSTRIES 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

M A L E S

Agriculture 78.2 62.9 46.6 72.8 59.4 41.6 Mining 0.4 2.7 5.4 0.5 1.4 3.1 Manufacturing 7.7 10.4 9.9 8.2 9.7 12.5 Construction 3.5 5.1 9.1 3.1 3.3 5.6 Utilities 0.4 0.8 1.9 0.4 0.6 1.2 Commerce 2.7 4.9 6.8 2.6 3.4 5.4 Transport 3.4 5.4 5.7 3.7 4.8 6.2 Services 3.8 8.3 14.6 8.8 17.3 24.3 ALL INDUSTRIES 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

F E M A L E S

Agriculture 63.8 62.5 38.0 59.7 58.6 36.5 Mining 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 Manufacruring 8.6 11.0 14.7 13.0 15.2 18.9 Construction 0.2 0.3 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.3 Utilities ------Commerce 25.2 23.2 37.9 24.6 22.7 35.4 Transport 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.4 Services 2.0 2.7 8.2 2.4 3.1 8.3 ALL INDUSTRIES 100.0 100.0 100.0. 100.0 100.0 100.0

1/ Persons aged 15 years and over. Notes: "-" indicates less than .05 percentage. Totals mav not sum to exactly 100.0 due to rounding.

Sources: Derived from Ghana. Census Office, 1962b. Population Census of Ghana, Advance Report of Vols. III and IV, Accra: Census Office, table 39; Ghana. Census Office, forthcoming. 1970 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. IV, Accra: Census Office (forthcoming). - Gh.129 -

Annex Table 12: PERCENT DISTRIBUTION OF MIGRANTS AND NON-MIGRANTS BY MAJOR OCCUPATIONAL CATEGORIES, 1960 1/

Rural- Rural- Urban- Urban- Non- Rural Urban Rural Urban Occupation Migrants Migrants Migrants Migrants Migrants

Professional, Technical, etc. 1.4 3.0 5.9 6.0 7.7 Administrative, Management 0.4 0.3 1.3 0.7 2.4 Clerical workers 1.0 0.7 6.3 1.7 8.9 Sales workers 14.2 8.0 24.3 11.0 25.6 Farmers, etc. 63.5 72.7 13.9 55.0 6.7 Mining, etc. 1.1 0.4 2.7 1.1 1.9 Transport, Communication 1.8 1.3 6.5 2.8 7.7 Craftsmen 13.3 11.9 30.3 18.3 30.1 Service 1.7 1.0 6.1 1.7 5.7 Others 1.6 0.7 2.7 1.3 3.4 TOTAL 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

M A L E S

Professional, Technical 2.0 5.3 7.5 8.4 8.8 Administrative, Management 0.6 0.5 1.9 1.1 3.5 Clerical workers 0.2 1.3 9.3 2.6 12.4 Sales workers 4.1 1.4 7.3 2.2 6.5 Farmers 67.1 70.6 12.5 55.4 8.3 Mining 1.6 0.7 4.1 1.7 2.7 Transport, Communication- 3.1 2.6 9.9 4.4 11.2 Craftsmen 16.0 15.3 36.9 20.6 35.7 Services 2.3 1.4 7.7 2.2 7.4 Others 1.7 1.0 3.0 1.4 3.6 TOTAL 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

F E M A L E S

Professional, Technical 0.7 0.6 3.0 1.8 5.7 Administrative, Management 0.1 - 0.3 - 0.3 Clerical 0.2 - 0.8 - 2.4 Sales 28.6 14.9 54.9 26.1 60.4 Farmers 58.4 74.9 16.4 55.5 3.9 Mining 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.5 Transport, Communication 0.1 - 0.4 0.1 1.3 Craftsmen 9.4 8.4 18.5 14.4 19.9 Services 0.8 0.6 3.2 0.9 2.8 Others 1.3 0.4 2.2 1.1 3.0 TOTAL 100.0 100.,0 100.0 100.0 100.0

1/ Persons aged 15 years and over.

Source: Derived from Ghana. Census Office 1971. 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Vol. VI. Accra: Census Office, Table H44.

MIGRATION IN SIERRA LEONE

Chike S. Okoye

Prepared as part of the World Bank/Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development Research Project: "Demographic Aspects of Migration in West Africa."

World Bank Development Economics Department Population and Human Resources Division Washington, D.C.

MIGRATION IN SIERRA LEONE

by Chike S. Okoye 1/

Table of Contents

Page No.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...... *...*e..** 1-5

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ...... e.... 6

CHAPTER II. INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION ...... 7

CHAPTER III. INTERNAL MIGRATION o ...... 26

ANNEX I: Some Aspects of Migration in the Western Area of Sierra Leone by E. K. Campbell 1/ ...... 41

1/ Editing and additions by Bonnie L. Newlon. - ii -

List of Mans

Page No.

Map 1. Sierra Leone. Foreign Nationals in Sierra Leone by Country of Origin, 1963 ...... 9

Map 2. Sierra Leone. Migration Streams to the Western Area from the Districts, 1975 ...... 35 List of Tables

Page No.

Table 1. Population of Sierra Leone Classified According to Nationals and Non-Nationals, 1963 and 1974 ...... 7

Table 2. Non-National Population by Country of Origin and Sex 1963 ...... o...... *..... o...... 8

Table 3. Foreign Population of Sierra Leone, 1963 and 1974 .... 10

Table 4. Officially Recorded Departures and Arrivals, 1975 .... 11

Table 5. Percentage of Total Foreign Population by District, 1963 and 1974 ...... 13

Table 6. Nationality of Population for Localities of 2,000 or More Inhabitants, 1963 ...... 14-16

Table 7. Regional Distribution of Non-African Foreigners, 1963 ...... 18

Table 8. Regional Distribution of Non-Sierra Leonean Africans, 1963 ...... o...... o...... o.o...... 19

Table 9. Age and Sex Distribution of Non-Nationals, 1963 ...... 20

Table 10. Age and Sex Distributions of Non-Nationals, 1974 ..... 21

Table 11. Estimation of Inter-Censal Immigration by Projection on Non-National Population, 1964 - 1974 ...... 23

Table 12. Percentage Distribution of Non-National Population by Age and School Attendance, 1974 ...... 25

Table 13. Indigenous Population of Sierra Leone by Administrative Areas, 1963 and 1974 ...... 27

Table 14. Chiefdoms Having 3 Percent or More Average Annual Growth Rates, 1963 - 1974 .....00...... *...... 28

Table 15. Place of Birth of Indigenous Population by District, 1963 's...... 30

Table 16. Chiefdoms with the Lowest Percentage of Indigenous Population Born in the Chiefdom of Enumeration, 1963 . 31

Table 17. Chiefdoms Having Negative Inter-Censal Growth Rates, 1963 - 1974 ...... 32 - iv -

List of Tables, Continued

PaRe No.

Table 18. Percentage Distribution of Sample Indigenous Household Heads by Districts of Enumeration and Origin, 1974 .... 33

Table 19. Distribution of Migrant Sample Household Heads Accord- ing to Occupation before Migration, 1974 ...... 36

Table 20. Working Population by Major Industry Group, 1963 and 197.4 ...... *...... **...... 37

Table 21. Distribution of Localities by Size, 1963 and 1974 ..... 39

Table 22. Localities with Population 5,000 and Over in the 1974 Census ...... *o.* .o.* .... 40 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

International Migration

Although limited data are available from which estimates of the volume and direction of emigration and immigration may be made, it appears that neither stream is of great magnitude in relation to the total population. The volume of emigration each year is probably less than that of immigration. Reference to censuses of other West African countries indicates that the number of emigrants from Sierra Leone is small. Data from the 1963 census of Sierra Leone and unpublished tabulations from the 1974 census indicate that lifetime immigrants composed 2.7 percent of the total population in 1963 (59,482), and 2.9 percent in 1974 (79,414).

The growth rate for the national population was 1.9 percent per annum over the intercensal years, and 2.5 percent for non-nationals. It appears that the foreign population is growing at a faster rate than the national population as a result of increasing immigration.

A large majority of immigrants were of African origin (87 percent in 1963 and 85 percent in 1974), with the greatest number coming from the neighbouring country of Guinea (about 31,000 in 1963) as a result of its internal political problems. Liberia, also having a common border with Sierra Leone, provided the next largest number of immigrants. Nigeria, Ghana, and the Gambia followed, all former members of the British Commonwealth, and sharing with Sierra Leone accomodating immigration rules and a lingua franca.

Among non-African immigrants, the Lebanese were the most prevalent (3,102 in 1963), followed by United Kingdom nationals (2,360), a reflection of economic links dating from the colonial period.

The sex ratio (males per 100 females) of immigrants was high. Among African immigrants in 1963, it ranged from 95 for Liberians to 216 for Nigerians, averaging 170. Among non-African immigrants, it ranged from 110 for United States nationals to 371 for Indians, averaging 153. These high sex ratios reflect the economic nature of most immigration.

Between 1963 and 1974, the non-African immigrant population grew at a faster rate than the African immigrant population (4.1 percent as opposed to 2.2 percent). The major source of the increase--whether immigration or natural increase--cannot be determined; however, border statistics indicate that the net gain from arrivals and departures was highest for the Lebanese. It is possible that the bulk of growth in the non-African population is composed of Lebanese natives.

- S.L. 1 - - S.L. 2 -

The modal age of immigrants is between 25-29, with 44 percent of immigrants aged between 20-39 years; the sex ratio of these ages is 192, indicative of the influx of young working males. From 1963 to 1974, the immigrant population became relatively younger; the percentage aged 0-14 increased from 21 to 29.

Most immigrants have been attracted to the Western Area of Sierra Leone, which contains Freetown, the capital city. In 1974, 27 percent of African immigrants and 37 percent of non-African immigrants resided there. The other major areas of attraction have been the diamond mining districts of the east and south, and to a lesser extent other mining and urban centers throughout the country. There was some variation in this general pattern of immigrant settlement by country of origin. For instance, Ghanaians settled near the beach fisheries, avoiding the interior; while the Lebanese and Syrians scattered throughout the country fairly evenly, carrying their wholesale and retail trade businesses to areas of high consumer demand.

The African immigrants were largely uneducated, with estimates of their illiteracy at 85 percent. Non-African immigrants showed a higher level of school attendance, with an estimate of only 22 percent illiterate.

The educational attainment of the immigrants was reflected in their occupational distribution: African immigrants were found mainly in diamond mining, petty trading, and in the trades. Non-African immigrants were found mainly in professional, technical and related fields, except for the Lebanese and Syrians, who worked mainly in commercial enterprises.

The future of immigration to Sierra Leone is related not only to the country's economic prospects, but also to the changing political situation in neighboring countries--the latter a possibly important factor in the immigration of Guineans. Concerning the former, it might be noted that diamond exports are expected to decrease in coming years; in 1974 it was estimated that exports would dwindle from 1.4 million carats that year to 700,000 in 1980. As the diamond fields are depleted, their continued mining will be based on world diamond prices and the return which might be expected from mining deposits of lower grade and at a deeper level. However, Sierra Leone has other mineral potential, some of which is being mined (as rutile and bauxite). The country's full mineral potential has yet to be assessed. In addition, there are rich fish resources, excellent soil and climatic conditions for agricultural development, and a large untapped hydroelectric potential (World Bank estimates). It is possible that Sierra Leone's future development will continue to attract immigrants in search of economic opportunity, regardless of the presence of the "get rich quick" draw of the diamond fields.

Internal Migration

If one assumes that the net effect of the movement of the indigenous population in and out of the country is negligible and that there are no differences in vital rates between administrative districts, their growth - S.L. 3 -

rate over the intercensal period (1963-74) is the net result of internal migration. The national growth rate was 1.9 percent per annum over the period, thus areas with a higher growth rate would be those having net gain due to in-migration. Two major nodes attracted internal migrants (as well as immigrants): the diamond mining district of Kono in the Eastern Province and the Western Area (having growth rates of 5.7 and 4.4 percent per annum, respectively). All of the other 12 districts had growth rates under 1.9 percent indicating that they may have lost population to the two major nodes. Analy- zing data on chiefdoms of birth and enumeration in 1963, the diamond mining districts of Kono and Kenema again emerged as major destination nodes. These data on migration between chiefdoms also indicated the importance of short distance moves within districts; the more economically developed chiefdoms within districts received migrants from surrounding chiefdoms.

Data on the intercensal growth rate (1963-74) of chiefdoms indicated that a number of them experienced population declines, which may have been due to out-migration. Migrants may have left chiefdoms in the Kenema and Bo districts and headed for the diamond fields. Other chiefdoms with negative growth rates were located in the districts of Pujehun, Bonthe, Bombali, Kambia, and Moyamba.

The Western Area--having the capital city, Freetown, and the Western Rural Area--attracted migrants from all the other districts. A 1974 survey indicated that only 46 percent of household heads in the Western Area had been born there. The majority of in-migrants came from the neighboring districts of Port Loko, Moyambi, Bombali, and Kambia. A 1975 Survey found that over 80 percent of in-migrants to the Western Area went to the city as opposed to the rural area surrounding it.

The population of Sierra Leone is predominantly rural with only 21 percent living in urban areas (defined as settlements with 5,000 or more people). Most migrations have been rural-urban in type. Over the intercensal period (1963-74), urbanized localities having 5,000 or more population gained in number and size, while localities having less than 5,000 population decreased in number (from 18,544 to 2,030). Freetown alone more than doubled in size over the period (from 128,000 to 276,000) due to a boundary change, although its annual growth rate, standardizing for the boundary change, was a generous 4.9 percent.

A 1975 survey in the Western Area found that 62 percent of in-migrants were of rural origin. In Freetown itself, 65 percent of the migrants were of rural origin; while the Rural Area attracted slightly more migrants from urban than rural areas (52 percent) due to its proximity to Freetown (67 percent of its in-migrants came from the city).

There is evidence of step-wise migration occurring in Sierra Leone from the 1975 Western Area Survey. Most migrations to the Western Area were of a single-stage type (80 percent). Twenty percent were dual-stage. Most dual-stage migration resulted from people moving from Freetown to the Western Rural Area (61 percent). However, there was evidence that the greater the I. INTRODUCTION

There are limited data available on the volume, rate, and trend of migration in Sierra Leone. Vital events are recorded in some parts of the country but the extent of coverage varies from place to place. While compulsory registration is supposed to operate in the Western Area and some specific chiefdoms in the Northern, Southern and Eastern Provinces, registration of vital events is optional in other areas of the country. Conse- quently the birth and death statistics from these registers are not representative of vital rates for the whole country and, as such, are of little use in the estimation of migratory movements.

Some migration data are collected at international frontiers, mainly as by-products of the administrative operations of frontier control. However, in addition to the limitations of frontier control data as a source of migration statistics, the heavy illegal traffic at the land frontiers, especially between Sierra Leone and the Republic of Guinea, indicates that such data cover only a small proportion of actual migratory movements.

Population census data and sample survey results remain the only reliable sources of information on migration. The two recent censuses conducted in Sierra Leone included questions on birth place and nationality (namely, the 1963 and 1974 population censues). 1/ A majority of the tables presented in this report are based on the 1963 population census results. Although the 1974 census data are still being processed, the data on nationality of the 1974 Sierra Leone population by age were extracted from the unfinished tabulations through the kind permission of the Director of the Central Statistics Office, Freetown. These data, however, are not yet official and may be subject to future corrections. At the time of writing, the data on birth place had not yet been processed.

Most of the demographic surveys so far undertaken in Sierra Leone have been confined to the capital city, Freetown, and the Western Rural Area. The only country-wide survey which included questions on migration was the 1974 Sierra Leone Study to Determine the Needs and Priorities of Children, Youth and Women. 2/ Reference will be made here to the results of this survey, as well as a demographic survey which focused on the Western Area of Sierra Leone. This latter survey was conducted in 1975 through the joint sponsorship of the United Nations and the Population Dynamics Programme, with the assistance of Fourah Bay College and the Sierra Leone Central Statistics Office.

1/ Colonial censuses often gave tabulations by birthplace, but they were of dubious quality.

2/ See C. S. Okoye, n.d. Statistical Report of the Sierra Leone Country- Wide Survey 1974, Freetown: Fourah Bay College.

- - S.L. 6 - II. INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

There are no data available from censuses or registration schemes which indicate the volume or direction of emigration from Sierra Leone. When the results of the 1974 census become available, some trends may be determin- able. However, looking at the results of censuses from other West African countries, as discussed in other papers in this series, it does not appear that a large volume of emigration is occurring, even to neighboring countries or those having a common language; probably the outflow is less than the number of immigrants, which measured less than 3 percent of the total population in 1974 (79,414).

Information on life-time immigration can be derived from results of the 1963 census and unpublished data from the 1974 census, however. Table 1 shows the number of non-Sierra Leonean residents at the time of the censuses. Foreigners or non-nationals, represented 2.7 percent of the total population in 1963. By 1974 the percentage of non-nationals had risen slightly (by 0.2 percent) to 2.9 percent. This increase would result from 1) a net gain in arrivals over departures from 1963 - 74, if any; and/or 2) a higher rate of natural increase of non-nationals over nationals during the interval, if any. The average annual rate of growth for the national population between 1963 and 1974 was 1.9 percent compared to 2.5 percent for non-nationals.

Origin of International Migrants

The distribution by nationality and sex of the Non-Sierra Leonean population in 1963 is shown in Table 2 and Map 1. More than 87 percent of all foreigners in Sierra Leone were of African origin, mostly from the neighboring country Guinea. The Guineans constituted more than half of all the non-national residents in 1963. Their preponderance in Sierra Leone stems from the economic and political problems besetting Guinea since its

Table 1: POPULATION OF SIERRA LEONE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO NATIONALS AND NON-NATIONALS, 1963 AND 1974

Total Non-Nationals as % Date Population Nationals Non-Nationals of Total Population

1963 2,180,355 2,120,873 59,482 2.7

1974 2,735,159 2,655,745 79,414 2.9

Sources: Sierra Leone. Central Statistics Office, 1965. 1963 Population Census of Sierra Leone, Vol. II, Freetown: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting; Sierra Leone. Central Statistics Office, n.d. Unpublished data from 1974 Population Census of Sierra Leone.

- S.L. 7 - - S.L. 8 -

Table 2: NON-NATIONAL POPULATION BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN AND SEX, 1963

Nationality Male Female Total Foreign Percentage of Total Population Foreign Population

Gambia 1,721 802 2,523 4.2

Ghana 2,059 1,360 3,419 5.7

Guinea 20,037 10,634 30,671 51.6

Liberia 4,043 4,243 8,286 13.9

Nigeria 3,807 1,766 5,573 9.4

Other African Countries 960 441 1,401 2.4

Subtotal 32,628 19,246 51,873 87.2

France 107 55 162 0.3

Germany 42 23 65 0.1

India 219 59 278 0.5

Lebanon 1,789 1,313 3,102 5.2

Switzerland 59 20 79 0.1

Syria 111 88 199 0.3

U. K. 1,390 970 2,360 4.0

U. S. A. 225 204 429 0.7

Other Non-African Countries 665 270 935 1.6

Subtotal 4,607 3,002 7,609 12.8

TOTAL 37,234 22,248 59,482 100.0

Source: Central Statistics Office, 1965. 1963 Population Census of Sierra Leone, Vol. II, Freetown: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Table 6. U P P E R v* L T I GHANA itV POPULATION DENSITY

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- S.L. 10 -

independence. Sierra Leone, having a common border with Guinea in the north- western, northern, and northeastern parts of the country, and facing fewer economic and political problems, offers economic opportunities to Guineans.

Other countries of origin of African migrants included Liberia and the former British colonies of Nigeria, Ghana, and Gambia. The existence of a "lingua franca" and accommodating immigration rules for members of the British Commonwealth facilitated their migration. 1/

Among migrants of non-African origin, the Lebanese were the most predominant, followed by citizens of the United Kingdom which still main- tains a strong economic link with its former colony.

Data processed from the 1974 population census include a classification of the foreign population into two broad groups, African and non- African foreign population. Information as to their country of origin is not yet available. The distribution of foreign population in Sierra Leone in 1963 and 1974 by these two broad groups is shown in Table 3.

Table 3: FOREIGN POPULATION OF SIERRA LEONE, 1963 AND 1974

Implied Average Annual Population Group 1963 1974 Growth Rate (percentage)

African Origin 51,873 67,164 2.2

Non-African Origin 7,609 12,250 4.1

Total Foreign Population 59,482 79,414 2.5

Sources: Derived from 1963 and 1974 censues as cited in Table 1.

Although the size of the foreign population of non-African origin was small, the implied average annual rate of growth over the period 1963-74 was almost twice as much as that of the foreign population of African origin, as noted above. The major source of increase for the non-African foreign population cannot be determined from the data, but Table 4 showing officially recorded departures and arrivals in 1975 indicates that the net gain from arrivals and departures of immigrants was highest for the Lebanese. If these figures are representative of past trends, they suggest that the bulk of increase in the non-African foreign population during the intercensal period was composed of Lebanese.

1/ M. E. Harvey, 1975. "The Nature and Movement of Population", in J.C. Caldwell, (ed.), Population Growth and Socio-Economic Change in West Africa, New York: Columbia University Press, p. 460. - S.L. 11 -

Table 4: OFFICIALLY RECORDED DEPARTURES AND ARRIVALS, 1975

Net Gain From Nationality Arrivals Departures Arrivals & Departures

AFRICAN

Sierra Leone 8,904 8,521 383

Guinea 2,262 2,667 -405

Gambia 1,588 2,135 -547

Nigeria 1,483 1,844 -361

Liberia 914 908 6

Ghana 894 808 86

Mali 842 912 -70

Senegal 542 654 -112

Other Africans 825 893 -68

NORTH AMERICAN

United States 1,885 1,966 -81

Canada, Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad 495 514 -19

SOUTH AMERICAN 54 53 1

ASIAN

Lebanon 2,352 1,659 693

India 578 598 -20

China 302 171 131

Other Asians 755 825 -70

OCEANIAN 73 68 5

EUROPEAN

United Kingdom 5,084 5,253 -169

Other Europeans 3,964 4,089 -125

ALL COUNTRIES 33,796 34,538 -742 Source: Sierra Leone. Central Statistics Office, n.d. Unpublished data on departures and arrivals, 1975. - S.L. 12 -

However, these data do not necessarily cover all the departures and arrivals for 1975. The degree of coverage is best for arrivals and departures by air, and to some extent by sea. A large proportion of population movement by land between Sierra Leone and the neighboring countries is not recorded because some of those arriving or departing do not use the highways where customs points are established, but rather take the bush trails where they are not subject to any frontier control.

The data suggest that a majority of migrants to Sierra Leone are of African origin, mainly coming from the neighboring countries of Guinea and Liberia, and the former British colonies of West Africa. The migrants of non-African origin constitute a small proportion of total immigrants (less than 15 percent). Among these, the Lebanese appear to be the most predominent.

Destination of International Migrants

The proportion of non-nationals residing in various areas at the time of the census gives an indication of the relative attractiveness of these areas to international migrants. The percentage of total foreign population residents in the 14 districts of the country during the 1963 and 1974 censuses is shown in Table 5.

Western Area, containing the capital city Freetown, is the most economically developed of the 14 districts and attracted the greatest number of international migrants. While less than 12 percent of the total native population reside in Western Area, more than 28 percent of the total foreign population were enumerated there in the 1963 and 1974 censuses. This percentage is even higher if migrants of non-African origin are included. Other areas of attraction for migrants included the diamond mining districts of Kono and Kenema. In Kono District, the percentage of total foreign population increased from 9.9 percent in 1963 to 26.1 percent in 1974. A sizeable percentage of the total foreign population were also enumerated in the Kailahun, Bo, and Koinadugu Districts. The least attractive districts for the foreign population appear to have been Bonthe, Tonkolili, Pujehun, and Sherbro Urban.

The population of localities over 2,000 in the 1963 census are classified according to nationals and non-nationals in Table 6. The percentage of foreign nationals is highest in localities situated in the diamond mining districts of Kono and Kenema. These localities include Koidu Town and Yamandu in Kono District, and Barma, Blama, Hangha, and Boajibu in Kenema District. The capital city, Freetown, and some localities on its periphery (Wilberforce and Goderich), also attract migrants. Wilber- force is on a high point of the peninsula and has a pleasant environment; it constitutes an attractive residential area for most of the diplomats and expatriates. In the 1974 census, some of these localities on the outskirts of Central Freetown (such as Wilberforce, Kissy, and Wellington) were no longer regarded as separate localities but as part of the capital city, Greater Freetown. Table 5: PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL FOREIGN POPULATION BY DISTRICT, 1963 AND 1974

------1963 1974 ---- …______

District Total Foreign Foreigners of Foreigners of Total Foreign Foreigners of Foreigners of Population African Origin Non-African Origin Population African Origin Non-African Origin

Bo 8.4 8.2 9.8 4.8 4.3 7.5

Bonthe 0.9 1.0 0.5 0.8 0.6 1.5

Moyamba 3.7 3.7 3.4 2.3 2.0 3.6

Pujehun 1.6 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.0 1.5

Sherbro Urban 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.4

Kailahun 11.4 12.6 3.2 8.2 9.3 2.4

Kenema 11.7 12.1 8.5 11.6 12.5 7.3

Kono 9.9 10.2 7.2 26.1 _28.5 12.9

Bombali 4.8 5.0 3.4 2.6 1.8 7.4

Kambia 3.6 3.9 1.9 1.3 1.0 2.7

Koinadugu 8.9 10.0 1.6 8.3 9.1 3.8

Port Loko 5.5 5.1 8.3 2.0 1.2 6.4

Tonkolili 1.3 1.1 2.8 1.4 0.6 5.6

Western Area 28.1 25.3 47.0 28.5 27.0 37.0

Sierra Leone 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Sources: Sierra Leone. Central Statistics Office, 1965. 1963 Population Census of Sierra Leone, Vol. II, Freetown: Ministry of Informatin and Broadcasting; Sierra Leone, Central Statistical Office, n.d. Unpublished data from the 1974 Population Census of Sierra Leone. - S.L. 14 _

Table 6: NATIONALITY OF POPULATION FOR LOCALITIES OF 2,000 OR MORE INHABITANTS, 1963

Total Non- Percent Locality Population Nationals Nationals Foreign Population

Freetown 127,917 115,594 12,323 9.6

Bo Town 26,613 24,910 1,703 6.4

Kenema 13,246 12,628 618 4.7

Kissy 13,143 12,729 414 3.1

Makeni 12,304 11,853 451 3.7

Lunsar 12,132 11,778 354 2.9

Koidu Town 11,706 10,165 1,541 13.2

Yengema 7,313 6,932 381 5.2

Wilberforce 6,950 5,972 978 14.1

Magburaka 6,371 6,178 193 3.0

Segbwema 6,258 5,889 369 5.9

Bonthe 6,230 6,100 130 2.1

Jaiama Town 6,064 5,792 272 4.5

Port Loko 5,809 5,596 213 3.7

Yormandu 5,469 5,194 275 5.0

Kailahun 5,419 5,186 233 4.3

Barma 5,280 4,268 1,012 19.2

Blama 5,073 4,502 571 11.3

Wellington 4,958 4,859 99 2.0

Peyima 4,625 4,336 289 6.2

Kabala 4,610 4,361 249 5.4

Moyamba 4,564 4,379 185 4.1

Murray Town 4,395 4,053 342 7.8

(Continued) - S.L. 15 -

Table 6, Continued

Total Non- Percent Locality Population Nationals Nationals Foreign Population

Boajibu 4,334 3,864 470 10.8

Rokupr 4,157 3,999 152 3.7

Pepel 3,793 3,596 197 5.2

Kambia-Magbema 3,700 3,624 76 2.1

Jaiama-Nimikoro 3,616 3,444 172 4.8

Mambolo 3,595 3,554 41 1.1

Kamakwie 3,572 3,210 362 10.1

Rotifunk 3,520 3,448 72 2.0

Fomaya 3,385 3,146 239 7.1

Waterloo Village 3,215 3,111 104 3.2

Koidu-Tandoro 2,601 2,515 88 3.4

Panguma 3,100 3,019 81 2.6

Sukudu 3,097 3,051 46 1.5

Hastings 3,022 2,935 87 2.9

Tumbodu 2,955 2,890 65 2.2

Largo 2,940 2,837 103 3.5

Yamandu 2,910 2,572 338 11.6

Mattru 2,909 2,815 94 3.2

Hangha 2,895 2,556 339 11.7

Gondama 2,861 2,721 140 4.9

Tombo 2,837 2,821 16 0.6

Baoma-Baoma 2,725 2,478 247 9.1

Pendembu 2,696 2,450 246 9.1 - S.L. 16 -

Table 6, Continued

Total Non- Percent Locality Population Nationals Nationals Foreign Population

Kasiri 2,585 2,387 198 7.7

Forndu 2,559 2,404 155 6.1

Sedu 2,507 2,419 88 3.5

Masingbi 2,425 2,326 99 4.1

Mano 2,286 2,144 142 6.2

Gerehun 2,266 2,122 144 6.4

Ganorhun 2,207 2,046 161 7.3

Lungi 2,170 2,054 116 5.3

Koindu-Kissi-Teng 2,130 1,280 850 4.0

Alikalia 2,118 2,114 4 0.2

Kukuna 2,038 1,993 45 2.2

Goderich 2,034 1,735 299 14.7

Pujehun 2,034 1,983 51 2.5

Lumley 2,015 1,836 179 8.9

Source: Sierra Leone. Central Statistics Office, 1965. 1963 Population Census of Sierra Leone, Vol. II, Freetown: Ministry of Information and Broad- casting. - S.L. 17 -

Tables 7 and 8 distribute the foreign population regionally, by country of birth based on 1963 census data. While the general patterns are similar to those described above, there are some variations by nationality. Non-African immigrants reside largely in the metropolitan Western Area; fully two-thirds of this portion of the foreign population live around Greater Freetown, excluding the Lebano-Syrians. Another large proportion of this group live as employees or dependents in the mining company compounds of the East and South. The small remaining balance are scattered throughout the country in missions, on projects as voluntary workers or providing technical assistance aid, and as technical employees of the Sierra Leone government. United States citizens are particularly widely distributed. Almost four-fifths of all the non-African foreigners are in settlements locally regarded as urban (see Mitchell, 1971, Table 8). The non-African immigrants of Lebano-Syrian background are more evenly distributed throughout the country. They show a high mobility in response to economic forces; increasingly, they have moved their wholesale and retail distribution businesses to mining areas where the demand for consumer goods is high.

Immigrants of African origin are distributed mainly in the country's areas of high economic activity: the alluvial diamond fields of the East and South, the Western metropolitan area, and to some extent, in other scattered mining and urban centers. This pattern has varied by nationality; for instance, Ghanaians (now repatriated) have settled near the beach fisheries, avoiding the interior of the country (Mitchell, 1971).

Characteristics of International Migrants

Age and Sex Distribution

Age and sex distributions of the non-national population of Sierra Leone in 1963 are given in Table 9. The predominance of males among immigrants is evident from an overall sex ratio of 167 males per hundred females. The modal age of immigrants is between 25 and 29 years. The selectivity among immigrants by age and sex is even more pronounced in the ages 20-39, accounting for more than 44 percent of all migrants in 1963 and having a sex ratio of 192 males per 100 females.

The distribution of non-nationals by sex and age in 1974 is shown in Table 10. As is typical of most migrant populations, the distribution bulges in the ages 20 - 39, indicating a predominance of young adults, especially males. However, a comparison of the age distributions for 1963 and 1974 indicates a younger immigrant population has settled in Sierra Leone over the intercensal period. In 1963, 21 percent of all non-nationals were less than 15 years of age; by 1974, 29 percent were less than 15 -ears of age. The increase in non-nationals over the interval appears to have been highest in the age groups 0 - 4, 5 - 9, and 10 - 14. - S.L. 18 -

Table 7: REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF NON-AFRICAN FOREIGNERS, 19631/

South East North West % Total

French 9.9 10.5 4.9 74.7 100.0 162

German 4.6 9.2 6.2 80.0 100.0 65

Indian 13.0 10.1 6.8 70.1 100.0 278

Lebano-Syrian 25.6 26.8 23.0 24.6 100.0 3,301

Swiss 17.7 16.5 3.8 62.0 100.0 79

British 5.6 14.5 13.5 66.4 100.0 2,360

U. S. Citizens 20.7 10.3 21.4 47.6 100.0 429

Other non-African 10.0 12.3 16.9 60.8 100.0 984

Non-African 16.1 19.0 17.9 47.0 100.0 7,658

1/ Note that Mitchell's count of non-African non-nationals in Sierra Leone in 1963 is 7,658 as opposed to 7,609 given in Table 2 based on the 1963 census. His count for "other non-Africans" of 984 exceeds the count in Table 2 by 49 persons, accounting for the difference.

Source: Peter K. Mitchell, 1971. "Numbers, Location and Demographic Charac- teristics of Immigrants in Sierra Leone, An Exploitation of the 1963 Census Data", in Population in African Development, Pierre Cantrelle et al., (eds.), Liege: Ordina Editions for IUSSP, pp.129-140, Table 7. - S. L. 19-

Table 8: REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF NON-SIERRA LEONEAN AFRICANS, 19631'

South East North West %Total

Guinea 15.3 33.8 37.0 13.8 100.0 30,671

Liberia 10.7 38.5 0.6 50.2 100.0 8,286

Nigeria 13.6 38.1 3.8 44.5 100.0 5,573

Ghana 18.4 3.8 32.5 45.3 100.0 3,419

Gambia 20.4 60.5 3.5 15.6 100.0 2,523

Others 11.2 55.0 13.5 20.3 100.0 1,352

Total 14.7 34.9 25.1 25.3 100.0 51,824

1/ Note that Mitchell's count of African non-nationals in Sierra Leone in 1963 is 51,824 as opposed to 51,873 given in Table 2 based on the 1963 census. His count for "others" of 1,352 is 49 persons less than that shown for, ".other Africans"~in Table 2, accounting for the difference.

Source: Peter K. Mitchell, 1971. "Numbers, Location and Demographic Charac- teristics of Immigrants in Sierra Leone, An Exploitation of the 1963- Census Data", in Population in African Development. Pierre Cantrelle et al., (eds.), Liege: Ordina Editions for IUSSP, pp.129-140, Table 9. - S.L. 20 -

Table 9: AGE AND SEX DISTRIBUTIONS OF NON-NATIONALS, 1963

Percentage Distribution

Age Total Male Female Total Male Female

0 - 4 5,665 2,911 2,754 9.5 7.8 12.4

5 - 9 4,005 1,928 2,077 6.7 5.2 9.4

10 - 14 2,543 1,290 1,253 4.3 3.5 5.6

15 - 19 4,373 2,187 2,186 7.4 5.9 9.8

20 - 24 6,400 3,655 2,745 10.8 9.8 12.3

25 - 29 8,059 5,430 2,629 13.6 14.6 11.8

30 - 34 6,767 4,516 2,251 11.4 12.1 10.1

35 - 39 5,307 3,831 1,476 8.9 10.3 6.6

40 - 44 4,230 2,990 1,240 7.1 8.0 5.6

45 - 49 3,049 2,242 807 5.1 6.0 3.6

50 - 54 2,517 1,760 757 4.2 4.7 3.4

55 - 59 1,479 1,062 417 2.5 2.9 1.9

60 - 64 1,682 1,152 530 2.8 3.1 2.4

65 and over 3,406 2,280 1,126 5.7 6.1 5.1

ALL AGES 59,482 37,234 22,248 100.0 100.0 100.0

Source: Sierra Leone. Central Statistics Office, 1965. 1963 Population Census of Sierra Leone, Vol. II, Freetown: Central Statistics Office, Table 4. _ S.. 21 _

Table 10: AGE AND SEX DISTRIBUTIONS OF NON-NATIONALS, 1974

Percentage Distribution ______Age Total Male Female Total Male Female

0 - 4 10,585 5,438 5,147 13.3 11.3 16.6

5 - 9 7,242 3,506 3,736 9.1 7.2 12.0

10 - 14 5,176 2,653 2,523 6.5 5.5 8.1

15 - 19 8,315 3,904 4,411 10.5 8.1 14.2

20 - 24 9,960 5,693 4,267 12.5 11.8 13.7

25 - 29 10,589 7,112 3,477 13.3 14.7 11.2

30 - 34 7,162 5,039 2,123 9.0 10.4 6.8

35 - 39 5,821 4,366 1,455 7.3 9.0 4.7

40 - 44 4,234 3,156 1,078 5.3 6.5 3.5

45 - 49 2,955 2,264 691 3.7 4.7 2.2

50 - 54 2,066 1,527 539 2.6 3.1 1.7

55 - 59 1,335 994 341 1.7 2.1 1.1

60 - 64 1,341 910 431 1.7 1.9 1.4

65 and over 2,633 1,774 859 3.4 3.7 2.8

ALL AGES 79,414 48,336 31,078 100.0 100.0 100.0

Source: Sierra Leone. Central Statistics Office, n.d. Unpublished data from 1974 Population Census of Sierra Leone. - S.L. 22 -

Place of birth statistics are available only from the 1963 census. Thus, an estimation of net migration by cohorts based on comparable data from the 1963 and 1974 censuses was not possible. However, statistics on nationality of the population by sex and age are available from the 1963 and 1974 censuses. These data will be used to estimate net immigration by age and sex during the intercensal period. As the interval between the two censuses was 11.69 years, the non-national population by age and sex in 1963 was projected 1/ to December 8, 1964, in order to use 10-year survival rates. The estimated survivors of non-nationals from 1964 and the estimated immigration between 1964 and 1974 by age and sex are shown in Table 11. Foreign nationals who immigrated to Sierra Leone between the censuses but left the country or died before the 1974 census would be missed by this method of estimation. Similarly, naturalization of some members of the 1964 foreign population during the inter-censal period would tend to cause an under- statement of intercensal immigration. Any misreporting of nationality during the two censuses would also affect the results, but there was no reason to suggest this occurred. Finally, the number of children born in Sierra Leone to non-nationals during the intercensal period would tend to inflate the estimated number of immigrants. This probably accounts for the large number of estimated immigrants in the age group 0 - 9 (1974). A large proportion of these children, though non-nationals, were born in Sierra Leone during the intercensal period and did not change their usual place of residence.

Considering these limitations and their net-effect on the results, a total number of 32,000 immigrants (20,000 males and 12,000 females) during the intercensal period seems plausible. This would yield an immigration of about 2,700 per annum. A majority of these immigrants were in the 15 - 34 age group.

Occupational Distribution of International Migrants

Occupational distribution may be discussed by country of origin of the migrants. 2/ Those migrating from Europe, North America, and China have usually been classified as professional, technical and related workers. They are found in the fields of engineering, teaching, and religion, and in the physical, agricultural, and social sciences.

1/ An annual growth rate of 2.5 percent was assumed for the non-national population. The estimated population for December 8, 1974, was distributed by sex and age in the same proportion as those observed in the April 1, 1963, census.

2/ E.R.A. Forde, 1971. "Urbanization: Medium for Diffusion in Sierra Leone," Sierra Leone Geographical Journal 15:38; M. F. Harvey, 1975. "The Nature and Movement of the Population," in J. C. Caldwell, (ed.), Population Growth and Socio-Economic Change in West Africa, New York: Columbia University Press, p. 460. - S.L. 23 -

Table 11: ESTIMATION OF INTER-CENSAL IMMIGRATION BY PROJECTION OF NON-NATIONAL POPULATION, 1964 - 1974

1964 1974 Non-National Estimated Population Projected Survivors of Enumerated Estimated Non-National Non-Nationals In 1974 Immigrants Sex Age Population Age From 1964 Census 1964-74

O - 9 - 8,944 8,944

0 - 4 2,960 10 - 14 2,618 2,653 35

5 - 9 1,960 15 - 19 1,854 3,904 2,050

10 - 14 1,312 20 - 24 1,227 5,693 4,466

15 - 24 5,941 25 - 34 5,409 12,151 6,742

Male 25 - 34 10,113 35 - 44 8,987 7,522 -1,465

35 - 44 6,936 45 - 54 5,830 3,791 -2,039

45 and over 8,639 55 and over 4,953 3,678 -1,275

Total 37,861 Total 30,878 48,336 17,458 ------__------__------0 - 9 - 8,883 8,883

0 - 4 2,800 10 - 14 2,475 2,523 48

5 - 9 2,112 15 - 19 1,989 4,411 2,422

10 - 14 1,274 20 - 24 1,185 4,267 3,082

15 - 24 5,014 25 - 34 4,536 5,600 1,064 Female 25 - 34 4,962 35 - 44 4,400 2,533 -1,867

35 - 44 2,762 45 - 54 2,376 1,230 -1,146

45 and over 3,699 55 and over 2,213 1,631 - 582

Total 22,623 Total 19,174 31,078 11,904

Sources: Derived from 1963 and 1974 censuses, as cited in Table 1. - S.L. 24 -

Migrants from Asia, the Lebanese, Syrians, and Pakistanis, have engaged primarily in commercial activities, controlling the bulk of wholesale and distributive trade in the country. A number of Lebanese and Syrians are associated with diamond mining, especially in the Kono and Kenema districts. Among the migrants from Pakistan and India, a sizeable number can be found in the teaching and educational fields.

A majority of the migrants of African origin are found in petty trading and alluvial diamond mining, although some are also working as bakers, tailors (Guineans), and fishermen (Ghanians).

Some writers have suggested that the contribution of many foreign workers to the national economy has been negative--in the sense that the arrival of large numbers of unskilled workers results in competition with nationals for jobs, and the relative incomes of the latter may tend to decline as a result. In addition, some foreign workers have reaped economic benefits illegally in the country as in the case of diamond smuggling. On the other hand, the arrival of skilled immigrants may be an asset to the economy, as they bring with them ideas, methods, and techniques which may benefit the country. An example of the latter are Guinean immigrants working as auto mechanics and dressmakers, providing skills which are scarce among Sierra Leoneans (Makannah, 1975).

Educational Characteristics of International Migrants

A classification of non-nationals (1974 census) by age and school attendance gives some indication of the educational level of immigrants, at least as regards their level of literacy (Table 12). More than 88 percent of the non-nationals of African origin in the age group 20 - 44 have never attended school. This strongly confirms the view that a majority of the migrants of African origin are illiterate. However, illiteracy is prevalent among the national population, as well, estimated at 85 percent in 1970 (World Bank estimates). For other non-nationals, the percentage of young adults who have never been to school is much less (18.2 percent for those in the age group 20 - 29). Considering immigrants aged 10 years and over, it would appear that the illiteracy rate is at least as high as 85 percent for those of African origin and 22 percent for other migrants. - S.L. 25 -

Table 12: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF NON-NATIONAL POPULATION BY AGE AND SCHOOL ATTENDANCE, 1974

Non-Nationals of African Origin Other Non-Nationals

Never Never at At Left at At Left Age Total School School School Total School School School

0 - 4 100.0 97.9 2.1 - 100.0 85.6 14.4 -

5 - 9 100.0 64.5 34.9 0.6 100.0 21.9 77.9 0.2

10 - 19 100.0 72.1 21.9 6.0 100.0 15.3 68.2 16.5

20 - 29 100.0 88.7 2.2 9.1 100.0 18.2 4.7 77.1

30 - 44 100.0 89.6 0.5 9.9 100.0 23.6 2.2 74.2

45 and Over 100.0 86.7 0.5 12.8 100.0 29.8 6.4 63.8

10 and Over 100.0 85.0 5.8 9.2 100.0 21.8 17.3 60.9

* These findings are probably daze. to recording and coding errors. Those in the later age groups might be expected to have completed their school attendance, although it is possible some are continuing their education in colleges and universities.

Source: Sierra Leone. Central Statistics Office, n.d. Unpublished data from 1974 Population Census of Sierra Leone. III. INTERNAL MIGRATION

Limited data are available on internal movements of population in Sierra Leone. The major sources include birth place statistics from the 1963 census, the results of a 1974 country-wide survey, and available 1974 census data on the size of certain localities. In addition, detailed data concerning migration to the Western Area, where Freetown is located, are available from a 1975 survey reported on more fully in Annex I.

The Major Destination Nodes

The administrative units which attract internal migrants may be identified by the growth of the native population in various areas over the intercensal period 1963 - 74. Table 13 gives this information, as well as the implied average annual rate of growth. The latter for the indigenous population as a whole was 1.94 percent per annum.

Assuming that the net effect of movement of the indigenous population in and out of Sierra Leone was negligible and that there was no significant variation in the vital rates between administrative districts, the implied rates of growth in Table 13 reflect the net effect of internal movement of population. Districts having an average annual rate of growth higher than that for the total population (1.94), would be those that have gained from internal movement of population. Two major nodes of attraction for in-migrants are evident; i.e., the diamond mining district of Kono and the more economically developed and urbanized region of Western Area, having the capital city, most of the educational institutions, and large commercial and industrial establishments. The high average annual growth rates of 5.65 and 4.36 respectively portray the relative attractiveness of these districts to internal migrants. It would appear that the rest of the districts lost some of their inhabitants to these two administrative districts. Surprisingly, the other diamond mining district of Kenema did not appear to gain much from internal movement of population.

We may also examine internal migration by movement between chiefdoms; i.e., using the chiefdom as a local territorial unit of analysis, it may be found that certain chiefdoms within districts having low intercensal growth rates are destination nodes. Table 14 ranks chiefdoms that had a 3 percent or more average annual rate of growth between 1963 and 1974 (foreign and indigenous population). Of a total of 149 chiefdoms, only 15 recorded an average annual growth rate above 3 percent. Gbense and Nimikoro Chiefdoms in Kono District each had an average annual growth rate of more than 7 percent. Within the diamond mining district of Kenema, which recorded a low intercensal growth rate, Lower Bambara Chiefdom seems to have been a major node of attraction for internal migrants. Bombali Sebora Chiefdom with its headquarters, Makeni Town, also showed a rather high population growth rate that could not be attributed merely to natural increase. Although Bonthe District recorded a rather low intercensal growth rate, one of its chiefdoms (Imperri), constituted an attractive destination probably due to its bauxite and rutile deposits.

- S.L. 26 - - S.L. 27 -

Table 13: INDIGENOUS POPULATION OF SIERRA LEONE BY ADMINISTRATIVE AREAS, 1963 AND 1974

- Implied Average Annual Administrative Area 1963 1974 Growth Rate

Sierra Leone 2,120,873 2,655,745 1.94

Bo District 204,728 213,889 0.37

Bonthe District 72,680 79,984 0.82

Moyamba District 165,240 186,942 1.06

Pujehun Disrict 83,924 101,214 1.62

Sherbro Urban District 6,763 6,804 0.05

Kailahun District 143,476 173,825 1.65

Kenema District 220,500 257,355 1.33

Kono District 162,050 308,238 5.65

Bombali District 195,926 231,588 1.44

Kambia District 135,637 154,305 1.11

Koinadugu District 123,766 152,016 1.77

Port Loko District 244,189 290,685 1.50

Tonkolili District 183,677 205,220 0.95

Western Area 178,317 293,680 4.36

Sources: Derived from Sierra Leone. Central Statistics Office, 1965. 1963 Population Census of Sierra Leone, Vol. II, Freetown: Central Statis- tics Office; Sierra Leone. Central Statistics Office, n.d. Unpublished data from 1974 Population Census of Sierra Leone. - S.L. 28 -

Table 14: CHIEFDOMS HAVING 3 PERCENT OR MORE AVERAGE ANNUAL GROWTH RATES, 1963 - 1974

Implied Average 1963 1974 Annual District of Rank Chiefdom Population Population Growth Rate Location

1 Gbense 19,244 58,061 9.9 Kono

2 Nimikoro 29,063 68,679 7.6 Kono

3. Lower Bambara 30,121 51,905 4.8 Kenema

4. Kamara 15,723 27,274 4.8 Kono

5. Bombali Sebora 22,078 36,657 4.7 Bombali

6. Banta 10,783 18,161 4.6 Moyamba

7. Nimi Yema 16,359 26,883 4.3 Kono

8. Western Area 195,023 316,312 4.2 Western Area

9. Dembelia Sikunia 6,857 11,067 4.2 Koinadugu

10 Sando 33,040 53,077 4.1 Kono

11 Wara Wara Yagala 11,100 17,315 3.9 Koinadugu

12 Malema 6,523 10,052 3.8 Kailahan

13 Mongo 14,799 21,418 3.2 Koinadugu

14 Imperri 6,687 9,486 3.9 Bonthe

15 Fiama 5,038 7,081 3.0 Kono

Sources: Derived from 1963 and 1974 censuses, as cited in Table 13. - S.L. 29 -

An analysis of place-of-birth data for the native population in 1963 by district also indicated the major destination nodes of internal migrants. In Table 15, the indigenous population is classified by district according to percentage born in the chiefdom of enumeration, percentage born in other chiefdoms in the same district of enumeration, and percentage born in a chiefdom outside the district of enumeration. Those districts which attracted the highest percentage of internal migrants had the lowest percentage born in the chiefdom of enumeration, and the highest percentage born outside the district of enumeration. The Western Area, and the diamond mining districts of Kono, Kenema, and Bo again emerged as major destination nodes. Within these districts, the major chiefdoms of attraction are listed in Table 16. The relative importance of short distance migrants in the chiefdoms is evident from the percentage of indigenous population born in other chiefdoms of the same district of enumeration. For instance, the Gbense, Kamara, Tankoro and Nimikoro Chiefdoms in Kono attracted short distance migrants from other chiefdoms in the same districts, perhaps contributing to the unskilled labor force in the local diamond mining industry.

Origin of Internal Migrants

An analysis of intercensal growth rates (1963-74) by chiefdoms (Table 17) indicates that a number experienced a population decline, a phenomenon which may be due primarily to out-migration. It appears that a large proportion of internal migrants came from chiefdoms in the Kenema and Bo Districts (which have rather low district intercensal growth rates, as in Table 13). Some of the out-migrants no doubt returned to their home chiefdoms, having been in-migrants only as a result of diamond mining opportunities. Some chiefdoms in Kenema and Bo saw a decline in such opportunities from 1963-74. In addition, these chiefdoms probably are a source of unskilled labor for the neighboring active diamond fields of the Kono District. This finding tends to support Riddle and Harvey's view that the districts of Bo, Kenema, and Pujehun provide a basis for step-wise migration. 1/ Some out-migrants from the chiefdoms in Bo and Kenema eventually move to the more attractive capital city, Freetown, in search of employment opportunities and "bright lights," instead of settling in the district headquarters. Other major origins of migrants include chiefdoms in the Pujehun, Bonthe, Bombali, Kambia, and Moyamba Districts--notably Mano Sakrim, Bendu Cha, Safroko Limba, Manbolo and Timdel.

Pattern of Inter-District Migration Flows

Among the questions asked of sample household heads during the Sierra Leone 1974 Country-Wide Survey was their district of origin. Table 18 gives a percentage distribution of indigenous household heads by districts of enumeration and origin. 2/ The Western Area containing the capital city,

1/ M. E. Harvey and J. B. Riddle, 1972. "The Urban System in the Migration Process: An Evaluation of Stepwise Migration in Sierra Leone", Economic Geography 48:278.

2/ Sherbro Urban District was not included in the sample of households surveyed. - S.L. 30 -

Table 15: PLACE OF BIRTH OF INDIGENOUS POPULATION BY DISTRICTS, 1963

Percentage Born In Other Percentage Born In Chiefdom But Same Percentage Born Outside District Chiefdom of Enumeration District of Enumeration District of Enumeration

1/ Western Area 47.6 - 52.4

Kono 55.4 15.8 28.8

Kenema 60.4 10.9 28.7

Bo 62.5 13.5 24.0

Moyamba 69.4 12.4 18.2

Bonthe 73.7 11.1 15.2

Pujehun 78.6 9.7 11.7

Kailahun 79.9 9.5 10.6

Port Loko 81.0 10.0 9.0

Tonkolili 83.5 8.9 7.6

Kambia 83.7 9.2 7.1

Bombali 88.3 5.3 6.4

Koinadugu 91.1 4.2 4.0

1/ Western Area (Rural and Urban) is shown here as one chiefdom district.

Source Derived from Sierra Leone. Central Statistics Office, 1965. 1963 Population Census of Sierra Leone, Vol. II, Freetown' Central Statistics Office, Table 2. Table 16: CHIEFDOMS WITH THE LOWEST PERCENTAGE OF INDIGENOUS POPULATION BORN IN THE CHIEFDOM OF ENUMERATION, 1963

Percentage Born In Other Percentage Born In Other Percentage Born In Chiefdom of the Same Chiefdom Outside District Chiefdom Chiefdom of Enumeration District of Enumeration District of Enumeration

Western Area Western Area 47.6 - 52.4

Kono Gbense 40.3 26.0 33.7

Kono Kamara 26.5 32.8 40.7

Kono Nimikoro 43.8 20.9 35.3

Kono Nimi Yema 29.4 9.2 61.4

Kono Tankoro 47.1 24.5 28.4

Kenema Wando 41.4 9.8 48.8

Kenema Simbaru 44.3 11.9 43.8

Kenema Nongowa 46.0 13.8 40.2

Kenema Kandu Lepiama 46.5 15.2 38.3

Kenema Gorama Mende 51.5 8.6 39.9

Bo Kakua 45.5 16.9 37.6

Bo Boama 49.1 15.5 35.4

Source: Derived from Sierra Leone. Central Statistics Office, 1965. 1963 Population Census of Sierra Leone, Vol. II, Freetown: Central Statistics Office, Table.2. - S.L. 32 -

Table 17: CHIEFDOMS HAVING NEGATIVE INTERCENSAL GROWTH RATES, 1963-74

Average Annual District Chiefdom Population Population Growth Rate 1963 1974 (percentage)

KENEMA Wando 16,403 12,440 -2.3 Gorama Mende 25,357 19,837 -2.1 Simbaru 13,895 11,475 -1.5 Kandu Lepiama 12,794 11,650 -0.8 Small Bo 16,998 16,753 -0.1

BO Boama 30,278 22,944 -2.3 Tikonko 22,348 18,393 -1.7 Badjia 4,967 4,415 -1.0 Niawa Lenga 5,976 5,422 -0.8 Gbo 3,099 3,041 -1.2

PUJEHUN Mano Sakrim 2,840 2,473 -1.2 Panga Kabonde 16,560 15,516 -0.6 Peje 4,533 4,236 -0.6 Yakemo Kpukumu Krim 3,398 3,194 -0.5

BONTHE Bendu Cha 3,254 2,901 -1.0 Yawbeko 3,045 2,881 -0.5 Nongoba Bullom 10,134 9,537 -0.5

BOMBALI Safroko Limba 16,6y2 14,485 -1.2 Paki Masabong 11,277 10,542 -0.6 Magbaiamba 6,124 5,773 -0.5

KAMBIA Mambolo 27,514 24,240 -1.1

MOYAMBA Timdel 5,397 4,670 -1.2 Bumpe 26,964 24,774 -0.7 Dasse 10,599 10,025 -0.5

TONKOLILI Kalansogoia 11,365 10,604 -0.6 Kafe Simiria 13,453 12,848 -0.4

Source: Derived from 1963 and 1974 censuses, as cited in Table 13. Table 18: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLE INDIGENOUS HOUSEHOLD HEADS BY DISTRICTS OF ENUMERATION AND ORIGIN, 1974

District of Enumeration District of ------Origin 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13

Bo 01 53.9 9.4 7.5 2.6 5.6 4.4 4.9 - - - 0.8 0.7 3.7

Bonthe 02 2.6 45.3 1.9 3.2 2.8 1.0 - - - 1.2 - - 2.9

Moyamba 03 4.2 17.3 59.0 3.2 2.1 0.5 1.9 - - - 0.8 0.7 9.3

Pujehun 04 6.3 4v0 3.1 79.5 1.4 0.5 1.0 - - - - - 1.7

Kailahun 05 5.7 2.7 1.2 - 76.2 5.4 7.8 - - 1.2 0.8 0.7 2.1

Kenema 06 6.3 1.3 1.9 3.2 2.8 73.4 8.7 - - - - 0.7 2.3

Kono 07 0.5 - 0.6 - - - 28.2 - - 1.2 - - 0.2

Bombali 08 2.1 4.0 4.4 - 1.4 5.9 8.7 87.8 4.3 18.3 4.7 4.3 7.4

Kambia 09 - 2.7 - 0.6 0.7 0.5 3.9 - 93.5- 4.9 5.5 2.8 6.2

Koinadugu 10 2.6 - 0.6 1.9 1.4 5.4 18.9 4.9 - 61.0 0.8 2.2 1.7

Port Loko 11 2.1 8.0 11.8 2.6 0.7 1.5 3.9 3.7 - 4.9 79.6 5.7 13.4

Tonkolili 12 1.6 1.3 3.7 1.9 2.1 0.5 3.9 2.4 - 7.3 3.9 80.8 3.1

Western Area 13 2.1 4.0 4.3 1.3 2.8 1.0 8.7 1.2 2.2 - 3.1 1.4 46.0

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Source: S. C. Okoye, n.d. Statistical Report of the Sierra Leone Country-Wide Survey 1974, Freetown: Fourah Bay College, Table 1.6. - S.L. 34 -

Freetown, attracted internal migrants from all over the country. Only 46 percent of the sample households enumerated there were born in the Western Area. A majority of the migrants originated from Port Loko, Moyamba, Bombali, and Kambia Districts; they are the districts closest to Freetown. The good transport links already existing between these districts and the capital city facilitate migration. A 1975 Multipurpose Demographic Survey of the Western Area confirmed these findings, as shown in Map 2; and its results are presented in Annex I. (See also Campbell, 1976, and Annex Table 3a.)

Other districts which attracted in-migrants included Kono, Kenema, and Bo Districts. The percentage of migrants was highest in Kono District, having only 28 percent of those enumerated originating in the district. A majority of the migrants enumerated in Kono originated from the neighboring district, Koinadugu. The districts least attractive to internal migrants were Koinadugu, Kambia and Bombali.

Occupation Before Migration

A percentage distribution of migrant household heads in 1974 according to occupation before migration is given in Table 19. Most of the migrants were either farmers, traders, or unemployed before they migrated to their current place of enumeration. The percentage of household heads who migrated while unemployed was higher in urban areas, indicating that a major reason for migration was the search for employment or job opportunities. This push factor is emphasized by comparing the percentage of migrant heads unemployed prior to migration with the percentage of the national labor force unemployed. Although data are not available for comparable years, an approximation may be made. In 1972, 4.5 percent of the labor force were unemployed, with unemployment increasing by 4.7 percent per year (World Bank estimates, Table 13). By 1974, unemployment nationally would have been 4.9 percent; however, 16.8 percent of migratory household heads reported they were unemployed prior to their move. Migrant household heads enumerated in rural areas were mainly farmers or traders before migration, and their major motive for migration may have been to seek better returns in another or the same occupation.

Table 20 distributes the national working population (that is, the employed labor force), by major industry group for the years 1963 and 1974. While these data are not comparable to the occupational distribution in Table 19, they do indicate that workers in certain industrial groups are more migratory than others; for instance, while only 7.5 percent of the 1974 work force were employed in commerce, 20.0 percent of migrant household heads were occupied as traders before migrating. In addition, 7.9 percent of migrant heads were civil servants (including the military and police) before migrating as compared to only 4.6 percent of the total work force engaged. Farmers appeared less migratory than might have been expected considering the comparable percentage of the total work force engaged in agriculture, forestry, hunting, and fishing (25.6 percent as opposed to 73.4 percent, respectively). However, some of the migrant heads listed in the remaining occupational categories may have been actually within the agricultural sector (such as those who were unemployed prior to migration).

- S.L. 36 -

Table 19: DISTRIBUTION OF MIGRANT SAMPLE HOUSEHOLD HEADS ACCORDING TO OCCUPATION BEFORE MIGRATION, 1974

Percentage of Migrant Household Heads Occupation Before Migration by Area of Enumeration All Localities Urban Rural

Farmer 25.6 23.3 35.0

Trader 20.0 19.9 20.0

Unemployed 16.8 18.9 8.3

Skilled Worker 10.0 10.4 8.3

Clerk 6.9 6.4 8.9

Student 7.3 8.0 4.4

Civil Servants, Armed Forces and Police Personnel 7.9 7.3 10.6

Laborers 3.2 3.5 2.2

Others 2.3 2.3 2.3

Source: S. C. Okoye, n.d. Statistical Report of the Sierra Leone Country- Wide Survey 1974, Freetown: Fourah Bay College, Table 8. - S.L. 37 -

Table 20: WORKING POPULATION BY MAJOR INDUSTRY GROUP, 1963 AND 1974

(Numbers in OOOs)

1/ 1963 1974

Industry Group Number- Percent Number Percent

Agriculture, forestry, hunting and fishing 702 77.3 792 73.4

Mining and quarrying 48 5.3 46 4.3

Manufacturing 41 4.5 52 4.8

Construction 16 1.8 4 0.4

Electricity, water and sanitary service 2 0.2 26 2.4

Commerce 53 5.8 81 7.5

Transport, storage and communications 16 1.8 28 2.6

Public administration and other services 30 3.3 50 4.6

Total 908 100.0 1,079 100.0

1/ World Bank projection.

Source: World Bank estimates. - S.L. 38 -

Rural-Urban Migration

Very little is known of rural-urban migration in Sierra Leone. The major difficulty in analyzing rural-urban migration is that information available on birth place in the 1963 and 1974 censuses was not given in terms of locality. A majority of respondents merely stated their chiefdom of birth without specifying whether it was in a rural or urban part of the chiefdom. While the place of enumeration may be classified according to type, it is not possible to do so for place of birth.

An indication of the volume of rural-urban migration can be derived from the growth of certain localities between 1963 and 1974 (Table 21). In 1963, there was only one city, the capital city, Freetown, with 50,000 or more inhabitants. It composed only 5.9 percent of the country's total population. By 1974, the population of Freetown had more than doubled in size, and 10 percent of the population of the country lived there. This was due to a boundary reclassification which took place in 1973 which increased the city's area from 12.4 km to 67 km. Standardizing the boundary at its 1974 configuration, the average annual rate of growth was 4.9 percent from 1963-74. Allowing for an average annual rate of natural increase of 2.0 percent and a generous net increment of about 0.9 percent per annum due to international migration, the contribution of internal migration was about 2.0 percent per annum. There can be no doubt that rural-urban migration contributed substantially to this growth.

In 1963, only 7.1 percent of the total population of Sierra Leone were living in the two localities of 20,000 or more inhabitants. By 1974, there were 5 such localities and they accounted for 16.5 percent of the total population. In addition, the number of localities of less than 1,000 inhabitants decreased considerably over the intercensal period. The available information tends to support a view that rural-urban migration in Sierra Leone leads to a concentration of population in a few primate cities which rank high on the development scale. In Table 22, a list of major urban localities with up to 5,000 inhabitants in the 1974 census is shown. The phenomenal growth of towns situated in the mining area of Kono is indicative of their relative attractiveness.

The 1975 Demographic Survey of the Western Area (see Annex I) found that 79 percent of all migrations to the Western Area were single stage (that is, from place of birth directly to place of enumeration). Of these moves, 61 percent (or 48 percent of all moves) were rural-urban in type. Of the 21 percent dual-stage moves (that is, from place of birth, to a place of previous residence, to place of enumeration), 75 percent (or 13 percent of all moves) terminated in an urban place. Table 21: DISTRIBUTION OF LOCALITIES BY SIZE, 1963 AND 1974

Percentage of Size of Locality Number of Localities Total Population Total Population

1963 1974 1963, 1974 1963 1974

100,000 or Over 1 1 127,917 276,247 5.9 10.1

50,000 - 99,999 - 1 - 75,846 - 2.8

20,000 - 49,999 1 3 26,613 97,610 1.2 3.6

10,000 - 19,999 4 4 49,388 52,363 2.3 1.9

5,000 - 9,999 10 11 59,286 69,999 2.7 2.6

4,000 - 4,999 5 14 22,284 73,814 1.0 2.7

3,000 - 3,999 9 12 31,378 38,998 1.4 1.4

2,000 - 2,999 22 34 55,656 67,249 2.6 2.4

1,000 - 1,999 104 870 133,771 189,794 6.1 6.9

Under 1,000 18,404 1,100 1,674,062 1,793,239 76.8 65.6

Source: Derived from 1963 and 1974 censuses, as cited in Table 13. - S.L. 40 -

Table 22: SIERRA LEONE: LOCALITIES WITH POPULATION OF 5,000 OR MORE IN THE 1974 CENSUS

Average Population Annual Locality 1963 1974 Growth Rate

Freetown 127,159 276,247 4.9 /a Koidu Towin (Kono District) 11,706 75,846 16.0 Bo Town 26,613 39,371 3.4 Kenema Town 13,246 31,458 7.4 Makeni Town 12,304 26,781 6.7 Lunsar 12,132 16,723 2.7 Yengema (Kono District) 7,313 14,793 6.0 Port Loko 5,809 10,500 5.1 Magburaka 6,371 10,347 4.1 Kabala 4,610 7,847 4.6 Yormandu 5,469 7,488 2.7 Kailahun Town 5,419 7,184 2.4 Segbwema 6,258 6,915 0.9 Moyamba Town 4,564 6,425 2.9 Benthe Town 6,236 6,398 0.2 Rokupr 4,151 5,780 2.8 Kambia Town 3,700 5,740 3.8 Mortema (Kono District) 1,124 5,501 13.6

Jaima Sewafe 6,064 5,367 - 1.0 Peyima (Kono District) 4,625 5,354 1.3

Total 2742873 5722065 5.4/a

/a Freetown's boundary was increased in 1973 to include its suburbs. Consequently, its area grew from 12.4 to 67 square kilometers. The population of Greater Freetown in 1974 was 276,247 and its annual growth rate for 1963-74 was 4.9 percent (using the 1973 boundary to derive the 1963 population). Without the boundary change, the population would have been about 186,000 in 1974, and its average annual growth rate over the intercensal period, 3.3 percent.

Sources: Sierra Leone, Central Statistics Office, 1963 Population Census of Sierra Leone, Vol.2 (Freetown: Central Statistics Office, 1965); and unpublished data from the 1974 population census of Sierra Leone.

ANNEX I: SIERRA LEONE

Some Aspects of Migration in the

Western Area of Sierra Leone 1/

Eugene K. Campbell

1/ Selected excerpts from Mr. Campbell's M.A. Thesis, 1976. "Some Aspects of Migration and Urbanization in the Western Area of Sierra Leone", University of Ghana, unpublished. Edited by Bonnie L. Newlon.

- S.L. 41 - - S.L. 42 -

Table of Contents

Page No.

CHAPTER I. Introduction ...... o...... ooo 46

CHAPTER II. Historical Characteristics and Trends in Urban Growth *-- .....- o.*-..... 51

CHAPTER III. Volume and Pattern of Lifetime Migration . 54

CHAPTER IV. Causes of Migration ...... 82 - S.L. 43 -

List of Maps and Figures

Page No.

Annex Map 1. Sierra Leone: Administrative Areas ...... 47

Annex Map 2. Western Area **...... a...... * *. *...... 48

Annex Map 3. Migration to Greater Freetown and Western Rural Area by Sex ...... 57

Annex Figure 1. Volume and Patterns of Dual-stage Migration to the Western Area, 1975 ...... 62

Annex Figure 2. Age Distribution of Migrants, Non-migrants, and Total Population in Greater Freetown and Western Area, 1975 ...... **...... 70

Annex Figure 3. Sex Ratios of Migrants, Non-migrants, and Total Population in Greater Freetown and Western Area, 1975 ...... 74 - S.L. 44 -

List of Tables

Page No.

Annex Table 1. Total Population in the Western Area and Freetown, and Growth Rate for Freetown, 1891-1974 ...... 49

Annex Table 2a. Migration Rates from Place-of-Birth Data by Sex, 1975 ...... 55

Annex Table 2b. Migration Rates from Place-of-Previous-Residence Data by Sex, 1975 ...... *.e...... 55

Annex Table 3a. Percentage of Migrants from Provincial Districts to the Western Area, 1975 .* ...... *...... *.0 56

Annex Table 3b. Percentage of Migrants from Districts Who Went to the City, 1975 ...... ** *** 56

Annex Table 4. Percentage of Migrants from Districts in Destination Areas (by Place of Previous Residence), 1975 ...... 59

Annex Table 5. Volume of Migrants who Undertook Single-stage and Dual-stage Movements, 1975 ...... 61

Annex Table 6a. Percentage Age and Sex Distribution and Sex Ratios of Migrants and Non-migrants in Greater Freetown, 1975 ...... o ...... s...o ...... 65

Annex Table 6b. Percentage Age and Sex Distribution and Sex Ratios of Migrants and Non-migrants in Western Rural Area, 1975 ....* ...... s *...... * ...... * * .* 66

Annex Table 6c. Percentage Age and Sex Distribution and Sex Ratios of Migrants and Non-migrants in the Western Area, 1975 ...... 67

Annex Table 6d. Volume of Migrants from the Provinces to the Western Area by Age, Sex, and Sex Ratio, 1975 ...... 68

Annex Table 6e. Percentage Distribution by Age and Sex and Sex Ratios for the Total Sample Population in Greater Freetown and the Western Rural Area, 1975 ...... 69

Annex Table 7. Sex Ratios by Age of Provinces and Districts in Sierra Leone, 1963 ...... *...... 71

Annex Table 8. Volume and Sex Ratio of Migrants to the Western Area by Sex and Rural and Urban Characteristics of Province of Previous Residence, 1975 oo...... 73 - S.L. 45 -

List of Tables, Continued

Page No.

Annex Table 9a. Ethnic Composition of Migrants and Non-migrants in Greater Freetown (Percentages), 1975 ...... 75

Annex Table 9b. Ethnic Composition of Migrants and Non-migrants in Western Rural Area (Percentages), 1975 ...... 76

Annex Table 10. Percentage of Migrants and Non-migrants, Five Years of Age and Over Without Formal Education by Sex, 1975 ...... 77

Annex Table lla. Occupational Differentials of Migrant and Non- migrant Males by the Educational Status of the Same Category of Workers, 15 Years of Age and Over, in Greater Freetown, 1975 ...... 79

Annex Table llb. Occupational Differentials of Migrant and Non- migrant Males by the Educational Status of the Same Category of Workers, 15 Years of Age and Over, in the Western Rural Area, 1975 ...... 80

Annex Table 12a. A Classification of Migrants into Voluntary, Obligatory, and Sequential Reasons for Moving to the Western Area, by Sex, 1975 ...... 83

Annex Table 12b. A Classification of Migrants into Economic, Socio- Cultural, and Psycho-Epiphenominal Reasons for Moving to the Western Area, by Sex, 1975 ...... 85

Annex Table 13. Reason for Moving by Duration of Residence and Region of Previous Residence, Percentages for Male Migrants in Greater Freetown, 1975 ... *...... 87

I. INTRODUCTION

The Western Area of Sierra Leone is the new name for what was formerly called the Colony in Sierra Leone. It is one of 13 districts in the country and is the most heterogeneous in physical, social, and economic characteristics (see Annex Maps 1 and 2). The growth of its population has been attributed mainly to internal and international migration in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. By the twentieth century, the population growth was due mainly to internal migration.

The growth rate of the population of the Western Area is high, but it is a reflection of the growth rate of Freetown, the former city. Many writers such as Harvey, Forde, Swindell and Banton have attributed the rapid growth of Freetown's population to cityward migration from the provinces and rural areas of the Western Area. One aspect of population growth which appears to have been overlooked by these writers is the contribution of natural increase.

This study will review the availability of data on migration in the Western Area and discuss the findings of a multi-purpose demographic survey conducted in 1975 in the Western Area sponsored by the United Nations and the Population Dynamics Programme; Fourah Bay College and the Sierra Leone Central Statistics Office cooperated through provision of supervision, enumerators, and logistic support.

The survey featured a de jure questionnaire, and defined "usual member" of the household as one who had lived, eaten, and slept there for at least three months. The sampling frame was estimated by projecting the 1963 census population of the area. The Western Area was then divided into two civil divisions. These are Greater Freetown, the urban division; and the Western Rural Area, the rural division. The sample involved a two-stage stratified selection of census enumeration areas.

Availability of Demographic Data

Between 1802 and 1971 a number of "censuses" (which were more of counts) were conducted in the Western Area (then the Colony). The primary aim of the counts was to check on the size of the settler population due to the constant threats of slavery and the slave trade. These counts were undertaken annually because there were reports that the indigenous Sierra Leoneans were indulging in the slave trade after its abolition by the British Parliament. These counts do not provide reliable information because the area of "enumeration" in the Western Area was not constant. However, between 1871 and 1931 a complete census of the Western Area was undertaken decennially. Questions on birthplace were included in the censuses of 1911, 1921 and 1931. Though these censuses were far from perfect, the results are reliable enough to be used. Annex Table 1 shows the growth of population in the Western Area and Freetown based on census data.

- S.L. 46 - - S.L. 47 -

Annex Map.l:SIERRA LEONE: ADMINISTRATIVE AREAS

13 - 12 -lo* 'e°to lo-

Cb Z ~~I 0d

oKabolo

0 / KOINADUGU

v \,- ~~~~MAKENI[7 OPorto Loko ) /I \t KOO

F ,> TONKOLILI

(g)oo\ // Kallahun)

-8 t MOYAMBA r *BO KENEMA( 4S8

_wt \_>l X t ~KENEMA t_ /v

C-Bon theo"B EY 80 Pue

¾ PUJEflUN '

-7 - Internationol Boundary L I ) Southern Province - Provincial Boundary Eastern Province

-- - District Boundary Northern Province e0 Area * Provincialavin Pr ial HHq ,° I 40I I I Western

*District Hq. KILOMETRES OF Freetown I3 0 12,

Source: Campbell, 1976. Figure la. - S.L. 48 -

Annex Map 2: WESTERN AREA

LF8 C FF.- BY.C. _rKiLss

Jubae C 9Welbington

03~~~~~~~~~~A -1\Anow 2v

GSREATER trea ss Waste aSfT' p-PEMNsSUL-Ar H4ll-ls

F. B CFOCIRAH BiAY ,3..Cv

Source: Campbell, 1976. Figurelb - S.L. 49 -

Annex Table 1: TOTAL POPULATION IN THE WESTERN AREA AND FREETOWN, AND GROWTH RATE, 1891-1974

Total Population Growth Rate Western Western Year Area Freetown Area Freetown

1891 58,448 30,033

1901 74,351 34,463 2.4 1.4

1911 75,572 34,090 0.2 - 0.1

1921 85,163 44,142 1.2 2.6

1931 96,422 55,358 1.3 2.3

1963 178,317 127,914 1.9 2.6

1974 293,680 276,247- 5.0

a/ In 1973, the boundary of Freetown was changed, increasing its area from 12.4 km2 to 67 km . If the boundary had remained stationary from 1963-74, Freetown's population in 1974 would have been 186.036. with an average annual rate of growth of 3.3 percent. Standardizing the boundaries at their 1974 configuration. the averaee arniAl rntp of growth was 4.9 percent.

Source: Derived from Campbell, 1976. Table II; Sierra Leone Central Statistics Office, 1965. 1963 Population Census of Sierra Leone, Vol. II, Freetown: Central Statistics Office; and Sierra Leone Central Statistics Office, n.d. Unpublished data from 1974 Population Census of Sierra Leone. - S.L. 50 -

Only 2 national censuses have been conducted in Sierra Leone; the first in 1963 and the second in 1974. The questionnaires included questions on place of birth.

Although the registration of vital events has been made compulsory in the Western Area since 1801, there is no evidence that registration of internal migration has ever been effected.

Prior to the sample survey used as the primary source of data in this study, a few surveys had been conducted in Sierra Leone which considered migration. Banton (1957) took some samples in the provinces and in Freetown to find out the patterns, causes, and effects of cityward migration in the 1950s. In recent years, Devis, Singh, and the Central Statistics Office (C.S.O.) have carried out multi-purpose sample surveys in which questions on internal migration and urbanization were included. However, none of the reports from these surveys include information on migration. The senior officers of the C.S.O. frankly revealed that the quality of data on migration was poor, and therefore not worth publishing. At present a survey on migration in the whole of Sierra Leone is being conducted by Byerlee and Tommy with financial support from the Population Council. In the light of these limitations on available data, almost all the literature on migration in the Western Area has been primarily based on the population census of 1963. II. HISTORICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND TRENDS IN URBAN GROWTH

The process of urbanization in the Western Area started in the 15th Century when Freetown was discovered by a Portuguese named Pedro da Cintra. Because Sierra Leone has a natural harbor, Freetown became a regular port of call for European traders. This was the start of a monetary economy in Free- town; and because this was the only means of obtaining the "finer produces" of Europe (such as clothes) commercial activities grew, and Freetown became the main trading center in Sierra Leone. This attracted people from the hinterland of the Western Area, and soon from the provinces, to the area around King Jimmy--the oldest port in Freetown.

The settlement of freed slaves from London in Freetown started in 1737. After the trade in African slaves was made illegal by the Slave Trade Act of 1807, slave ships were caught at sea and brought to Freetown. The offenders were prosecuted, and the captives were released and allowed to settle in Freetown. These were called the Liberated Africans; and their descendants became known as the Creoles. Resettlement of freed slaves from North America and the Caribbean also occurred. In addition, the discharged men and families of the second and fourth West Indian Regiments and the dis- banded Royal African Corps which served Britain in the American War of 1812 were resettled in Freetown. As the town became overcrowded, new settlements grew up outside Freetown. The social and economic activities which accompanied these settlements in the 18th and 19th centuries contributed remarkably to the attraction of provincial-based peoples to Freetown. Con- sequently, by 1891 the population of Freetown had grown to 30,033 persons.

Freetown was already occupied by the time it was founded and settled by immigrants. It is claimed that the Kroos had settled in Freetown long before the abolition of the slave trade. The Kroos are of Liberian origin, and they form a significant ethnic group in Freetown presently. Moreover, the Western Area was a Temne territory, and the land that was bought for resettlements was purchased from the Temnes. Thus, most of the early in-migrants to Freetown were Temnes and immigrants.

In the second half of the 19th century a few incidents promoted migration to Freetown. These included:

(1) Improvement in road communication by the construction of hammock roads in 1862. This made it more convenient for people to travel on foot from the surrounding settlements to Preetown to trade. The elite could afford to travel in hammocks, rickshaw, or on horseback.

(2) Construction of the railway from Freetown to Songo in 1899, which was later extended to the provinces. Traders found it possible to transport more wares to Freetown to sell. On returning home, they took back stories of the beauty of Freetown.

- S.L. 51 - - S.L. 52 -

(3) Intertribal wars in the provinces, dominated by Bai Burch and his tribal warriers of the Northern Province. These wars are known otherwise as the "Hut Tax War" because they started as a revolt against the payment of taxes on huts in Sierra Leone. They started in the form of riots in the 1880s, with the colonialists the target of the antagonism. As some of the weaker ethnic groups accepted the tax system, they became the enemies of the strong groups. In order to save themselves from death, many provincial residents migrated to Freetown and its suburbs (between Freetown and Wellington) for protection. This forced migration went on between 1891 and 1896 when the war ended.

After the-colonization of the Western Area by the British in 1808, Freetown became the administrative center for the whole country. This was accompanied by social, economic, and cultural development in Freetown.

In the 20th century, during the two World Wars, many young men migrated to Freetown in search of employment. When the diamond and iron ore mines in Kono and Port Loko Districts were opened up, one would have expected the flow of migrants to Freetown to decrease; but migrants continued to come in large numbers mainly for educational and psycho-social reasons. The recent development of import-substituting industries in Freetown, Kissy, and Wellington has contributed to the large influx of migrants.

Kuczynski's report on censuses and other activities in the Western Area reveals that as far back as 1827 some consideration had been given to cityward migration from the provinces (Kuczynski, 1948). Furthermore the questionnaire for the census of the Western Area in 1931 queried the birthplace of all residents. The results indicated a high in-migration rate of Temnes, mainly for trading purposes. Most of the migrants to the Western Area were more attracted to Freetown. During Banton's enumeration of some areas of the Northern Provinces of Sierra Leone, he found that over 50 percent proceeded to Freetown while the rest stopped in what was then the "hinterland of the colony" (Banton, 1957). It is also reported that up to 1955, 60 percent of migrants to Freetown were from the Northern Province. It is interesting to note that during this time the indigenous peoples 1/ of the country formed 61 percent of Freetown's population (Harvey, 1968).

Forde records that the proportion of internal migrants in Freetown in 1963 was over 42 percent. The proportion in the Western Area the same year was 42.3 percent (Forde, 1975).

The importance of education in migration to Freetown has been best treated by Swindell. He found that 32 percent of all boys enrolled into the first forms of boys' and mixed secondary schools in Freetown were from the

1/ These are the non-Creoles, but Sierra Leoneans, whom historians have referred to by various terms such as "natives" or "tribal peoples". - S.L. 53 - provinces (Swindell, 1970). Apart from the economic and educational activities, people were also attracted by the "bright lights" of Freetown. Banton found that people of the provinces were fascinated by stories of tall build- ings, automobiles, and quick-money making jobs in Freetown. School children were informed about double-decker buses, electricity, the cinema and dance halls. Return migrants kept themselves clean, wore city clothes, and brought back small presents for girls (Banton, 1957).

One of the notable findings in Sierra Leone is related to distance. Harvey found that the average number of migrants per chiefdom decreased with increasing distance from Freetown. It is reported that 46.9 percent of all migrants to Freetown at the time of the 1963 census originated from within a 96 kilometer radius, and 74.4 percent from within a 144 kilometer radius of Freetown (Harvey, 1968). It was also found that the peak ages of migration to Freetown were 20-29 (Forde and Harvey, 1969). III. VOLUME AND PATTERN OF LIFETIME MIGRATION

The 1975 survey questioned places of birth and previous residence. The findings indicated there were 7,153 migrants (or 37.9 percent) out of a sample of 18,896 enumerated in the city. There were 1,436 migrants (or 42.9 percent) out of a sample total of 3,335 enumerated in the Western Rural Area. Annex Tables 2a and 2b give migration by sex derived from birthplace and previous residence data. From the birthplace data, it is observed that migrants contributed 8,254 persons (or 37.1 percent) to the sample total of 22,231 persons enumerated in the Western Area. With regard to the proportion of migrants in the Western Area, the results show that there is little difference between the two sources of data. Here we will focus on the place of previous residence data.

Annex Table 2b shows that the proportion of migrants in the Western Rural Area is higher than in the city. In the former it is 44.7 percent for males and 41.4 percent for females. But in the latter it is 39.8 percent for males and 36.0 percent for females. In absolute terms, the volume of migration to the city is higher than it is to the Western Rural Area.

The city attracts most of the migrants who move to the Western Area from the provinces. Out of 7,494 migrants who reportedly came from the provinces to the Western Area, 88.8 percent went to the city. This is reflected in the high migration rate of 37.9 percent in the city. This rate, however, falls short of the rate of 42.0 percent that was observed for Freetown in 1963. It is plausible that the rate which was observed for Freetown in 1963 was a result of the areal size of the old city. Many of those who were classified as migrants in Freetown originated from the sub- urban areas which have since been reclassified as part of Greater Freetown.

Annex Table 3a gives data concerning the various streams of migration to the Western Area from the provinces (this is graphically portrayed in Map 2 of the Okoye, "Migration in Sierra Leone," country study). Port Loko district sent the highest proportion of migrants to the Western Area. Pujehan district sent the least. In Annex Map 3, pie diagrams are used to express the volume of migration to the city and the Western Rural Area by sex.

No district sent less than 80 percent of its migrants to the city (see Annex Table 3b). For instance, Port Loko district sent 80.1 percent of its migrants to the city, while Pujehun district sent 97.4 percent of its migrants to the city.

In order to identify districts with relatively high or low pro- pensities to send migrants to the city, the mean (X) of the percentages of migrants from the provinces to the city was used as an average for comparison. Where X > X, the district had a high propensity to send migrants to the

- S.L. 54 - - S.L. 55 -

Annex Table 2a: MIGRATION RATES FROM PLACE-OF-BIRTH DATA, BY SEX, 1975

Divisions Western Area Greater Freetown Western Rural Area Sex Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female

Total Population 22,231 11,228 11,003 18,896 9,583 9,313 3,335 1,645 1,690

Migrants 8,254 4,385 3,869 6,965 3,719 3,246 1,289 666 623

Migrants (%) 37.1 39.0 35.2 36.9 38.8 34.9 38.5 40.5 36.9

Source: Campbell, 1976. Table IIIa.

Annex Table 2b: MIGRATION RATES FROM PLACE-OF-PREVIOUS-RESIDENCE DATA, BY SEX, 1975

Divisions Western Area Greater Freetown Western Rural Area Sex Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female

Total Population 22,231 11,228 11,003 18,896 9,583 9,313 3,335 1,645 1,690

Migrants 8,589 4,542 4,047 7,153 3,806 3,347 1,436 736 700

Migrants (%) 38.6 40.4 36.8 37.9 39.8 36.0 43.1 44.7 41.4

Source: Campbell, 1976. Table IIIb. Annex Table 3a: PERCENTAGE OF MIGRANTS FROM PROVINCIAL DISTRICTS TO THE WESTERN AREA, 1975

Absolute District of Previous Rosidence (t Migrants) Place of Total of Enum-ration Sex Migrants Percentage Bo Bon the ioyamba Pujehun Kailahun Fenema Kono Bombali Kambia Koinad P.Lloko Ton1"olili

rT.'estern T 7594 100.0 8.7 2.7 11.8 2.0 3.9 4.8 4.0 18.4 10.5 3.6 23.5 6.1 ,.rea if 4063 100.0 9.4 2.5 11.1 2.1 4.3 5.1 4.4 17.6 11.1 4.5 22.2 5.7

F 3531 100.0 7.9 2.9 12.7 2.0 3.5 4.4 3.6 19.1 9.8 2.6 24.9 6.6

Creater T 6656 100.0 9.2 2.8 10.9 2.3 4.2 5.2 4.1 19.5 10.9 3.7 21.4 5.8 Freatokm M 3570 100.0 9.8 2.5 10.0 2.3 4.7 5.4 4.5 18.7 11.4 4.6 20.5 5.6 F 3036 100.0 8.5 3.0 12.0 2.3 3.6 4.9 3.8 20.3 10.3 2.6 22.6 6.1

Western T 938 100.0 5.1 2.4 18.3 0.4 1.9 2.1 3.1 10.4 7.5 3.2 37.7 7.9 Rural Area M 493 100.0 6.3 2.2 19.1 0.6 1.6 2.8 4.1 10.1 8.5 3.7 34.9 6.1 1

F 445 100.0 3.8 -2.5 17.5 0.2 2.2 1.4 2.0 10.6 6.3 2.7 40.9 9.9 !4 ______I_I_I ______I__ _ I__ __I_ I_ _ I_I_I_I_I t- Source; Campbell, 1976. Table IVa, n

Annex Table 3b: PERCENTAGE OF MIGRANTS FROM DISTRICTS WHO WEN1 T TO THE CITY, 1975

District of Previous Residence

Bo .80nthe mIoyamba Pujohun Kailahun Kcnema Kono Bombali Karbia IKoinad |P.Loko To,-_kolili

92.7 89.8 80.8 97.4 93.9 94.5 90.5 93.0 91.2 89.1 80.1 84.0

Source: Campbell, 1976. Table IVb. - S.L. 57

Annex Map 3: MIGRATION TO GREATER FREETOWN - AND WESTERN RURAL AREA BY SEX

13. 12 II' - 10° lo *_iO

4h G~~~~~~~~~~

t~4 ' /, ,_ I'\

t~~ r 7°- MIGRAT ION

70 1-1 7' I ,TO W R A 0 40 80 FEMAL.E K I L OMTRETRGES

13 12

Source:Campbe 1_9______I______.1___ __J.

Source: Campbell, 1976, Figure IIb. - S.L. 58 -

city. X was calculated to be 89.8 percent. Therefore, eight districts were observed to have a high propensity to send Western Area-bound migrants to the city; while migrants from Port Loko, Tonkolili, Koinadugu and Moyamba had a lower tendency to concentrate in the city than migrants from the other districts. Ethnicity and distance may be the predisposing factors affecting choice of a residential location.

Annex Table 4 gives the percentage of the total population in each of the 3 destination areas in the Western Area composed of in-migrants from each of the 12 other districts. In-migrants from Port Loko, Bombali, and Moyamba showed the highest representation in each of the Western Area destination areas (varying from 3.8 percent to 10.6 percent of the specified total population). These sending districts are geographically closest to the Western Area.

Geographic Patterns of Migration

Rural and Urban Patterns of Migration

Defining an urban center as a district or locality with a population of 5,000 persons or more, 20.9 percent of Sierra Leone's population is urban (1974). This is reasonable, considering the degree of urbanization in Africa has been estimated at 23.9 percent for 1975 by Kingsley Davis (A. F. Aryee, 1976). Sierra Leone's population is, therefore, dominantly rural. This is reflected in the volume of migrants to the Western Area who are of rural origin. Out of a sample population of 8,589 migrants in the Western Area, 5,326 or 62.0 percent were of rural origin. The proportion was highest for migrants from the Northern province, where 67.4 percent of them were of rural origin. The proportion of rural migrants from the Eastern province was the lowest of the three provinces, at 54.6 percent. The reason for these regional differences can be explained partially by the degree of urbanization in each province. It is 21.4 percent for the Eastern province, and 9.3 pecent for the Southern and Northern provinces.

In addition, cityward migration is mostly undertaken by people of rural origin. Out of the migrants enumerated in the city, 4,633 or 64.8 percent were from rural areas. By contrast, the Western Rural Area attracted slightly more migrants from urban than rural centers. Out of the migrants enumerated in this area, 743 or 51.7 percent were from urban centers, while 693 or 48.3 percent were from rural centers. The reason for this lies in the close proximity of the city to the Western Rural Area. Out of the urban migrants to the Western Rural Area, 498 or 67.0 percent were from the city. But this pattern cannot be explained by distance alone. It is a secondary factor; a more important reason is because the city has gone through decades of social, economic, political, and cultural development. It is also the most urbanized center in the country. Since the volume of spatial mobility within or out of a region is determined by its level of development, it follows that the residents of the city will be more migratory than residents in less developed centers. It is not surprising, therefore, that 34.7 percent of the migrants in the Western Rural Area were from the city. Annex Table 4: PERCENTAGE OF MICGRANS FROM DISTRCTS IN DESTINATION AREAS (By Place-of-Previous Residence), 1975 l/

Place3 of District of Previous Residence Total - l--- - ______. ... Emeration Population Bo onthe oy. Puj. Kai. Kenema Kono Bomb. Kam. Koin. P.Lk Tnoak.

Veatern Ara 22,231 3.0 0.9 4.0 0.7 2.3 1.6 1.4 6.3 3.6 1.2 8.0 2.1 Groater Pro town 188,896 3.2 1.0 3.8 0.8 1.5 1.8 1.5 6.9 3.8 1.3 7.6 2.1

Western Rural Area 3,335 1.4 0.7 5.2 0.1 0.6 0.6 0.9 2.9 2.1 0.9 10.6 2.2

1/ Western Rural Area to Greater Freetown = 2.6 Greater Freetown to Western Rural Area = 14.9

Source: Campbell, 1976. Table V. - S.L. 60 -

Considering only migrants from the provinces to the Western Rural Area, there were more who were of rural than urban origin. Migrants of urban origin were 17.0 percent of the total migrants from the provinces to the Western Rural Area, while the proportion of migrants of rural origin was 83.0 percent. When all these observations are considered, there is no doubt that migration to the Western Area from the rural centers is more important than migration from the urban centers. Annex Table 5 shows that out of 5,804 people who undertook single-stage migrations to the city, 4,169 or 71.8 percent were from rural centers; and out of 1,020 people who undertook single- stage migrations to the Western Rural Area, 607 or 59.0 percent were from rural centers.

The frequencies of single-stage and dual-stage migrations to the Western Area are shown in Annex Table 5. Out of the total number of migrants enumerated in the Western Area, 6,833 or 79.6 percent undertook single-stage migration. This means that 20.4 percent of migrants to the Western Area undertook dual-stage migrations. This is a considerable proportion, but before discussing this phenomenon, the reader should be warned that no previous work has been undertaken on dual-stage movement in Sierra Leone. Thus there is no scope for comparison. Secondly, the survey was only conducted in one small area of the country. Therefore the inferences drawn are based primarily on the observations of the survey.

Dual-Stage Migration

Only two movements were considered in this questionnaire. These were obtained from place-of-birth and place-of-previous residence questions. This implies that a migrant made his first movement from his birthplace, and his second movement from his place of previous residence. Annex Figure 1 is a tree diagram which shows the pattern of flows of internal migration in Sierra Leone. It expresses dual-stage migration to the city and the Western Rural Area. It is divided into "first origin" (that is, place of birth), "second origin" (that, is place of previous residence), and destination (that is, the city or the Western Rural Area). The symbols R and U represent the rural and urban characteristics of the origin and destination areas, respectively.

In Annex Table 5 it was observed that there was a relatively higher frequency of migrants in the Western Rural Area whose first movements were to the city, than migrants in the city whose first movements were to the Western Rural Area. Out of the migrants who undertook dual-stage movements, 248 or 60.9 percent of those resident in the Western Rural Area were former residents of the city. On the contrary, out of those who were enumerated in the city, 118 or 8.7 percent had first resided in the Western Rural Area. This is a manifestation of the great attraction that the city has for Western Area-bound migrants.

It was observed that 92.9 pecent of the migrants in the Western Rural Area whose first migrations were to the city, were born in the Port Loko, Kambia, and Bombali districts. This is again, a reflection of the - S.L. 61

Annex Table 5: VOLUME OF MIGRANTS WHO UNDERTOOK SINGLE-STAGE AND DUAL-STAGE MOVEMENTS, 19751/

single-Stag. migration Dual-Stage migration

R - R 607 R - R - R 66

U - R 422 U - R - R 20

R - U 4,169 R - U - R 281

U - U 1,635 U - U - R 40

R - R - U 150

U - R - U 323

R - U - U 484

U - U - U 392

Total 6,833 Total 1,756

1/ R = Rural, U = Urban

Source: Campbell, 1976. Table VI. - S.L. 62 -

Annex Figure 1: VOLUME AND PATTERNS OF DUAL-STAGE MIGRATION TO THE WESTERN AREA, 1975

RRR R >R URR U R

7 K E Y

R UR R - MIGRANTS < 100 /| 100 - 199 200 - 299 UUR U 300- 399 400 - 499 700- 799 RRU R R U RU U

RUU R

uuU U

Ist Origin 2nd. Origin Destiflntiwl

Source: Campbell, 1976. Figure III. - S.L. 63 -

familiarity which the peoples of the Northern province have with the Western Area. However, when the three provinces were compared, the pattern is different. The highest incidence of dual migration was observed among migrants from the Eastern province. Second is the Southern province, and third is the Northern province. The respective proportions are 40.4 percent, 27.3 percent, and 11.3 percent. When these proportions are related to the distances of the provinces from the city, an interesting observation is made. By adopting the provincial headquarters as the areas of origin for the provinces the following is revealed:

1. Kenema, the headquarters for the Eastern province, is 286 kilometers from the city;

2. Bo, the headquarters for the Southern province, is 206 kilometers from the city;

3. Makeni, the headquarters for the Northern province, is 188 kilometers from the city.

As can be seen, these distances correspond to the order of magnitude in dual- stage migration from the provinces. That is, the greater the distance, the greater is the magnitude of dual-stage migration. In light of this, it is plausible that there is step-wise migration in Sierra Leone.

The highest incidence of dual-stage migration was found among migrants from the Eastern province. One reason for this is possibly because the Eastern province is the most developed region among the provinces. Kono district is rich in diamonds. There is much prospect for making quick money in this district and Kenema district, which also benefits from the diamond mining activity. Moreover, the Eastern province has the lowest proportion of persons employed in agriculture (71.6 percent) compared to the Southern province (83.0 percent) and the Northern province (89.5 percent). In addition, the Eastern province employs 21.9 percent of the country's workers who are employed in industrial establishments with 6 or more workers. The comparative proportions for the Southern and Northern provinces are 15.0 percent and 12.4 percent, respectively. The Western Area employs 50.7 percent of the country's workers in these industries. The Eastern Province is therefore as important an in-migration area as the city is.

The relatively high incidence of dual-stage migration among migrants who were born in the Eastern province reflects the high migration potential of people who were born there. There is evidence of seasonal movement in the province. It was reported that in 1963, for example, the number of diamond diggers averaged 35,600 persons, but it rose to 50,000 persons in some months (National Development Plan, 1974). It is common practice for farmers in the province to move seasonally between the diamond areas and their villages. They move to the diamond areas after the harvest in the dry season (between November and April) to occupy themselves in diamond mining. Just before the rainy season the farmers return to their villages to cultivate their farms. 1/

1/ Seasonal movers also circulate between the Eastern and other provinces. - S.L. 64 -

Therefore, because of the level of development of the Eastern province, its inhabitants have a relatively higher propensity to migrate than those of other provinces.

Because of the level of development of the Eastern province, it is not surprising that none of the migrants who were born there and had undertaken a previous migration before moving to the city reported that the Western Rural Area was their place of previous residence. This observation suggests that when a person born in the Eastern province decides to migrate to the Western Area, he goes to a place that is more developed than his place of birth--a place where he can be employed or educated, as well as enjoy modern social amenities. Consequently his destination is almost invariably the city. It is evident that 2 factors are important contributors to dual- stage migration to the Western Area. These are:

(i) economic development at source; and

(ii) distance between source and destination.

Demographic Patterns of Migration

Age

Annex Tables 6a-6e and Annex Figure 2 show the age pattern of migrants in absolute, relative, and graphic form. The most migratory people are young adults. They constitute 38.1 percent of total migrants to the city and 36.3 percent of those in the Western Area. The peak ages of migration to the Western Area were 25-29 years. This finding is in keeping with the findings of other researchers in Sierra Leone, Ghana, India and Chile.

Sex

The sex ratio of all migrants in the Western Area was high (see Annex Table 6c). It was 112.2 males per 100 females. The sex ratio of migrants from the provinces was higher (see Annex Table 6d). It was 115.1. This implies that there were more migrant males than females. The reason for this pattern is related to the sex ratios for the total population of the various regions in Sierra Leone. Annex Table 7 shows the sex ratios of the country, provinces and districts in 1963. In column 6 it is seen that the sex ratios of Sierra Leone and the Southern and Northern provinces are low. Furthermore, under Column 5, where most potential migrants belong, the sex ratios are low in all the districts. It is also low for Sierra Leone as a whole. The exceptions are Kenema and Kono districts, which are in-migration areas. These low sex ratios reflect the out-migration of males, many of whom go to the the Western Area in search of employment opportunities. - S.L. 65 -

Annex Table 6a: PERCENTAGE AGE AND SEX DISTRIBUTION AND SEX RATIOS OF MIGRANTS AND NON-MIGRANTS IN GREATER FREETOWN, 1975

3 AGE G R A N T J NON- ICGRANTSex AGROUP- Sax sex GRQVP Total Male Female Ratio Total Male Female Ratio

Total Mizgrant 7,153 3,806 3,347 113.7 10,398 5,030 5,368 93.7

Total Percentage 100.0 100.C' 100.0 - 100.0 100.0 100.0 -

0 - 4 4.7 3.8 5.6 77.7 25.6 26.7 24.7 100.8 5 - 9 8.3 7.2 9.6 85.7 20.7 20.7 20.7 93.6 10 - 14 7.5 7.2 7.8 105.4 16.1 16.7 15.5 101.0 15 - 19 11.2 10.4 12.1 98.0 10.7 10.9 10.4 98.2 20 - 24 12.3 12.4 12.3 114.1 6.8 6.9 6.7 97.2 25 - 29 14.5 14.2 15.0 107.4 4.9 4.4 5,4 77.4 30 - 34 8.9 8.9 8.8 114.9 2.9 2.8 3.1 84.8 35 - 39 8.5 8.9 8.1 125.2 2.6 2.4 2.7 83.9 40 - 44 5.9 5.9 5.0 114.8 2.2 2.1 2.2 88.3 45 - 49 5.4 6.3 4.4 163.7 1.6 1.6 1.6 88.6 50 - 54 4.1 4.6 3.5 150.4 1.7 1.6 1.9 79.2 55 - 59 2.9 3.6 2.1 197.1 1.3 1.2 1.3 86.1 60 - 64 2.3 2.8 1.7 182.8 0.8 0.6 1.0 57.1 651 3.5 3.8 3.2 135.2 2.1 1.5 2.8 50.7

Source: Campbell, 1976. Table VIIa. - S.L. 66 -

Annex Table 6b: PERCENTAGE AGE AND SEX DISTRIBUTION AND SEX RATIOS OF MIGRANT AND NON-MIGRANT IN WESTERN RURAL AREA, 1975

AG8 M I G R A N I N 0 N - M I G R A A' T GROUP Toa aesex N ______Sex Grotal Male prFemle Ratio Total Male &le Ratio

Total- -1- - Migrant Po 1,436 736 T 700 105.1 1,775 830 945 87.8

Total I -- -- - Percentage 100.0 100.0 100.0 - 100.0 100.0 100.0 _

0 - 4 7.0 1 5.3 8.7 63.9 26.9 27.8 26.0 93.9 5 - 9 8.7 7.3 10.1 76.1 17.3 16.9 17.7 83.8 10 - 14 7.2 7.9 6.6 126.1 9.1 10.0 8.2 106.4 15 - 19 7.9 7.5 8.3 94.8 6.9 6.9 7.0 86.4 20 - 24 8.8 7.5 10.3 f 76.4 5.6 4.1 7.0 51.5 25 - 29 11.3 11.1 11.4 102.5 7.2 6.6 7.6 76.4 30 - 34 10.2 9.5 10.9 | 92.1 4.9 5.1 4.8 93.3 35 - 39 8.0 7.7 8.3 98.3 4.1 4.5 3.8 102.8 40 - 44 6.4 7.7. 5.0 162.9 2.8 1.9 J 3.5 48.5 45 - 49 5.9 7.1 4.7 157.6 3.2 J 3.2 j 3.2 90.0 50 - 54 5.5 5.9 5.2 119.4 3.0 3.4 1 2.8 1103.7

55 - 59 3.1 4.1 2.0 214.3 2.2 2.9 1.6 160.0 60 - 64 3.2 3.0 3.4 91.7 2.4 3.0 1.8 147.1 65 6.8 8.4 5.1 172.2 4.4 3.7 5.0 66.0

So-urce 17 - T VIIb.

Sourcet Campbell, 1976. Table VIIb. - S.L. 67 -

Annex Table 6c: PERCENTAGE AGE AND SEX DISTRIBUTION AND SEX RATIOS OF MIGRANT AND NON-MIGRANT IN THE WESTERN AREA, 1975

AGE MXGRANT , NON-MIGRA GROUP GROUPTotal Male ale Ratio~~~~~~sexso Total )WOe eUale Ratio

Total Migrant Pop. 8,590 4,542 4,048 112.2 12,173 5,860 6,313 92.8

Total Percentage 100.0 100.0 100.0 - 100.0 100.0 1080.0 -

0 - 4 5.1 4.1 6.1 74.3 25.8 26.7 24.9 99.7 5 - 9 8.4 7.2 9.7 03.9 20.2 20.2 20.3 92.3

10 - 1i 7.4 7.3 7.6 108.5 15.1 15.7 14.4 101.4 1S - 19 10.6 9.9 11.4 97.6 10.1 10.4 9.9 97.0 20 - 24 11.7 11.6 12.0 108.5 6.6 6.5 6.7 90.1 25 - 29 14.0 13.7 14.4 106.7 S.2 4.7 5.7 77.2 30 - 34 9.1 9.0 9.2 110.2 3.2 3.1 3.3 86.6 35 - 39 8.4 8.7 8.1 120.4 2.8 2.7 2.8 87.7 40.- 44 6.0 6.2 5.7 122.1 2.3 2.1 2.4 79.7 45 - 49 S.S 6.4 4.4 162.6 1.8 1.8 1.9 99.0 50 - 54 4.3 4.8 3.8 143.1 1.9 1.8 2.0 84.4 55 - S9 2.9 3.7 2.0 200.0 1.4. 1.S 1.4 98.9 60 - 64 2.5 2.8 2.1 154.2 1.1 1.0 1.2 70.1 65, 4.1 4.6 3.6 144.4 2.5 1.8 3.1 54.4

Source Campbell, 1976. Table VIIc. - S.L. 68 -

Annex Table 6d: VOLUME OF MIGRANTS FROM THE PROVINCES TO THE WESTERN AREA BY AGE, SEX AND SEX RATIO, 1975

AGB MIGRANTS FRQ'4 PROVINCE

GROUP rTotl Male FeMale Sex ______Ratio

TOTAL 7,594 4,063 3,531 115.1

0- 4 335 143 192 74.5

5- 9 620 281 339 82.9

10 - 14 558 288 270 106.7

1S - 19 845 419 426 98.4

20 - 24 824 486 438 11.0

25 - 29 1,107 575 532 108.1

30 - 34 707 378 329 114.9

35 - 39 652 359 293 122.5

40 - 44 454 253 201 125.9

45 - 49 411 260 151 172.2

50 54 323 198 125 158.4

55 59 210 142 68 208.8

60 - 64 182 116 66 175.8

65+ 266 165 101 163.4

Source: Campbell, 1976. Table VII d. - S.L. 69 -

Annex Table 6e: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION BY AGE AND SEX AND SEX RATIOS FOR THE TOTAL SAMPLE POPULATION IN GREATER FREETOWN AND THE WESTERN RURAL AREA, 1975

AGE GREATER FREETOWN WESTERN RURAL AREA GROP .Sex Sex GROUP Total Male Female Ratio Total Male Female Ratio

TOTAL 18,896 9,583 9,313 102.9 3,335 1,645 1,690 97.3

Percentage 100.0 100.0 100.0 - 100.0 100.0 100.0 -

0 - 4 16.2 15.8 16.2 98.2 17.6 16.8 18.3 89.0 5 - 9 15.0 14.0 15.9 90.8 13.1 11.9 14.3 81.3 10 - 14 12.1 11.9 12.2 100.9 8.0 8.6 7.4 112.8 15 - 19 10.9 10,6 11.2 97.6 7.2 7.2 8.2 86.2 20 - 24 9.4 9.5 9.3 105.3 7.2 5.8 8.6 66.2 25 - 29 9.1 9.1 9.2 100.9 9.5 9.6 9.5 98.1 30 - 34 5.8 6.0 5.5 113.8 7.5 7.7 7.3 102.4 35 - 39 5.2 5.5 4.9 116.4 5.9 6.1 5.6 107.4 40 - 44 3.8 4.0 3.7 1lO.7 4.3 4.6 4.0 111.8 45 - 49 3.3 3.7 2.8 136.4 4.4 5.1 3.8 131.3 50 - 54 2.8 3.2 2.5 127.2 4.0 4.4 3.7 114.3 55 - 59 2.0 2.4 1.7 143.7 2.6 3.5 1.7 196.6 60 - 64 1.5 1.6 1.4 115.4 2.7 3.0 2.4 119.5 65+ 2.9 2.7 3.1 88.4 5.5 5.7 5.2 106.8

Source: Campbell. 1976. Table VIIf. - S.L. 70 -

Annex Figure 2: AGE DISTRIBUTION OF MIGRANTS, NON-MIGRANTS AND TOTAL POPULATION IN GREATER FREETOWN AND WESTERN AREA, 1975

30 GREATER FREETOWN

25 K

,20 \-

z 5 w 10 [ [ ' -

5-9 15-19 25-29 35-39 45-49 55-59 65+ 0-4 10-14 20-24 30-34 40-44 5o-54 60-64 A G E

MIGRANT, BY PROPORTION IN EACH 5YEAR AGE GROUP

' '' - - - -NON-MIGRANT, ii , I

TOTAL...... POPULATION, " j "

30 - WESTERN AREA

25 w 20-

5-9 15-19 - 25-29 35-39 45-49 55-59 65+ 0-4 10-14 20-24 30-34 40-44 50-54 60-64 AG E

Source Campbell, 1976. Figure IVa. - S.L. 71 -

Annex Table 7: SEX RATIOS BY AGE OF PROVINCES AND DISTRICTS IN SIERRA LEONE, 1963

RcxCWS 2 Male Per 100 Females (Ages in Years) 1 ~~2 3 4 5S 6 7

_ 5-9 10-1d 15-34 35 All Agre

siferra Leone 98.6 107.8 114.5 77.4 122.5 98.3 Southern Province 97.4 106.5 120.4 74.3 117.9 97.0 Eastern Province 95.0 102.0 115.9 96.5 137.9 108.4 Northern Province 101.2 114.2 112.7 62.0 113.6 91.0

Bo District 95.4 101.2 124.3 89.1 126.5 103.8 Bonthe Diserict 100.8 113.0 120.6 65.4 114.7 94.1 Moyamba District 97.8 107.0 114.1 64.7 116.5 94.1 Pujehun 98.4 113.5 125.2 62.1 104.6 88.9

Ka lahun ' 95.6 102.7 115.6 60.2 105.4 87.3 Kenem 93.7 103.8 117.0 107.2 155.4 117.5 Kono 95.9 99.5 114.7 114.1 1S8.6 118.1 Bombal 100.7 112.4 109.8 55.4 99.4 85.2 KamirIa 100.2 116.5 114.5 62.4 120.4 92.3 Kolnadugu 102.6 110.9 106.9 66.0 121.2 93.2

Port Loko " 103.4 116.7 121.1 65.8 120.7 95.2 2'nkolilI 98.6 113.7 109.0 61.0 110.0 89.3

Source: T.E. Dow, Jr., 1969. "Fertility in Sierra Leone", Sierra Leone Geographical Journal, 13.5; Campbell, 1976. Table VIII. - S.L. 72 -

Annex Table 8 shows the sex ratios of migrants from each province to the Western Area, classified by urban and rural areas of origin. The data suggest that migrants from urban areas have higher sex ratios than migrants from rural areas. This is a reflection of the relatively higher sex ratios among urban residents than rural residents in Sierra Leone. In Annex Figure 3 the sex ratios of migrants, non-migrants, and the total population enumerated in the city and the Western Area are portrayed in line graphs.

Social and Economic Characteristics

Ethnicity

In 1963, the Temne were found to constitute 29.8 percent of the total population of Sierra Leone. They ranked second to the Mende, which formed 30.9 percent of the total population. The 1975 survey revealed that the Temne were the most migratory ethnic group to the Western Area (see Annex Tables 9a and 9b). Out of a total of 7,153 migrants to the city, 2,548 or 35.6 percent were reported to be Temnes. Their sex ratio was 102.9. The proportion of Temne migrants to the Western Rural Area was higher at 47.2 percent but the sex ratio was lower, at 89.9.

Education

Annex Table 10 shows the educational differentials between migrants and non-migrants 5 years of age and over, in terms of lack of formal education. Those who had never attended school are referred to here as uneducated; and those who have attended or are attending school are referred to as educated.

Out of a total of 8,155 sample migrants in the Western Area who are 5 years of age and over, 4,144 or 50.8 percent had had no formal education. There is a difference in the percentage uneducated among migrants in the city and in the Western Rural Area. Out of 6,819 migrants in the city, 3,298 or 48.4 percent were uneducated. The comparative proportion in the Western Rural Area was 63.3 percent.

There were 17.4 percent more uneducated migrant females than males in the Western Area. This difference was greater in the city than the Western Rural Area. In the city there were 18.9 percent more uneducated females than males. But in the Western Rural Area the difference was 9.4 percent. This implies that relatively more educated males than females migrate to the city.

The data further show that 49.2 percent of the cityward migrants were educated. This percentage was higher for males than for females. Out of the male migrants in question, 57.3 percent were educated; but for the females the proportion of educated was 39.9 percent. In the Western Rural Area 60.4 percent of the male migrants were educated, and 41.5 percent of the female migrants were educated. It is apparent that male migrant selectivity by educational status is plausible. - S.L. 73 -

Annex Table 8: VOLUME AND SEX RATIO OF MIGRANTS TO THE WESTERN AREA RY SEX AND RURAL AND URBAN CHARACTERISTICS OF PROVINCE OF PREVIOUS RESIDENCE, 1975

PROVINCE CHRACTERISTIC OF PLACE OP ORIGIXN OF ORGIN U R B A N R U R A L Sax Sex Total SMale Female Ratio Total Male Female Ratio

TOTAL 2,765 1,558 1,207 129.1 4,829 2,505 2,324 107.8

SOUTHERN 704 426 350 119.0 1,135 592 543 109.0

ASTERN 445 261 184 141.8 520 2.98 222 134.2

NORTHERN 1,536 871 665 131.0 3,174 1,615 1,559 103.6

Source: Campbell, 1976. Table VIIe. Annex Figure 3: SEX RATIOS OF MIGRANTS, NON-MIGRANTS AND TOTAL POPULATION IN GREATER FREETOWN AND WESTERN AREA

WESTERN ARcA 200 GREATER FREETOWN 200

190 M 190 - MIGRANTS ISO ISO 10---- NON-MIGRANTS

. TOTAL POPULATION 160 - 160-

150 -150-

140 . 140-

130 _ . 7 _130

6000 - c2

110 It

90 90

60 60

50 50o

401 40 5-9 15-19 25-29 35-39 45-49 55-59 65+ 5-9 15-19 25-29 35-39 45-49 55-59 65+ 0-4 10-14 20-24 30-34 40-44 50-54 60-64 0-4 O0-14 20-24 30-34 40-44 50-54 60-64 AG E AG E (a) (b)

Source Campbell 1976. Figure V. - S.L. 75 -

Annex Table 9a: ETHNIC COMPOSITION OF MIGRANTS AND NON-MIGRANTS IN GREATER FREETOWN (PERCENTAGES), 1975

ETHNIC MIX G R A N T N O N - HIX G R A N T GROUPS Total male PeMIn e Total male Female

Absolute rotals 7,153 3,806 3,347 10,398 5,030 5,368

Total Percentage 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Creole fi.7 6.1 7.3 28.2 26.7 29.6

MQnde 21.8 22.5 21.0 9.4 9.7 9.1

Tembnt 35.6 33.9 37.5 24.3 23.2 25.4

Limba 24.3 14.8 13.9 11.0 11.6 10.4

Lokko 6.7 6.3 7.0 5.1 5.5 4.8

Foulah 1.9 2.2 1.4 3.3 3.8 2.8

Susu/Yalumka/ Koranko 4.6 4.9 4.3 3.1 3.1 3.1

Val/Sherbro/KIsal 3.6 3.9 3.2 2.4 I 2.4 2.4

other Sierra ZAonesa 3.4 3.7 3.2 6.4 6.9 6.0

Non Sierra Loones 1.4 1.7 1.2 6 .8 7.2 6.4

Source: Campbell, 1976. TAble Xa. - S.L. 76 -

Annex Table 9b: ETHNIC COMPOSITION OF MIGRANTS AND NON-MIGRANTS IN WESTERN RURAL AREA (PERCENTAGES), 1975

ETHNIC M I G R A N T N 0 N - MX IG R A N r GROUPS Total male Female Total Male Female

Absolute Total 1,436 736 700 1,795 830 945

Total Percentage 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Creole 6.4 6.7 6.1 7.6 7.0 8.2

Mende 7.9 10.2 5.4 7.6 7.6 7.6

Teimne 47.2 43.6 51.0 52.6 54.1 51.3

Limba 8.8 9.5 8.2 4.5 4.6 4.3

Lokko 1 4.4 4.1 4.7 5.2 5.4 5.1

Foulah 3.7 3.9 3.4 1.9 2.0 1.8

susu/Yalumka/ Koranko 9.3 9.8 8.7 6.0 5.2 6.7

Vai/Sherbro/Kissi 6.9 7.1 6.9 9.6 9.3 9.9

Other Sierra Leoneans 3.8 3.6 3.9 3.8 3.5 4.0

Non Sierra Leoneans 1.6 1.5 1..7 1.2 1.3 1.1

Source: CnmDbell, 197T. Table Xb. - S.L. 77 -

Annex Table 10: PERCENTAGE OF MIGRANTS AND NON-MIGRANTS, FIVE YEARS OF AGE AND OVER WITHOUT FORMAL EDUCATION BY SEX, 1975

WESTkRN ARGA

M'I G RAN T' _____ N ON-MI GRAN T ____ s Survey Population P e rcen tage Survey Population Percentage Total Not Population Total Not E duoa- Population x P opulation EdftoatedX Not Population ted Not Educated Eduoated Total 89155 4,144 50.8 9,036 1,427 15.8 Male 4,357 1,861 42.7 4,294 519 12.1 Fsmr( 39-798 2,283 60.1 4,742 908 19.1

Ga EATZR FRa 3TP0: MI C RANT NON-MIGRPANT

Survey Population Peroentage Survey Population P e rcen tage E Total Not Population 51otal Not Eduoa- Population X Population Edaoate d duNctd Population te d Not ______dik ______a_e ducated

Total 6,819 3,298 48.4 7,738 Bio 10.5 Halo 3,660 1,451 39.6 3,695 273 7.4 Female 39159 1,847 58.5 4,043 537 13.3

'WV',A:;z.7RN 9JRAL A RA

MIGRANT NON-hIGRJNT S Survey Population Percen tage Survey Population Percentage E Total Not Population Total Not Lduca- Populationlot x PPopulation $duoated Not Population ted f2duoated .______DEducated ____. Total 19336 846 63.3 1,298 617 47.5 male 697 410 58.8 599 246 41.1 Female 639 436 68.2 699 371 53.1

Source: Campbell, 1976. Table XII. - S.L. 78 -

There is a wide gap between migrants and non-migrants by educational status. Annex Table 10 shows there are more educated persons among non-migrants (84.2 percent) than migrants (49.2 percent) in the Western Area.

Occupational Activities and Educational Attainment

Out of a total of 3,206 male workers 1/ who were enumerated in Greater Freetown, 70.1 percent were migrants. But only 46.4 percent of the male migrant workers were educated, while 79.7 percent of the non-migrant male workers were educated.

To analyze migrant and non-migrant differentials by occupational status, the following categories of workers were considered: uneducated workers; workers with primary education; and workers with secondary school education. Only males have been considered in the analysis because migrants who move for economic reasons are usually male.

Using correlation analysis by the differential proportion tech- nique, we find the following in Greater Freetown (Annex Table lla):

1. Among the uneducated workers, there were relatively more migrants in the professional and unskilled laborers category of workers. The non-migrants dominated the rest of the occupational categories, though the differentials were low.

2. Among the employed persons with primary education, the indices of dissimilarity were less than those for workers with no education.

3. At the secondary educational level, the first 3 occupational groups were dominated by non-migrants. The groups in question were the professional, administrative, and clerical. Moreover, the differentials were relatively higher at the top occupational levels.

Thus, there is a positive relationship between education and occupational status in Greater Freetown. A similar analysis for the Western Rural Area (Annex Table llb) revealed a somewhat similar pattern although highly educated migrants appeared to occupy the higher status jobs to a greater degree than non-migrants. This is in contrast to the pattern found in Greater Freetown.

1. Among the uneducated, migrants dominated most occupations except those in the clerical and transport fields and the farming and fishing category.

1/ A total of 3,298 workers were enumerated in Greater Freetown, but 92 having a post-secondary education were excluded from this analysis due to their small number. Annuex Table Ila: OCCUPATIONAL DIFFERENTIALS OF KIGRANT AND NON-MIGRANT MALES BY THE EDUCATIONAL STATUS OF THE SAME CATEGORY OF WOmERIS, 15 YEARS OF AGE AND OVER, IN GREATER FREETOWN, 1975

Not Educated Primarv Education Secondary Educatioe Oceupational Abs. Frea. Z Fre.. of Diff; Abs. Frec. 7Funf. of Diff. Abs. Status Free. % Free, of Diff. nig. Xon- Mig. Non- Prop. Mig. Non- Mig. Non- Prop. Mig. Non- Mig. Non- Prop. Mig. Wig. (4-5) Mig. Mig. (4-5) Wig. Mig. (4-5)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Professional, etc. 10 1 0.83 0.51 0.32 11 ~ 4 3.28 2.25 1.03 77 82 10.88 14.04 -3.16

Administrative, etc. 3 1 0.25 0.51 -0.26 2 4 4i.60 2.25 1,65 30 37 4.24 6.34 -2.10

Clerical . 2 3 0.18 1.54 -1.36 19 11 5.67 6.18 -0.51 185 171 26.13 29.28 -3.15

Sales 186 32 15.42 16.42 -1.00 43 16 12.84 8.99 3.85 57 37 8.05 6.34 1.71

Farmers, Fishermen, etc. 66 11 5.47 5.64 -0.17 6 9 1.79 5.06 -3.27 3 6 0.42 1.03 -0.61 Transport & Communication '17'0 33 14.10 16.92 -2.82 56 36 16.72 20.22 -3.50 64 42 9.04 7.19 1.85 Craftsmen, etc. 238 46 19.73 23.59 -3.86 90 42 26.86 23.59 3.27 120 106 16.95 18.15 -1.20

Service, etc. 135 36 11.19 18.46 -7.27 48 22 14.33 12.36 1.97 96 47 13.56 8.05 5.51 Laborers, etc. 375 28 31.09 14.36 16.73 37 29 11.04 16.29 -5.25 43 44 6.07 7.53 -1.46 Armed Forces 21 4 1.74 2.05 -0.31 23 5 6.87 2.81 4.06 33 12 4.66 2.05 2.61 Total 1,206 195 100.00 100.00 17.10* 335 178 100.00 100.00 14.18* 708 584 100.00 100.00 11.681

* Coefficient of Dissimilarity.

Source. Campbell, 1976. Table XIIIa. Annex Table llb: OCCUPATIONJA DIFFERENTIALS OF MIGRANT AND NON-MIGRANT MALES BY THE EDUCATIONAL STATUS OF THE SAME CATEGORY OF WORKERS, 15 YEARS OF AGE AND OVER, IN THE WESTERN RURAL AREA, 1975

Not Educated Primary Education Secondary Education Percentage Differential Percentage Differential Percentage Differential Occupational Status Freouency Proportions Freouency Proportions Frequency Proportions Mig. Non-Mig. (2-3) Mig. Non-Mig. (2-3) Mig. Non-Mig. (2-3)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (2) (3) (4) (2) (3) (4) Professional, etc. 0.54 0.00 0.54 1.37 0.00 1.37 16.98 3.33 13.65 Administrative, etc. 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.37 0.00 1.37 0.00 0.00 0.00 Clerical 0.00 0.46 -0.46 2.74 3.70 -0.96 9.43 20.00 -10.57 Sales 4.90 1.83 3.07 ).48 1.85 3.63 7.55 6.67 0.88 Farmers, Firshermen, etc. 72.83 85.38 -12.55 60.27 62.96 -2.69 32.08 16.67 15.41 Transport and Communication 1.36 1.83 -0.47 2.74 0.00 2.74 1.89 10.00 -8.11

Craftsmen, etc. 7.06 2.74 4.32 13.70 16.67 -2.97 15.09 20.00 -4.91 g 0 Service, etc. 3.53 0.91 2.62 5.48 5.56 -0.08 5.66 0.00 5.66 1 Laborers, etc. 9.24 6.85 2.39 6.85 9.26 -2.41 5.66 23.33 -17.67 Armed Forces 0.54 0.00 0.54 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.66 0.00 5.66 Total 100.00 100.00 13.48* 100.00 100.00 9.11* 100.00 100.00 41.26*

* Coefficient of discimilarity.

Sourcee Campbell, 1975. Table XIIIb. - S.L. 81 -

2. Among the employed with a primary education, the index of dissimilarity was lowest.

3. The index of dissimilarity was highest among migrant and non-migrant workers with a secondary education. Migrants had a higher proportion in professional, sales, service, and armed forces jobs than non-migrants. IV. CAUSES OF MIGRATION

The questionnaire included open-ended questions asking migrants why they moved to the Western Area. Field observations suggest there were many reasons affecting the migrant's decision. These were mainly economic, social, or psychological in nature; and included employment, education, marriage, housing, recreation, visits, and convenience to work.

There were also reasons which can be classified as ephiphenomenal because they appear to be concomitant to the primary reason for moving. For example, a person may have migrated to find work but reported that he migrated to visit a friend or relative if he was still unemployed at the time of enumeration. Because of the open-ended nature of the questions, a considerable number of migrants gave reasons which could be classified as psychological or epiphenomenal. There were also migrants who could not give any reason for moving; most were people who migrated within the Western Area. This is a reflection of the high degree of urbanization in the region, which gives rise to much intra-regional mobility among its inhabitants.

Two classifications of migration by reason for moving were adopted here. The first classification is voluntary, obligatory, and sequential migration (see Gupta, 1962). This provides scope for the division of migrants into those who moved on their own initiative, those who were obliged to move because of the nature of their jobs, and those who moved in response to the movement of the head of the family or other relatives. The second classification is economic, socio-cultural, and psycho-epiphenominal reasons for moving.

Annex Table 12a shows that 36.3 percent of the migrants in the Western Area moved voluntarily. Fifty-seven percent of the migrants moved with, or to join their parents, guardians, friends or spouses. The data revealed that migration to the Western Area was sequential in nature. This pattern appeared to be sensitive to the differential ability of men and women to migrate. Males appeared to migrate first, with their families following. Therefore voluntary migration was higher than the other types of migration among males. This was especially so with regard to cityward migration. Over 85 percent of migration among females was of the sequential type. In the Western Area, 86.4 percent of female migration was sequential while only 9.6 percent was voluntary.

The difference between voluntary and sequential migration was less for males than for females. In the city, for example, the difference between voluntary and sequential migrations for males was 31.1 percent; but for females it was 75.7 percent. In the Western Rural Area, the corresponding differences were 22 percent for males and 81.6 percent for females. Since the only reason classified as obligatory was an economic one, it is not surprising that there were more males than females among obligatory migrants. The pattern was the same for both the city and the Western Rural Area.

- S.L. 82 - Annex Table 12a: A CLASSIFICATION OF MIGRANTS INTO VOLUNTARY, OBLIGATORY SEQUENTIAL REASONS FOR MOVING TO THE WESTERN AREA, BY SEX (Percentage Distribution)

REASON FOR MOVING Western Area Greater Freetown Weste n Rural ARea Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male ._e_ale Total Absolute Frequency 3,589 4,542 4,047 7,153 3.806 3,347 1,436 736 700 Total Percentage 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 90.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 VOWNTARY * 36.3 60.2 9.6 37.2 60.9 10.3 31.9 56.1 6.5

To Find Work 19.5 35.9 1.1 20.3 37.1 1.3 15.3 29.6 0.3 To Work 3.2 5.3 0.9 2.2 3.5 0.7 8.2 14.1 1.9 To Attend School 10.1 14.9 4.8 11.8 17.1 5.7 2.1 3.4 0.7 To Establish Own Household 1.3 1.8 0.8 1.0 1.2 0.7 3.1 5.0 1.o To Receive Medical care 1.1 1.0 1.2 1.0 0.9 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.4 Others # 1.1 1.3 0.8 0.9 1.1 0.7 1.9 2.8 1.1 OBLIGATORY * 4.3 6.9 1.4 4.6 7.3 1.5 2.9 5.0 0.7 _~ -..-. _ Transferred in Work 4.3 6.9 1.4 4.6 7.3 1.5 2.9 5.0 0.7 SEQUENTIAL * 56.9 30.4 86.4 56.1 29.8 86.0 60.5 34.1 88.1

Because of Marriage 19.8 0.3 41.7 19.7 0.3 41.7 20.3 0.0 41.6 Moved with Parent or Guardian 13.6 12.4 14.8 13.4 12.1 14.9 14.2 14.1 14.3 To visit or stay with Relative 22.9 17.2 29.2 22.3 16.8 28.6 19.6 19.6 31.9 Adopted 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.3 NOT STATED * 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.1 2.0 2.2 4.7 4.8 4.7

* Percentages add up to 100.0

# This includes reasons such as "Because of Convenience" and "Social Amenities"

Source; Campbell, 1976. Table XXIa. - S.L. 84 -

It appears from Annex Table 12b that socio-cultural factors were the most important cause of migration to the Western Area. Some writers, including Imoagene (1967), have emphasized the dominant role of socio-cultural or psychosocial factors in migration over the economic factors. Economic factors constituted 27 percent of the total reasons for moving, while socio- cultural factors contributed 46.5 percent. The psycho-epiphenominal causes of migration were almost as important as the economic causes.

When age-specific causes of migration were examined, a new pattern was observed. Among males the economic reasons for moving were of greatest importance; 37.1 percent of male migrants had gone to the city to find work. Most of those in this category came from the provinces. The comparative proportion for females was 1.3 percent. In the Western Rural Area, 29.6 percent of the male migrants had gone in search of jobs.

Many more males moved out of the city to the Western Rural Area for economic reasons than was the case with migration from the Western Rural Area to the city. Out of all male migrants from the city to the Western Rural Area, 37.3 percent went in search of employment. But the proportion which went to the city from the Western Rural Area for the same reason was 19.8 percent. This pattern is plausible for the following reasons:

(1) Many of the migrants to the Western Rural Area from the city who went to find work would be people who had first migrated to the city for the same reason, but failed to get a job;

(2) The proximity of the 2 areas makes it possible for most potential male migrants in the Western Rural Area to be better informed than people of the provinces about employment opportunities in the city. Therefore, fewer people will migrate within a short distance to find work if the opportunities for employment at destination are low. It is not surprising therefore that the highest proportion of male migrants who moved to the city to find work came from Koinadugu district (53.3 percent). Koinadugu is one of the farthest and most remote districts from the city.

The proportion of migrants that any district will send to the city for employment reasons is affected by communications, and economic development at source. This is reflected in the proportion of male migrants who came from Kono district to the city to look for work. Kono district sent the lowest proportion, 26.6 percent, to the city for this reason. But Kambia district sent 42.2 percent; Bombali district, 43.5 percent; and Tonkolili district, 41.3 percent of their male migrants to the city to find work.

Compared to males, the proportion of females who migrated to the Western Area for economic reasons was very low (see Annex Table 12b). The greatest proportion of them moved for socio-cultural reasons. Out of all the female migrants to the city, 65.0 percent moved for these reasons. The corresponding proportion in the Western Rural Area was 59.4 percent. This Annex Table 12b: A CLASSIFICATION OF MIGRANTS INTO ECONOMIC, SOCIO-CULTURAL AND PSYCHO-EPIPHENOMINAL REASONS FOR MOVING TO THE WESTERN AREA, BY SEX

(Percentage Distribution)

WEASONSTERN AREA GREATER FREETOWN WESTERN RURAPL ARF,A RF.ASON FOR MOVING Bo_ -o Both Both Both

_Sexes Male Femrale Sexes .Male Female Sexes Male Female Total Absolute Frequency 8,589 4,542 4,047 7,153 3,806 3,347 1,436 736 700 Total Percentage 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 .1000100.0 100.0n ln.0 TCo.NtoMC * 27.0 48.1 3.4 27.1 47 .9 j 3. 5 26.4 48.7 2.9

To Find Work 19.5 35.9 1.1 20.3 37.1 1.3 15.3 29.6 *'3 To Mork 3.2 5.3 0.9 2.2 3.5 0.7 8.2 14.11 1.9 Transferred in Work 4.3 6.9 1.4 4.6 7,3 1.5 2.9 5.0 .7 1 SOCXO-CULTtRAL * 46.5 30.9 64.0 47.6 32.2 65.0 41.4 24.1 59.4

To attend school 10.1 14.9 4.8 11.8 17.1 5.7 21 3.4 0.7 0 Because of Marriage 19.8 0.3 41.7 19.7 0.3 41.7 20.3 0.0 41.6 I Moved wsith Parent or Guardian 13.6 12.4 14.8 13.4 12.1 14.9 14.2 14.1 1.1.2 Adopted 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.3 To receive medical care 1.1 1.0 1.2 1.0 0.9 1.2 1-3 1.2 1.4 To Establish own 1 Household 1.3 1.8 0.8 1.0 1.2 0.7 3.1 5.0 1.1 PSYCBO-EPIPHENOMIZ]AL * 24.0 18.5 30.0 23.2 17 .9 29.3 27.5 22.4 33.0

Social Amenitles 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.3 Because of ConvenIence 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.2 1.5 2.2 0.8 To visit or stay with RelaFlve 22.9 17.2 29.2 22,3 16.8 28.6 25.6 19.c 31.9 NOT STATED * 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.17 2.0 2.2 4.7 4.8 4.7 . - .. _.-- .- - t . - -- . _- -...______. __ __

* Percentages add up to 100.0

Source: Campbell, 1976. Table XXIb. - S.L. 86 -

pattern is a reflection of the sequential nature of their migration. This is manifested in the volume of female migrants who reported that they migrated because of marriage to a man who had migrated to the same area (41.7 percent). The comparative proportion for female migrants in the Western Rural Area was 41.6 percent.

Less females moved to the Western Area for educational reasons than males. Parents in the provinces are more willing to allow their sons to migrate to the city for educational reasons than their daughters. One of the reasons lies in the fear that their daughters may resort to prostitution in the city. This is especially so with parents in the Northern province. The highest sending areas of females for educational reasons are the Southern and Eastern provinces. This is a reflection of the relative development of education in these provinces.

Psycho-Epiphenominal Reasons for Moving

Out of the total migrants enumerated in the city and the Western Rural Area, less than 1 percent reported that they moved to these areas because of the social amenities existing there. A few other migrants responded that they moved because of "convenience". These may be secondary reasons.

Over 17.0 percent of male migrants to the Western Area reported their reason for moving as a visit or stay with relatives. Although it is possible that a visitor's duration of residence can qualify him for a migrant status, the proportion of males who were affected is high (see Annex Table 12b). One reason for this may be the fact that most of the canvassing was done in the Krio language. The Krio translation for visitor is "tranger" (which literally means "stranger" in English). It is probable that many of those who were reported as "trangers" and recorded as "visitors" were actually migrants who moved to find a job or attend school. Secondly, there is the possibility of misstatement of reasons for moving.

Duration of Residence

Annex Table 13 gives the percentage distribution of male migrants in the city classified by duration of residence and reason for moving. In the city the proportion of longterm male migrants who reportedly moved in search of employment was 49.2 percent. Among more recent migrants, less than 30 percent moved to the city for this reason. The data for the Western Rural Area indicated that the opposite was true there. Among the longterm male migrants, 31.5 percent had moved to the Western Rural Area to find work, but the equivalent proportion for current migrants was 37.6 percent. This pattern is plausible because a high proportion of males move for economic reasons. Assum- ing that farming and fishing activities in the Western Rural Area offer opportunities for employment to migrants who would have wished to move to the city, the economic factor has much influence on migration to the Western Rural Area. - S.L. 87 -

Annex Table 13: REASON FOR MOVING BY DURATION OF RESIDENCE AND REGION OF PREVIOUS RESIDENCE PERCENTAGES FOR MALE MIGRANTS IN GREATER FREETOWN, 1975

Place of Reason Duration of Residence Previous for ------Residence Moving T6 m. 26 m.1 yr,<5 yrs. 25 yrs.<10 yrs. 2.l0 yrs.<15 yrs. Z15 yrs.

1 11.4 19.6 29.2 37.7 41.8 47.8 2 22.7 7.1 15.0 11.5 8.2 9.6 Southern 3. 13.6 33.9 23.7 25.1 21.4 15.3 Province 4 9.1 14.3 11.9 10.9 15.3 10.0 5 4.5 1.8 2.0 0.0 1.0 2.4 6 29.5 21.4 15.0 13.1 9.2 10.0 7 9.2 1.9 3.2 1.7 3.1 4.9 ------__------__------1 19.5 32.4 24.3 40.0 33.3 54.3 2 17.1 16.2 12.7 7.0 7.0 9.6 Eastern 3 17.1 10.8 22.0 19.1 26.3 7.4 Province 4 14.6 8.1 10.4 15.7 8.8 12.8 5 2.4 2.7 5.2 3.5 10.5 4.3 6 17.1 24.3 22.0 13.0 10.5 6.4 7 12.2 5.5 3.4 1.7 3.6 5.2 ------__------__------1 30.0 29.3 31.4 38.4 43.8 52.1 2 26.0 24.0 21.6 20.8 16.3 17.7 Northern 3 14.0 18.7 19.2 19.6 15.3 10.9 Province 4 10.0 4.0 5.4 4.6 6.3 3.0 5 2.0 9.3 5.0 2.5 4.5 3.4 6 11.0 10.7 12.9 11.0 9.7 7.4 7 7.0 4.0 4.5 3.1 4,1 5.5 ------__------__------1 21.9 25.4 28.2 37.3 40.0 49.2 2 21.9 17.1 18.8 16.8 13.4 15.5 All Male 3 16.4 22.7 21.0 20.7 18.3 12.5 Migrants 4 10.4 7.7 7.9 7.8 8.9 5.5 5 2.5 5.0 4.0 2.2 4.3 3.2 6 17.9 16.6 15.3 11.9 10.4 8.4 7 9.0 5.5 4.8 3.3 4.7 5.7

1/ 1 = To find work 2 = To visit or stay with relatives 3 = To attend school 4 = Transferred in work 5 = To work 6 = Moved with parents 7 = Other

Source Campbell, 1976. Table XXVIII. - S.L. 88 -

Thus, in the city there appeared to be some association between males who migrated with the aim of finding work and length of residence. That is, the longer the duration of residence, the higher the proportion of persons who migrated to find work in the city (see Annex Table 13).

A contrasting pattern was observed for male migrants who moved for socio-cultural reasons. Out of the male migrants who had stayed for less than one year, 39.3 percent had migrated for socio-cultural reasons. But the corresponding proportions for those who had stayed for 10 - 14 years was 28.7 percent. Among the longterm migrants, it was 20.9 percent. The table also indicated that 21.9 percent of the male migrants who had stayed for less than 6 months had moved for psycho-epiphenominal reasons. But the corresponding proportion for those who had stayed for 10 - 14 years was 13.4 percent; and for longterm migrants it was 15.5 percent. 1/

The above observations suggest that in the year preceding 1960, economic factors were of much greater importance than now as motivators for cityward migration.

1/ The residual category, "Other", is excluded from this analysis.

MIGRATION TO LIBERIA

M.L. Srivastava

Prepared as part of the World Bank/Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development Research Project: "Demographic Aspects of Migration in West Africa."

World Bank Development Economics Department Population and Human Resources Division Washington, D.C.

MIGRATION TO LIBERIA

By M. L. Srivastava 1/

Table of Contents Page No.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 1-4

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ...... 5

CHAPTER II. DEMOGRAPHIC BACKGROUND ...... 12

CHAPTER III. INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION ...... 17

CHAPTER IV. INTERNAL MIGRATION ...... 27

CHAPTER V. SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF MIGRANTS ...... 47

1/ The author is grateful to the Republic of Liberia, Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs, for providing unpublished data from the 1974 Population Census of Liberia. Calculations were provided by Michael Owoeye and James F. Kaye; editing by K.C. Zachariah and Bonnie L. Newlon. - ii -

List of Maps and Figures Page No.

Map 1. Liberia. Counties and Territories, 1974 ...... 10

Map 2. Liberia. Net Lifetime Migration Streams, 1962 ...... 35

Map 3. Liberia. Net Lifetime Migration Streams, 1974 ...... 37 - iii -

List of Tables Page No.

Table 1. Spatial Distribution, Growth of Population, and Density, 1962 and 1974 ...... 14

Table 2. Age Distribution of Population by Broad Age Groups, 1962 and 1974 ...... 16

Table 3. Distribution of Foreign-born and Alien Popula- tion, 1962 and 1974 ...... 17

Table 4. Percentage Distribution of Foreign-born Population by Country of Origin, Sex, and Citizenship, 1962 ...... 19

Table 5. Immigrants by Country of Origin and Emigrants by Country of Destination, 1970 and 1971 ...... 20

Table 6. Lifetime Immigrants by Sex and County/Province of Residence, 1962 ...... *. .. 00 . .00.. O.. 22

Table 7. Lifetime Immigrants by Sex and County of Residence, 1974 ...o-oo...... o...... oo...... -..-..-...... 23

Table 8. Estimated Number of Immigrants and Emigrants in Relation to Total Population by Sex and Location, 1970 and 1971 .-...... 25

Table 9. Estimated Net Immigrants in Relation to Total Popu- lation by Sex and Location, 1970 and 1971 ...... 26

Table 10. Lifetime In-, Out-, and Net-Migration by Location and Sex, 1962 .oo ...... - 28

Table 11. Lifetime Out-Migration as Percent of Population Born in An Area and Lifetime In-Migration as Percent of Population Residing in an Area by Sex, 1962 ...... 29

Table 12. Lifetime In-, Out-, and Net-Migration by Location and Sex, 1974 o.oo...... eo.e...... o.ooo..o..o...... 31

Table 13. Lifetime Out-Migration as Percent of Population Born in an Area and Lifetime In-Migration as Percent of Population Residing in an Area by Sex, 1974 -o ..... o. 32

Table 14. Net Gain Due to Exchange of Population (Both Sexes) Between Areal Units, 1962 ...... -...... 33 - iv -

List of Tables (continued) Page No.

Table 15. Net Gain Due to Exchange of Population (Both Sexes) Between Counties, 1974 ...... 36

Table 16. Destination of Out-Migrants, 1962 and 1974 ...... 39

Table 17. Distribution of Population Born and Enumerated in 1962 According to Areal Units As of 1974 ...... 40

Table 18. Estimated Net Intercensal Internal Migration by Sex and County, 1962 to 1974 ...... 42

Table 19. Intercensal Net Migration Rates, 1962-1974 ...... 43

Table 20. Volume and Rate of Rural-Urban Migration, Average of 1970-1971 ...... 46

Table 21. Sex Ratios of Lifetime In- and Out-Migrants by Areal Units, 1962 and 1974 ...... 48

Table 22. Distribution of Foreign-born and Alien Population by Age and Sex, 1962 ...... *... * 50

Table 23. Estimates of Immigrants and Emigrants by Age, Sex, and Location, 1970 and 1971 ...... 52

Table 24. Estimates of Net-Migrants by Age, Sex, and Location, 1970 and 1971 ...... 53

Table 25. Selected Partition Values for Age Distributions of Immigrants and Emigrants by Sex and Location, 1970 and 1971 ...... 54

Table 26. Selected Age Characteristics of Immigrants by Country of Origin and Emigrants by Country of Destination, 1970 and 1971 ...... 56

Table 27. Age-Specific Lifetime Out-Migrants as Percent of Population in Specified Age Group by Area of Birth, 1962 ...... 57

Table 28. Age-Specific Lifetime Net-Migrants as Percent of Population in Specified Age Group by Area of Birth, 1962 ...... 58

Table 29. Age-Specific Lifetime Out-Migrants as Percent of Population in Specified Age Group by Area of Birth, 1974 ...... ** 59 List of Tables (continued) Page No.

Table 30. Age-Specific Lifetime Net-Migrants as Percent of Population in Specified Age Group by Area of Birth, 1974 ...... 61

Table 31. Sex Ratios (Males per 100 Females) of Lifetime In- and Out-Migrants by Age and Areal Units, 1962 ...... 62

Table 32. Sex Ratios (Males per 100 Females) of Lifetime In- and Out-Migrants by Age and Areal Units, 1974 ...... 63

Table 33. Percent Distribution of Migrants and Total Population by Age and Sex, Average for 1970- 1971 ...... *...... 64

Table 34. Volume and Rate of Rural-Urban Migration by Age and Sex, Average for 1970-1971 ...... 66

Table 35. Volume and Rate of Intra-Rural and Intra-Urban Migration by Age and Sex, Average for 1970-1971 ..... 67

Table 36. Volume and Rate of Turnover and Net Rural-Urban Migration by Age and Sex, Average for 1970-1971 ..... 68

Table 37. Index of Effectiveness for Rural-Urban Migration by Age and Sex, 1970-1971 ...... O* ...... 69

Table 38. Efficiency of Lifetime Migration for Areal Units by Sex, 1962 and 1974 ...... 71

Table 39. Migration Selectivity by Age and Sex, 1962 72

Table 40. Migration Selectivity by Sex and Age, 1974 .74

Table 41. Migration Selectivity by Sex and Age, 1962 and 1974 . 75

Table 42. Immigration by Intended Length of Stay and Location, 1970 and 1971 ...... 76

Table 43. Emigration by Intended Length of Stay and Location, 1970 and 1971 ...... 77

Table 44. Percent Distribution of Migrants by Reason for Migra- tion and Location, 1970 and 1971 . .. 79

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Liberia's total land area is 97,920 sq. km; its population was 1,688,000 in mid-1977. Its enumerated population was 1,016,000 in 1962 and 1,503,000 in 1974; and population densities (persons per square kilometer) were 10.4 and 15.4 respectively in 1962 and 1974. Spatial distribution of the population is quite uneven. In 1974, about 3 of every 10 persons in Liberia were living in Montserrado County which contains the national capital, Monrovia. As a further illustration, the population density per square kilometer in 1974 varied from a low of 4.3 persons in Grand Gedeh County to a high of 67.4 in Montserrado County.

The country's sex ratio has varied over time. In 1962, there were only 98 males per 100 females; in 1974 there were 102 males per 100 females.

The population has a young age structure; and the proportion of the population in the younger ages increased over the intercensal period (1962-74). Forty-one percent of the total population were in the age group 0-14 years in 1974.

About 29 percent of the population in 1974 lived in urban areas.

The country has both high fertility and moderately high mortality. The crude birth rate was about 50 and the crude death rate about 18 per 1000 population during the early part of this decade. Thus the natural growth rate of the population was slightly more than 3.0 percent per year. Because of net immigration, the rate of population growth was slightly higher, about 3.4 percent per annum during 1962 - 1974.

Net immigration of aliens into Liberia appears to be quite small. In 1974, only 59,000 persons in Liberia, or 4 percent of the total population, were foreign-born. About one-half of them were located in Montserrado County, another one-third were divided equally between the counties of Lofa and Nimba. These migrations to Lofa and Nimba seem to be associated with major agricultural development and iron ore mining projects there.

The net lifetime gain to migration during 1962-74 was only about 28,000 persons, or 1.9 percent of the total population, in 1974. This gain raised the intercensal rate of population growth only marginally.

Of the 59,000 persons in 1974 who were born outside Liberia, 13,000 (22 percent) were citizen immigrants and 46,000 (78 percent) were alien immigrants. About 95 percent of the citizen immigrants came from African countries, mainly the bordering countries of Guinea, Ivory Coast, and Sierra Leone which together contributed three-fourths of the total. Ghana was the other African country to send a substantial number (13 percent) of citizen immigrants to Liberia. Migration streams between Liberia and its neighbouring countries appeared to cancel each other. Further, the populations of neighboring countries were larger than that of Liberia. Thus, international migration appeared to have a negligible demographic effect on Liberia and its neighbours. The largest international migration stream affecting Liberia was

- L.1 - - L.2 - that between Liberia and Guinea. This was followed by the streams between Liberia and Sierra Leone and Liberia and Ivory Coast (at about one-half of the migration between Liberia and Guinea).

In 1962, only two-thirds of the alien immigrants came from African countries, with Ghana sending 26 percent of all the aliens. The other African countries sending significant numbers of alien immigrants to Liberia were Guinea (19.2 percent), Sierra Leone (9.8 percent), Mali (2.0 percent), Ivory Coast (1.8 percent), and Nigeria (1.3 percent). Among the non-African countries, only the United States of America and Lebanon sent more than 5 percent of all alien immigrants to Liberia. The respective percentages were 7.7 and 9.7. Other countries sending alien immigrants into Liberia were Italy (3 percent), Netherlands (2.3 percent), Spain (2.2 percent), Sweden (1.8 percent), and United Kingdom (1.4 percent).

International migration was predominantly by males. Most of the immigrants (above 90 percent), were below 45 years of age; and the male immigrants were on average 5 years older than their female counterparts.

Immigrants to Liberia did not show any distinct favour for residence in either rural or urban areas; but most of the emigrants (68 percent) in 1970 originated in a rural area.

A great population triangle is being formed in Liberia. In 1962, it included Montserrado County, Western and Central Provinces; in 1974, it included Montserrado, Bong, Lofa, and Nimba Counties. This great triangle contained 71 percent of Liberia's population in 1974, on 48 percent of the total land area. It accommodated 85 percent of the lifetime immigrants in 1974. One in every 2 lifetime immigrants was living in Montserrado County, and 1 in every 6 was living in Lofa and Nimba Counties each.

In spite of the low volume of international migration into or out of Liberia, its impact on Liberia's economy is substantial. This is due to the shortage of trained and skilled manpower in the country. Most of the managerial, executive, and technical positions in various establishments are held by expatriates. In addition, several small- and large-scale business enterprises are partly or solely owned by expatriates. Although this situation is gradually changing, the pace of change is very slow, and the situation is unlikely to change substantially in the near future.

Unlike international migration, internal migration was quite substantial in Liberia. In 1962, 17 percent of the population born in Liberia were enumerated outside their county/province of birth. By 1974, about 21 percent of all those born in Liberia were enumerated outside their county of birth. Because of extensive boundary changes in 1964, the data relating to internal migration available from the 2 recent censuses are not directly comparable. However, they convey 2 broad generalities: (1) the incidence of internal migration has accelerated, and (2) the sex differential in internal migration has narrowed over the intercensal period. - L.3 -

Most of the internal migration streams are directed toward Mont- serrado County which contains the national capital. This county was the universal gainer as a result of population exchanges between counties and provinces and absorbed as much as 82 percent of the total net gains experienced by these areal units in 1962. By 1974 this county increased its share to 88 percent. Some of the dominant net streams in 1974 were Lofa - Montserrado (44,000), Grand Bassa - Montserrado (41,000), and Bong - Montserrado (40,000).

During the intercensal period, 1962 - 1974, 4 counties, Grand Cape Mount, Grand Gedeh, Montserrado and Nimba, experienced net gains in their populaton due to migration. The highest gain (75,000) occurred in Mont- serrado. Grande Cape Mount and Nimba counties followed Montserrado, but the net gains there were only 9,000 and 7,000 persons. In Grand Gedeh County, in- and out-migration almost counter-balanced one another. The heaviest net loss occurred in Grand Bassa County (35,000).

Young adults in the age group 15-29 years were the most prevalent migrants. One in every 3 males aged 15-29 years in Liberia in 1962 was a migrant. This was closely followed by males in the age group 30-44 years, with a 28 percent out-migration rate. The out-migration rates for females were generally lower than those for males. The age pattern of lifetime out- migration in 1974 was similar to that in 1962. However, the age groupings employed in 1974 brought out certain factors which were probably concealed by the 1962 data. The highest out-migration rate for males was noted in the age group 25-34 years, while for females it occurred in the age group 15-24 years. The age-specific out-migration rates also indicated a general rise in the incidence of lifetime migration during 1962 - 1974.

Males were more migratory than females. In 1962, male lifetime migrants outnumbered females by a ratio of 149:100. This advantage had decreased by 20 points at the time of the second census in 1974. Female migrants were mostly concentrated in the younger age groups.

In 1974, 14 percent of the population born and enumerated in Liberia were displaced from their place of birth. The displacement index increased from 9.7 percent in 1962 to 13.9 percent in 1974. This increase is indicative of the acceleration of internal migration in Liberia.

In general, most of the migrants moved into neighbouring areas, especially from counties adjoining Montserrado county. Distant (from Mont- serrado) counties which had low out-migration to neighbouring areas had relatively high out-migration to Montserrado. Thus, the availability of economic and social opportunities in Montserrado appeared to out-weigh the distance of move for migrants within Liberia.

Between 1962 and 1974, the urban population of Liberia increased by 239,000. Of this, about 144,000 resulted from rural to urban migration and reclassification of areas. This addition to the urban population was 11.4 percent of the average population of the country during the intercensal period. Most - L.4 -

of the rural-urban migration was directed toward Monrovia, the national capital, and other major centers of socio-economic activity. It is estimated that Monrovia had a net gain of about 41,000 people as a result of migration during 1962-74 from the rural areas. Its gain was 28 percent of the total change in the urban population due to rural-urban migration and reclassification of areas.

The most important reason for migration in Liberia was economic -- seeking work and/or taking work. In the ages 15 and over, 1 in every 3 male migrants to urban areas and 1 in every 5 male migrants to rural areas moved for these reasons. The next most important reason for male migration (1 in 10) was education, while that for female migration was marriage (12 percent). Unspecified reasons for migration accounted for more than one-half of the total migration in Liberia. Probably this aspect of migration makes the process of rural-urban migration unstable. I. INTRODUCTION

The history of Liberia is a story of migration - both international and internal. Based on the limited source material available, Gnielinski has given a concise account of the migration that Liberia experienced since 1461. He observed that, "Most tribes reached their present areas during the first half of the 19th century infiltrating the country from the northeast following a pattern of migration from the savanna in the rainforest" (Gnielinski, 1970). This migration most probably took place gradually and arose as a result of expeditions heading toward the coast in search of salt; it was aug- mented by the favourable agricultural and economic conditions and the availability of land. Concurrently, another gradual movement occurred from the coastal to the interior regions. In spite of these movements, the central part of Liberia remained thinly populated.

Another significant migration into Liberia occurred around 1821 when immigrant Africans arrived from America. This movement proved to be the turning point in the history of the country, which was declared a republic in 1847.

The "Open Door and Unification Policies", adopted by the country under President William V. S. Tubman (who served from 1944 until his death in 1971), introduced a new wave of economic and social change in Liberia and thereby stimulated a new pattern of international and internal migrations in the country. 1/ Development (including travel facilities), during and after World War II encouraged a rapid growth of population in the capital city and a few other areas of recent economic activity (such as mines and industrial enterprises). Much of this growth has resulted from rural to urban migration.

Liberia's long history of migration unfortunately cannot be quanti- fied due to lack of data. However, for recent years, a fairly realistic picture can be drawn from the data obtained in the population censuses of 1962 and 1974 and in the demographic surveys conducted during 1970 and 1971. Using these sources, the present paper attempts to measure the international and internal migration, describe the characteristics of migrants, and assess the causes and consequences of such migration.

Sources of Data

In 1961 Frank Lorimer wrote, "The only countries for which population estimates are still a mere guess, without any substantial basis, are Ethiopia and Liberia". Since then the status of demographic statistics in Liberia has improved rapidly. Two complete population censuses have been

1/ The "unification" policy ended discrimination against tribespeople, while the "open door" policy encouraged United States and European development of Liberian natural resources.

- L.5 - - L.6 - conducted: one on April 2, 1962, and the other on February 1, 1974. In addition, a country-wide longitudinal population growth survey (LPGS) was launched in 1969. This survey, originally planned for five years, had to be discontinued later in order to prepare for the 1974 Census of Population and Housing. The data from LPGS are, however, available for the years 1970 and 1971.

The Vital Statistics System in Liberia is governed by the Liberian Public Health and Safety Laws of 1956. The original legislation was approved in 1931-32, and organized registration of deaths and births began (respectively) in 1934 and 1936. This source, however, is not a substantial aid to demographic research because of its incomplete coverage and lack of published statistics.

Migration Data from Population Censuses

Both international and internal migration data are derived from two questions - place of birth and citizenship - which were asked of every individual enumerated in the 2 censuses of Liberia. For all those born outside Liberia, the country of birth and citizenship were recorded in both censuses. For all those born in Liberia, the town or township, city, or district of birth was recorded in 1962. The data were, however, made available only by major administrative divisions of the country; namely, county/ territory, province. In 1974, only the county of birth was recorded for each individual born in Liberia. The Enumerator's Handbook contained instruc- tions to record country/territory of birth, but this was not consistently followed throughout the country.

The data for the study of international migration (immigration only) come from the following three tables (PC - B of the 1962 Census):

- Persons born in Liberia and born abroad by age and sex;

- Foreign-born population by citizenship and place of birth;

- Citizenship of the population by age and sex.

The data from the 1974 census contain similar tables.

The study of internal migration is based principally on the classification of persons by their places of birth and usual residence at the time of census. In addition, the spatial distribution of the population, as obtained from the 2 censuses by administrative divisions of the country at the time of the 1974 census, can be used to obtain an estimate of the balance of internal migration across administrative boundaries of the country. The age distribution of persons inhabiting different counties and territories, as obtained from the 2 censuses, cannot be used to estimate the flow of internal migration in Liberia during the intercensal period mainly because of extensive boundary changes between censuses. - L.7 -

Liberian Population Growth Survey (LPGS)

The LPGS was designed to generate estimates of population and various characteristics for the entire country, for rural areas (localities with 2,000 or less inhabitants), and for urban areas (localities with more than 2,000 inhabitants) separately. One hundred villages selected randomly from 50 clans (lowest administrative division of the country), constituted the rural sample; and 100 urban blocks, randomly selected and each consisting of approximately 200 inhabitants, constituted the urban sample. The survey covered 5 percent of the total population of Liberia who usually reside in single and multiple dwelling units in the selected areas. Persons in the following categories were excluded: hospital patients; military and police personnel in barracks; persons residing in hotels, schools, or longterm institutions; and non-Liberians in concession compounds, missions, embassies, university, etc. Data on immigration and emigration, along with other demographic information, such as sex, age, time of migration, reasons for migration, place of origin, and length of intended residence were obtained in the survey.

In the LPGS, a migrant was defined as any person moving into or out of a household with the intention of remaining or staying away for either an indefinite period of time, or for over 30 days. If these conditions did not hold true, the individual was counted as a usual resident. This was a clear departure from the time concept of two months' residence in order to be counted as a usual resident, as in the population censuses of Liberia. The short duration of stay used in classifying a person as a migrant in the LPGS is likely to exaggerate the volume of migration by including visitors and temporary migrants. The exaggeration in the case of rural-urban migration is quite substantial and likely to give a misleading picture of the process of urbanization in the country.

The yearly rounds of the LPGS extended from May to April of the following year. The data were collected through household enquiry following the dual record system. The estimates of true value of demographic events were obtained by the Chandrasekar-Deming (see LPGS, M-1) formula after matching records of 2 independent sets of investigators. One set of investigators (local resident enumerators), continued work in the field (throughout the year) and recorded events on a monthly basis. The other set (team of central staff/supervisors), visited the selected areas at an interval of 6 months and collected retrospective data on demographic events and other socio- economic characteristics for the previous 6 months. The events were matched, and differences were verified in the field.

In the case of migration, however, it was observed that, unlike recording births and deaths by the 2 systems of enumeration, the monthly system always recorded more migrations than the six-monthly system. Further, field verification of differences between the recordings by the 2 systems in many cases was not possible because, "The migrants were no longer present to acknowledge the occurrence and neighbours could not substantiate the information" (see M-1). Several migrations missed by both systems were located by the office editors. The difficulties were such that migration data were not adjusted by the Chandrasekar - Deming formula. - L.8 -

To gather migration stream data, LPGS considered 4 origins and 4 destinations, as (1) moved within this place or locality, (2) moved to or from a rural area, (3) moved to or from an urban locality, and (4) moved to or from a country outside Liberia. These points of origin or destination were then related to the location of the sampling units in rural and urban areas, and the direction of the migration streams were established. Thus, data from LPGS enable one to study international, rural-urban, urban-rural, intra- rural as well as intra-urban migration. Further, the survey identified migrants by 2 approaches: (1) those who moved into the sampling area (in- migration approach), and (2) those who moved out of the sampling area (out- migration approach). The published figures provide national estimates of the various migration streams.

The examination of published data on rural-urban migration from the LPGS for 1970 and 1971 showed that the 2 approaches (in-migration and out-migration) did not yield consistent estimates of the volume of migration. For example, in 1970, the in-migration approach showed that 141,156 persons in rural areas came from urban areas and 43,580 persons in urban areas came from rural areas. Thus, the exchange of population between rural and urban areas resulted in an estimated net loss of 97,576 persons for urban areas. On the other hand, the out-migration approach showed that 122,112 persons left rural areas to live in urban localities and 28,790 persons did the reverse; thus, giving an estimated net gain of 93,322 persons to urban areas. This inconsistency is not satisfactorily explained in the LPGS publications on migration. Siaplay (1973) discredited the data obtained through in-migration without any legitimate reason and used the other set to study the rural-urban migration in Liberia. However, a thorough scrutiny of the data indicated that the inconsistency between the in-migration data and out-migration data did not stem from defective enumeration as claimed by an LPGS publication (M-1). In- stead it was caused by the mistaken interchange of inflation factors which were used to obtain the national estimates of rural-to-urban and urban-to- rural migration from data generated through the in-migration approach. Apparently urban-to-rural migration in 1970 was inflated by the factor (36) used for the inflation of rural totals, and rural-to-urban migrations were inflated by the factor (10) used for inflation of urban totals. When the published data were converted into original sample counts and reinflated by using appropriate factors, the national estimates that followed were satisfactory and consistent. For example, the reinflated rural-to-urban migration from the in-migration approach was obtained as 156,888 (43,580 X 36 t 10), and urban-to-rural migration was obtained as 39,210 (141,156 X 10 - 36). This gave a net gain to urban areas in the amount of 177,678 persons. It is consistent with the direction of the net-migration stream observed through the out-migration approach. As regards magnitude, it is logical to believe that the in-migration approach will normally yield higher estimates than the out-migration approach. Hence the entire data on rural- urban migration from LPGS obtained through the in-migration approach and used in the present study were reinflated in the manner explained above. The rural and urban samples in 1971 were respectively inflated by 38.2 and 9.5. After this adjustment, the data appeared to be satisfactory for our study. In spite of this, we agree with the views expressed in an LPGS publication - L.9 -

that, "migration data ... should not be regarded as a definitive statement of absolute magnitude, but only as an indication of the general flow of persons into or out of the country or within Liberia" (M-1). Here we add that, to minimize fluctuations and improve reliability (United Nations, 1970), we will study rural-urban migration on the basis of average figures obtained in the LPGS for the years 1970 and 1971. Since the out-migration approach, by its nature, is likely to underestimate the volume of migration, in our discussion we will use the data collected through the in-migration approach. However, for comparative purposes, the tables in the report contain data collected through both approaches.

Areal Units

At the time of the 1974 Census, Liberia was divided into 9 administrative counties. Four of the five coastal counties had 5 territories in their areal sub-set. In our analysis we will only consider the counties; the territories will be included in the counties of which they are a sub-set. The location and names of the counties and territories are listed below and shown in Map 1.

Location and Name of Counties Name of Territories as Areal Sub-Set of Counties

Coastal Counties

Grande Cape Mount

Montserrado Bomi and Marshall

Grand Bassa River Cess

Sinoe Sasstown

Maryland Kru Coast

Interior Counties

Lofa

Bong

Nimba

Grand Gedeh

At the time of the 1962 Census, Liberia consisted of 5 counties (Grand Bassa, Grand Cape Mount, Maryland, Montserrado, and Sinoe) and 3 provinces (Central, Eastern and Western). The coastal areas were divided into

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- L.11 - counties and the interior ones constituted the provinces. These administrative areas were reorganized in 1964. 1/ The comparability of areal units as they existed at the times of the censuses is given below:

1962 Census 1974 Census

Grand Bassa County = Grand Bassa County

Grand Cape Mount County = Grand Cape Mount County

Sinoe County = Sinoe County

Maryland County + = Maryland County +

Eastern Province Grand Gedeh County

Montserrado County + = Montserrado County +

Western Province + Bong County + Lofa County +

Central Province Nimba County.

1/ At the time of the reorganization of the counties, Buah District of Eastern Province was integrated with Maryland County and the remainder of the province was renamed Grand Gedeh. Central Province was divided into Kakata District, Bong County, and Nimba County. Western Province was divided into Bomi Territory and Lofa County. Bomi Territory of the former Western Province and Kakata District of the former Central Pro- vince were integrated with Montserrado County. II. DEMOGRAPHIC BACKGROUND

The population of Liberia prior to the first Census in 1962 was only guessed by several researchers. These estimates ranged between 1.6 and 2.5 million people (Kory, 1970), and their inconsistency with later census figures makes them highly dubious for any scientific study of the trend of population growth in Liberia. It may be noted that the lowest guess of 1.6 million was larger than the census count of 1974. The growth of Liberia's population as revealed by the censuses is summarized below:

Census Date Total Population (000's)

April 2, 1962 1,016

February 1, 1974 1,503

Intercensal population growth 47.8 percent

Average (geometric) annual rate of population growth (1962 - 1974) 3.4 percent

The annual geometric rate of population growth (3.4 percent) for both the sexes combined as obtained above is very close to that (3.5 percent) estimated by the LPGS for 1970. The rate of growth for 1971 as estimated by LPGS was heavily affected by high mortality due to a cholera epidemic in that year and hence cannot be compared with any average rate over the intercensal period. The consistency of the figures obtained from the 2 sources suggests that presently the population is growing at an annual rate of about 3.5 percent.

Data from the LPGS for the years 1970 and 1971 provide detailed information on the level and pattern of fertility and mortality prevailing in those years. They suggest that the level of fertility is quite high. The crude birth rate is estimated at around 50 per 1000 population per year. On average, a Liberian female is expected to bear around 6 children during her reproductive lifetime. The estimates of the level of mortality obtained by LPGS are not as definitive as those of fertility because of the cholera epidemic in 1971 which raised the crude death rate by 6 points above the 1970 level of 15 per 1000 per year. Since epidemics are not very common in Li- beria, the 1971 crude death rate of 21 per 1000 cannot be taken as representative. At the same time the 1970-round of the survey may have missed some deaths, particularly infant deaths, and the estimated crude death rate of 15 in 1970 may be lower than the true rate. Here we will assume that an average of the crude death rate in the 2 years (18 per 1000) is a realistic estimate of the level of mortality.

The crude birth rate for Liberia, at 50 per 1000 per year, is one of the highest in the English-speaking countries of West Africa. Since a number of French-speaking countries in West Africa experienced a crude birth

- L.12 - - L.13 - rate higher than that for Liberia, the average for West Africa is close to that of Liberia. Also, the crude birth rate for Liberia was slightly higher than that for Africa as a whole. On the other hand, the crude death rate (about 18 per 1000) was quite low and indicated that Liberia has one of the lowest mortality levels among the countries of West Africa. Further, the rate for Liberia was similar to that for all of Africa, but about 3 points lower than the average for West Africa. Since Liberia has a high crude birth rate and a low crude death rate, it has one of the highest rates of natural increase (about 3.2 percent per year) among the West African countries.

With a total land area of 97,920 square kilometers (38,250 sq. miles) and a total population of 1,016,000 in 1962 and 1,503,000 in 1974, the density of population was 10.4 persons per square kilometer in 1962 and 15.4 persons in 1974. These are relatively low population densities. The 1974 figur! is about one-half that of the world as a whole, about 5 persons per km lower than the average for West Africa, but slightly above the average (13) for Africa. Among the English-speaking countries of West Africa, Liberia has the lowest density of population. The U.N. medium variant estimate for population denlity in 1975 in Sierra Leone, its western neighbour, was 42 persons per km ; Ghana had a density of 41; and Gambia a density of 45 (U.N., 1975).

The population of Liberia is very unevenly distributed among the counties (Table 1). In 1974, nearly 30 percent (29.3 percent) of the entire population lived in Montserrado County where the density was slightly more than 4 times that of the entire country. The density was about half as great in this county in 1962, though it was 3 times the average noted for the whole country. While increasing in density, Montserrado also had a gain of 5 points in its share of the country's population over the period 1962 - 1974. In 1974, Montserrado County had the largest share of the country's population of any county and experienced the highest density of population. On the other extreme, Grand Cape Mount County had the smallest share of the country's population (3.8 perc~nt) and Grand Gedeh County had the lowest population density (4 persons per km ). These 2 counties occupied similar ranks in respect to population share and density in 1962 as well. Besides Montserrado, 3 other counties had a density of population higher than that of the nation. These were Bong, Maryland, and Nimba. Although the counties experienced an increase in population density over the period 1962 - 1974, the gains were relatively small (1 to 7 persons), except in Montserrado where the density almost doubled over the period.

The intercensal rates of population growth also varied in the different counties. The average annual intercensal rate of population growth for the nation (3.4 percent) was well below the rates for Grand Cape Mount (4.9 percent), Montserrado (5.2 percent) and marginally close to those for Nimba (3.7 percent) and Grand Gedeh (3.4 percent). This rate ranged from a low of 1.4 percent in Grand Bassa County to a high of 5.2 percent in Mont- serrado County. One interesting feature in Table 1 is that Maryland County, which had the second highest density of population in both censuses, experienced one of the lowest (1.6 percent) annual rates of population growth over the intercensal period. Table 1: SPATIAL DISTTIBUTION, GROWTH OF POPULATION, AND DENSITY, 1962-1974

1962 1974 Annual* % of Males % of Males Population Total Grand Per 100 Total Grand Per 100 Area Density/Sq.Km. Growth Rate Counties Population Total Females Population Total Females (Sq.Km.) 1962 1974 (%)

Bong 139,762 13.8 92 194,186 12.9 96 9,344 15.0 20.8 2.8

Grand Bassa 128,322 12.6 93 151,146 10.0 101 12,992 9.9 11.6 1.4

Grand Cape Mount 32,190 3.2 101 56,601 3.8 110 5,760 5.6 9.8 4.9

Grand Gedeh 48,256 4.8 78 71,823 4.8 89 16,832 2.9 4.3 3.4

Lofa 131,554 12.9 81 180,737 12.0 92 19,136 6.9 9.4 2.8 1.6 Maryland 76,085 7.5 93 91,598 6.1 98 4,288 17.7 21.4

Montserrado 243,240 23.9 129 439,991 29.3 116 6,528 37.3 67.4 5.2

Nimba 162,855 16.0 95 249,692 16.6 96 11,904 13.7 21.0 3.7

Sinoe 54,179 5.3 93 67,594 4.5 102 11,136 4.9 6.1 1.9

Grand Total 14016,443 100.0 98 1,503,368 100.0 102 97,920 10.4 15.4 3.4

* Geometric average.

Sources: 1962 and 1974 figures for population distribution are taken (respectively) from Srivastava and Hasselmann (1976); Liberia, 1976. Population Bulletin No.2, 1974. Census of Population and Housing, Monrovia: Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs. The area in square miles was taken from Liberia National Planning Council, 1976. National Socio-Economic Development Plan, 1976-1980, Monrovia: National Planning Council, p.5. - L.15 -

There were more females than males in Liberia in 1962 (sex ratio of 98 males per 100 females), but by 1974 males outnumbered females (102:100). The sex ratios for 1962 given in Table 1 show that, with the exception of Grande Cape Mount and Montserrado Counties, females outnumbered males in the various counties. In Grande Cape Mount County the sex ratio was almost even. On the other hand, the deficit of females in relation to males in Montserrado County was on the order of one-quarter. The large deficit of males in Grand Gedeh and Lofa Counties appears to have stemmed from their heavy out-migration prior to 1962. The overall deficit of females in the country in 1974 is reflected in their deficit in several counties. Except Montserrado, all the counties experienced increases in the sex ratio over the intercensal period. The increase varied from 1 point in Nimba County to 11 points in Grand Gedeh. In Montserrado, on the other hand, the ratio decreased from 129 in 1962 to 116 in 1974.

The spatial distribution of population by sex suggests that at the time of both censuses the male and female populations experienced uneven and dissimilar distribution over the counties. The dissimilarity in 1962, as measured by the index of dissimilarity (Shryock and Siegel, 1973), was approximately one and one-half times that in 1974. The respective figures were 6.57 and 3.99. Further, the dissimilarity between the spatial distributions in 1962 and 1974 for males (5.25) was less than that for females (7.99). Both these indices indicate internal redistribution of males and females during 1962 - 1974, with a greater redistribution occurring among females.

The intercensal growth rate by sex showed that the male population grew at a faster rate (50.7 percent) than the female population (45.1 percent). The same pattern was noted in all the counties except Montserrado where the female population increased at a faster rate. Montserrado experienced the highest intercensal growth (91.9 percent) among the female population of the various counties, whereas Grand Cape Mount had the highest growth (83.1 percent) among the male population. The lowest rate of growth for both sexes was noted in Grand Bassa County (23.1 percent for males and 12.6 percent for females).

The distribution of total population (both sexes) by broad age group indicates that the population (over the intercensal period) became younger (Table 2). The share of the total population in the working ages declined from 58.8 percent in 1962 to 55.4 percent in 1974. The child population increased its share from 37.3 percent to 40.9 percent over the same period. This change in the age structure led to an increase in the dependency ratio (children aged 0-14 and old people aged 65 and over per 1000 persons 15-64 years of age) from 700 in 1962 to 805 in 1974. - L.16 -

Table 2: AGE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION BY BROAD AGE GROUPS, 1962 and 1974.

Age Groups Percentage of Total Population

1962 1974

0 - 14 37.3 40.9

15 - 34 33.9 33.7

35 - 64 24.9 21.7

65 + 3.9 3.7

100.0 100.0 Total

About 199,000 (19.6 percent) of the total population in 1962 were living in urban localities (that is, localities with a population of more than 2,000), and of these 40.6 percent were living in the Commonwealth Dis- trict of Monrovia, the capital city. The percentage of urban population increased to 29.1 in 1974. The share of Monrovia in the urban population of the country increased to 42.9 percent. The urban population of Liberia more than doubled over the intercensal period, from 199,000 in 1962 to 438,000 in 1974, with an average rate of growth of 6.7 percent per year. This is double the rate of growth of the national population. III. INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

Immigration of aliens to Liberia prior to 1962 was small and predominantly male. The first population census conducted in 1962 showed that 31,633 (3.1 percent of the total population) inhabiting the country were born outside Liberia. The figures available from the second census conducted 12 years later show an upward trend in the number and share of the foreign- born population. In 1974 about 59,000 or 4.0 percent of the total enumerated population of Liberia were born abroad (Table 3).

Table 3: DISTRIBUTION OF FOREIGN-BORN AND ALIEN POPULATION, 1962 AND 1974.

Population 1962 1974

Foreign-Born 31,633 59,458

Citizens 10,628 13,211

Aliens 21,365 46,247

Aliens 25,871 55,660

Foreign-Born 21,365 46,247

Liberia Born 4,506 9,413

Citizens and Aliens

Of the total immigrant (foreign-born) population who came to Liberia before 1962, one-third were citizens of Liberia. Such immigrants consisted of (a) the children of Liberian nationals who were living outside the country at the time of birth and (b) immigrants who later became naturalized citizens of Liberia. The precise share of each group is not known. However, as indicated by a somewhat balanced sex ratio among the immigrant citizens (5,545 males and 4,723 females), it appears that the share of the former group must be substantial. The slight excess of males among immigrant citizens may be explained by the possibility that some male aliens were naturalized after marriage to Liberian girls.

By 1974, the number of citizens born abroad increased by about 3,000 over the figure of 11,000 in 1962. In spite of an increase in the absolute number, the share of foreign-born citizens among immigrants declined from about one-third in 1962 to about one-fifth (22.2 percent) in 1974.

- L.17 - - L.18 -

In 1962, lifetime alien immigrants in Liberia numbered 21,365 or 2.1 percent of the total population of the country. Such immigrants recorded more than a two-fold increase in their number during 1962-74 to about 46,000 or 3.0 percent of the total population in 1974. The alien population, however, registered an increase from 25,871 in 1962 to 55,660 in 1974 - also more than a two-fold increase. A similar trend was shown by the survivors of aliens born in Liberia who doubled in number from 4,506 in 1962 to 9,413 in 1974.

Country of Origin

Slightly more than three-fourths of all immigrant citizens came from the bordering countries of Guinea, the Ivory Coast, and Sierra Leone - 43.5 percent from Guinea, 25.3 percent from Sierra Leone, and 7.3 percent from the Ivory Coast (Table 4). Most of the remainder were from African countries, including 13.2 percent from Ghana. Thus, 95 percent of the citizen immigrants were African. By contrast, only about 31 percent of immigrant aliens came from the bordering countries of Guinea, Sierra Leone, and the Ivory Coast; another 31 percent came from other African countries, with Ghana supplying the largest percentage (26) of aliens to Liberia. The aliens who came from outside Africa formed a substantial proportion of the total (38 percent). The United States of America and Lebanon together accounted for about 17 percent of the immigrant aliens.

Movements between Guinea and Liberia appear to constitute the most predominant international migration stream affecting Liberia in recent years. The data from the LPGS show that in 1970 alone 7,000 persons or 48 percent of all immigrants came to Liberia from Guinea (Table 5). At the same time about 4,000 or 46 percent of all emigrants from Liberia went to Guinea. In 1971, the number of immigrants to Liberia from Guinea declined by 50 percent, but due to a general decline in the number of immigrants, the share from Guinea increased somewhat - from 48 percent in 1970 to 52 percent in 1971. The number of emigrants from Liberia to Guinea in 1971 was about the same as in 1970 but they constituted 61 percent of the total. One noticeable feature of international migration revealed by the LPGS was the shift in intensity of population exchange during 1962-70 between Liberia and its bordering countries other than Guinea. By 1970-71 it appeared that Ivory Coast occupied the rank previously held by Sierra Leone in 1962 with respect to number of immigrants. In 1970 and 1971, about 89 percent of the immigrants came from the bordering countries and Ghana, an increase of 16 percentage points from the corresponding number of lifetime immigrants in 1962.

Non-African immigrants are underrepresented in the LPGS. However, one can tentatively assume that 4 of every 5 immigrants to Liberia came from the bordering countries of Guinea, Sierra Leone, and the Ivory Coast, and from Ghana. - L.19 -

Table 4: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF FOREIGN-BORN POPULATION BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN, SEX, AND CITIZENSHIP, 1962

1/ Citizens Aliens Country of Origin-' Male Female Total Male Female Total

Neighbouring Countries 74.1 78.7 76.1 30.3 31.5 30.8 Guinea 41.4 46.0 43.5 18.5 20.6 19.2 Ivory Coast 5.7 9.3 7.3 1.6 2.1 1.8 Sierra Leone 27.0 23.4 25.3 10.2 8.8 9.8

Other African Countries 21.2 16.4 19.0 29.1 35.2 31.2 Ghana 14.0 12.3 13.2 23.6 30.3 25,9 Remainder 7.2 4.1 5.8 5.5 4.9 5.3

Countries Outside Africa 4.7 4.9 4.9 40.5 33.2 38.0 U.S.A. 1.9 2.6 2.3 6.7 9.6 7.7 Lebanon - - - 11.4 6.5 9.7

Countries of Europe - - - 17.0 11.5 15.1

Other Countries 2.8 2.3 2.6 5.4 5.6 5.5

TOTAL 100.0 100.0 100.0 99.9 99.9 100.0

TOTAL NUMBER 5,545 4,723 10,268 14,046 7,319 21,365

1/ Countries have been itemized from which more than 5 percent of the total number of immigrants originated.

Sources: Liberia, 1964. 1962 Population Census of Liberia, Population Characteristics of Major Areas, PC-B, Monrovia: Bureau of Statistics, Office of National Planning, Table 6. - L.20 -

Table 5: IMMIGRANTS BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN AND EMIGRANTS BY COUNTRY OF DESTINATION, 1970 AND 1971

Immigrants by Emigrants by Country of Country of Origin Destination Net-Migration Countries 1970 1971 1970 1971 1970 1971

Guinea 7,088 3,465 4,21L6 4,303 +2,842 -838

Sierra Leone 1,466 565 936 1,072 + 530 -507

Ivory Coast 3,652 1,305 1,852 995 +1,800 +310

Ghana 930 649 536 212 + 394 +437

Others 1,706 748 1,588 432 + 118 +316

Total 14,842 6,732 9,158 7,014 +5,684 -282

Source: Liberia, 1971. Patterns of Migration, Series M-1, L.P.G.S., M-1, 1970, Monrovia: Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs; Liberia, 1973 a. Migration Profiles, Series M-2, L.P.G.S., M-2, Monrovia: Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs. - L.21 -

Location of Immigrants

Both censuses of population provided a distribution of total enumerated population by county/province and of total in-born population enumerated in those areal units. The difference between the 2 numbers for any specified county/province gives the number of immigrants located in those areal units at the time of the census. The distribution of lifetime immigrants by sex and area of location as obtained in the censuses are given in Tables 6 and 7.

In 1962, (Table 6) about 40 percent of the total lifetime immigrants were residing in Montserrado County where Monrovia is located. Another 25 percent of the immigrants were living in Central Province where the major iron ore mines are located. The western part of the country consisting of Grand Cape Mount County and Western Province received about 20 percent of the immigrants; while the eastern part of Liberia consisting of Eastern Province, Maryland, and Sinoe Counties received a very small share (about 7 percent) of total lifetime immigrants.

The residence pattern of lifetime immigrants at the time of the 1974 Census appeared slightly different from that in 1962. The areas which already had a large share of immigrants in 1962 increased their share during the intercensal period. Although the areal units of 1974 are not directly comparable to those in 1962, some general idea of the residence pattern is revealed by data in Table 7. (The comparability of the areal units in 1962 and 1974 was described in Chapter I.)

We can imagine a great population triangle in Liberia with Mont- serrado County, the Western, and Central Provinces of 1962 each occupying a corner. The same triangle in 1974 consisted of Bong, Lofa, Montserrado, and Nimba Counties. In 1962, this triangle contained two-thirds (66.6 percent) of the total population on 47.9 percent of the total land area. In the same year, it contained 78 percent of the total lifetime immigrants to the country. In 1974, 70.8 percent of the country's population inhabited this great triangle which also accommodated 85 percent of the total lifetime immigrants. The heavy concentration of population in this triangle stems from the fact that most of the development projects, iron ore mines, etc., are located in this region. The areas on the eastern and western sides of the triangle, by and large, have low economic activity and, consequently, low population concentration.

In 1974, about half of the lifetime immigrants were living in Montserrado County. Lofa and Nimba Counties each shared about 16 percent of the immigrants; and the remaining counties each accommodated less than 5 percent.

Intercensal Net - Immigration

An estimate of the volume of net intercensal immigration may be obtained by subtracting the survivors of the lifetime immigrants in 1962 from - L.22 -

Table 6: LIFETIME IMMIGRANTS BY SEX AND COUNTY /PROVINCE OF RESIDENCE, 1962

Immigrations

County /Province Rnth SeYes Males Females of Residence Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

Counties Grand Bassa 3,064 9.7 2,020 10.3 1,044 8.7 Grand Cape Mount 1,695 5.4 1,083 5.5 612 5.1 Maryland 1,055 3.3 628 3.2 427 3.5 Montserrado 12,403 39.2 7,883 40.2 4,520 37.5 Sinoe 529 1.7 298 1.5 231 1.9

Provinces Central 7,415 23.4 4,493 22.9 2,922 24.3 Eastern 612 1.9 339 1.7 273 2.3 Western 4,860 15.4 2,847 14.5 2,013 16.7

TOTAL 31,633 100.0 19,591 99.8 12,042 100.0

Source: Derived from Liberia, 1964. 1962 Population Census of Liberia, PC-B, Monrovia: Bureau of Statistics, Office of National Planning. - L.23 -

Table 7: LIFETIME IMMIGRANTS BY SEX AND COUNTY OF RESIDENCE, 1974

Immigiants Both Sexes Males Females County of Residence Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

Bong 3,029 5.1 1,802 5.0 1t227 5.2

Grand Bassa 2.762 4.7 1,600 4.5 1,162 4.9

Grand Cape Mount 2,825 4.'8 1,727 4.9 1,088 4.6

Grand Gedeh 1,079 1.8 657 1.8 422 1.8

Lofa 9,594 16.1 6,018 16.8 3,576 15-1

Maryland 1,274 2.1 754 2.1 520 2.2

Montserrado 28,212 47.4 16,852 47.1 11,360 47.9

Nimba 9,566 16.1 5,665 15.9 3,901 16.4

Sinoe 1,117 1.%. 674 1.9 443 1.9

Total 59,458 100.0 35,759 100.0 23,669 100.0

Source: Derived from Liberia, n.d. Unpublished data from the 1974 Census of Population and Housing in Liberia. - L.24 - those in 1974. Since immigrants usually experience quite low mortality in comparison to the population of the country of residence, if we assume that 80 percent of the lifetime immigrants in 1962 survived until 1974, it may be estimated that Liberia experienced a net intercensal immigration of over 34,000 persons. This gain, 3.4 percent of the total population in 1962, was 34 percent more than the survivors of lifetime immigrants from 1962 until 1974 (25,000).

Annual Balance of International Migration

The LPGS provided data on the annual balance of international migration for the years 1970 and 1971. The findings presented below, however, should be taken cautiously and are subject to the limitations of the data discussed earlier. Tables 8 and 9 summarize the annual volume of immigration into and emigration from rural and urban areas by sex in 1970 and 1971.

In 1970 the estimated net immigration into Liberia was 5,684 persons or about 4 per 1000 population of the country in that year. Such gains were observed in both the rural and urban areas. However, as much as 70 percent of the net gain in 1970 was in urban areas. This high concentration of net- immigrants in urban areas is due in part to a large emigration from rural areas (68 percent of the total number of emigrants). It is interesting to note that immigrants do not show any distinct favour for residence in either rural or urban areas, as this number in each was about even (54-46 percent) in 1970 (Table 8). In spite of this, urban areas experienced a net gain in population from immigration greater than that in the rural areas; and the percentage immigrant population in urban areas was higher than in rural areas, due mainly to the relative disparity in size between the urban and rural populations.

The volume of international migration, particularly immigration, decreased between 1970 and 1971; and in 1971 Liberia suffered a slight loss of 0.2 persons per 1000 population. In spite of an overall net-loss, the urban areas experienced a net gain of about 2 persons per 1000 population. POPULATION Table 8: ESTIMATED NUMBER OF IMMIGRANTS AND EMIGRANTS IN RELATION TO TOTAL BY SEX AND LOCATION, 1970 AND 1971

1970 1971 Emigrant Total Immigrant Emigrant Total Immigrant Population Number Percent Number Percent Location Sex Population Number Percent Number Percent

544,273 2,291 4.2 2,635 4.8 Areas Male 538,272 5,076 9.4 3,276 6.1 Rural 1,184 2.0 2,100 3.5 Female 585,108 2,916 5.0 2,952 5.1 593,283 3,475 3.1 4,735 4.2 Both Sexes 1,123,380 7,992 7.1 6,228 5.5 1,137,556 7.4 232,355 1,903 8.2 1,115 4.8 Urban Areas Male 212,900 3,890 18.3 1,580 1,354 6.7 1,165 5.8 1 Female 186,770 2.960 15.8 1,350 7.2 201,566 3,257 7.5 2,280 5.3 Both Sexes 399,670 6,850 17.1 2,930 7.3 433,921 776,628 4,194 5.4 3,750 4.8 Ln Areas Male 751,172 8,966 11.9 4,856 6.5 All 2,538 3.2 3,265 4.1 1 Female 771,878 5,876 7.6 4,302 5.6 794,849 6,732 4.3 7,015 4.5 Both Sexes 1,523,050 14,842 9.7 9,158 6.0 1,571,477

and Economic Affairs, Table 1; Liberia, 1973a. Sources: Derived from Liberia, 1971. LPGS M-1, Monrovia: Ministry of Planning n.d. LPGS, P-1, Monrovia: Ministry LPGS M-2, Monrovia: Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs, Table 1, Liberia, Ministry of Planning and Economics, Table 1. of Planning and Economics, Table 1; and Liberia, n.d. LPGS, P-2, Monrovia: - L.26 -

Table 9: ESTIMATED NET IMMIGRANTS IN RELATION TO TOTAL POPULATTON BY SEX AND LOCATION, 1970 AND 1971

Net-Immigrants 1970 1971 Location Sex Number Percent Number Percent

Rural Areas Male +1,800 + 3.3 - 344 -0.6 Female - 36 - 0.05 - 916 -1.5 Both Sexes +1,764 + 1.6 -1,260 -1.1

Urban Areas Male +2,310 +10.9 + 788 +3.4 Female +1,610 + 8.6 + 189 +0.9 Both Sexes +3,920 + 9.8 + 977 +2.2

All Areas Male +4,110 + 5.4 + 444 +0.6 Female +1,574 + 2.0 - 727 -0.9 Both Sexes +5,684 + 3.7 - 283 -0.2

Source: Derived from Table 8. IV. INTERNAL MIGRATION

This section deals with internal migration in Liberian counties and provinces in 1962 and counties in 1974. At the time of the 1974 Census, as pointed out earlier, the country was divided into 9 counties whereas in 1962 it contained 5 counties (all along the coast) and 3 provinces (all interior areas). Although the place-of-birth data, the principal source for the present study, provide information regarding counties, provinces and territories, we have merged the information on territories with that for the counties of which they are a part. This is a consideration when comparing our findings with those of other studies, for example, Siaplay (1973), on internal migration in Liberia.

Because of administrative boundary changes during the intercensal period, it is difficult to compare migration over most of the areal units during 1962-74. While it is possible to merge the areas covered in 1962 and 1974 for comparability, this can be done only where the characteristics under study are additive in nature. In the case of internal migration, where the migration defining boundaries are those that existed at the time of censuses, this type of merging cannot be done and simultaneously retain the condition of migration.

Lifetime Migration

The 1962 Census enumerated 984,810 person who were born in Liberia. Of this number, the place of birth could not be adeqEately classified in 7,993 (0.81 percent) cases. The study of lifetime migration presented here is based on the information regarding place of birth cross-clasified by place of enumeration for the remaining 976,817 persons (479,239 males and 497,578 females). The analysis of internal migration for 1974 is based on similar data for 1,443,910 persons (723,350 males and 720,560 females).

The volumes of lifetime in-, out-, and net-migration for various areal units in 1962 are shown in Table 10. Altogether 165,604 persons or 17.0 percent of the total born in Liberia were enumerated outside the county/province of their birth. Except for the counties of Montserrado and Maryland, all other areal units had net losses. Montserrado experienced a lifetime in-migration of 101,331 persons or 61.6 percent of the population enumerated in the country. One in every 5 enumerated in Maryland County was an in-migrant. The net gain for Maryland was, however, quite small (3,064 persons). Grand Bassa County showed the largest net loss of 26,000 persons, followed by Western Province, with a net loss of about 19,000 persons.

Lifetime out-migration as shown by the percent of population born in an area (Table 11) shows some variation. Grand Bassa, Grand Cape Mount, and Sinoe Counties along with Eastern Province each lost between 20 to 23 percent of their total population. The lowest out-migration rate is noted in the case of Central Province, closely followed by Montserrado

- L.27 - Table 10: LIFETIME IN-, OUT-, AND NET-MIGRATION BY LOCATION AND SEX, 1962

Both Sexes Males FemanleP Area of Birth and In- Out- Net- In- Out- Net- In- Out- Net- Enumeration Migration Migration Migration Migration Migration Migration Migration Migration Migration

Counties

Grand Bassa 8,933 35,080 -26,147 4,802 19,856 -15,054 4,131 15,224 -11,093 Grand Cape Mount 4,074 8,069 - 3,995 2,806 4,569 - 1,763 1,268 3,500 - 2,232

Maryland 11,307 8,243 + 3,064 6,392 4,442 + 1,950 4,915 3,801 + 1;114

Montserrado 101,331 9,936 +91,395 61,399 5,304 +56,095 39,932 4,632 +35,300 Sinoe 2,724 13,284 -10,560 1,506 7,025 - 5,519 1,218 6,259 - 5,,041 Provinces

Central 21,459 43,440 -21,981 12,764 27,521 -14,757 8,695 15,919 - 7,224 Eastern 2,238 15,208 -12,970 1,234 9,069 - 7,835 1,004 6,139 - 5,135 Western 13,538 32,344 -18,806 8,074 21,191 -13,117 5,464 11,153 - 5,689

Liberia 165,604 165,604 0 98,977 98,977 0 66,627 66,627 0

Source: Calculated from Liberia, 1964. 1962 Population Census of Liberia, Population Characteristics of major areas, PC-B, Monrovia: Bureau of Statistics, Office of National Planning, Table 5.

l0 - L.29 -

Table 11: LIFETIME OUT-MIGRATION AS PERCENT OF POPULATION BORN IN AN AREA AND LIFETIME IN-MIGRATION AS PERCENT OF POPULATION RESIDING IN AN AREA BY SEX, 1962

Lifetime In-Migration as Lifetime Out-Migration as Percent of Population Percent of Population Residing in an Area Born in an Area (Excluding Immigrants) Both Both Area Male Female Sexes Male Female Sexes

Counties

Grand Bassa 26.6 19.9 23.2 8.1 6.3 7.1 Grand Cape Mount 27.2 19.8 23.4 18.7 8.2 13.4 Maryland 16.3 13.0 14.6 21.9 16.2 19.0 Montserrado 14.2 12.9 13.6 65.8 56.1 61.6 Sinoe 22.5 19.1 20.8 5.9 4.4 5.1

Provinces

Central 16.4 9.4 12.9 8.3 5.3 6.8 Eastern 25.5 15.1 20.0 4.5 2.8 3.5 Western 23.8 11.7 17.6 10.6 6.1 8.2

Liberia 20.7 13.4 17.0 20.7 13.4 17.0

Source: Derived from Table 10. - L.30 -

and Maryland Counties. These three areal units experienced out-migration within a narrow range of 12.9 to 14.6 percent of the inborn population (Table 11). There is some indication (rank correlation coefficient -0.2) that areal units which experienced high lifetime out-migration had a tendency to experience low lifetime in-migration.

By 1974, the pattern of lifetime internal migration appeared to have changed somewhat. The numerical values as of 1962 and 1974 are not directly comparable. However, the data indicate an increasing tendency toward the incidence of lifetime internal migration over the intercensal period. According to the areal units of 1974, 21 percent of the total population born in Liberia were enumerated outside their county of birth, or about 4 percentage points more than that obtained for the areal units of 1962. The 1974 figure of 21 percent is even .higher than the value obtained by Siaplay (1973), who noted that 18.4 percent of the population born in Liberia were enumerated outside their county/province/territory of birth in 1962. Siaplay considered territories in addition to counties and provinces, and this increase in the number of areal units occasioned a slightly higher value for the incidence of internal migration compared to our finding.

The volumes of lifetime in-, out-, and net-migration as of 1974 given in Table 12 show that Montserrado was the only county which recorded a net gain (200,967). The remaining counties experienced net losses. Comparison of Tables 10 and 12 reveals a general rise in the incidence of out- as well as in-migration. The number of lifetime migrants increased from 165,604 in 1962 to 302,961 in 1974. This growth of 83 percent was considerably higher than the growth of the total population born in Liberia (46.6 percent). Table 12 shows that Lofa had the highest net loss (53,000), followed by Grand Bassa (40,000), and Bong (36,000). Grand Cape Mount had the lowest net loss (about 4,000).

By 1974, Sinoe County had lost about 30 percent of its population to other counties (Table 13). This was the highest out-migration rate of any county. Bong, Grand Bassa, Grand Cape Mount, Maryland, and Lofa lost between 25 - 28 percent of their inborn population. Montserrado was the only county which had a small loss of population (6 percent). Only 2 counties appear to have received substantial in-migration in relation to restdent population (Table 13). Montserrado experienced the highest in-migration rate (about 52 percent), followed by Grand Cape Mount (22.5 percent). In-migration to other counties stood at 11 percent or less. The lowest in-migration rate (5 percent) was experienced by Sinoe County which also had the highest out-migration rate.

Migration Streams

The net gains due to exchange of population (both sexes) between the areal units of 1962 (Table 14) show 3 dominant streams to Montserrado County. The strongest stream of 27,000 persons (24.5 percent of the total net gain) came from Central Province. This was followed by streams from Table 12: LIFETIME IN-, OUT-, AND NET-MIGRATION BY LOCATION AND SEX, 1974

County of Birth Both Sexes Males Females and Enumeration In- Out- Net- In- Out- Net- In- Out- Net-

Bong 20,328 56,594 - 36,266 11,635 32,847 - 21,212 8,693 23,747 -15,054

Grand Bassa 12,297 52,532 - 40,235 7,044 28,038 - 20,994 5,253 24,494 -19,241

Grand Cape Mount 12,081 15,712 - 3,631 7,321 8,685 - 1,364 4,760 7,027 - 2,267

Grand Gedeh 5,903 17,137 - 11,234 3,207 9,489 - 6,282 2,696 7,648 - 4,952

Lofa 9,734 62,436 - 52,702 5,877 37,646 - 31,769 3,857 24,790 -20,933 r

Maryland 6,264 27,201 - 20,937 3,453 14,023 - 10,570 2,811 13,178 -10,367

Montserrado 213,782 12,815 +200,967 119,338 7,115 +112,223 94,444 5,700 +88,744

Nimba 19,055 32,050 - 12,995 10,686 19,181 - 8,495 8,369 12,869 - 4,500

Sinoe 3,517 26,484 - 22,967 2,022 13,559 - 11,537 1,495 12,925 -11,430

Liberia 302,961 302,961 0 170,583 170,583 0 132,378 132,378 0

Source: Calculated from Liberia, n.d. Unpublished data from the 1974 Census of Population and Housing in Liberia. - L.32 -

Table 13: LIFETIME OUT-MIGRATION AS PERCENT OF POPULATION BORN IN AN AREA AND LIFETIME IN-MIGRATION AS PERCENT OF POPULATION RESIDING IN AN AREA BY SEX, 1974

Bong 28.6 21.1 24.9 12.4 8.9 10.6

Grand Bassa 29.4 26.3 27.9 9.5 7.1 8.3

Grand Cape Mount 29.7 24.9 27.4 26.3 18.4 22.5

Grand Gedeh 24.0 18.0 20.9 9.7 7.2 8.3

Lofa 33.5 22.2 27.9 7.3 4.3 5.7

Maryland 25.4 23.5 24.4 7.7 6.1 6.9

Montserrado 6.6 5.5 6.1 54.4 49.1 51.9

Nimba 15.3 10.0 12.7 9.2 6.8 7.9

Sinoe 30.1 29.1 29.6 6.0 4.5 5.3

Liberia 23.6 18.4 21.0 23.6 18.4 21.0

Source: Calculated from Liberia, n.d. Unpublished data from the 1974 Census of Population and Housing in Liberia. /1 Table 14: NET GAIN DUE TO EXCHANGE OF POPULATION (BOTH SEXES) BETWEEN AREAL UNITS, 1962-

Area of Loss Counties Provinces Grand Grand Cape Total Area of Gain Bassa Mount Maryland Montserrado Sinoe Central Eastern Western Gain

Counties

Grand Bassa x - - - 467 - - - 467 Grand Cape Mount 167. x 74 - 160 3 157 - 561 Maryland 337 - x - 1,635 - 6,888 - 8,860 Montserrado 23,785 3,795 4,764 x 8,365 27,398 2,376 20,912 91,395 Sinoe - - - - x - 973 - 973

Provinces

Central 823 251 452 - 278 x 1,767 1,849 5,420 Eastern 67 - - - - x - 67 Western 1,435 510 506 - 628 - 876 x 3,955

Total Loss 26,614 4,556 5,796 - 11,533 27,401 13,037 22,761 111,698

/1 Note: x = non-migrants - = loss

Source: Derived from Liberia, 1964. 1962 Population Census of Liberia, PC-B, Monrovia: Bureau of Statistics, Office of National Planning. - L.34 -

Grand Bassa County and Western Province of about 24,000 and 21,000 persons respectively. These 3 major net migration streams accounted for nearly 65 percent of the total net gain of various areas in 1962. Montserrado County was the universal gainer and accounted for 82 percent of the total net gain experienced by the various areal units. The other 2 net streams of inter- mediate importance were from Sinoe to Montserrado (8,000 persons) and from Eastern Province to Maryland (7,000 persons). Eastern Province had a net loss to each areal unit except Grand Bassa whereas Sinoe had net losses to each areal unit except Eastern Province. Grand Bassa County had a net loss to every areal unit except Sinoe County. (See Map 2.).

Montserrado (Table 15) continued to be the universal net gainer as a result of population exchange between the counties. By 1974 the net gain to this county had increased to about 201,000 persons or 88 percent of the total net gain of the various counties. The predominant net streams to Montserrado came from Lofa (44,000), Grand Bassa (41,000) and Bong (40,000). These streams reflect the continuation of the predominant net migration streams observed at the time of the first census in 1962. To compare the 2 sets of streams it may be recalled that Lofa and Bong counties were carved out of Western and Central Provinces, respectively. Nimba was the other county carved out of Central Province. If we include the net stream from Nimba (20,000 persons) to Montserrado with that from Bong to Montserrado, the replication of the 1962 pattern of migration streams in 1974 is apparent, at an increased intensity. Two other streams originate from Maryland and Sinoe to Montserrado with respective net gains of 18,000 and 20,000. Besides Montserrado, 2 other counties attracted migration streams, Grand Cape Mount and Nimba. Grand Cape Mount was second only to Montserrado in net gain, followed by Nimba County. In spite of these migration patterns, both Grand Cape Mount and Nimba, on the whole, experienced a total net loss of population because of heavy out-migration to Montserrado. Lofa had the heaviest net loss of population (53,000 persons), followed by Grand Bassa (44,000), and Bong (43,000). The net losses of these 3 counties accounted for 61 percent of the total net loss by all counties.

Grand Cape Mount had the smallest net loss in both 1962 and 1974. The smallest total gain (67 persons) was experienced by Eastern Province in 1962 (Table 14) and Grand Gedeh County in 1974 (180 persons) (Table 15). Since Grand Gedeh County was carved out of Eastern Province, it appears that practically the same area had the lowest gain in population as a result of internal redistribution in the 2 census years. (See Map 3.)

Destination of Out-Migrants

In 1962, the census enumerated about 166,000 persons outside their county/province of birth. Of these, 101,000 (61.2 percent) were located in Montserrado County. Thus, 6 out of every 10 lifetime out-migrants in 1962 were living in Montserrado. In 1974 there were 303,000 persons born in Liberia enumerated outside their county of birth. Of these, 214,000 (70.6 percent) were found in Montserrado County. Over the intercensal period, the share of out-migrants coming to Montserrado increased by nearly 10 percentage points. The absolute numbers more than doubled, however. IBRD 13112 FOIr,- ,9- _ v. .OCTOBER 1977

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Table 15: NET GAIN DUE TO EXCHANGE OF POPULATION (BOTH SEXES) BETWEEN COUNTRIES, 1974/

County of Loss Grand Grand Cape Grand Total County of Gain Bong Bassa Mount Gedeh Lofa Maryland Montserrado Nimba Sinoe Gain

Bong x - - 200 4,554 996 - - 582 6,332

Grand Bassa 1,583 x - _ 736 456 _ _ 631 3,406

Grand Cape Mount 480 772 x 407 3,022 779 - 572 549 6,581

Grand Gedeh - 180 - x - - - - - 180

Lofa - - - 460 x 88 - - 203 751

Maryland - - - 1,445 - x - - 1,445

Montserrado 39,759 40,686 10,212 7,302 44,138 18,467 x 19,933 20,470 200,967

Nimba 776 2,003 - 1,413 1,003 1,514 - x 801 7,510 x 269 Sinoe - - - 187 - 82 - -

Total Loss 42,598 43,641 10,212 11,414 53,453 22,382 - 20,505 23,236 227,441

/1 Note: x = non-migrants - = loss

Source: Derived from Liberia, n.d. Unpublished data from the 1974 Census of Population and Housing in Liberia.

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- L.38 -

On average, about 3 of every 4 who moved out of Grand Bassa County, Central and Western Provinces went to Montserrado (Table 16). Each of these areal units were in the neighborhood of Montserrado. It is surprising that Grand Cape Mount another neighbouring county, sent only one-half of its out-migrants to Montserrado. Maryland and Sinoe Counties sent about 6 of every 10 out-migrants to Montserrado, whereas the Eastern Province sent only 16 percent of its out-migrants there. By 1974, the intensity of migration from various counties to Montserrado increased. There was a distinct shift in the direction of movement of out-migrants from Grand Cape Mount, where almost 80 percent (an increase of 27 percent over 1962) went to Montserrado. There was also increased out-migration from Grand Gedeh County (formerly a part of the Eastern Province) to Montserrado.

In general, most out-migrants from the counties moved into neighbouring areas. The low incidence of out-migration to neighbouring counties from areal units not sharing a common border with Montserrado County was noticeable in both census years (particularly in the cases of Maryland and Sinoe Counties in 1962, and Grand Gedeh and Nimba Counties in 1974). However, all counties showing low out-migration to neighbouring areas, simultaneously showed high out-migration to Montserrado. Thus, availability of economic and other opportunities in Montserrado appear to out-weight the factor of distance.

Net Internal Migration. 1962 - 1974

Because of extensive boundary changes during the intercensal period, data on place of birth cross-classified by place of enumeration are of little use for the study of intercensal migration between the areal units. However, we obtained an indirect estimate of net intercensal migration by the national growth rate method (Shryock and Siegel, 1973), after adjusting the spatial distribution of the enumerated population in 1962 for immigration.

The spatial distribution of the population born in Liberia and enumerated in 1974 was used as provided in the unpublished data giving place of birth cross-classified by place of enumeration. Comparative distribution for 1962 was estimated as shown in Table 17. Grand Bassa, Grand Cape Mount, and Sinoe Counties did not experience boundary changes and therefore the numbers of immigrants living in these counties in 1962 were not adjusted. In the other counties, the immigrants were distributed among different areas according to the proportion the 1962 enumerated population of that area was to the total population of the county or province. No adjustment was possible for emigration.

Assuming fertility and mortality conditions in each county during the intercensal period were similar to those of the nation, the number of natives born and enumerated in the various counties in 1962 (Table 17) would have the same growth rate as the national population. Thus, using the national growth rate for the period 1962 - 1974 for the population born in Liberia by sex, the expected population of various counties in

oo co co co XW z4 r. °Xo

q nD CO utD 4 X 2 z n '-41 C-41 c-i En Table 16: DESTINATION OF OUT-MIGRANTS, 1962 AND 1974

M4es FemaBles SBthSexes Percent Out Percent Out- Percent Out- Percent Out- Percent Odt- Percent Out Migrants--to Migrants to Migrants to Migrants to Migrants to Migrants to Areas of Neighbouring Montserrado Neighbouring Montserrado Neighbouring Montserrado Origin Areas County Areas County Areas County

Counties 1962

Grand Bassa 89.6 72.4 92.5 73.8 90.9 73.0 Grand Cape Mount 79.7 51.7 83.0 55.3 81.2 53.3 Maryland 16.2 61.4 20.4 61.7 18.1 61.5 Montserrado 93.3 - 93.6 - 93.4 - Sinoe 22.5. 64.8 23.7 65.1 23.1 64.9

Provinces

Central 96.0 74.9 96.9 71.1 96.3 73.5 Eastern 72.2 18.0 77.7 13.4 74.4 16.2 Western 97.2 71.4 97.4 73.5 97.3 72.1

Counties 1974

Borg 95.8 77.4 96.5 76.2 96.1 76.9 Crand Bessa 93.1 79.5 95.4 81.9 94.2 80.6 Grand Cape Mount 81.0 76.6 85.8 82.6 83.2 79.3 Grand Gedeh 40.9 45.2 43.1 44.5 41.9 44.9 Lofa 90.6 73.7 91.7 75.2 91.0 74.3 Maryland 13.5 68.1 14.2 69.7 13.8 68.9 Montserrado 76.6 - 78.3 - 77.4 - Nimba 20.6 67.5 21.1 68.8 20.8 68.0 Sinoe 15.9 .77.1 13.4 80.4 14.7 78.7

Sources: Liberia, 1964. 1962 Population Census of Liberia, Monrovia: Bureau of Statistics, Office of National Planning; Liberia, n.d. Unpublished data from the 1974 Census of Population and Housing in Liberia. Table 17: DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION BORN AND ENUMERATED IN 1962 ACCORDING TO AREAL UNITS AS OF 1974

Male FeMale ;

Estimated Estimated Population Population 1/ 2/ Born in 1/ 2/ Born in Counties Enumerated Immigrants-2 Liberia 31 Enumerated Immigrants Liberia 21

Bong 66,898 1,893 65,005 72,864 1,279 71,585 Grand Bassa 61,645 2,020 59,625 66,677 1,044 65,633 Grand Cape Mount 16,163 1,083 15,080 16,027 612 15,415 Grand Gedeh 21,150 256 20,894 27,106 207 26,899 Lofa 58,868 2,112 56,756 72,686 1,598 71,088 Maryland 36,707 711 35,996 39,378 493 38,885 Montserrado 136,960 8,978 127,982 106,280 5,108 101,172 Nimba 79,111 2,240 76,871 83,744 1,470 82,274 Sinoe 26,086 298 25,788 28,093 231 27,862 Liberia 503,588 19,591 483,997 512,855 12,042 500,813

1/ Enumerated population were obtained from Srivastava and Hasselmann (1976).

2/ Distribution of immigrants was obtained by prorating the 1962 Census results.

3/ Estimated native population was obtained as the difference between the enumerated population and the immigrants living in specified counties.

Source: Derived from Liberia, 1964. 1962 Population Census of Liberia, PC-B, Monrovia: Bureau of Statistics, Office of National Planning. - L.41 -

1974 was obtained. The difference between the enumerated and the expected sizes of the population in each county provides an estimate of the net internal migration experienced by that county over the intercensal period (Table 18). A positive difference indicates net gain.

During the intercensal period 4 counties, (Grand Cape Mount, Grand Gedeh, Montserrado, and Nimba) experienced net gains of males and total population. Of these, only 3 counties (Grand Gedeh was the exception) registered a net gain of female population. The highest net gain (75,000) was by Montserrado. Grand Cape Mount and Nimba counties experienced net gains of about 9,000 and 7,000 respectively. The net gain for Grand Gedeh was negligible (815 persons). Grand Bassa county having a common boundary with Montserrado had the greatest net loss (35,000), followed by Maryland (a net loss of about 19,000). The counties which suffered net losses of both sexes also experienced higher losses of female population. By contrast, the "inet gaining" counties of Montserrado and Nimba gained more females than males.

The intercensal net migration rates given in Table 19 show high net gains for Montserrado (23.4 percent) and Grand Cape Mount (21.5 percent). These 2 counties, however, show opposite patterns of relative gain in respect to male and female population. The rates conform to the patterns shown in volumes of net gain and loss.

Rural - Urban Migration

The study of rural-urban migration presented here is based on adjusted data (as explained in Chapter I) obtained from the LPGS for the years 1970 and 1971. To minimise fluctuations and improve reliability, we will mainly consider average figures for the 2 years. In addition, the distribution of population in urban and rural areas as obtained from the two censuses of Liberia will be discussed briefly.

At the time of the 1962 census about 199,000 persons (20 percent of the total population) were living in urban localities (defined as localities with a population of 2,000 or more persons). As noted in Chapter II, about 438,000 (29 percent of the total population) persons were living in urban localities in 1974. Assuming the urban population of Liberia increased at the same rate as the national population, it is estimated that the urban populatibn would have reached a level of 294,000 by 1974 as a result of natural increase. Thus, the estimated 144,000 extra people in urban areas would result from migration and/or reclassification of areas. This addition to the urban population accounted for 60 percent of the total change in urban population during 1962-1974. Also, this was about 12 perceht of the average population of Liberia during 1962-1974.

Most of the rural-urban migration was directed toward Monrovia, the national capital, and the other major centers of economic activity. The population of Monrovia and its environs increased rapidly after 1956 when its population was 41,000 (Liberia, 1956). Later, the population Table 18: ESTEMATED NET INTERCENSAL INTERNAL MIGRATION BY SEX AND COUNTY, 1962 TO 1974

Males Females Both Sexes 1974 1974 1974 1974 1974 1974 1 County Observed Expected 0 - B Observed Expected 0 - E Observed Expected- 0 - E

Bong 93,460 97,152 - 3,692 97,697 102,995 - 5,298 191,157 200,147 - 8,990 Grand Bassa 74,410 89,112 -14,702 73,974 94,432 -20,458 148,384 183,544 -35,160 Grand Cape Mount 27,862 22,538 + 5,324 25,914 22,179 + 3,735 53,776 44,717 + 9,059 Grand Gedeh 33,202 31,227 + 1,975 37,542 38,702- - 1,160 70,744 69,929 + 815 Lofa 80,488 84,824 - 4,336 90,655 102,280 -11,625 171,143 187,104 -15,961 Maryland 44,612 53,797 - 9,185 45,712 55,947 -10,235 90,324 109,744 -19,420 Montserrado 219,294 191,273 +28,021 192,485 145,564 +46,921 411,779 336,837 +74,942 Nimba 116,550 114,886 + 1,664 123,576 118,374 + 5,202 240,126 233,260 + 6,866 Sinoe 33,472 38,541 - 5,069 3,005 40,087 - 7,082 66,477 78,628 -12,151 Liberia 723,350 723,350 0 720,560 720,560 0 1,443,910 1,443,910 0

1/ Obtained as the sum of the estimated number of males and females. Source: Derived from Liberia, 1964. 1962 Population Census of Liberia, Monrovia: Bureau of Statistics, Office of National Planning; Republic of Liberia, n.d. Unpublished data from 1974 Census of Population and Housing in Liberia. - L.43 -

Table 19: INTERCENSAL NET MIGRATION RATES, 1962 - 1974

Net Migration Rates (Percent) 1/

County Male Female Both Sexes

Bong - 4.7 - 6.3 - 5.5

Grand Bassa -21.9 -29.3 -25.7

Grand Cape Mount +24.8 +18.1 +21.5

Grand Gedeh + 7.3 - 3.6 + 1.4

Lofa - 6.3 -14.4 -10.7

Maryland -22.8 -24.2 -23.5

Montserrado +16.1 +32.0 +23.4

Nimba + 1.7 + 5.1 + 3.4

Sinoe -17.1 -23.3 -20.2

Liberia

I/ Rates-were calculated as Net migrants (from Table 18)- X 100. Average population during 1962-1974

Source: Derived from Table 18. - L.44 - of Monrovia including Gardners Vill and Paynesward (Greater Monrovia) increased from 84,000 in 1962 to 204,000 in 1974, with an increase of 120,000 persons over a period of 12 years. If the population of Greater Monrovia increased at the same rate as the national population, it would have attained a size of 124,000 by 1974. Thus, it may be estimated that during 1962 - 1974, about 80,000 migrants moved into Monrovia. Due to a lack of data, it is difficult to quantify the contribution of internal migration and immigration to this population growth; however, some approxi- mations are possible. At the time of the 1962 Census about 12,000 immigrants were living in Montserrado, including Marshall Territory. About 26,000 immigrants were living in the same area at the time of 1974 Census. If we assume that all the immigrants in Montserrado County were located in Mon- rovia, the immigration could have contributed (at most) about 14,000 people toward the growth of the population. Thus, it may be estimated that internal migration contributed about 66,000 persons toward the growth of Monrovia's population. Using relevant information from LPGS, this contribution can be partitioned into migration from rural and other areas. It has been observed in LPGS that of the total in-migration to urban areas, about 63 percent came from rural areas and the remainder from other urban areas. Using this factor, it may be estimated that Monrovia gained (net) about 41,000 (66,000 X 0.63) persons as a result of population exchange with rural areas. This net migration from the rural areas into Monrovia is about 28 percent of the total estimated net gain to urban areas (144,000) in Liberia during 1962 - 1974.

Rural - Urban Migration Turnover

The data from LPGS provide an extremely exaggerated picture of rural-urban migration because all persons who came from another place and were living at the place of enumeration for at least 30 days were counted as migrants. Thus, the rural-urban migration considered here includes temporary as well as permanent migration. Further, the out-migration approach of collecting data by its nature is likely to underestimate migration flows. We will, therefore, use the data collected through the in-migration approach, though for comparative purposes all tables contain both sets of data.

Rural-urban migration turnover is fairly high in Liberia. During 1970 - 1971, about 384,000 (25 percent of the total population) persons changed residence. Of these, 117,000 moved within rural areas and 87,000 moved within urban areas. Rural-to-urban and urban-to-rural mobility amounted to 148,000 and 32,000 persons respectively (Table 20). Of the 4 components of rural-urban migration, the flow from rural-to-urban areas was the strongest, whereas the flow in the reverse direction was the weakest. Of those who left rural areas, about 56 percent moved into urban areas; whereas of those who left urban areas, only about 27 percent went to rural areas. These gross flows suggest that at the time people leave rural areas, they show a preference for urban areas; and when they leave urban areas, they demonstrate a preference for urban areas. It is possible that in the first instance rural people move to small urban areas and - L.45 -

later to big ones. Of the total average rural population during 1970/1971 (1,130,000) about 23.5 percent participated in either intra-rural (10.5 percent) or rural-to-urban (13 percent) movements. By comparison it is noted that 28.5 percent of the urban population (417,000) in 1970-1971 moved to either another urban center (21 percent) or rural areas (7.5 percent). These area-specific gross migration flows suggest heavy rural- to-urban and urban-to-urban migration. The intra-urban mobility rate is almost double the intra-rural mobility rate. A similar pattern is shown in rural-to-urban and urban-to-rural mobility rates (Table 20). Of the total population in 1970-1971, about 12 percent were involved in rural- urban migration turnover.

Net Rural - Urban Migration

As a result of rural-urban migration, the urban areas experienced an estimated net gain of 117,000 persons per year during 1970 - 1971 (Table 20). This was about 7.5 percent of the total population during the same period. This net gain of over 100,000 persons per year to urban areas with a total national population of 1,503,000 is apparently very much exaggerated. Since data on duration of past residence are not available, it is impossible to disentangle the effect of temporary migration on the total. However, it was noted in the LPGS Report (M-1, M-2) that monthly rounds of enumeration spotted more migration than six-monthly rounds. This indicated that the estimated volume of rural-urban migration is heavily affected by temporary migration. It is extremely doubtful that the urban centers of Liberia with a population of 438,000 in 1974 could absorb a net annual in-flow of more than 100,000 persons. Net gains to urban areas as obtained from the LPGS for 1970 and 1971 were respectively 118,000 and 116,000 persons. During 1962-1974, the urban areas of Liberia experienced a net gain of only 144,000 persons as a result of migration (both international and internal) and reclassification of areas. While data collected in the census concerning lifetime migration are not directly comparable to those collected in the LPGS concerning the incidence of migration, they do provide a basis for checking the consistency of the results. The difference between the figures obtained from the 2 sources suggests the temporary nature of much of the rural-urban migration. It is possible that people move from one area to another with the intention of a long duration residence (described later in this report), but do not remain and move to another area, thus inflating the incidence of migration. This may indeed occur because reasons for most migrations appear to be unspecific (described later). - L.46 -

Table 20: VOLUME AND RATE OF RURAL-YUBAN MIGRATION, AVERAGE FOR 1970-1971-

In-Migr4tion Data Out-Migration Data Both Both Direction Male Female Sexes Male Female Sexes

Volume

Rural to Urban 76,021 72,288 148,309 64,759 61,506 126,265 Urban to Rural 15,850 15,686 31,536 14,150 13,485 27,635 Turnover 91,871 87,974 179,845 78,909 74,991 153,900 Net Rural - Urban 60,171 56,602 116,773 50,609 48,021 98,630

Rate (Percent)

Rural to Urban 14.04 12.27 13.12 11.96 10.44 11.17 Urban to Rural 7.12 8.08 7.57 6.36 6.95 6.63 Turnover 12.03 11.23 11.62 10.33 9.57 9.95 Net Rural - Urban 7.88 7.23 7.55 6.63 6.13 6.37

/1 Note: Rural to urban rates were calculated with reference to sex-specific rural population whereas urban to rural rates were calculated with reference to sex-specific urban populations. Turnover and net rates were obtained (respectively) as the weighted sum and weighted difference of the preceding two rates.

Source: Derived from adjusting and averaging the data given in Liberia, 1971. Patterns of Migration, Series M-1, L.P.G.S. M-1, 1970, Monrovia: Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs; Liberia, 1973a. Migration Profiles, Series M-2, L.P.G.S. M-2, 1971, Monrovia: Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs. V. SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF MIGRANTS

Sex Composition

International Migration:

Among the foreign-born population enumerated in 1962, the number of males (19,591) exceeded females (12,042) by 60 percent; there were 163 males for every 100 females. By 1974, the ratio of males to females was somewhat reduced because of the growing number of female immigrants over the intercensal period. While the number of male immigrants increased by 82.5 percent to 35,759 in 1974, the number of female immigrants increased to 23,699 -- an increase of 96.8 percent over the 1962 level.

The sex composition of citizen immigrants was different from that of alien immigrants. Though both groups demonstrated the same pattern -- numerical predominance of males -- citizen immigrants had a somewhat more balanced sex ratio than alien immigrants. Among lifetime citizen immigrants, the ratios of males to females were 117 to 100 in 1962 and 135 to 100 in 1974. Among lifetime alien immigrants, in 1962 and 1974 the ratios of males to females were 203 to 100 and 156 to 100 respectively.

The numerical predominance of males in international migration is further evidenced by data from the LPGS. International migration into and from Liberia, with the negligible exception of emigrants from urban areas in 1971, appeared male dominated in these surveys. Table 8 showed that of the total immigrants in 1970, 60.4 percent were male, and in 1971 62.2 percent. Of those emigrating in 1970 and 1971, 53.0 and 53.4 percent respectively were male. Table 8 also showed that relatively more female than male immigrants went to urban areas. In 1970, 50.3 percent of female immigrants were located in urban areas, but only 43.3 percent of male immigrants. In 1971, the corresponding percentages were 53.3 and 45.3. Table 9 indicated that the net loss due to international migration was confined mainly to females from rural areas.

Internal Migration:

Internal migration in Liberia, like international migration, has been predominantly male. In 1962, lifetime male in-migrants outnumbered female in-migrants by a ratio of 3 to 2 (Table 21); and (excepting Grand Cape Mount County) the areal units which had the heaviest overall in- migration also had a greater number of males among in-migrants. The sex ratio for in-migrants in 1962 varied between 116 in Grand Bassa County to 221 in Grand Cape Mount County. The range of variation is reduced considerably if the very high value for Grand Cape Mount is ignored. The next highest sex ratio is noted in Montserrado which received 154 males for every 100 females. The sex ratios for in-migrants and out- migrants in 1962 showed a different pattern of migration by sex. Among the out-migrants from various areal units in 1962, the excess of males per 100 females varied from a low of 12 in Sinoe to a high of 90 in Western Province.

- L.47 - - L.48 -

Table 21: SEX RATIOS (MALES PER 100 FEMALES) OF LIFETIME IN- AND OUT-, MIGRANTS BY AREAL UNITS, 1962 AND 1974

Lifetime Migrants

Area In- Out- 1962 Counties

Grand Bassa 116 130

Grand Cape Mount 221 131

Maryland 130 117

Montserrado 154 115

Sinoe 124 112

Provinces

Central 147 173

Eastern 123 148

Western 148 190

Liberia 150 150

1974

Counties

Bong 134 138

Grand Bassa 134 114

Grand Cape Mount 154 124

Grand Gedeh 119 124

Lofa 152 152

Maryland 123 106

Montserrado 126 125

Nimba 128 149

Sinoe 135 105

Liberia 129 129

Source: Derived from Tables 10 and 12. - L.49 -

Out-migration from the interior provinces is more predominantly male than in-migration to these areas (Table 21). The pattern is less intense for coastal counties; out-migration from these counties, although mostly male, shows less male dominance than from the interior provinces.

By 1974, it appeared that the numerical dominance of males in internal migration had decreased; there were about 129 males for every 100 females. The decline in the sex ratio during the intercensal period was about 20 points. The excess of males among lifetime in-migrants to various counties in 1974 varied from 19 in Grand Gedeh to 54 in Grand Cape Mount. Montserrado County received only 26 males in excess of every 100 females. The most unbalanced in-migration by sex occurred in Lofa and Grand Cape Mount Counties. Lofa County also experienced an equally unbalanced out- migration by sex. This shift in the sex ratios indicates that from 1962 - 1974, the internal migration of females increased more than that of males. This is substantiated by indirect estimates of the volume of internal migration experienced by the different counties during 1962-1974. With the exception of Grand Cape Mount and Grand Gedeh Counties, all counties had a net gain of more females than males.

Rural-Urban Migration:

Data from the LPGS for 1970 and 1971 suggest a balanced rural- urban migration by both sexes. The number of males per 100 females during 1970 - 1971 for the three migration streams (rural to rural, rural to urban, and urban to rural), varied within a narrow range of 101 to 105. The sex ratio of intra-urban migration was slightly higher at 114.

Age Structure

International Migration:

About three-fourths of the foreign-born population were in the economically active age group of 15-59 years (Table 22). On average, the immigrant male population was about 4 years older than the immigrant female population. Forty-seven percent of the male immigrants were under 30 years of age, while 59 percent of female immigrants were under 30. On average, one in 5 of the foreign-born population was in the age group 0-14 years. The sex ratios of the foreign-born in the age groups 0-14, 15-29, 30-44, 45-59 and 60+ years were 110, 146, 196, 255 and 198 respectively. The first four 15-year age groups exhibited an increasing sex ratio with advancing age. Recent migrants include a relatively higher proportion of females than earlier migrants. The age and sex distributions of the alien population show patterns similar to those demonstrated by the foreign- born population with the exception of the age group 0-14 years. Table 22 showed that one-quarter of all aliens were in the age group 0-14 years as compared to 18 percent of foreign-born immigrants. The sex ratios for aliens in the age groups 0-14, 15-29, 30-44, 45-59 and 60+ years were 110, 164, 228, 299 and 212, respectively. Compared to the foreign-born immigrants, the sex ratio of aliens in each age groups is higher. A nearly balanced sex - L.50 -

Table 22: DISTRIBUTION OF FOREIGN-BORN AND ALIEN POPULATION BY AGE AND SEX, 1962

Age Group and Parti- Foreign-Born L Alienr/ tion Values in Years Male Female Total Male Female Total

0-14 15.4 23.0 18.3 21.1 32.9 25.5

15-29 32.4 36.1 33.8 33.1 34.5 33.6

30-44 32.4 26.9 30.3 31.2 23.4 28.3

45-59 13.9 8.9 12.0 11.2 6.4 9.4

60+ 5.9 5.1 5.6 3.4 2.8 3.2

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Total Number 19,591 12,042 31,633 16,326 9,545 25,871

Median 31.0 26.9 29.3 28.7 23.6 27.0

First Quartile 21.4 16.1 19.5 17.9 9.1 14.5

Third Quartile 41.8 37.5 40.0 38.7 33.6 37.0

/1 Includes 10,268 citizens (5,545 males and 4,723 females) and 21,365 aliens (14,046 males and 7,319 females).

/2 Includes 4,506 persons (2,280 males and 2,226 females) who were born in Liberia.

Source: Derived from Liberia, 1964. 1962 Population Census of Liberia, PC-B, Monrovia: Bureau of Statistics, Office of National Planning, Tables 4 and 7. - L.51 - ratio in the age group 0-14 years results from the fact that most children included in this age group were survivors of children born to immigrants in Liberia, both citizens and aliens.

By 1974, the age distribution of the foregin-born population had changed somewhat. First, the male and female immigrants in 1974 were younger respectively than their counterparts in 1962. The median ages for males and females changed respectively from 31.0 and 26.9 years in 1962 to 29.8 and 24.0 years in 1974. Second, on average, in 1974 the immigrant male population was about 6 years older than the immigrant female population; though in this year, like in 1962, three-fourths of all immigrants were in the economically-active age group of 15-59 years.

The sex structure of the alien population in 1974 was very similar to that of the foreign-born population in the same year. The sex ratios of the alien population in the age groups 0-14, 15-29, 30-44, 45-59, and 60+ years were 104, 120, 233, 284, and 273 respectively, and illustrate this feature. However, the age structures of the two groups of populations were somewhat different. Male and female aliens were younger respectively than the foreign-born. The median age for male aliens in 1974 was 28.0 years, about 2 years lower than that among foreign-born males. In the case of female aliens, the median age of 21.6 years was also about 2 years lower than that among foreign-born females.

The LPGS provided a distribution of immigrants and emigrants by age, sex, and location in the years 1970 and 1971 (Table 23). Table 24 distributes net immigrants by age, sex, and location. The selected partition values for the age distributions of immigrants and emigrants are given in Table 25.

Most immigrants (more than 90 percent) were below 45 years of age. By and large, male immigrants were older than female immigrants. In both years, the median ages of male immigrants were about 6 years older than female immigrants. The age differences were somewhat greater in the case of immigrants to rural areas (about 7 years) than those to urban areas (4-5 years). The differences in median ages of immigrants by sex stems from a large concentration of female immigrants in the younger age groups. Of all female immigrants in 1970, 33.8 percent were in the age group 0-14 years. The comparative percentage in 1971 was 29.4. By contrast, only 20.1 percent of all immigrants in 1970 were in the age group 0-14 years, and in 1971 the percentage was even lower, at 12. In 1970, the percentages of female immigrants in the age groups 15-29, 30-44 and 45+ years were lower than the corresponding percentages for male immigrants. This pattern was not as distinct in 1971, where differences between the distributions were quite irregular. The first and third quartiles given in Table 25 indicate that the central one-half of male immigrants to rural areas were concentrated within a narrow range of 13 years from 19.4 to 32.4 years. In the case of female immigrants to rural areas, this range was slightly wider (18.3 years, from 8.0 to 26.3). In urban areas, one-half of the immigrants in 1970 were concentrated in a range of about 21 years (males aged from 14.0 to 35.6, and females from 8.9 to 30.0 years). In 1971, the inter-quartile range was somewhat narrower (males aged 19.7 to 34.5 years, and females from 11.0 to 28.0 years). Table 23: ESTIMATES OF IMMIGRANTS AND EMIGRANTS BY AGE, SEX, AND LOCATION, 1970 AND 1971

immigration Emigration Age Year Location Sex 0-14 15-29 -30-44 45+ Total 0-14 15-29 30-44 45+ Total

1970 Rural Areas Male -792 2772 1080 432 5076 1440 648 540 648 3276 Female 1044 1332 396 144 2916 936 1116 576 324 2952 Total 1836 4104 1476 576 7992 2376 1764 1116 972 6228

Urban Areas Male 1010 1450 1090 340 3890 640 610 210 120 1580 Female 940 1280 580 160 2960 490 490 250 120 1350 Total 1950 2730 1670 500 6850 1130 1100 460 240 2930

All Areas Male 1802 4222 2170 772 8966 2080 1258 750 768 4856 Female 1984 2612 976 304 5876 1426 1606 826 444 4302 Total 3786 6834 3146 1076 14842 3506 2864 1576 1212 9158

1971 Rural Areas Male 152 1146 841 152 2291 1222 726 420 267 2635 t Female 306 573 191 114 1184 1222 420 191 267 2100 Total 458 1719 1032 266 3475 2444 1146 611 534 4735

Urban Areas Male 352 846 637 68 1903 438 428 191 58 1115 Female 439 722 153 40 1354 405 545 137 78 1165 Total 791 1568 790 108 3257 843 973 328 136 2280

All Areas Male 504 1992 1478 220 4194 1660 1154 611 325 3750 Female 745 1295 344 154 2538 1627 965 328 345 3265 Total 1249 3287 1822 374 6732 3287 2119 939 670 7015

Source: Derived from Liberia, 1971. Patterns of Migration, Series M-1, LPGS M-1, 1970, Monrovia: Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs; Liberia, 1973a. Migration Profiles, Series M-2, LPGS M-2, 1971, Monrovia: Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs. Table 24: ESTIMATES OF NET-MIGRANTS BY AGE, SEX, AND LOCATION, 1970 AND 1971

Age Year Location Sex 0-14 15-29 30-44 45+ Total

1970 Rural Areas Male - 648 +2124 + 540 - 216 +1800 Female + 108 + 216 - 180 - 180 - 36 Total - 540 +2340 + 360 - 396 +1764

Urban Areas Male + 370 + 840 + 880 + 220 +2310 Female + 450 + 790 + 330 + 40 +1610 Total + 820 +1630 +1210 + 260 +3920

All Areas Male - 278 +2964 +1420 + 4 +4110 Female + 558 +1006 + 150 - 140 +1574 Total + 280 +3970 +1570 - 136 +5684

U' 1971 Rural Areas Male -1070 + 420 + 421 - 115 - 344 Female - 916 + 153 0 -153 - 916 Total -1986 + 573 + 421 - 268 -1260

Urban Areas Male - 86 + 418 + 446 + 10 + 788 Female + 34 + 177 + 16 - 38 + 189 Total - 52 + 595 + 462 - 28 + 977

All Areas Male -1156 * 838 + 867 - 105 + 444 Female - 882 + 330 + 16 - 191 - 727 Total -2038 +1168 + 883 - 296 - 283

Source: Derived from Table 23. Table 25: SELECTED PARTITION VALUES FOR AGE DISTRIBUTIONS OF IMMIGRANTS AND EMIGRANTS BY SEX AND LOCATION, 1970 AND 1971/1

1970 1971 Immigrants Emigrants Immigrants Emigrants Location Sex M Q1 Q3 M Q1 Q3 M Q1 Q3 M Q1 Q3

Rural Areas Male 25.6 19.4 32.4 22.5 7.4 39.4 28.6 22.5 35.0 17.1 9.4 30.9 Female 18.4 8.0 26.3 23.1 9.7 34.5 21.5 9.6 30.4 13.7 8.7 25.6

Urban Areas Male 26.5 14.0 35.6 21.1 7.6 28.7 26.4 19.7 34.5 20.2 7.8 29.2 Female 21.0 8.9 30.0 20.5 8.6 31.3 22.3 11.0 28.0 21.5 8.6 28.1

All Areas Male 25.9 17.8 33.8 21.7 7.5 36.0 27.7 21.2 34.8 18.1 8.8 30.0 Female 19.5 8.5 28.6 22.2 9.3 33.2 21.9 10.6 28.7 15.1 8 7 27.4

/1 Note: M Median age Ql and Q3 are the first and the third quartiles (respectively).

Source: Liberia, 1971. Patterns of Migration, Series M-1, LPGS, M-1, 1970, Monrovia: Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs, Tables 1 and 6; Liberia, 1973a. Migration Profiles, Series M-2, LPGS M-2, 1971, Monrovia: Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs, Tables 1 and 5. - L.55 -

With the exception of female emigrants from rural areas in 1970, emigrants were younger than immigrants of the same sex in any specified location. The median ages of female emigrants in urban areas in both years were similar to those of female immigrants in urban areas, with the actual values around 21-22 years. The widest difference between the median ages of emigrants and immigrants were noted in rural areas, varying between 3.1 years in 1970 to 11.5 years in 1971. The age distribution of emigrants exhibited a greater variability than that of immigrants.

Immigrants from neighbouring countries, in general, have been slightly older than the emigrants to these countries (Table 26). Median ages of immigrants from Sierra Leone, Guinea, and the Ivory Coast in 1970 and 1971 varied between 20-27 years, whereas the median ages of emigrants to these countries ranged between 10-23 years. The semi-inter-quartile range for the age distribution of immigrants from each of the neighbouring countries was narrower than that for emigrants to the respective countries; most immigrants from Sierra Leone, Guinea, and the Ivory Coast were aged 15 and over. However, the relevant percentages for immigrants specified in Table 26 show a considerable variation over the 2 years of observation.

Internal Migration:

The 2 censuses provided data concerning the age and sex of internal migrants. The broad age groups employed in the 2 censuses were, however, different. The data for 1962 are available by the ages less than 15, 15-29, 30-44 and 45+ years; whereas those for 1974 are given as less than 15, 15-24, 25-34, 35-44 and 45+ years. These data have been used to calculate the age- specific lifetime out- and net-migration rates for males and females (Tables 27-30).

Young adults, both male and female, in the age group 15-29 years numerically dominated the migrants (Table 27). This pattern was noted among migrants from each areal unit in 1962, except for Montserrado. This is a plausible concentration due to the opportunities in this county. One in every 3 males aged 15-29 years in 1962 was an out-migrant. Males in the age group 30-44 years had a 28 percent out-migration rate. The out-migration rates for females, though concentrated in the same two age groups as males, are generally lower. The out-migration rate for males in the age group 15-29 years varied from 18 percent in Montserrado to 44 percent in Eastern Province. Among females, the variation was from 12 percent in Central Province to 29 percent in Grand Cape Mount. Generally, out-migration rates for children (below 15 years of age) were the lowest of all age groups.

The age pattern of lifetime out-migration in 1974 (Table 29) broadly agrees with that of 1962. However, the age groupings employed in 1974 bring out certain differences which were probably concealed by the classification of the 1962 migration data. In general, there was a rise in the incidence of lifetime migration during the period 1962 - 1974. The highest out-migration rates for males were noted in the age group 25-34 years; while females, from most of the counties, were in the age group 15-24 years. This highlights a - L.56 -

Table 26: SELECTED AGE CHARACTERISTICS OF IMMIGRANTS BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN AND EMIGRANTS BY COUNTRY OF DESTINATION, 1970 AND 1971

Immigrants, (Estimate) Emigrants (,stimate) Sierra Ivory Sierra Ivory Characteristic Year Leone Guinea Coast Ghana Leone Guinea Coast Ghana

Median Age 1970 23.1 24.7 20.2 19.6 9.6 23.1 22.9 19.5 1971 22.3 27.0 22.6 23.4 15.6 15.5 15.8 21.0

First Quartile Age 1970 19.0 16.7 9.1 7.2 6.0 8.8 8.3 8.7 1971 7.3 21.6 16.4 15.0 9.3 8.2 6.0 11.8

Third Quartile Age 1970 28.8 30.9 34.5 30.7 20.5 35.2 39.9 28.0 1971 30.5 36.9 37.3 31.3 22.8 31.9 27.1 27.0

% of immigrants into/ emigrants out of the country age 15+ 1970 97.7 79.4 63.6 55.9 40.3 62.7 63.7 68.3 years 1971 64.6 87.1 80.1 75.1 51.8 50.5 51.8 63.6

Source: Liberia, 1971. Patterns of Migration, Series M-1, LPGS M-1, 1970, Monrovia: Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs; Liberia, 1973a. Migration Profiles, Series M-2, LPGS M-2, 1971, Monrovia: Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs. - L.57 -

Table 27: AGE-SPECIFIC LIFETIME OUT-MIGRANTS AS PERCENT OF POPULATION IN SPECIFIED AGE GROUP BY AREA OF BIRTH, 1962

Males Females Age Age Areal Unit 0-14 15-29 30-44 45+ 0-14 15-29 30-44 45+

Counties

Grand Bassa 15.5 40.9 32.5 24.5 14.0 25.8 21.0 18.8 Grand Cape Mount 14.2 43.8 36.1 24.3 13.7 29.3 22.3 13.8 Maryland 8.1 25.4 24.4 13.5 8.9 18.7 14.4 10.7 Montserrado 10.6 17.9 20.9 17.1 11.3 15.9 14.3 12.6 Sinoe 8.6 35.0 33.0 23.2 12.4 26.0 20.8 17.8

Provinces

Central 8.7 26.0 22.2 15.2 6.7 12.1 10.5 8.9 Eastern 15.4 44.3 31.9 17.0 12.1 23.9 13.5 7.1 Western 11.0 39.6 33.8 19.6 8.4 17.5 12.1 7.9

Liberia 11.0 33.0 28.2 18.6 9.6 18.5 14.3 11.2

Source: Liberia, 1964. 1962 Population Census of Liberia, PC-B, Monrovia: Bureau of Statistics, Office of National Planning. - L.58 -

Table 28: AGE-SPECIFIC LIFETIME NET MIGRANTS AS PERCENT OF POPULATION IN SPECIFIED AGE GROUP BY AREA OF BIRTH, 1962

Males Females Age Age Areal Unit 0-14 15-29 30-44 45+ 0-14 15-29 30-44 45+

Counties

Grand Bassa -11.9 - 34.4 - 24.4 - 14.5 -10.2 - 20.7 - 14.7 - 10.6 Grand Cape Mount - 8.9 - 18.9 - 10.4 - 4.6 - 8.3 - 20.4 - 14.1 - 7.0 Maryland + 7.7 + 7.2 + 4.5 + 8.7 + 4.3 + 7.1 + 2.3 - 0.8 Montserrado +51.2 +313.5 +303.3 +165.5 +42.4 +188.5 +153.9 +100.9 Sinoe - 4.8 - 30.0 - 27.0 - 17.5 - 8.7 - 22.2 - 16.7 - 14.6

Provinces

Central - 4.5 - 15.2 - 11.7 - 7.2 - 2.9 - 5.6 - 5.2 - 3.5 Eastern -13.2 - 40.9 - 26.6 - 12.7 -10.0 - 21.6 - 10.4 - 4.2 Western - 5.6 - 26.0 - 21.2 - 12.3 - 3.3 - 9.7 - 6.4 - 4.3

Liberia ------

Source: As in Table 27. - L.59 -

Table 29: AGE-SPECIFIC LIFETIME OUT MIGRANTS AS PERCENT OF POPULATION IN SPECIFIED AGE BY AREA OF BIRTH, 1974

Males Females Areal Unit Age Age (counties) 0-14 15-24 25-34 35-44 45+ 0-14 15-24 25-34 35-44 45+

Bong 18.9 35.0 45.1 37.5 26.9 15.9 26.5 27.8 21.2 17.9

Grand Bassa 20.0 36.0 42.7 37.7 27.9 20.5 32.6 32.9 27.0 22.4

Grand Cape Mount 18.4 37.7 46.8 39.4 27.6 19.6 35.6 33.1 25.2 15.9

Grand Gedeh 15.4 32.3 43.7 33.6 18.4 15.2 29.7 22.8 14.0 8.1

Lofa 20.6 45.3 52.5 44.2 28.6 18.1 32.2 28.1 19.3 12.5

Maryland 16.6 30.5 46.8 37.5 19.7 18.7 36.1 33.2 21.2 13.3

Montserrado 5.3 6.9 11.6 10.1 7.4 5.1 6.5 6.9 6.0 4.1

Nimba 8.6 21.1 28.4 21.3 13.6 8.3 15.8 12.0 8.0 5.6

Sinoe 18.1 33.7 49.5 44.5 29.5 21.3 39.4 37.2 29.5 24.8

Liberia 14.4 29.7 40.2 33.7 22.2 13.8 25.8 24.5 18.1 13.5

Source: Liberia, n.d. Unpublished data from the 1974 Census of Population and Housing in Liberia. - L.60 -

difference in the age pattern of migration for males and females; female migrants were slightly younger than male migrants. In addition, in comparison to 1962, the 1974 lifetime out-migration rates for females in the age groups under 15 and over 45 appeared to exchange places, so that there was an increase in the out-migration of young women and a decrease among older women.

The age specific lifetime net-migration rates for 1962 and 1974 are given in Tables 28 and 29. The net migration rates by age and sex for Mont- serrado in 1962 reflect the age-pattern of out-migration rates for other areal units given in Table 27. The age groups in descending order of magnitude of age-specific net migration for each sex were 15-29, 30-44, 45 and over, and under 15 years. The age-specific net migration rates for Maryland, another net in-migrating county in 1962, did not show any regularity. For the net out-migrating areal units, the age-specific net rates in the age groups 15-29 and 30-44 follow a pattern similar to that shown in the age-specific out- migration rates for these age groups. The extreme age groups do not exhibit any consistent pattern.

The age-specific net migration rates in Table 30 for lifetime migration in 1974 closely conform to the 1962 pattern. One important exception concerned female net in-migrants to Montserrado; in general, in 1974 females from net out-migrating counties in the age group 15-24 years were more migratory than those aged 25-34. The reverse was true in Montserrado.

The age pattern of sex ratios (Tables 31 and 32) demonstrates that female internal lifetime migrants (whether in- or out-) are mainly concentrated in the younger age groups. In 1962, the ratios in the 2 younger age groups, 0-14 and 15-29 years, are lower than those in the older age groups.

By 1974, no great change was noted in the age pattern of sex ratios for in- and out-migrants, even though different age groupings were employed in 1974. Table 32 shows more female than male migrants were concentrated in the younger age groups, particularly 15-24. With advancing age, the excess of males over females increased.

Rural-Urban Migration:

The age distribution of migrants by type of migration (rural to rural, rural to urban, urban to rural, and urban to urban) does not show any marked departure from that of the total population (Table 33). These data from the LPGS suggest that age has very little effect on rural-urban migration. The age distributions of male and female migrants in each stream are almost similar. The similarity as measured by median age is quite prevalent in the cases of rural to rural (median ages about 21 years) and urban to rural (median ages about 19 years) migration. In the other 2 streams bound to urban areas, male migrants are on average about 2 years older than female migrants. The similarity of the age distributions of migrants as compared to the population of the respective areas strongly suggests that most migrations are family migrations, and a high proportion of them visitors, and not migrants at all. Table 30: AGE-SPECIFIC LIFETIME NET MIGRANTS AS PERCENT OF POPULATION IN SPECIFIED AGE GROUP BY AREA OF BIRTH, 1974

Males Females

Areal Unit Age Age (counties) 0-14 15-24 25-34 35-44 45+ 0-14 15-24 25-34 35-44 45+

Bong -12.1 - 24.3 - 29.9 - 24.4 - 15.3 - 9.3 - 17.3 - 18.9 - 13.3 - 11.0 Grand Bassa -14.7 - 28.4 - 30.6 - 29.3 - 20.2 -15.0 - 26.3 - 27.0 - 22.3 - 17.0 Grand Cape Mount - 1.0 - 12.7 - 5.5 + 1.7 - 7.7 - 4.5 - 12.3 - 10.3 - 11.1 - 7.2 Grand Gedeh - 9.3 - 23.2 - 29.8 - 22.4 - 12.0 - 9.2 - 20.9 - 15.0 - 9.0 - 4.4 Lofa -17.2 - 40.6 - 43.6 - 36.2 - 23.8 -14.5 - 28.4 - 24.2 - 16.1 - 10.4 l Maryland -12.1 - 24.5 - 39.9 - 28.4 - 10.7 -14.6 - 30.7 - 26.7 - 15.3 - 8.3 Montserrado +43.9 +153.8 +258.8 +242.6 +143.9 +41.4 +146.8 +178.7 +133.6 + 91.1 Nimba - 2.4 - 12.7 - 14.5 - 7.9 - 5.9 - 2.3 - 8.1 - 3.6 - 1.8 - 1.6 Sinoe -14.5 - 29.4 - 41.8 - 38.8 - 25.8 -17.2 - 34.8 - 33.8 - 27.5 - 23.4 Liberia ------

Source: As in Table 29. - L.62 -

Table 31: SEX RATIOS (MALES PER 100 FEMALES) OF LIFETIME IN- AND OUT-MIGRANTS BY AGE AND AREAL UNITS, 1962

In-Migrants Out-Migrants Age Age Areal Units 0-14 15-29 30-44 45+ Total 0-14 15-29 30-44 45+ Total

Counties

Grand Bassa 105 90 122 158 116 122 114 145 169 130 Grand Cape Mount 100 208 290 346 221 106 112 150 209 131 Maryland 125 108 145 208 130 95 116 142 117 117 Montserrado 125 140 186 207 154 102 97 141 175 115 Sinoe 115 107 126 176 124 77 111 136 129 112

Prpvinces

Central 115 121 190 214 147 135 158 203 246 173 Eastern 114 100 137 154 123 132 126 190 239 148 Western 106 123 201 257 148 131 159 254 317 190

Liberia 120 132 180 208 149 120 132 180 208 149

Source: Liberia, 1964. 1962 Population Census of Liberia, PC-B, Monrovia: Bureau of Statistics, Office of National Planning. Table 32: SEX RATIO (MALES PER 100 FEMALES) OF LIFETIME IN- AND OUT-MIGRANTS BY AGE AND AREAL UNITS, 1974

In-Migrants Out-Migrants Areal Units Age Age (Counties) 0-14 15-24 25-34 35-44 45+ Total 0-14 15-24 25-34 35-44 45+ Total

Bond 111 92 135 1-89 263 134 127 104 128 200 235 138

Grand Bassa 107 102 157 193 187 134 110 94 99 152 164 114

Grand Cape Mount 119 100 163 324 294 154 97 98 127 173 223 124

Grand Gedeh 106 89 119 188 199 119 104 93 127 200 259 124

Lofa 100 95 174 290 309 152 122 108 142 266 319 152

Maryland 114 113 85 134 190 123 93 85 114 154 155 106

Montserrado 112 100 121 182 205 126 110 101 140 170 233 125

Nimba 109 89 113 218 265 128 109 111 163 266 331 149

Sinoe 98 93 180 252 294 135 95 85 105 135 134 105

Liberia 111 99 125 192 216 129 111 99 125 192 216 129

Source: Liberia, n.d. Unpublished data from the 1974 Census of Population and Housing in Liberia. - L.64 -

Table 33: PERCENT DISTRIBUTION OF MIGRANTS AND TOTAL POPULATION BY AGE AND SEX, AVERAGE FOR 1970-1971

Age in Years Median Migration Stream 0-14 15-29 30-44 45-59 60+ Age

Male

Rural to Rural 39.4 25.6 19.4 10.3 5.3 21.2 Rural to Urban 36.5 33.2 23.2 5.3 1.7 21.1 Urban to Rural 40.2 29.9 18.0 7.5 4.3 19.9 Urban to Urban 36.4 39.1 19.0 4.2 1.4 20.2

Female

Rural to Rural 37.0 30.6 18.4 7.9 6.1 21.4 Rural to Urban 39.4 39.9 15.1 3.8 1.7 19.0 Urban to Rural 39.7 35.8 15.0 5.0 4.5 19.3 Urban to Urban 39.7 42.8 12.7 3.4 1.4 18.6

Total Population 42.4 25.4 18.0 8.8 5.4 19.5

Total Rural Population 43.1 22.6 17.8 10.0 6.5 19.6

Total Urban Population 40.7 33.0 18.4 5.6 2.3 19.2

Source: Derived from Tables 34 and 35. - L.65 -

Sex, age, and location-specific migration rates (Tables 34 and 35) indicate the pattern of migration by type. The incidence of migration from rural-to-urban areas is highest in the age group 15-29 years. The rates are 25.3 percent for males and 18.6 percent for females. The next highest incidence of male migration from rural-to-urban locations occurs in the age group 30-44 years (20 percent), whereas the same rank for female migrants occurs over the age group 0-14 years (12 percent). The difference between the- age- specific rural-to-urban migration rates by sex is reflected in the higher median age for male than female migrants.

Urban-to-rural movement (Table 34) does not show any marked age differential.

The age pattern of intra-urban migration for each sex is very similar to that of rural-to-urban migration (Tables 34 and 35). The rates in each age group of the former stream are, however, invariably higher than those for the latter. This indicates that a rural-to-urban migrant has a high probability of moving again to another urban area.

Intra-rural mobility does not show any marked age differential (Table 35), as noted previously for urban-to-rural migration. However, the age-specific rates for the former are higher than those for the latter.

Age-specific turnover and net rural-to-urban migration rates are highest in the age group 15-29 years. The respective values are 18 and 12 percents. Both turnover and net age-specific migration rates (Table 36) follow the same pattern as rural-to-urban migration (Table 34). The lowest rates are observed in the age group 60+ years.

Age-Effectiveness of Rural-Urban Migration:

The index of effectiveness (United Nations, 1970) for rural-urban migration by age and sex as calculated from LPGS data are given in Table 37. Rural-urban migration is equally effective (at about 65 percent) in transferring the male and female populations from rural to urban areas. Further, the age-pattern of effectiveness of rural-urban migration for males and females is almost identical. The migration of males has the highest effectiveness, at 72 percent, in the age group 30-44 years, followed by the age group 15-29 years at 68 percent effectiveness. In the case of female migrants, the most effective age group in transferring the population is 15-29 years, with an index of 68 percent. This is closely followed by the age groups on either side, each with an effectiveness of 64 percent.

Population Redistribution and the Efficiency of Internal Migration

The volume of displaced persons in 1962 may be obtained by adding the positive (or negative) differences under the column headed "Net" in Table 10. There were 58,045 males and 36,414 females who were displaced on a lifetime basis in 1962. Relating these figures to respective population totals, 12.1 percent of males and 7.3 percent of females were displaced in that year. Table 34: VOLUME AND RATE OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION BY AGE AND SEX, AVERAGE FOR 1970-1971

In-Migratjion Data Out-Migration Data Male Female - Male Female Migration Type Age Volume Rate Volume Rate Volume Rate Volume Rate

Rural to Urban 0-14 27,758 10.98 28,514 12.17 28,051 11.10 25,464 10.87

15-29 25,250 25.28 28,875 18.60 18,781 18.80 20,311 13.08

30-44 17,669 20.03 10,926 9.66 10,654 12.08 9,825 8.69

45-59 4,065 6.66 2,761 5.33 4,819 7.89 3,303 6.37

60 + 1,279 3.25 1,212 3.48 2,454 6.23 2,603 7.48

Total 76,021 14.04 72,288 12.27 64,759 11.96 61,506 10.44

Urban to Rural 0-14 6,367 7.22 6,229 7.65 5,569 6.31 5,492 6.75

15-29 4,747 6.94 5,609 8.13 4,542 6.64 5,119 7.42

30-44 2,859 6.26 2,352 7.55 2,964 6.49 2,059 6.61

45-59 1,190 8.06 789 9.00 800 5.42 487 5.56

60 + 687 12.29 707 18.07 275 4.92 328 8.39

Total 15,850 7.12 15,686 8.08 14,150 6.36 13,485 6.95

Note: Source and computational procedure are the same as those given in Table 20. Table 35: VOLUME AND RATE OF INTRA-RURAL AND INTRA-URBAN MIGRATION BY AGE AND SEX, AVERAGE FOR 1970-1971

In-Migration Data Out-Migration Data Male Female Male Female Migration Type Age Volume Rate Volume Rate Volume Rate Volume Rate

Intra-Rural 0-14 23,209 9.18 21,630 9.24 18,328 7.25 17,707 7.56 15-29 15,052 15.07 17,898 11.53 11,066 11.08 13,201 8.50 30-44 11,417 12.95 10,777 9.53 7,788 8.83 8,049 7.12 45-59 6,066 9.93 4,590 8.86 4,400 7.21 3,892 7.51 60+ 3,128 7.94 3,576 10.28 2,967 7.54 2,860 8.22 Total 58,872 10.88 58,471 9.92 44,549 8.23 45,709 7.76

Intra-Urban 0-14 16,905 19.17 16,221 19.93 13,930 15.79 13,451 16.53 15-29 18,180 26.58 17,468 25.33 13,419 19.62 12,479 18.09 30-44 8,814 19.30 5,186 16.65 6,410 14.03 4,287 13.76 45-59 1,937 13.11 1,374 15.68 1,565 10.59 998 11.39 60+ 660 11.81 591 15.11 570 10.20 473 12.09 Total 46,496 20.89 40,840 21.03 35,894 16.12 31,688 16.32

Note: Source and computational procedure are the same as those given in Table 20. Table 36: VOLUME AND RATE OF TURNOVER AND NET RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION BY AGE AND SEX, AVERAGE FOR 1970-1971

In-Migration Out-Migration Male Female Male Female Age Volume Rate Volume Rate Velume Rate Volume Rate

Rural-Urban Migra- 0-14 34,125 10.01 34,743 11.01 33,620 9.86 30,956 9.81 tion Turnover 15-29 29,997 17.83 34,484 15.38 23,323 13.86 25,430 11.34 30-44 20,528 15.33 13,278 9.20 13,618 10.17 11,884 8.24 45-59 5,255 6.93 3,550 5.86 5,619 7.41 3,790 6.26 60+ 1,966 4.37 1,919 4.96 2,729 6.07 2,931 7.57 Total 91,871 12.03 87,974 11.23 78,909 10.33 74,991 9.57

Net Rural-Urban 0-14 21,391 6.27 22,285 7.06 22,482 6.59 19,972 6.33 Migration 15-29 20,503 12.18 23,266 10.38 14,239 8.46 15,192 6.78 30-44 14,810 11.06 8,574 5.94 7,690 5.74 7,766 5.38 45-59 2,875 3.79 1,972 3.26 4,019 5.30 2,816 4.65 60+ 592 1.32 505 1.30 2,179 4.85 2,275 5.88 Total 60,171 7.88 56,602 7.23 50,609 6.63 48,021 6.13

Note: Source and computational procedure are the same as those given in Table 20. - L.69 -

Table 37: INDEX OF EFFECTIVENESS FOR RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION BY AGE AND SEX, 1970-1971

In-Migration Out-Migration Male Female Male Female Age (%) (%) (%) (%)

3-14 62.7 64.1 66.9 64.5

15-29 68.4 67.5 61.1 59.7

30-44 72.1 64.6 56.5 65.3

45-59 54.7 55.5 71.5 74.3

60+ 30.1 26.3 79.8 77.6

Total 65.5 64.3 64.1 64.0

Sources: As given in Table 20. - L.70 -

The displacement rate for both sexes was 9.7 percent. A similar analysis of data in Table 12 indicates that in 1974 there were 112,223 males, or 15.5 percent of all in-born males, displaced from their place of birth. Twelve percent of all in-born females were similarly displaced. Thus, 200,967 persons -- or 14 percent of the population -- would have to be redistributed in order to obtain a distribution identical to place of birth in 1974. Though the areal units in 1962 and 1974 are not directly comparable, the displacement index for the total population increased from 9.7 percent in 1962 to 13.9 percent in 1974, indicative of an acceleration in internal migration. There was a larger increase in the index for females than males. Using the indirect estimate of net intercensal internal migration (Table 18), the displacement indices in relation to population in 1974 are 5.1, 7.7, and 6.3 percents respectively for males, females, and both sexes. The inter-censal displacement rates were 6.1, 9.1, and 7.5 for males, females, and all persons. These estimates of the magnitude of population displacement during the intercensal period confirm the previous finding that more females than males were displaced during the period.

The effectiveness of internal migration in redistributing population can be measured by calculating the effectiveness index, defined as the ratio of net migration to turnover for the various areal units (United Nations, 1970); these ratios for 1962 and 1974 are given in Table 38. The percent index varies between 0 and 100 signifying complete ineffectiveness to perfect effectiveness of internal migration in population redistribution. The 2 extremes denote equal in and out migration, and migration in one direction only. In 1962, internal migration was highly effective for Montserrado County (+82.1 percent) and Eastern Province (-74.3 percent). The lowest effectiveness was noted for Maryland (+15.7 percent). In 1974, the highest and lowest effectiveness ratios were noted in Montserrado (+88.7 percent) and Grand Cape Mount Counties (-13.1 percent). Thus, in 1974, of 10 persons involved in lifetime migration turnover between Montserrado County and the rest of the country, 9 remained in the county.

Migration Selectivity by Age and Sex

An indication of the selectivity of migration can be obtained by comparing the characteristics of migrants with those of nonmigrants or the general population. In this study the former comparison is employed. The available data relate only to selectivity by age and sex. In considering differences between the age and sex patterns of migrants and non-migrants, it must be remembered that changes in the former group are brought about by further in-migration, out-migration, and deaths while in the latter, by out-migration, deaths, return migration, and births.

About 62 percent of lifetime migrants in 1962 were in the age group 15-44 years. There were more male than female migrants in the age groups 15-29 and 30-44 years. In both cases, there were more migrants in the younger age group (15-29 years) than in the older one (30-44 years) (Table 39). Most female migrants were concentrated in the age group 15-29 years. Since the data for 1974 utilized 10-year age groupings instead of the 15-year groupings - L.71 -

Table 38: EFFICIENCY OF LIFETIME MIGRATION FOR AREAL UNITS BY SEX, 1962 AND 1974

Index of Effectiveness Areal Units Male Female Both Sexes

1962

Counties

Grand Bassa -61.1 -57.3 -59.4 Grand Cape Mount -23.9 -46.8 -32.9 Maryland +18.0 +12.8 +15.7 Montserrado +84.1 +79.2 +82.1 Sinoe -64.7 -67.4 -66.0

Provinces

Central -36.6 -29.3 -33.9 Eastern -76.0 -71.9 -74.3 Western -44.8 -34.2 -41.0

1974

Counties

Bong -47.6 -46.4 -47.1 Grand Bassa -59.8 -64.7 -62.1 Grand Cape Mount - 8.1 -19.2 -13.1 Grand Gedeh -49.5 -47.9 -48.8 Lofa -73.0 -73.1 -73.0 Maryland -60.5 -64.8 -62.6 Montserrado +88.7 +88.6 +88.7 Nimba -28.4 -21.2 -25.4 Sinoe -74.0 -79.3 -76.6

Sources: Derived from Liberia, 1964. 1962 Population Census of Liberia, PC-B, Monrovia: Bureau of Statistics, Office of National Planning; Liberia, n.d. Unpublished data from the 1974 Population and Housing Census in Liberia. Table 39: MIGRATION SELECTIVITY BY AGE AND SEX, 1962.

Migrants Non-Migrants Difference Index of Selectivity Age Number Percent Number Percent (3) - (5) (6)/(5) (1) (2)(1) (3) (4) (5) (6)Pecn ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Percent Males

0-14 20,781 21.0 168,910 44.4 - 23.4 - 52.7 15-29 35,004 35.4 71,223 18.7 + 16.7 + 89.3 30-44 26,767 27.0 68,259 18.0 + 9.0 + 50.0 45 + 16,425 16.6 71,870 18.9 - 2.3 - 12.2 Liberia 98,977 100.0 380,262 100.0 - -

Females

0-14 17,355 26.0 162,852 37.8 - 11.8 - 31.2 15-29 26,527 39.8 116,751 27.1 + 12.7 + 46.8 30-44 14,839 22.3 88,797 20.6 + 1.7 + 8.3 45 + 7,906 11.9 62,551 14.5 - 2.6 - 17.9 Liberia 66,627 100.0 430,951 100.0 - -

Both Sexes

0-14 38,136 23.0 331,762 40.9 - 17.9 - 43.7 15-29 61,531 37.2 187,974 23.2 + 14.0 + 60.3 30-44 41,606 25.1 157,056 19.3 + 5.8 + 30.1 45 + 24,331 14.7 134,421 16.6 - 1.9 - 11.4 Liberia 165,604 100.0 811,213 100.0

Source: Derived from Liberia, 1964. 1962 Population Census of Liberia PC-B, Monrovia: Bureau of Statistics, Office of National Planning. - L.73 - employed in 1962, the pattern of migration selectivity by age in 1974 appears slightly different from that in 1962. The highest selectivity of lifetime male migrants in 1974 was observed in the age group 25-34 years. In the case of female migrants, the same phenomenon with lower intensity (118 percent against 55 percent) occurred in the age group 15-24 years. It is clear from the analysis of age selectivity in 1962 and 1974 (Tables 39 and 40) that migrants are concentrated in the productive age groups of 15-44 years. Males exhibit a slightly older age selectivity than females. The pattern may reflect the difference between age at marriage of males and females.

Lifetime migration in 1962 and 1974 was male selective in all age groups for which data were available. The selectivity in 1962 was highest (50 percent) in the age group 15-29 years and lowest (7 percent) in the ages under 15. Further, the selectivity presents a unimodal curve probably with a peak around 30 years in both census years (Table 41).

Thus, lifetime internal migration in Liberia is male selective, with a maximum selectivity of 30 years of age. Lifetime male migrants appear to be slightly older than female migrants. With advancing age, the excess of males over females among migrants increases. In 1962, the excess of males per 100 females among lifetime migrants in the ages 0-15, 15-29, 30-44 and 45+ years were 20, 32, 80, and 108. In 1974, the ages under 15 showed an excess of 11 males per 100 females, whereas the age groups 25-34, 35-44 and 45+ showed excesses of 25, 92, and 116 males. The age group 15-24 had a balanced sex ratio (99 males per 100 females) among migrants.

Duration of Stay

The LPGS collected data on intended duration of stay at the place of enumeration. A question on duration of residence at the place of enumeration was introduced in the 1974 census but because of certain inconsistencies, the data from this source are not used in the present analysis. From LPGS data it appears that a majority of rural-urban migrants (all four streams considered) had a vague idea of their intended duration of stay. More than 98 percent of the migrants wanted to stay at the place of enumeration for more than 3 years. This was true for each migration stream.

The preceding observation did not hold for international migrants. The distribution of immigrants and emigrants by intended duration of their stay (Tables 42 and 43) suggest 2 patterns -- (1) long duration of stay of more than 3 years, and (2) short duration stay of less than 6 months. It may be noted in Table 42 that more than 90 percent of the immigrants intended to stay in Liberia for a period exceeding 3 years. A similar pattern was revealed by the intended duration of stay of emigrants from Liberia in Liberia for a short-duration-stay of less than 6 months. The distribution of emigrants in 1971 by intended duration of stay abroad was different from that for immigrants in each of the 2 years considered and also from that for emigrants in 1970. In 1971, only about one-half of the emigrants from rural areas intended to stay abroad for a period exceeding 3 years. The corresponding percentage for emigrants from urban areas was 76. - L.74 -

Table 40: MIGRATION SELECTIVITY BY AGE AND SEX, 1974

Index of Migrants Non-Migrants Difference Selectivity (6)/(5) Age Number Percent Number Percent (3) - (5) Percent (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Males

0-14 44,785 26.2 266,482 48.2 -22.0 - 45.6 15-24 36,796 21.6 87,072 15.7 + 5.9 + 37.5 25-34 36,143 21.2 53,765 9.7 +11.5 +118.5 35-44 25,755 15.1 50,624 9.2 + 5.9 + 64.1 45 + 27,104 15.9 94,824 17.2 - 1.3 - 7.5 Liberia 170,583 100.0 552,767 100.0 0

Females

0-14 40,330 30.5 251,309 42.8 -12.3 - 28.7 15-24 37,164 28.1 106,719 18.1 +10.0 + 55.2 25-34 28,912 21.8 89,301 15.2 + 6.6 + 43.4 35-44 13,435 10.1 60,610 10.3 - 0.2 - 1.9 45 + 12,537 9.5 80,243 13.6 - 4.1 - 30.1 Liberia 132,378 100.0 588,182 100.0 0

Both Sexes

0-14 85,115 28.1 517,791 45.4 -17.3 - 38.1 15-24 73,960 24.4 193,791 17.0 + 7.4 + 43.5 25-34 65,055 21.5 143,066 12.5 + 9.0 + 72.0 35-44 39,190 12.9 111,234 9.8 + 3.1 + 31.6 45 + 39,641 13.1 175,067 15.3 - 2.2 - 14.3 Liberia 302,961 100.0 1,140,949 100.0 0

Source: Derived from Liberia, n.d. Unpublished data from the 1974 Census of Population and Housing in Liberia. - L.75 -

Table 41: MIGRATION SELECTIVITY BY SEX AND AGE, 1962 AND 1974

Index of Selectivity Migrants Non-Migrants Difference (5)/(4) Age Sex (Percent) (Percent) (3) - (4) Percent (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

1962

0-14 Male 54.5 50.9 + 3.6 + 7.1 Female 45.5 49.1 - 3.6 - 7.3 15-29 Male 56.9 37.9 +19.0 +50.1 Female 43.1 62.1 -19.0 -30.6 30-44 Male 64.3 43.5 +20.8 +47.8 Female 35.7 56.5 -20.8 -36.8 45 + Male 67.5 53.5 +14.0 +26.2 Female 32.5 46.5 -14.0 -30.1 Total Male 59.8 46.9 +12.9 +27.5 Female 40.2 53.1 -12.9 -24.3

1974

0-14 Male 52.6 51.5 + 1.1 + 2.1 Female 47.4 48.5 - 1.1 - 2.3 15-24 Male 49.8 44.9 + 4.9 +10.9 Female 50.2 55.1 - 4.9 - 8.9 25-34 Male 55.6 37.6 +18.0 +47.9 Female 44.4 62.4 -18.0 -28.8 35-44 Male 65.7 45.5 +20.2 +44.4 Female 34.3 54.5 -20.2 -37.1 45 + Male 68.4 54.2 +14.2 +26.2 Female 31.6 45.8 -14.2 -31.0 Total Male 56.3 48.4 + 7.9 +16.3 Female 43.7 51.6 - 7.9 -15.3

Source: As in Tables 39 and 40. Table 42: IMMIGRATION BY INTENDED LENGTH OF STAY AND LOCATION, 1970 AND 1971.

1970 1971

Length of Stay Rural Urban All Areas Rural Urban All Areas in Months Number Number % Number % Number % Number % Number %

1 - 5 504 6.3 490 7.2 994 6.7 267 7.3 67 2.1 334 4.9

6- 10 72 0.9 - - 72 0.5 ------

11 - 15 72 0.9 - - 72 0.5

16-20 - - - -2

21-25 ------

26-30 ------10 0.3 10 0.1

31 - 35 - - 40 0.6 40 0.3 ------

36 + 7,344 91.9 6,320 92.2 13,664 92.0 3,208 92.3 3,180 97.6 6,388 95.0

Total 7,992 100.0 6,850 100.0 14,842 100.0 3,475 100.0 3,257 100.0 6,732 100.0

Sources: Liberia, 1971. Patterns of Migration, Series M-1, L.P.G.S. M-1, 1970, Monrovia: Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs, Table 4; Liberia, 19 7 3ia Migration Profiles, Series M-2, L.P.G.S. M-2, 1971, Monrovia: Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs, Table 3. Table 43: EMIGRATION BY INTENDED LENGTH OF STAY AND LOCATION, 1970 AND 1971.

1970 1971

Length of Stay Rural Urban All Areas Rural Urban All Areas in Months Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number %

1 - 5 324 5.2 180 6.2 504 5.5 76 1.6 114 5.0 190 2.7

6- 10 - - 10 0.3 10 0.1 ------

11 - 15 - - 10 0.3 10 0.1 955 20.2 152 6.7 1,107 15.8

16-20 ------

21-25 ------344 7.3 57 2.5 401 5.7

26-30 ------

31 - 35 36 0.6 - - 36 0.4 933 19.7 219 9.6 1,152 16.4

36 + 5,868 94.2 2,730 93.2 8,598 93.9 2,426 51.2 1,738 76.2 4,164 59.4

Total 6,228 100.0 2,930 100.0 9,158 100.0 4,734 100.0 2,280 100.0 7,014 100.0

Sources: As in Table 42, Liberia, 1971, Table 9; Liberia, 1973/arable 7. - L.78 -

Reasons for Migration

The LPGS identified the following 4 reasons for migration: to seek work, take a job, marry, or attend school. A residual group of other reasons included all who could not be classified into the preceding. In the case of family migrations, the reason for which the head of the household migrated was assigned to the remaining household members. This consideration placed a serious limitation on the interpretation of data. To overcome this bias, our analysis will consider the reasons for migration of those aged 15 or more years. An additional limitation on the use of the data was posed by the fact that while tabulating the reasons for migration no differentiation was made between in-migration, immigration, or within-area movements; all reasons were classified as pertaining to either in-migration or out-migration only. The data, therefore, could not be tabulated by area of origin. Here we will consider the data collected through the in-migration approach for the reasons stated in the introduction.

The most important reason for migration appeared to be economic -- to seek work or take a job. About 1 in every 3 male migrants to urban areas, and 1 in every 5 male migrants to rural areas, moved for these reasons. The same was true for females. Economic reasons for migration, as might be expected, are more predominant among moves to urban areas than rural areas. Another important reason for male migration (1 in 10) was education, whereas for females, marriage was an important predisposing reason (about 12 percent). Unspecified reasons for migration accounted for more than one- half of the total migrations, which may give rise to an unstable pattern of migration (Table 44).

Demographic and Economic Impact of International Migration

The net gain of population in Liberia due to international migration appears to be quite small, below 5 per 1000 population per year. This is substantiated by data from the LPGS and is also reflected in the relatively small increment during 1962-1974 of only 28,000 in the number of immigrants. This net gain was small in spite of the "Open Door" policy of the Republic of Liberia. Further, most of the international migrations occur across boundaries with neighbouring countries and appear to be balanced in terms of the exchange of population. Thus, the impact on demographic conditions in Liberia or the neighbouring countries appears negligible. For example, the intercensal rates of growth for the total population and for the total in-born population in Liberia were 47.9 and 46.6 percent respectively. For the period 1962-1974, unfortunately, we have no information readily available on the number of emigrants who were born in Liberia. However, judging from the findings of the LPGS, we may assume that a number of persons born in Liberia emigrated during the intercensal period. The number is unlikely to be large enough to offset the effect of immigration, but it may raise the rate of growth during 1962 - 1974 for the population born in Liberia. This phenomenon would reduce the already low difference (1.3 percent) between the intercensal rates of growth of the total population and the population born in Liberia. Thus, the impact of international migration on population growth in Liberia appears to be small. Table 44: PERCENT DISTRIBUTION OF MIGRANTS BY REASON FORMIGRATION AND LOCATION, 1970 AND 1971.

1970 1971

Reason for Migration Urban Area Rural Area Urban Area Rural Area Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

Seek Work 6.7 2.4 7.7 1.8 5.0 2.6 7.4 2.1

Take a Job 29.4 15.5 22.6 9.4 32.3 19.8 21.8 9.2

Marriage 1.3 11.8 3.2 13.1 1.6 12.0 3.8 13.2

Education 9.7 3.0 5.7 1.5 9.8 4.3 7.4 3.6

Other 52.9 67.3 60.8 74.2 51.3 61.3 59.6 71.9

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Total Migrants Aged 15+ Years 70,660 57,790 124,020 125,568 61,676 50,380 73,767 75,363

Sources: As in Table 42. - L.80 -

In spite of the smallness of the volume of international migration, its impact on Liberia's economy and development is substantial. It is difficult to illustrate this impact quantitatively due to a lack of sufficient data. The Statistical Bulletin for Liberia, 1972 (1973b, p. 74), gave employment data concerning 96 establishments which employed 20 or more people in 1970. Of these, 82 were located in Montserrado County. Only 10 agricultural, 3 mining, and 1 construction establishment were located outside this county. Most of the managerial, executive, and technical positions in these establishments were held by expatriates. In addition, most of the small commercial enterprises and wholesale and retail stores are owned by persons of Lebanese and/or Indo-Pakistani origin. The addition of these skills to the Liberian labour force makes the contribution of immigration to the economy substantial.

MIGRATION IN THE GAMBIA

K.C. Zachariah

Prepared as part of the World Bank/Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development Research Project: "Demographic Aspects of Migration in West Africa."

World bank Development Economics Department Population and Human Resources Division Washington, D.C.

MIGRATION IN THE GAMBIA

by K.C. Zachariah 1/

Table of Contents

Page No.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 1-2

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ...... 3

CHAPTER II. GENERAL DEMOGRAPHIC SITUATION ...... 5

CHAPTER III. EXTERNAL MIGRATION ...... 14

CHAPTER IV. INTERNAL MIGRATION ...... 20

CHAPTER V. RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION ...... 26

CliAPTER VI. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MIGRANTS ...... 28

ANNEX I. A Report on Migrant Farmers in the Gambia by Kenneth Swindell ...... 32

1/ Edited by Bonnie L. Newlon. - ii -

List of Maps

Page No.

Map 1. The Gambia ...... 4 - iii -

List of Tables

Page No.

Table 1. Total Population of the Gambia as Reported in the Censuses of Gambia, 1901-1973 ...... 6

Table 2. Population in Local Government Areas, 1963 and 1973. 7

Table 3. Population of Banjul, 1901-1973. 8

Table 4. Intercensal Population Growth of 44 Selected Towns by Local Government Area, 1963-1973 ...... 9

Table 5. Intercensal Population Growth of 44 Selected Towns by Size of Township in 1963, 1963-1973 .... 10

Table 6. Population of Enumeration Districts, 1963 and 1973 ...... 11

Table 7. Distribution of Settlements with Census Populations in Excess of 1,000 Persons by Local Government Area, 1973 ...... 12

Table 8. Total Population of Gambia by Nationality, 1963 and 1973 ...... 14

Table 9. Foreign Nationals by Country of Origin, 1963 and 1973 .15

Table 10. Foreign-born by Country of Birth, 1973 .16

Table 11. Foreign Nationals by Local Area of Residence, 1963 and 1973 ...... 18

Table 12. Percent Increase in Population, 1963-73, by Migration Status .19

Table 13. Lifetime Internal Migration, 1963 and 1973 21

Table 14. In-Migration to and Out-Migration from Kombo St. Mary, 1973 ...... 22

Table 15. In-Migration to and Out-Migration From Kerewan, 1973 ...... 23

Table 16. Components of Population Growth by Local Government Area, 1963-73 ...... 24 - iv -

List of Tables (continued)

Page No.

Table 17. Net Migration to Towns During 1963-1973, by Size of Town in 1963 ...... 27

Table 18. Age Distribution and Sex Ratio of the Gambian and Non-Gambian Population, 1973 ...... 29

Table 19. Age Distribution of Migrants and Non-Migrants, 1973 ...... 30

Table 20. Percent of the Gambians and Non-Gambians Who Have Completed Primary Education, 1973 ...... 31 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The Gambia is a small country with an economy based mainly on traditional rural activities. The country is not urbanized; there are only two towns with a population exceeding 10,000. Yet a number of factors make migration an important element in the country's population growth and economic activity. First of all, the shape of the country and its location in the heart of Senegal make migration from Senegal as easy as, or easier than, migration within the country. Secondly, its general economic condition relative to that of its neighboring countries is a strong incentive for mi6ration to the Gambia at any time, and more so during the not so infreqent drought periods. In particular, the presence of extensive agricultural land ideally suitable for groundnut cultivation, the economic separateness from francophone Africa, and the Gambia's role as an economic enclave are important in this regard. Thirdly, some elements of the local culture offer strong inducements to segments of the population to seek their fortune elsewhere in the country or region. For example, the Wolof households (14 percent of the Gambian population and possibly as much as 60 percent of the immigrants from Senegal) are polygamous and the status of younger brothers in these households viz-a-viz the head of the tamily compound and the eldest son is not very much different from that of strangers. There is a strong incentive for these young men to leave the household.

Historical data indicate that the Gambian population growth was sustained by external migration in most years of the present century. During the decade before the last census (1963-73), the rate of population growth was 4.5 percent per year. Even allowing for errors of enumeration, there is very little doubt that part of this growth was due to external migration. A rough estimate is that 42 percent of the growth was due to natural increase, 14 percent due to net immigration of foreign-born persons, and the balance of 44 percent principally due to relative under-enumeration in the 1963 census or return migration of Gambians and others born in the Gambia. It is most likely that return migration of the Gambians is small in comparison to the effect of under-enumeration. Most of the immigrants (nearly half) came from Senegal and the balance from the Republic of Guinea (19 percent), Guinea Bissau (13 percent), Mali, and Mauritania. The western areas in the Gambia (banjul, Kombo St. Mary, and Brikama), were the principal recipients of these immigrants.

Lifetime internal migrants were 14 percent of the native population in 1973. This number of migrants increased from 27,000 to 61,000 during 1963-73 or by 125 percent. These figures indicate a relatively high degree of internal population mobility in the Gambia. The areas which gained population by internal migration are the same areas which received the immigrants.

Taking a very liberal definition of urban population (44 towns, several of which had population below 2,000 in 1973), the urban population increased from 94,000 to 163,000 or by 72 percent. Net migration (internal and external) appears to account for nearly two-thirds of the urban growth.

- G.1 - - G. 2 -

Towns with a population in the range 2,000-5,000 in 1963 had the highest rate of net in-migration. However, their location near Banjul appeared to be pertinent to this high growth, although Banjul itself had a relatively low net in-migration rate.

Migrants' characteristics viz-a-viz non-migrants in the Gambia are similar to those in other West African countries. Migrants included more males than females and they had a relatively higher proportion in the young working ages 15-34 years. Migrants had fewer years of schooling and occupied on the whole, low level occupations. Viewing all these characteristics, the immigrants and non-migrants appear at two extremes, with internal migrants falling inbetween.

Migration to the Gambia appears to have been beneficial to both the migrants and the host country. Despite the social disruption entailed, migration to the Gambia, especially for groundnut cultivation, appears to have brought tangible benefits to the migrants in terms of higher income and access to a range of goods not available in their native place. For the host country, with excess land and scarce labor, the short-term benefits of immigration are clear, but the long-term implications depend on the pattern of migration, information on which is not readily available. I. INTRODUCTION

The Gambia is the smallest of the countries included in this study, both in terms of area and population. With a population of about a half million in 1977 and an area of 10,400 km2, the country is densely populated by West African standards (53 persons per sq. km.) It lies along both sides of the Gambia River forming an enclave inside Senegal 200 miles long and 10 miles wide on either side of the river (Map 1). The boundaries of the country were not dictated by ethnic nor geographic considerations but by European politics of the latter part of the nineteenth century.

The economy of the Gambia consists mostly of traditional small holding rural activities: agriculture, livestock and fisheries. Agriculture is mainly rainfed and is characterized by a short production period limited to about 6 months during the rainy season (June - November). The principal crop is groundnuts - the only cash crop of the Gambia, the main source of foreign exchange, and the basis of the country's major industrial activity, namely, groundnut oil milling.

The Gambia's small size, unique geographic shape and location, climate and economic activity, have several important implications for the pattern of population movement to and from the country and within the country itself.

- G.3 -

II. GENERAL DEMOGRAPHIC SITUATION

The total population of the country is estimated at about 550,000 for 1977. This makes it the smallest country included in the study, having about one-third the population of the next largest country (Liberia). The latest census of the country, conducted in April 1973, enumerated 493,000 persons and indicated a growth rate of 4.5 percent per year between 1963 and 1973. At the beginning of this century, the total population of the country was under 100,000, but the growth rate was as high as that observed during the latest intercensal period. In between these two dates the rate of population growth was not very high; and in fact, around 1930 there was a net decrease in the total size of the country's population (Table 1).

The high and fluctuating rate of growth indicates that population growth in the Gambia has been influenced by external migration. In 1973, although the crude birth rate was very high (about 50 per 1,000), the crude death rate was also very high (about 30 per 1,000). Thus, natural increase may not have been higher than 2.0 percent annually. More than half of the 4.5 percent 1963-73 average annual growth rate is estimated to have resulted from under-enumeration in the 1963 census, and return migration of natives, with the remainder (0.6 percent) due to immigration.

Banjul is the largest town and the capital of the country. Its population in 1973 was only 39,000 or 8 percent of the country's population (Table 2). between 1963 and 1973, the population of Banjul grew at an average of 3.4 percent annually, 1.1 percentage points less than the national growth rate. The effect of under-enumeration in 1963 is unknown, but it is possible that the influx of external migration has been less intense in Banjul than in the rest of the country. The highest annual growth rate of Banjul's population occurred during 1921-30 (4.4 percent) at a time when the national population decreased by 0.5 percent per year (see Table 3).

The pattern of urban growth in the Gambia in recent years is indicated in Tables 4 and 5. The annual rate of urban growth during 1963-73 was greater than the national annual growth rate by 0.9 percentage units. It is not clear whether the differential is due to internal migration or external migration. The urban death rate is possibly lower than the rural death rate, and a higher natural increase could be one of the reasons for the higher urban growth rate.

As mentioned above, Banjul experienced only a moderate growth rate over the intercensal period, 1963-73. Towns in the population size range (in 1963) 2,000 - 5,000 had the highest growth rate. However, in general, there was no consistent relationship between the size of a town and its recent annual rate of population growth.

/ The Gambia is divided into 4 Divisions, having a total of 8 Local Government Areas (see Map 1). The 8 Local Government Areas are divided into 37 Enumeration Districts. Census data are given for the Local Government Areas and the Enumeration Districts (see Tables 6 and 7). Banjul and Kombo St. Mary are relatively small Local Areas located on the mouth of the Gambia River on its southern bank. Brikama Area occupies much of the western part

- G.5 - - G.6 -

Table 1: TOTAL POPULATION OF THE GAMBIA AS REPORTED IN THE CENSUSES OF GAMBIA, 1901-1973

Average Intercensal Annual Census Total Percentage Growth Year Population Change Rate

1901 90,404 - -

1911 146,101 61.6 4.8

1921 210,611 44.2 3.7

1931 199,520 - 5.3 -0.5

1963 315,486 58.1 1.4

1973 493,499 56.4 4.5

Source: The Gambia. Central Statistics Division, Office of the President, 1973. Provisional Report of the 1973 Census of Population, Banjul: Central Statistics Division, p.5. Tabl 2: POPULATION IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREAS, 1963 AND 1973

Percentage ChanAe (1963-1973' Percentage Distrihution Distribution Average Annual Population Dersity Percentage Local Government Total Population in of Tota Po u1aton ofTotal Rate of Growth Per Sq. Km. Ckange iz. Area 1963 1973 1963 i973 Actual Population 1963-1973 1963 1973 Density

BaM3ul 27,809 39,179 8.8 7.9 440.9 - 10.2 3.4 2,142 3,077 + 43.7 iK(mbo St. Nary 12,203 39,404 3.9 8.0 +222.8 +105.1 11.7 162 522 +222.2

Brikama 55,393 91,013 17.6 18.4 + 64.3 + 4.5 5.0 32 52 + 62.5

~'ansakonku 34,227 42,447 10.8 8.6 + 24.0 - 20.4 2.2 22 27 -r 22.7

*ereiza-n 63,045 93,388. 20.0 18.9 +48.1 - 5.5 3.9 29 43 + 48.3

Kuntaur 29,003 47,669 9.2 9.7 +64.4 + 5.4 5.0 20 33 65.0

GaSorgwtok,n 35,752 54,232 11.3 11.0 +51.7 - 2.7 4.2 26 39 + 50.0

Basso 58,049 86,169 18.4 17.5 + 48.4 - 4.9 4.0 29 43 + 48.3

All Gambia 315,486 493,499 100.0 100.0 +56.4 - - 4.5 30 47 56.7

Sources: H.A. Oliver, 1965. Census Controller, Report on the Census of Population of the Gambia taken on 17th/lth., April 1963. Sessional Paper No.13, Banjul: Central Statistics Division, Table 3, p.42; The Gambia. Central Statistics Division, Ministry of Economic Planning and Industrial Development, 1976. Population Census of 1973, Statistics for Local Government Areas and Districts, Vol. III, General Report, Banjul: Central Statistics Division, Table 1, pp.73-77. - G.8 -

Table 3: POPULATION OF BANJUL, 1901-1973

Average Intercensal Annual Percentage Growth Year Population Change Rate

1901 8,807 _ _

1911 7,700 -12.5 -1.3

1921 9,227 19.8 1.8

1931 14,370 55.7 4.4

1944 21,152 47.2 3.0

1951 19,602 - 7.3 -1.1

1963 27,809 41.9 2.9

1973 39,179 40.9 3.4 It

Sources: The Gambia. Central Statistics Division Ministry of Economic Planning and Industrial Development, 1976. Population Census of 1973, Statistics for Local Government Areas and Districts, Vol. III, General Report, Banjul: Central Statis- tics Division; The Gambia. Census Com- missioner, 1952. Report of the Census Commissioner for the Colony, 1951, Banjul: Census Commissioner, Table 1, p.6. - G.9 - Table 4: INTERCENSAL POPULATION GROWTH OF 44 SELECTED TOWNS BY LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, 1963-1973.

Average I'ercentage Anntual Populat-lon in_ Change Growth Local Government Area/Town 1963 1973 1963-1973 1963-73

TOTAL 24.f_ 1;a2 ZL 8 5.A

Banjul 27,809 39,179 40.9 3.4

Komtbo St._Mary Arca 5,644 34,842 517.3 18.2 faluau 3,563 9,337 162.1 9.6 Serekunda 2,081 25,505 25.1

rikauna Area 18,362 28,804 57.0 4.5 Sukuta 2,504 3,844 53.5 4.3 BrvfuL 1,901 2,765 45.5 3.7 Gunjur 3,561 4,677 31.3 2.7 Sifo 1-332 2,080 56.2 4.5 Sanyanig 1,282 2,136 66.6 5.1 KarLonig 1,184 1,320 11.5 1.1 l'ujeriuig 1,282 3,313 2.4 .2 Brikarma 4,195 9,483 126.1 8.2 Faraba 1,1(1 1,186 7.7 .7

Mansalkonkc Area 7,516 9,058 20.5 1.9 Pakaliba 908 1,066 17.4 1.6 Jiroff 844 800 - 5.2 .5 Kaiaf 1,294 1,722 33.1 2.9 Toniataba 1,013 1,272 25.6 2.3 Jassong 712 781 9.7 .9 Bureng 885 1,054 19.1 1.7 Sutuhur.g 922 1,145 24.2 2.2 I3arrokunda 938 1,218 29.9 2.6

Kerewan Area 14,971 17,666 18.0 1.7 Kereaan 1,64' 2,166 31.5 2.7 Saba 1,473 1,613 9.5 .9 Salikeni 3,899 3,312 - 15.1 - 1.6 Njakunda 1,794 1,876 4.6 .4 Nol.unda 1,534 1,392 - 9.3 - 1.0 .Katchaug 1,646 1,929 17.2 1.6 Farafenni 1,618 3,778 133.5 8.5 BambaJi 1,360 1,600 17.6 1.6

Kuntauur A,ea 2,539 3,467 36.5 3.1 Kaur 1,183 1,785 50.9 4.1 Kuntaur 1,356 1,682 24.0 2.2

Geop_eL,cwn Area 4,099 6,075 48.2 3.9 Dankunku 1,070 1,456 36.1 3.1 Bansang 1,437 2,109 46.8 3.8 Georgctown 1,592 2,510' 57.7 4.6

Basse Area 13,689 23,481 71.5 5.4 Gamibissara 1,356 3,646 168.9 9.9 Numuyel 733 1,508 105.7 7.2 Dembakunda 704 1,686 139.5 8.7 Aluhunghari 1,582 2,420 52.9 4.2 Basse 1,639 2,899 76.9 5.7 Sabi 1,434 2,257 57.4 4.5 Damfakunda 1,340 1,732 29.3 2.6 Kulari 1,252 1,859 48.5 4.0 Dingiring 791 1,147 45.0 3.7 Garowal 1,759- 2,855 62.3 4.8 Koina 1,098 1,472 34.1 2.9

Sources: H.A. Oliver, 1965, op. cit., Table 28,.p. 66; The Gambia. Central Statistics Division, Presi- dent's Office, 1973. Provisional Report, Popu- lation Census of 1973, Banjul: Central Statistics Division, Table 4, pp. 16-17. - G.10 -

Table 5: INTERCENSAL POPULATION GROWTH OF 44 SELECTED TOWNS BY SIZE OF TOWNSHIP IN 1963-1973

Average Annual Size of Township Percentage Rate of in 1963 Change Growth (Number of Persons) Population Population 1963-1973 1963-1973

TOTAL GAMBIA 94,609 162,572 72.2 5.4

5,000+ 27,809 39,179 40.9 3.4

2,000-5,000 19,803 56,158 183.6 10.4

1,750-2,000 5,454 7,496 37.4 3.2

1,500-1,750 11,259 17,094 51.8 4.2

1,250-1,500 16,198 23,749 46.6 3.8

1,000-1,250 6,649 8,491 27.7 2.4

- 1,000 7,437 10,405 40.0 3.4

Source: As in Table 2. - G.11 -

Table 6: POPULATION OF ENUMERATION DISTRICTS, 1963 AND 1973 1/

1,-vec,tage Change PerceinLaopc Share of (]9G3-73) in Avvrale Total Pop-latloh in National PD11a0Lion0 Share of AnnuaI TotLaI 1la t I1. Rate of Enumeration Districts 1963 17^?3 1963 1973 popit, Popn. Growth

BsoJ~i1 2i,809 39,179 8.8 7.9 40.9 - 10.2 3,4

Kombo St. Mary 12,208 39,404 3.9 8.0 222.8 -105.1 1]I/

Konibo North 0,245 16,710 2.9 1.4 80.8 98.0 5.9 Kombo South 12,416 18,334 3.9 3.7 47.7 - 5.1 3.9 Kombo Control 8,957 16,719 2.8 3.3 81.1 17.9 5.9 Brikaaa KorTbo East 6,106 11,304 1.9 2.3 85.1 21.1 6.2 Government loni lIrefet 2,653 5,364 .8 1.1 102.2 37.5 7.0 Area ro.li Bintang 5,870 8,322 1.9 1.7 41.8 - 10.5 3,5 Foui Kansala 4,561 7,241 1.4 1.5 58.8 7.1 4.6 Foni Bondali 2,577 3,534 .8 .7 37.1 - 12.5 3.2 Foni Jarrol 3,008 3,985 1.0 .8 32.5 - 20.0 2.8

Kiang West 8,G04 9,171 2.7 1.9 6.6 - 29.6 .6 Kiang Central 4,105 5,320 1.3 1.1 29.6 - 15.4 7.6 Mansako,ko Kiaing East 1,386 5,285 1.4 1.1 20.5 - 21.4 1.9 Government Jarra West 7,400 10,365 2.3 2.1 40 1 - 8.7 3.4 Area Jarra Centr3l 3,474 4,179 1.1 .8 20.3 - 27.3 1.8 Jaria Last G,2.8 °,127 2.0 1.6 29.9 - 20.0 2.6

Lower Niunmi 10,342 18,426 3.3 3.7 78.2 12.1 5.8 IUpper Niumi 7,965 13,259 2.5 2.7 66.5 8.0 5.1 Kerewar Joadu 4,320 9,711 1.4 2.0 124.8 42.9 8.1 Governmelnt Lowzr Baddrbu 8,062 10,190 2.6 2.1 26.4 - 19.2 2.3 Area Central Baddibu 8,882 11,441 2.8 2.3 28.8 - 17.9 2.5 Upper Badtlibu 23,474 30,360 7.4 6.2 29.3 - 16.2 2.6

Lower Saloutm 6,233 10,507 2.0 2.1 68.6 5.0 5.2 Kuntaur Upper SaJIoum 4,622 8,758 1.5 1.8 89.5 20.0 6.4 Governmient Niaiuija 3,289 5,108 1.0 1.0 55.3 - 4.4 Area N iani 7,260 12,479 2.3 2.5 71.9 8.7 5.4

Sami 7,599 10,822 2.4 2.2 42.4 - 8.3 3.5

'Niamina-Da,kunku 2,505 4,001 .8 .8 59.7 4.7 Georgetown Niamina West 3,576 4,887 1.1 1.0 36.7 - 9.1 3.1 Gove(ianent Niamini. Eadrt 5,469 8,999 1.7 1.8 64.6 5.9 5.0 Area Fulladu West 22,610 33,494 7.2 6.8 48.1 - 5.6 3.9 MacCarthy Island 1,592 2,857 .5 .6 79.1 20.0 5.8

Basse Eulldu East 28,388 44,635 9.0 9.0 57.2 - 4.5 Governmcnt Kanitora 9,044 12,366 2.9 2.5 36.7 - 13.8 3.1 Area Wuli 13,724 18,347 4.4 3.7 33.7 - 15.9 2.9 Sandu 6,891 10,819 2.2 2.2 57.0 - 4.5

All Gambin 315,486 493,499 100.0 100.0 56.4 - 4.5

1/ The Local Government Areas of Banjul and Kombo St. Mary are treated as districts to maintain intercensal comparability.

Sources: As in Table 2. - G.12 -

Table 7: DISTRIBUTION OF SETTLEMENTS WITH CENSUS POPULATIONS IN EXCESS OF 1,000 PERSONS BY LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, 1973.

Number of Population % Distr. of Local Government Settle- within the Settlement % Distr. of Area ments Settlements Population Settlement

ALL GAMBIA 66 193,635 100.0 100.0

Banjul 1 39,179 20.2 1.5

Kombo St. Mary 2 34,842 18.0 3.0

Brikama 18 41,464 21.4 27.3

Mansakonko 10 12,130 6.3 15.2

Kerewan 14 25,614 13.2 21.2

Kuntaur 3 4,488 2.3 4.5

Georgetown 4 7,261 3.7 6.1

Basse 14 28,657 14.9 21.2

Source: The Gambia. Central Statistics Division, Office of the President, 1973. Population Census, 1973, Provisional Report, Banjul: Central Statistics Division, Table 4, pp. 16-17. - G. 13 - of the country on the Atlantic coast. Mansakoko and Kerewan constitute the Lower River Division, the latter Local Area on the northern side and the former on the southern side of the river. Macarthy Island Division lies at the bend of the river. This Division consists of 2 Local Government Areas: Kuntaur and Georgetown. Basse Area lies in the Upper River Division and forms the easternmost part of the country.

Kerewan Local Government Area in the Lower River Division is the most populous of-all the 8 Areas. This Area contains the land most suitable for groundnut cultivation in the country. However, in 1973 the density of population in this Area was only 43 persons per km 2, less than the national average by 3 persons per km2. Density was highest in Banjul (Table 2) which supported a population of 39,000 in only 12.7 km2. In general, the western regions were more densely inhabited than the eastern regions.

The rates of population growth varied from 11.7 percent per year in Kombo St. Mary Area to 2.2 percent in Mansakonko Local Area. With a prevailing high death rate in the country, it is most likely that the differences in regional growth rates are partly due to differentials in natural increase. It is, however, difficult to isolate this effect. The possible contribution of internal and external migration is discussed in this report. III. EXTERNAL MIGRATION

Conditions in the Gambia are ideally suited for significant external migration. First of all the country is small, and any part of the Gambia can be reached from Senegal by traveling not more than 10-20 miles. Secondly, the ribbonlike shape of the country is conducive more to external than internal migration. Thirdly, the Gambia contains excellent agricultural land including some of the best land available for groundnut cultivation. When interior countries suffer from drought, much of the land in the Gambia remains cultivable because of the availability of water from the river.

The statistics on external migration reveal a rather high rate of immigration, but the level is not as high as in the Ivory Coast in recent years. In 1973 there were 52,000 non-Gambians in the country, of whom only 1,000 were non-Africans. Nearly half (25,000) the foreign nationals were from Senegal; the majority of the other immigrants came from Guinea (19.5 percent from Guinea Bissau) (Tables 8 and 9).

Table 8: TOTAL POPULATION OF GAMBIA BY NATIONALITY, 1963 AND 1973

1963 1973

Total population 315,486 493,499

Gambians 279,931 440,706

Other Africans 34,938 50,843

Non-Africans 617 1,159

Not Stated - 781

Source: As in Table 2.

The number of persons enumerated in the Gambia in 1973 born outside the country totaled 55,000. This number exceeds the number of foreign nationals by about 2,500. It shows that most foreign nationals in the Gambia do not bring their families; very few foreign nationals have children born in the Gambia (Table 10). On the other hand, a number of the Gambians were born outside their country.

The number of foreign nationals increased from 35,000 in 1963 to 52,000 in 1973 (Table 9). The increase was 16,000 or 3.8 percent per year. These figures imply a net immigration of approximately 20,000 during the 10-

- G.14 - - G.15 -

Table 9: FOREIGN NATIONALS BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN, 1963 AND 1973

Percent Percent Distri- Country of Growth bution Origin 1963 1973 1963-73 1973

Senegal 21,498 25,309 18 48.7

Guinea 5,257 10,137 93 19.5

Bissau 4,689 6,817 45 13.1

Mali 1,911 5,467 186 10.5

Sierra Leone 730 436 - 40 0.8

Mauritania 585 1,883 221 3.6

Other Africans 268 794 196 1.5

Others 617 1,159 88 2.2

Total 35,555 52,002 46 100.0

Sources: As in Table 2. - G. 16

Table 10: FOREIGN-BORN BY COUNTRY OF BIRTH, 1973

Country of Birth Gambians Non-Gambian Total

Senegal 2,002 25,167 27,169

Guinea 591 9,846 10,437

Bissau 387 6,788 7,175

Mali 228 5,241 5,469

Sierra Leone 167 413 580

Mauritania 11 1,767 1,778

Other Africans 67 598 665

Other Countries 233 1,020 1,253

Total 3,686 50,840 54,526

Source: The Gambia. Central Statistics Division, Ministry of Economic Planning and Industrial Development, 1976. Population Census of 1973, Statistics for Local Government Areas and Districts, Vol. III, General Report, Banjul: Central Statistics Divi- sion. - G.17 year period 1963-73. However, the total net immigration may be different as it includes immigration and emigration of the Gambians also. As shown later, there is reason to believe that some of the Gambians who were living outside the country in 1963 returned during 1963-73.

The rate of increase of Senegalese nationals in the Gambia was substantially lower than the rate of growth of most other nationals (Table 9). The increase was largest for nationals from Mauritania and Mali, and least for those from Sierra Leone. The Senegalese nationals grew at less than half the rate of growth of the foreign nationals as a whole.

In general, the western areas received most of the immigrants over the intercensal period (Table 11). Banjul, Kombo St. Mary, and Brikama each had about 16-17 percent of their population from outside the country. The lowest impact of immigration was in the Basse Area where only 3 percent of the population were immigrants. 1/

Table 12 indicates the percent increase of immigrants by Local Gov- ernment Area over the intercensal period. Kombo St. Mary's immigrant population increased 127 percent over the period (1963-73); and Kerewan's by 120 percent. Basse's, on the other hand, declined by 11 percent. Kerewan's growth in immigrant population is particularly pointed, given that its native population increased by only 41 percent.

No data on emigration are available from the Gambian sources. The 1971 Demographic Survey of Senegal indicated that there were about 33,000 Gambian lifetime immigrants in that country, of whom 16,000 were living in the Casamance region adjoining the Gambia. In addition there were about 5,000 temporary Gambian immigrants who had lived in Senegal for a period of less than 6 months. The data from the other African countries do not indicate any significant emigration of the Gambians to these countries. Thus the Gambian emigration is likely to be much smaller than immigration to that country, and on balance the country has gained population as a result of external migration in recent years.

1/ The possibility of under-enumeration of foreign nationals cannot be rejected in the Basse Area, however, since recent research by Kenneth Swindell showed one-half of household heads to be from Guinea in a village close to Basse Town (Swindell, 1978, personal communication). - G.18 -

Table 11: FOREIGN NATIONALS BY LOCAL AREA OF RESIDENCE, 1963 AND 1973

As Percent of Total Area Population Area of Residence 1963 1973 1973

Banjul 5,425 6,636 16.9

Kombo St. Mary 2,892 6,569 16.7

Brikama 11,643 14,345 15.8

Mansakonko 2,411 3,076 7.2

Kerewan 4,539 10,897 11.7

Kuntaur 3,594 4,357 9.1

Georgetown 2,184 3,851 7.1

Basse 2,867 2,281 2.6

TOTAL 35.555 52.002 i.ad

Source: As in Table 2. - G.19 -

Table 12: PERCENT INCREASE IN POPULATION, 1963-73, BY MIGRATION STATUS

Area Immigrants Natives Total

Banjul 22 45 41

Kombo St. Mary 127 252 223

Brikama 23 75 64

Mansakonko 28 24 24

Kerewan 120 41 48

Kuntaur 21 35 64

Georgetown 76 88 52

Basse -11 52 48

The Gambia 46 58 56

Sources: As in Table 2. IV. INTERNAL MIGRATION

As noted above, the Gambia is divided into 8 Local Government Areas: Banjul, Kombo St. Nary, Brikama, Manasakonko, Kerewan, Kuntaur, Georgetown, and Basse. As the census data relate to these areas, our discussion of internal migration is mainly confined to migration between them.

Table 13 gives the summary data for 1963 and 1973. In 1973, about 61,000 persons were enumerated outside the Local Government Area in which they were born. They constituted 14 percent of the total Gambian-born population. A comparison with other countries is difficult because of differences in the size of countries, yet the rate indicates a relatively high degree of population mobility in the country.

The principal area of attraction was Kombo St. Mary Local Area which received 19,000 in-migrants and sent out only 2,000 out-migrants. The 3 western Areas together had a lifetime in-migration of 39,000 (64 percent of the total), lifetime out-migration of 21,000, and a net gain of 18,000 persons. Kerewan Local Government Area had the largest volume of out-migration and the largest net loss due to migration. On the whole, all the eastern (upper) Local Areas had net losses due to internal migration.

The origins of the migrants in the Kombo St. Mary Local Area are indicated in Table 14. Most of the migrants to Kombo St. Mary came from Banjul and the neighboring Brikama Local Area.

As mentioned above, Kerewan Local Area had the highest out- migration. The largest number went to Banjul (3,900) and more or less equal numbers went to Kombo St. Mary and Brikama Local Areas (Table 15).

In summary, the 1973 birth place data indicate that internal migration in the Gambia was mainly toward the western parts of the country, the principal destination being Kombo St. Mary and the principal origin being Kerewan Local Area.

In 1963, the total inter-Area lifetime migration was only 27,000 or about 9.6 percent of the Gambian-born population. Thus lifetime migration increased considerably (125 percent) during 1963-73 not only in absolute terms but also in relation to the total native-born population of the country. The largest increase was in Kombo St. Mary - from 3,800 to 18,600, or a 393 percent increase. Other large increases were observed in all 3 western Local Areas. In 2 of the Local Areas, Kerewan and Kuntaur, there were de- creases in the number of in-migrants.

- G.20 - - G.21 -

Table13: LIFETIME INTERNAL MIGRATION, 1963 AND 1973

In-Migration Out-Migration Net-Migration Local Area 1963 1973 1963 1973 1963 1973

Banjul 5,032 9,848 4,326 9,403 + 706 + 445

Kombo St. Mary 3,763 18,559 1,229 1,533 +2,534 +17,026

Brikama 5,097 10,416 3,193 9,952 +1,904 + 464

Mansakonko 2,919 3,925 2,962 8,025 - 43 - 4,100

Kerewan 2,205 3,762 6,195 13,867 -3,990 -10,105

Kuntaur 5,057 4,560 1,955 5,466 +3,102 - 906

Georgetown 1,950 7,288 4,227 6,149 -2,277 + 1,139

Basse 998 2,407 2,934 6,368 -1,936 - 3,961

Total 27,021 60,764 27,021 60,764 - -

Sources: As in Table 2. - G.22 -

Table 14: IN-MIGRATION TO AND OUT-MIGRATION FROM KOMBO ST. MARY, 1973

Local Area In-migration Out-migration

Banjul 5,696 440

brikama 5,145 654

Mansakonko 1,594 109

Kerewan 3,676 171

Kuntaur 720 42

Georgetown 1,094 54

Basse 634 63

Total 18,559 1,533

Source: As in Table 10. - G.23 -

Table 15: IN-MIGRATION TO AND OUT-MIGRATION FROM KEREWAN, 1973

Local Area In-migration Out-migration

Banjul 646 3,858

Kombo St. Mary 171 3,676

Brikama 783 3,606

Mansakonko 894 1,180

Kuntaur 596 534

Georgetown 322 852

Basse 350 161

Total 3,762 13,867

Source: As in Table 10.

The number of out-migrants increased in all the Local Areas, but some of the largest increases were observed in Kerewan (7,700), Brikama (6,700), and Mansakonko (5,100).

between 1963 and 1973, Banjul, Brikama, Mansakonko, and Kerewan appear to have lost population through internal migration and all the other Areas appear to have gained. The largest gain was observed in Kombo St. Mary where the net gain was about 16,000. The gains in the other Local Areas were relatively minimal.

An approximation of the composition of population growth by Local Government Areas from 1963-73 is given in Table 16. The total population growth in the country during 1963-73 was about 178,000. Natural increase, including that among the foreign-born who came to the country before 1973, was approximately 75,000 leaving a balance of 103,000. Net immigration among the foreign-born is unlikely to have been more than 25,000 leaving an un- accounted residue of 77,000. This is too large a figure to be considered an error of estimation.

In estimating natural increase, a rate of 2.0 percent during 1963-73 was used. If the rate was indeed as high as 2.5 percent, the residue would still have been as high as 59,000. Other reasons have to be found for this unexplained residue. Two possible reasons are relative underenumeration in Table 16: COMPONENTS OF POPULATION GROWTH BY LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, 1963-73.

Net Net Immigration Total Natural Internal Among Foreign- Local Area Growth Increase Migration Born Residue

Banjul + 11,400 6,300 - + 2,500 + 2,600

Kombo St. Mary + 27,200 4,600 + 15,100 + 4,400 + 3,100

Brikama + 35,600 13,600 - 1,000 + 5,600 + 17,400

Mansakonko + 8,200 7,200 - 4,100 + 1,300 + 3,800

Kerewan + 30,300 14,600 - 7,100 + 7,500 + 15,300

Kuntaur + 18,700 7,100 - 3,200 + 1,700 + 13,100

Georgetown + 18,500 8,400 + 2,800 + 2,200 + 5,100

Basse + 28,100 13,500 - 2,500 + 100 + 17,000

TOTAL +178,000 75,300 - + 25,300 + 77,400

Sources: As in Table 2. - G.25 -

the 1963 census and return migration of the Gambians. If the residue is due to underenumeration, the error would be on the order of 25 percent. Consid- ering the effects of both return migration and census errors, the 1963-73 growth rate may be disaggregated as follows:

1. Total annual growth rate, 1963-73 4.5 100.0

2. Natural increase 1.9 42

3. Net immigration of foreign-born 0.6 14

4. Return immigration of natives and census errors 2.0 44 V. RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION

The total population of the 44 selected towns in the Gambia (see Table 4) increased from 95,000 to 163,000 during 1963-73. If the rate of natural increase in the towns is assumed to be about 25 percent higher than that of rural areas (on the assumption that the urban death rate is much lower than the rural death rate), net in-migration to the towns would be about 44,000 or nearly two-thirds of the total growth, as follows:

1. Total population of 44 selected towns

1963 94,609 1973 162,572

2. Growth during 1963-73

absolute 67,962 % increase 71.8

3. Estimate, natural increase 24,000

4. Net migration (internal and external) 44,000

5. Net migration as % of total urban growth 64.7

Much of the urban growth occurred in towns in the Kombo St. Mary Area (Bakau and Serekunda), Banjul, and Brikama town. These 4 towns received more than 80 percent of the migration to towns in the Gambia. Some of the other towns which had significant net in-migration were Gamissara in the Basse Area, and Farafenni in the Kerewan Area. On the whole, however, towns in the eastern Areas experienced little in-migration. In fact, several of them had net out-migration (Saba, Salikeni, Njakunda, Nokunda in the Kerewan Area, Jiroff and Jassong in the Mansakonka Area).

The largest town and the only one with a population of 5,000 or above in 1963 was Banjul. Net-migration to Banjul is estimated to have been about 4,400 over the 1963-73 period. Relative to population, the highest net in-migration rate was observed for towns in the range 2,000 - 5,000 in 1963 (see Table 17).

However, it is unlikely that population size was the significant factor which affected in-migration to the towns; a more important factor could be the location of the towns. Most of the towns in the 2,000 - 5,000 size bracket are located in Kombo St. Mary and the Brikama Area.

- G.26 - - G. 27 -

Table 17: NET MIGRATION TO TOWNS DURING 1963-73 BY SIZE OF TOWN IN 1963

Net Migration, 1963-73 % of 1963 Population Size in 1963 Volume Population

5,000 + + 4,400 16

2,000 - 5,000 +31,400 159

1,500 - 2,000 + 3,700 22

1,000 - 1,500 + 3,700 16

Below 1,000 + 1,100 15

44,300 47

Source: As in Table 2. VI. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MIGRANTS

Available information on the characteristics of migrants in the Gambia is sketchy, but what is available from the 1973 census indicates that migrants in the Gambia are somewhat similar to those in other countries of the region. Thus, the immigrants included 57 percent more males than females, and among both males and females, the highest number were in the age group 25-29 years. The average age of immigrant males was 6.8 years higher than that of females (see Table 18). Immigrants from Senegal and Guinea Bissau-- countries which lie close to the Gambia--had a more balanced sex ratio than those from Guinea, Mali, and Mauritania--countries further away--as shown below:

Country of Origin Males per 100 Females, 1973

Senegal 116

Guinea Bissau 126

Mlali 274

Guinea 283

Mauritania 467

Among internal migrants (those born outside the district of enumeration), the sex ratio was less than that of immigrants. The sex ratio of internal migrants fell between that of external migrants and non-migrants, as follows:

Sex ratio (1973) of those

1. Born outside Gambia 157

2. Born outside the district of enumeration, but within the Gambia 113

3. Born in the district of emuneration 94

- G.28 - Table 18: AGE DISTRIBUTION AND SEX RATIO OF THE GAMBIAN AND NON-GAMBIAN POPULATION, 1973

Males Females Sex Ratio Non- Non- Non- Age Gambians Gambians Gambians Gambians Gambians Gambians

0- 4 18.1 5.3 17.9 8.8 99 92

5- 9 16.1 5.6 15.5 9.9 102 89

10-14 10.6 4.6 9.5 7.9 109 91

15-19 8.0 5.9 8.6 10.9 92 85

20-24 8.0 10.3 8.9 12.8 88 127

25-29 8.0 14.6 9.7 13.8 81 166

30-34 6.5 12.3 7.3 9.8 88 197

35-39 5.0 9.6 5.2 6.1 96 246

40-44 4.5 8.0 4.7 5.0 94 254

45-49 3.4 5.6 2.8 3.2 119 274

50-54 3.4 4.9 3.0 3.2 109 239

55-59 2.0 2.8 1.3 1.5 153 288

60-64 2.3 3.3 1.9 2.0 114 262

65+ 4.1 7.2 3.7 5.1 112 272

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 98 157

Index of Dissimi- larity 31.4 16.3

Source: As in Table 9. - G. 30 -

A similar pattern was observed with respect to age distribution. The proportion of population in the prime working ages, 15-34 years, was 30 percent among non-migrants and 45 percent among external migrants in 1973. The corresponding proportion for internal migrants fell inbetween (41 percent), as below:

Table 19: AGE DISTRIBUTION OF MIGRANTS AND NON-MIGRANTS, 1973

Age Non-Migrant Internal Migrant External Migrant

0 - 14 48 29 19

15 - 34 30 41 45

35 - 64 18 25 30

65 + 4 5 6

All Ages 100 100 100

Source: As in Table 10.

As in all other West African countries, immigrants had less education than natives. The differences were particularly great among males at the younger ages. The proportion of immigrants in the Gambia who had completed at least a primary education was only half as much as among the Gambians in the 15-29 age group in 1973 (see Table 20). However, among older women (25+ years) the immigrants were slightly better educated than the natives.

No information is available on the occupational characteristics of immigrants. On the basis of their educational attainment and the information given in the following annex by Prof. Swindell, it appears that most of them are engaged in agricultural occupations as farm workers during the wet season; and if they remain in the country during the dry season, they pursue other relatively low level occupations in the towns or villages. There seems to be enough evidence to believe that, as in other countries of West Africa, immigrants in the Gambia are principally engaged in relatively low level occupations, such as "Strange Farmers" (see Annex) and in the informal sector in towns. - C.. 31 -

Table 20: PERCENT OF THE GAMBIANS AND NON-GAMBIANS WHO HAVE COMPLETED PRIMARY EDUCATION, 1973

Males Females Age Gambians Non-Gambians Gambians Non-Gambians

5- 9 16.6 9.2 9.0 6.0 10 - 14 30.0 16.0 16.0 9.6 15 - 19 27.8 14.5 12.6 7.8 20 - 24 19.7 10.2 7.7 5.7 25 - 29 11.4 6.2 3.6 3.5 30 - 34 8.1 5.0 2.2 3.2 35 + 5.8 4.6 2.4 4.0

5 + 15.0 6.9 6.9 5.2

Source: As in Table 10.

- G. 32 -

ANNEX I: The Gambia

A Report on Migrant Farmers in the Gambia

Kenneth Swindell - G.33 -

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No.

ChAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ...... 36

ChAPTER II. THE STRANGE FARMER SYSTEM ...... 37

CHAPTER III. THE NUMBER, ORIGINS, AND DESTINATIONS OF i4IGRANTS ...... 39

CHAPTER IV. THE GAMBIANS ...... 42

ChAPTER V. THE SENEGALESE ...... 48

CHAPTER VI. THE ?ALIANS ...... 52

CHAPTER VII. THE GUINEANS ...... 54

CHAPTER VIII. SEASONAL, PERIODIC, AND PERMANENT MIGRATION ...... 56

CiAPTER IX. DRY SEASON ACTIVITIES, 1973-74 ...... 61

CHAPTER X. CONCLUSIONS ...... 65 - G.34 -

List of Figures Page No.

Annex Figures la, lb, Ic. Origins of Gambian Strange Farmers for Selected Areas and Population Density ...... 43

Annex Figure 2. Net Gains and Losses of Gambian Strange Farmers by Administrative Districts, together with Principal Migrants Flows ...... 45

Annex Figure 3. Declared Home Origins of Non- Gambian Strange Farmers, 1973-74 .. 49

Annex Figure 4. Dry Season Location of Strange Farmers, 1973-74 ...... 58

Annex Figure 5. A Typology of Transitional Mobility for Strange Farmers ...... 66 - Go35 -

List of Tables Page No.

Annex Table 1. Nationality of Strange Farmers by Division (1974-75 Sample Survey) ... 41

Annex Table 2. Location of Strange Farmers during the 1973-74 Dry Season (Sample Survey 1974-75) ...... 57

Annex Table 3. Location and Type of Employment/ Activity of Strange Farmers Who Spent the 1973-74 Dry Season Away from Rome (Sample Survey 1974-75) 62 I. INTRODUCTION

The Strange Farmers of The Gambia are rural migrants who have been associated with the cultivation of groundnuts since the beginning of the nineteenth century, when the crop was first exported. This particular migratory system is one of the oldest labor movements in West Africa and has continued almost unchanged up to the present day. Groundnut cultivation in Senegambia was probably initiated by the response of long-distance traders to the market opportunities provided by their European counterparts; in particular, the Serahuli (Sarakole) and Mandinka traders from the Upper Senegal and Niger river basins became interested in groundnut cultivation as the slave trade declined. Subsequently, the local population (especially the Wolof) of Senegambia became attracted to the cultivation of groundnuts, and eventually in the twentieth century the railway diffused its commercial cultivation back inland toward Mali.

The seasonality of labor migration in West Africa is commonplace, although such movements may be slackening and giving way to more extended stays from home, together with permanent settlement. Considerable attention has been focused on dry season movements from the interior by men looking for work in the better endowed and developed coastlands, which frequently have involved a particular ethnic group. Labor migration received a great stimulus at the end of the nineteenth century and in the early years of the twentieth century with the growing influence and control of the colonial powers, and the introduction of taxation. But in addition to men migrating to earn cash to pay taxes, other reasons have been cited such as money for bridewealth, personal consumption, and family maintenance, together with the desire to escape from the traditional constraints of the family. One of the dominant types of migration observed has been associated with agriculture, especially cash-crop farming, and it has usually been classed as a rural to rural migration of young men, generally illiterates, engaged as low paid wage labour, contract workers, or share croppers. It is against this kind of regional background that one can examine the Strange Farmer system; but what is a Strange Farmer? II. THE STRANGE FARMER SYSTEM

A Strange Farmer, or in the case of Senegal, a navetane, is generally described as a seasonal migrant, who comes into the Senegambian groundnut basin to cultivate groundnuts from April to December. 1/ The Strange Farmer system rests on a contractual arrangements between a host farmer and migrant, whereby an agreed number of days is worked for the host (usually between 2 and 4), and on the remaining days the migrant is at liberty to cultivate groundnuts on his own farm provided by the host. During his stay, the migrant is provided with food, a hoe, or the use of the host's plough, and if necessary the loan of seednuts, together with a hut within the compound which he may share with other Strange Farmers. Migrants search for a host in the villages; and in some cases, hosts seek out Strange Farmers. The contractual arrangement may be affected by a variety of informal networks, sometimes with the leader of a group of migrants acting as intermediary. Repeated migration leads to a "matching" system which builds up a relationship between host and client.

Most Strange Farmers are aged between 18 and 35 years, although few of them know their ages with accuracy; but most migrants are in this age range because hosts require able-bodied men capable of a good day's work, otherwise they are not accepted as Strange Farmers. Such selectivity effectively rules out young boys and older men. However, at harvest-time boys aged between 13 and 16 years appear in the villages as casual laborers, and they are paid by the field of groundnut lifted, or stack threshed. Such migrants are referred to as m'baragnini or firdu, and they are local migrants moving between neighbouring villages. 2/ These casual workers were not included in the survey discussed in this annex, but when they are combined with the local movements of Strange Farmers, they collectively demonstrate the importance of small-scale intra- and inter-village labor migration, which is of considerable value to groundnut farmers. Localized labor movements have received less attention than their long-distance counterparts, although the former frequently provide vital labor inputs for small-scale family farms.

This system is quite different from share-cropping with which it is frequently confused, and it is essentially derived from a combination of labor shortage and land surplus. The advantage for the host is that he receives extra labor inputs without any need for cash payment of wages; while the migrant, according to the size and quality of his groundnut farm,

1/ It is generally assumed that the term "navetane" is derived from the Wolof word "navet" which means "rainy season". However, an alternative interpretation is that navetane is derived from the French for shuttle, "navette", which denotes the seasonal movements between a migrant's home and the groundnut basin of Senegambia.

2/ "M'baragnini" and "firdu" are Mandinka and Wolof terms respectively for casual day labourers used for lifting groundnuts. See H. Labouret, 1941.

- G.37 - - G. 38 - will produce his own crop, the money from which accrues to him alone at the end of the season. Groundnuts are a wet season crop, and unlike tree crops, have a quick production cycle; thus, after approximately 7 months the migrant has cash in hand, some of which he may spend on imported goods to take back home. Estimates for the 1974-75 farming season show that a migrant earned an average E 50-E 60, from which there would be minimal deductions for travel. III. THE NUMBER, ORIGINS AND DESTINATIONS OF MIGRANTS

During the 1974-75 farming season, the Gambian government implemented its first agricultural survey, based on a sampling procedure devised by the F.A.O. as part of the census of world agriculture. 1/ The basic unit of enumeration adopted by the survey was the farming unit known as a dabada, one or more of which may comprise a household. 2/ Within the rural areas there were an estimated 32,000 dabadas of which 3,000 were sampled to measure crop areas and yields, as well as listing economically active members and strangers. In addition to the general survey, a special Strange Farmer Survey was implemented in 960 dabadas, which gave more detailed information on 1,024 migrant farmers.

The Sample Survey of Strange Farmers in 1974-75 yielded an estimated total of 33,000 Strange Farmers, and this figure is substantial in the light of claims that numbers were decreasing; in fact, the number of migrants was higher than previously recorded through the local tax returns on strangers. 3/ Compared with Senegal, the Strange Farmer system appears to be flourishing. In Senegal, these seasonal farmers are called navetanes and the development of the extensive groundnut areas in Cayor and Baol in the nineteenth century saw large numbers coming each year from Mali and Guinea. It appears now that migrant numbers have decreased from over 70,000 navetanes after World War II to approximately 9-11,000 in the 1970s (Vanhaeverbeke, 1970); however, these data refer only to non-Senegalese migrants from Mali and Guinea, and there is evidence that internal movements of migratory labor continue (Elkan, 1976).

One problem of enumerating migrant groundnut farmers is that both local migrants and other nationals are involved in the same system. Until 1955, tax returns in the Gambia made some attempt to separate Gambians from non-Gambians, and these suggested that between one-sixth to one-quarter of

1/ The Strange Farmer Survey was a subsidiary of the Agricultural Sample Survey of The Gambia operated by the F.A.O. in association with the Central Statistics Division of The Gambia during the farming season of 1974-75. The Strange Farmer Survey was devised by K. Swindell in association with D. Y. Lele of F.A.O. who was the Director of the Agricul- tural Survey.

2/ While the most easily recognized village unit is the compound, it may contain one or more farming households, termed "dabadas". In turn a "dabada" may contain one or more "sinkiros", which are separate cooking units in a joint family.

3/ Taxes on Strange Farmers and lodgers were implemented by the British in 1885 and have continued to be collected by the local authorities. In 1974-75 the rate per stranger was 5 dalasis (E 1.25). The tax lists formed the only means of assessing the number of Strange Farmers prior to the 1974-75 Survey.

- G.39 - - G.40 - migrants could be viewed as internal movers. The Strange Farmer Survey inquired as to the migrant's home town or village and its location by administrative region or circle and country. The results showed that 25 percent (equivalent to 8,000) were in fact Gambians, with the remaining 75 percent (24,000) principally from Senegal, Mali, and Guinea, and a minority from Guinea Bissau, Lower Mauritania and Upper Volta (Annex Table 1). Thus, the Strange Farmer Survey represents the first attempt to measure and define the origins of these migrants.

before examining the declared home origins of the Strange Farmers, it may be appropriate to discuss some of the general assumptions which have been made about agricultural workers. For example, it is usually assumed that they move from one rural area to another. The Strange Farmer Survey inquired not only into the country of origin but also the specific place, so that it might be determined whether migrants came from a town or a village. Another aspect of labor migration is whether there has been a movement between similar economic milieus, albeit agricultural ones, or whether migrants are moving into quite dissimilar environments from those of their home areas. In some parts of West Africa there is a conspicuous movement of men from the interior Sahelian and Sudanic regions, bringing them into contact with farming systems and economic and social circumstances which are quite different from their home areas. The question to what extent labor migrants benefit from working away from home is one which is not easy to answer with any accuracy, although there exist a flurry of opinions. These and several other issues will be discussed in the following analysis which begins by examining the 4 major source countries of migrants--Gambia, Senegal, Mali and Guinea--focusing on the role of their economic mileus in promoting migration. - G.41 -

Annex Table 1: NATIONALITY OF STRANGE FARMERS BY DIVISION (1974-75 SAMPLE SURVEY)

Division Gambia Senegal Guinea Mali Bissa Other Total

Western 48 35 9 4 10 - 106 (45) (33) (9) (4) (9) (106)

Lower River 29 15 29 26 2 - 101 South Bank (29) (14) (29) (26) (2) (100)

Lower River 100 79 57 85 2 - 323 North Bank (31) (25) (18) (26) (-) (100) (West)*

Lower River 13 11 15 45 1 3 88 North Bank (15) (13) (17) (51) (1) (3) (100) (East)*

MacCarthy Island 19 28 46 10 2 2 107 North Bank (18) (26) (43) (9) (2) (2) (100)

MacCarthy Island 23 12 103 11 6 1 156 South Bank (15) (8) (66) (7) (4) (-) (100)

Upper River 18 37 53 33 1 2 143 (13) (26) (37) (23) - (-) (1) (100)

TOTAL 250 215 312 214 24 8 1024 (24) (21) (31) (21) (2) (1) (100)

* For the purposes of analysis, Lower River North Bank has been divided into west and east.

( ) Percent. IV. THE GAMBIANS

An initial clue to why Gambians become internal migrant cultivators can be discerned by examining the location of their declared home villages or towns, with respect to their farming locations. For any given village, district or region, Strange Farmers may include first, non-locals moving into the area and second, locals moving within the area; but one must also consider that local men may be leaving to farm elsewhere. Thus, whether a district or village has a net gain or loss of Strange Farmers is a function of these 3 factors. In order to examine the several types of movement more closely, attention has been concentrated on Lower River North Bank and Wes- tern Division, which as noted above contained the largest proportion of Gam- bian Strange Farmers. The origins of men who migrated into these 2 divisions are shown in Annex Figures la-b where they are mapped according to their ethnic group.

Because of the elongated shape of The Gambia, it is conceivable that internal movements may cover anything from a few miles up to 300 miles. For example, the Lower River North Bank attracted migrants from the length of the country on the north and south banks, and migrants were recorded from 26 out of the total 35 districts excluding the receiving areas in question. Because of the configuration of the river and the national boundary, the lower river districts have one of the most extensive and productive upland areas for groundnut cultivation in the country, and naturally they are something of an attraction for Strange Farmers. 1/

Men moved into the lower river area chiefly from the central districts and from the peripheral area around Banjul, the capital. In both cases groundnut land is restricted and population densities were over 70 per square km (dry land area) compared with an average in rural areas of 47 per square km (Annex Figure 1-c). While there appeared to be a definite westward drift of migrants, a surprising number (almost one-third), of the farmers came from within Lower River North Bank Division. Further inspection showed that one-half of these were moving within their home district, and are best described as local circulants.

Western Division, which is adjacent to the urban areas of Banjul and Kombo St. Mary, was another important receiving area and it had the largest ratio of Gambian to non-Gambian migrants (Annex Table 1). Population densities within the periphery of Banjul were relatively high (see Annex Figure 1-c); and according to the origin and destinations of Strange Farmers mapped in Annex Figure 1-b, this area was generating local migrants who were moving away from the semi-urbanized fringes of Banjul into the eastern part of Western Division. In this Division, 17 percent of the Gambian Strange Farmers came from urban areas.

1/ The argument about migrants being attracted by areas of better soil and the extensive uplands in Lower River needs treating with some caution since the greater acreages of groundnuts are themselves a function of the presence of so many Strange Farmers.

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and Population Density. Annex Figures la-b-c. Origins of Gambian Strange Farmers for Selected Areas (Strange Farmer Survey 1974-75 and 1973 Population Census) - G. 44 -

The origin of migrants moving into the remaining divisions of Lower River, MacCarthy Island, and Upper River have not been mapped out in detail; but these remaining areas were marked by strong local internal movements of Gambian Strange Farmers, rather than being points of attraction for long- distance migrants. This was particularly true of the central areas of the country and Upper River Divisions. It is, of course, true that these areas are also sending migrants to the Western and Lower River North Bank Divisions. Such areas suffer a net loss of migrant farmers; that is, more leave than are generated either locally or received from outside. The distribution of districts having net gains and losses of migrants are shown in Annex Figure 2, supporting the contention of a general westward drift of migrants into the lower river areas. Thus, the Lower River Divisions exhibited local circulation and received long-distance migrants, while the central and Upper River areas had local circulation and generated long-distance migrants (Annex Figure 2).

From the above analysis, it would seem that the movement of Gambian Strange Farmers rests upon several factors. First, there is evidence that good groundnut land attracts inward movement, whereas areas of high population density and limited groundnut potential tend to promote outward movement. But this does not explain localized movement, often of short distances, between neighbouring villages. Such movement may reflect a general inclination of young men wishing to escape the various social constraints on farming either in their own compound or home villages. As a stranger, a man has the opportunity to decide how he shall spend the pro- ceeds of his season's work and, if necessary, accumulate cash for specific projects of his own choosing. Such attitudes have been observed elsewhere as part of the migratory process; for example, among the Hausa, where the Yawon duniya ("the walk of the world") expresses the migrants' desire for liberation from social constraints (Olofson, 1976).

Of the 250 Gambian migrants investigated by the Strange Farmer Survey, some 23 percent found hosts within their own district, which means they moved no more than a maximum of 10 miles. Some insights into the reasons for these movements can be discerned from the studies of Wolof communities and their household organization (Gamble, 1957). Wolof households are poly- gynous with a double-descent system of lineage, which with the spread of Islam has gradually accentuated patrilineality. In such circumstances, the role of younger brothers vis-a-vis the head of the family compound and the eldest son is such that their socio-economic status is little different from that of strangers. Also, it has been observed that friction develops between the sons of the same father but different mothers, which may be accentuated by the differential allocation of groundnut plots among the younger menfolk of the compound. These factors may provide a strong incentive for young men to leave the household and become Strange Farmers in neighboring villages, where they will have a guaranteed groundnut farm and complete control over the pro- ceeds. This socio-cultural aspect of household organization within Sene- gambia, especially among the Wolof has also been cited as of considerable significance in the colonization and spread of groundnut cultivation by the Mouride brotherhood into the arid areas of eastern Senegal (Rocheteau, 1975). NET GAINS OR LOSSES OF GAMBIAN STRANGE FARMERS 1971 - 75' STRANGE FARMER SURVEY

-~~~.~ @

FARMERS~ % ~~~~~~~~~~~AOR FLOW OF AMBIAN STRANGE _ 5'- 1974-7675

Districts, Annex Figure 2. Net Gains and Losses of Gambian Strange Farmers by Administrative Together with Principal Migrant Flows (1974-75 Sample Survey). - G.46 -

Although groundnut cultivation may have been started within the Senegambian area by migrants from the interior, it would seem that the emergence of the Wolof areas as the core of the groundnut basin may well have been assisted by the latent propensity for movement by young men who wish to become groundnut farmers on their own account. The successful introduction of commercial cash cropping into West Africa has been explained by some authors with reference to the classical "vent for surplus" theory which takes as a basic premise the release of previously under-employed elements in the local labor force, who respond to the introduction of new crops (see for example Hopkins, 1973). If this is so, it would seem that the introduction of groundnuts into Senegambia provided an ideal opportunity for a resolu- tion of the factionalism which marks many Senegambian households. Although factionalism in Mandinka and Fula households may be less than in those of the Wolof, similar situations obtain among these ethnic groups.

But if younger members of a household leave to become Strange Farmers elsewhere, they in turn may have to be replaced by other migrants, depending on the household's demographic structure and labor-consumer balance. This paradoxical situation which arises from the conditions noted above also explains why there is a general exchange of existing labor units within villages of a particular region, notwithstanding the net movement toward more powerful households and into areas of better groundnut land.

The introduction of groundnuts as a cash crop also interacted with other aspects of indigenous social organization, producing further incen- tives for young men to leave home and farm as migrants. In patrilineal societies bridewealth is common, but traditionally marriages were arranged by the senior members of families on behalf of their children or relatives. Formerly, bridewealth was paid in kind or through labor services given by the prospective bridegroom to his parents-in-law; but with the speed of the cash economy associated with groundnut cultivation bride-prices are now generally paid in cash. If the cash payment has been produced by the prospective bridegroom through his own efforts as a Strange Farmer, it is likely that he will wish to choose his bride rather than having one chosen for him. In this way, there is an additional incentive for many young men to leave home to become migrant farmers for one or two seasons in other parts of The Gambia (Fouquet, 1958).

The multi-ethnicity of the Gambian Strange-Farmer population is demonstrated by Annex Figure 1, where migrant-origins are mapped according to ethnic group. This mixing reflects the plurality of the Gambian population, which has evolved as several groups whose core areas lie on the periphery and have expanded into the Gambia valley, attracted by surplus land and commercial development which began with the advent of the Portuguese in the 15th century. While the Mandinka form the majority of migrants (43 percent), this is a function of their numerical dominance within the country; but, if the composition of the migrant population is compared with the relative proportions in the national population, the Fula from upper river have an above-average representation, together with the Wolof from the heavily populated middle river areas. - G.47 -

If one adds non-Gambians such as the Tilibo 1/ and Bambara from Mali, and the Serer from Senegal, then the Strange Farmers comprise a wider spectrum of ethnic groups than is found in many migrant streams in West Africa. With respect to ethnic matching of migrants and hosts, it is difficult to find strong evidence of partiality, especially in lower river areas where other cross-cultural factors may be more important. Also, in every region of The Gambia there are villages which contain households whose ethnicity differs from that of the dominant group.

1/ Tilibo literally means "man from the east" and describes those Mandinka from the region centered on Kangaba, the historic nucleus of Manding. V. THE SENEGALESE

The principal source of Senegalese Strange Farmers was the region of Sine Saloum, which accounted for 55 percent of all Senegalese migrants (Annex Figure 3). This region which includes the old kingdoms of Cayor and Baol is the traditional groundnut area of Senegal and has a population density of over 104 per square mile (65 per square km). Traditionally, Sine Saloum is the area which has received the navetanes and, according to Vanhaeverveke, some 70-73 percent of all navetanes went into this area between 1935 and 1962. Thus, an important receiving area of non-Senegalese migrants was also the one from which many Senegalese moved into The Gambia during the 1974-75 season. The majority of men from Senegal were found in Lower River and Western River Divisions and, even from a cursory inspection of the map, it can be appreciated that they were moving relatively short distances compared with some of The Gambian Strange Farmers from Upper River.

Approximately 60 percent of the Senegalese were Wolofs but the other important group of migrants from Sine Saloum were Serer, who in the past have shown little evidence of mobility either within Senegal or elsewhere. The usual explanation given is that the Serer, compared with the Wolof, are much more attached to their land and practice a careful and intensive form of mixed farming. Apart from the data derived from the Strange Farmer Survey, there is other evidence that the Serer are tending to migrate over wider areas; this may partly result from land shortages created by the introduction of light mechanization during the last 10 years (Elkan, 1976).

It would seem that the movement of Wolof and Serer into The Gambia during the wet season for the cultivation of groundnuts is something of an escape from the long cultivated and highly-populated groundnut areas of Sine Saloum. But in addition to a movement from the rural areas of Sene- gal, it was noticeable that a significant proportion of Senegalese derived from urban areas. Urban concentrations are much more developed in Western Senegal than in The Gambia, and collectively in order of importance Kaolack, Tambacounda, Thies, and Diourbel provided 25 percent of all Senegalese migrants. It may be argued that it is not only the pressures of the over- worked and densely-populated farmlands which precipitates migration, but also the shortage of employment opportunities within the towns during the wet season.

The second important source area of Senegalese migrants was observed in the Casamance valley to the south of The Gambia, centered on the towns of Sedhiou, Bignona and Ziguinchor. These regions produced 40 percent of Senegalese Strange Farmers, the majority of them Jola who moved into the Western Division of The Gambia, which is the northern fringe of Jola territory centered on the Casamance valley. These migrants came from one of the most fertile regions of Senegal, where per capita farm incomes are among the highest in the country. However, there is some suggestion that the prices of rice in the Casamance are held down artificially by the government (not an uncommon situation in West Africa), and farmers are receiving less than the market would otherwise bear. Also, work in the rice swamps

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Annex Figure 3. Declared Home Origins of Non-Gambian Strange Farmers, 1973-74 - G. 50 - is extremely arduous and non-mechanized; consequently, outward migration from this area to Dakar is common, although many men and women return in the wet season to help with the rice harvest. But the Sample Survey of The Gambia also indicated that wet season migration must be occurring into The Gambia where prices offered for groundnuts may be relatively more attractive compared with those for rice, which must be earned by greater effort in less congenial conditions.

Groundnut cultivation is not unknown in the Casamance and indeed this was one of the earliest areas of development. In common with the other estuary areas along the Senegambian and Guinean coast, the Casamance attracted European traders and was an ideal location for the development of agriculture. The traditional rice cultivators, the Jola, were gradually influenced by the Mandinka as they expanded southwards from The Gambia; this is reflected in the modification of Jola house styles, and their acceptance of Islam. But in the present context, of more importance was the transfer of rice cultivation from men to women, which allowed men to specialize in groundnut cultivation on the higher lands of the plateau (Pelissier, 1966).

The third source area for Senegalese migrants in 1974-75 was around Kolda in Upper Casamance, which is another area of penetration by the Man- dinka; here, however, we are concerned with the Fula, who were assimilated by the Mandinka. Incursions of Fula occurred in the nineteenth century, but the effective sedentarization of these people was brought about by their contact with the Mandinka, leading to the adoption of cropping systems based on sorghum, millet, and groundnuts (Pelissier, 1966). The destination of these Fula from Upper Casamance was almost exclusively into areas of ethnic and economic similarity in the Fulladu Divisions of MacCarthy Island South and Upper River Divisions. In common with the Jola and Manding from Lower Casamance, only a small proportion originated in towns compared to the Wolof and Serer in Lower River North Bank Division.

From the above analysis of the Strange Farmer data, it would seem that the attraction exercised by The Gambia in the past is just as powerful today. Despite the artificiality of the national boundary, The Gambia's former status as a British possession and the resulting trading patterns have assured its economic separateness from francophone Africa, especially as its currency is still linked to sterling. Also, The Gambia's role as an economic enclave has been underwritten by a different system of produce marketing, which has proved to be a strong attraction for migrant farmers from francophone countries. In the colonial era, groundnuts were purchased in Senegal on a credit payment system which compared unfavorably with the Gambian practice of full cash payment on delivery to the buying station. Although these differences have been greatly reduced since 1972, the emergence of State marketing organizations in Senegal integrated with rural co- operatives have produced systems of deferred payments and marketing systems which the farmer finds more complex than the direct methods obtaining in The Gambia (Schumacher, 1975).

In the late 1960s, administrative delays in payment to farmers, together with credit and rebate payments, led to serious rural discontent. The situation was further exacerbated by the drought of 1967 onward and the - G.51 - gradual withdrawal of French support mechanisms for Senegalese produce. In 1970, dissatisfaction eventually took the form of a retreat into subsistence agriculture, and threats of further retrenchment were made by the influen- tial Mouride brotherhood who produce one-third of the Senegalese groundnut crop. Some farmers refused to repay loans of seednuts, while others sold an estimated 40-50,000 tons of nuts in The Gambia and Guinea. By 1970, the Senegalese crop had fallen to one-half of the record output of 900,000 tons of 1965 (Schumacher, 1975).

After 1970, the Senegalese and Gambian governments made strenuous efforts to cooperate over such matters by means of a simultaneous opening to the trade season in groundnuts and equivalent producer prices. In 1974-75 the Gambian price paid to farmers was 310.40 Dalasis (E 79.60 sterling) compared with 301.00 Dalasis (L 75.25 sterling) in Senegal. But similar prices do not obviate differentials which accrue from the relative purchasing power of the Gambian dalasi compared with the CFA franc, a difference which has been accelerated by the steady fall in value of sterling during the 1970s. The ability to buy more with the Gambian dalasi, combined with the particular range of goods available in The Gambia, continues to be a powerful incentive for Strange Farmers from Senegal. Furthermore, a useful premium can be obtained on goods taken back across the border. Thus, the general economic milieus obtaining in Senegal and The Gambia are important explanatory vari- ables for short distance migration, but also there are powerful attractions for longer distance migrants from Mali and Guinea. VI. THE MALIANS

It appeared from the Sample Survey that the principal source areas of Malian migrants were aligned along the Dakar-Bamako railway line and centered on Bafoulable, Kayes, Kita and Bamako; although there were subsidiary source areas lying to the south of Bamako and in the region of Kenieba, close by the Senegal border (Annex Figure 3). The opening of the railway in 1924 gave an enormous boost to migration, drawing men from those areas along the line; while, at the same time, the railway was the means of diffusing commercial groundnut cultivation into Mali. Ethnically most of the migrants counted in the survey were Mandinka and Bambara corresponding to the western and eastern sectors of the sending areas.

At present, groundnut production in Mali is on the order of 120,000 tons (in shell) which is less than in The Gambia, and the crop is concentrated in those areas which in fact produced most Gambia-bound migrants. Relative to the coastal areas of Senegambia, the crop is less well-developed and the changes in climate and market conditions are reflected in the fluctuating output. Mali suffers from its landlocked position which gives rise to a higher cost of transport to the coast; and this, in turn, is reflected in the prices paid to farmers. Transport costs have been the chief reason for the limitation of commercial cultivation along the railway line, and production suffered a severe set-back during the dispute with Senegal from 1961 to 1963 when the rail-link was cut at the Senegal-Mali border (Brasseurd, 1974).

Conscious of these problems and the obvious attraction of the farmlands of Senegambia, the Malian government mounted "Operation Arachide" in 1965, which was launched in 1967. New farmlands were cleared, semi-mechanized motivation was introduced, complemented by the distribution of fertilizer and selected seeds. Farmers were also given free transport for their produce to the government buying centers (cf. Senegal). The newly cleared areas were located in the circles of Kita, Kolokani, Bamako, Koulikoro, and Banamba. Initially some 4-6,000 hectares were cultivated involving 570 villages and 268,000 people, with an anticipated rise to 103,000 hectares in 1970 (Brasseurd, 1974). Unfortunately this latter target has not been attained because of the disastrous drought in 1969 and 1970, and there has been a gradual withdrawal of government support.

It would seem that despite efforts to correct the economic imbalance between the core and the periphery which was so apparent in the colonial era, migration still continues toward the coastal fringes. For example, the yield of groundnuts obtainable in The Gambia and the prices offered are better than in Mali, as well as the range of goods offered those coming to work there who wish to take material possessions back home. This is the harsh economic reality of the situation, whatever the historic reasons may be for this condition. Ironically, it is the same areas which benefited from "Operation Arachide" which are the chief source areas of Strange Farmers moving into The Gambia.

- G.52 - - G. 53 -

But the continued movement of Malians in a coastward direction may be more than a rural exodus because towns comprised the declared home areas of a substantial number (Annex Figure 3). This was especially true of those coming from the circle centered on Kayes, which half of the migrants declared to be their home town. Those with urban origins from the circles of Kita and Bamako accounted for 20 percent and 25 percent of the migrants respectively. One corollary to this may be that the government scheme has curtained movement from the rural areas, while movement from the towns still continues; and it would seem that if this is correct, then the urban fraction appears to prefer travelling to The Gambia rather than moving into the new farmlands developed within Mali.

These areas along the Dakar-Bamako railway have a long history of outward migration and not only into Senegal and The Gambia. Fouquet estimated that some 25,000 annually left the circles of Sikasso and Bougouni for the Gold Coast and Ivory Coast in the period 1934-1950. For the same period he observed that 60 percent of the navetanes in Senegal came from the former French Sudan, especially from the circles of Kita, Bafoulabe, Kayes, Nioro du Sahel, Segou, and Bansaro (Fouquet, 1958). As mentioned earlier, it was Sine Saloum in Senegal which was the destination of the majority of migrants; and in 1950, 45 percent of all navetanes were Bambara, which suggests by inference the particular importance of the areas around Bamako, Kita, and Koulikoro.

The role of the former French authorities in stimulating migration cannot be ignored, but it would appear that migration is sufficiently in- stitutionalized for Mali to continue as an important source area of agricultural migrants working in The Gambia. It is not possible to estimate to what extent there has been a reduction in the actual numbers leaving Mali since independence, although it would appear that fewer Malians have been observed in Senegal. Pollet and Green's study of Nioro du Sahel indicates that fewer men were leaving to become navetanes, especially after forced labor had been stopped; but this also coincided with the emergence of alternative attractions, especially in Dakar and Paris (Pollet and Winter, 1969). VII. THE GUINEANS

The Guineans probably form the most homogeneous group of migrants, being composed almost entirely of Fulas from the Fouta Djallon. While their presence in the Fula areas of Upper River and MacCarthy Island Divi- sions was very pronounced, they were the most ubiquitous group of migrants in The Gambia (Annex Table 1). On the other hand, sending areas were highly concentrated on the circles centered on the towns of Labe, Gaoual, and Mamou, with subsidiary areas around Telimine and Pita (Annex Figure 3). The number of men who came from the towns was very small (12 percent of the total); the principal source areas were the large villages of between 2-3,000 inhabitants lying within 10 miles of the regional towns. The concentration of migrants from the regions of Labe and Gaoual is quite remarkable, and 20 percent of all Strange Farmers in The Gambia came from these 2 areas. Accord- ing to the work of Labouret and Fouquet these were also the same areas which sent many navetanes into Senegal in the 1950s (Fouquet, 1958, and Labouret, 1941).

The central and northern plateaus of the Foutah Djallon have population densities of over 40 persons per square km (1962), which are relatively high by West African standards and for Guinea as a whole (a national average of 14 per square kilometer). Perhaps of more significance is the contention that dietary levels may be inferior in the Foutah to those found in other parts of the country. In the opinion of Suret-Canale, high population densities combined with low levels of nutrition were the underlying factors in this region's role as a producer of navetanes into Senegal and permanent migrants into Dakar and Conakry (Suret-Canale, 1970).

While the farming systems of the Foutah are characterized by pas- toralism combined with the cultivation of cassava and upland rice, groundnuts have been cultivated in Guinea for a long time, especially in the Rivieres du Sud. Domestic production is on the order of 22,000 tons per annum and comes from the areas of lighter sandy soil on the north-western plains fringing the Foutah plateau around Koumbia and Koundara. This area was traditionally occupied by the Diahanke, but subsequently it was colonized by the Fula from the higher plateau of the Foutah. Here there are crop ro- tations of sorghum, millet, beans, and groundnuts, which are similar to those found in Senegal and The Gambia. Suret-Canale describes how the Fula used to come down from the plateau to the plains in the wet season to cultivate groundnuts, which have gradually been replaced by rice cultivation.

The returns of the Strange Farmer Survey indicated that the Fula still continue to travel further afield to cultivate groundnuts, but as has been argued before, The Gambia has special attractions for migrants and two in particular may be noted. First, the Fulladu districts of The Gambia have been receiving Fulas from the Foutah Djallon for the past 150 years, and this drift continues and is facilitated by the Strange Farmer system. Second, over the past 20 years the Guinean economy has suffered from increasing isolation, which has meant import control and non-negotiabie currency,

- G.54 - - G. 55 - leading to an exodus of Guineans both seasonally and permanently into Senegal and Gambia to the north, and into Sierra Leone to the south. The strict border controls in recent years have done little to check movements; they have merely made them more clandestine.

The former colonial regime made attempts to check outward migration by the development of commercial groundnut schemes in the north-west, especially in the Arrondisements of Koumbia and Foulamong. Decorticaters were set up at Koundara and Koumbia and an export of 6,553 tons was achieved in 1954, which fell to 2,090 tons in 1956. The groundnuts were exported via Senegal through the agency of Senegalese merchants. After Independence in 1958 the Three-Year Plan sought to expand production, but failed with what may be described as a small-scale virgin-land scheme. A target was set of 32,500 tons and colonization of the Pite - Labe area was undertaken by ex-navetanes, thus trying to stem the coastward movements by a counter- development of the interior. In essence, the program was aimed at replac- ing seasonal migration by organized settlement and commercial farming.

The groundnut scheme was not helped by the withdrawal of French help after 1958 and the gradual isolation of the Guinean economy, but in addition the Guinean government failed to understand the Strange Farmer system. Whereas the host traditionally provides tools and seeds, the government provided neither. Furthermore, the export of groundnuts had to be via Conakry which proved difficult as the railway line lies well to the south of the Gaoual - Labe area, and parts of the line gradually became derelict as foreign currency became so short that it could not be repaired. By 1961 exports had reached 8,000 tons, but dropped to 2,000 tons in 1962, which was the same amount as was produced in 1956. The latest figures available are for 1966 when 1,800 tons were exported, 780 tons of which came from the Koun- dara region.

Prices paid to farmers have been less than satisfactory, even allowing for the purchasing power of money in Guinea and the range of goods available compared with Senegal and Gambia. Subsequently, rice has proved to be a more attractive crop for colonists, cultivation is mechanized with the help of government agencies, the work is less arduous compared with the cultivation of groundnuts, and the prices paid by the government and those offered in the local markets are superior to those for groundnuts. It is interesting to note that this is the opposite situation to that obtaining in the Casamance region of Senegal. Finally, the results of the Strange Farmer Survey showed that as in Mali, the most important source areas for Guinean migrants were those same areas where attempts were made to stimulate groundnut production by both the colonial government and its successors. VIII. SEASONAL, PERIODIC, AND PERMANENT MIGRATION

The discussion so far has centered on the declared origins of Strange Farmers and has assumed that they are perfect seasonals--that is, they return to their homelands for the dry season after 7 months of farming. But both the French and English literary sources indicate the occurrence of extended stays in the groundnut areas comprising 2 or more wet seasons (periodic migrants), together with repeat seasonal migration when the intervening dry season has been spent at home. The importance of seasonal and periodic migration is that it may be the means whereby permanent settlement occurs by both Gambian and non-Gambians. The Strange Farmer system is an ideal mechanism for settlement since the migrant is housed and fed during the wet season by his host, and then, after selling his crop, has cash in hand for the following dry season. In some cases, repeat migration may lead to marriage into a household with which the migrant has become familiar, and until such time as he is given land and builds his own compound, he can continue as a Strange Farmer.

The Strange Farmer Survey looked into these possibilities, although on a limited scale. Time and financial constraints precluded extended work on migrant histories, but it was possible to inquire where the migrant spent the previous dry season of 1973-74 and the previous wet season of 1973. A complementary question was asked about how he had been employed during these periods, for it seemed reasonable to argue that the economic niche a man had previously occupied was of some significance in looking at why he became a migrant farmer.

The analysis of the whereabouts of strangers before they arrived in their villages of enumeration is shown in Annex Table 2. Because of the complex array of places, the geographic locations of migrants have been cate- gorized as "within the home country", "within a Gambian town", "within a Gambian village", "already in the village of enumeration", and finally, "in some other country". The results of this analysis are remarkable and demonstrate the care needed in dealing with migration data, especially when there is no information about intervening moves between homeland and destination. In particular these data reveal that many non-Gambians could be classed as internal migrants.

Of the 756 non-Gambians in the Sample (equivalent to 24,000), just over half of them had been away from their home areas in the dry season of 1973-74 before becoming Strange Farmers for the 1974 wet season. Further- more, the majority of these men were already in The Gambia, distributed among the villages and towns, while some were already in their villages of enumeration (Annex Table 2). Of those in towns, not surprisingly most were in Banjul, while those in urban areas in some other countries (which effectively meant Senegal) were concentrated in Dakar. In all, some 28 percent of those away from home in the dry season were in urban areas, and this demonstrated once again that some migrants were leaving the towns to farm, although in this case they were not their home towns, but ones into which they had migrated. A summation of the dry season locations of non-Gambians is given in the map in Annex Figure 4, which presents a striking contrast to that in Annex Figure 3, where the same migrants are plotted according to their declared home areas.

- G.56 - - G.57 -

Annex Table 2: LOCATION OF STRANGE FARMERS DURING THE 1973-74 DRY SEASON (SAMPLE SURVEY, 1974-75)

Home Gambian Gambian Already in Some village town village village of other TOTAL or town enumeration country

GAMBIANS 115 63 30 27 12 247 (99) (10) (15) (17) (7) (148)

Home Gambian Gambian Already in Some country town village village of other TOTAL enumeration country

NON-GAMBIANS: Senegalese 129 30 16 35 Nil 210 (22) (18) (9) (23) (72)

Malian 103 22 25 26 35 211 (11) (18) (17) (18) (9) (73)

Guinean 135 29 31 66 42 303 (9) (27) (23) (46) (13) (118)

Others 8 2 7 10 5 32 (6) (1) (4) (6) (5) (22)

Total 375 83 79 137 82 756 (48) (64) (53) (93) (27) (285)

GRAND TOTAL 490 146 109 164 94 1003 (147) (74) (68) (110) (34) (433)

Note: ( ) Figures in brackets denote how many migrants spent the previous wet season (1973) in a similar location. I X ~ , g , De&ta -uc.

V I

I~~~~~- - .. ELvO4X,; '

- b .- -W

Annex Figure 4. Dry Season Location of Strtrne- Sapple-Seii iftgei'r-d1973-7t41974-75Svey) - G.59 -

When the data on the previous locations of non-Gambians are broken down by national groups, there are discernible variations, but notably in the case of the Senegalese. While the Senegalese may have been away from home either in their own country or in The Gambia during the 1973-74 dry season, there is no evidence of them migrating further afield. On the other hand, Malians and Guineans were to be found in Senegal prior to their moving on to The Gambia for the 1974 wet season. Reference to the data in Annex Table 2 also shows how many migrants had farmed away from home during the previous wet season of 1973. Of the 40 percent who had spent the 1973-74 dry season in The Gambia, three-quarters had also been there in the previous wet season. Therefore, a strand of periodic migrants had been in The Gambia continuously since the wet season of 1973, and they comprised 28 percent of all non-Gambian Strange Farmers enumerated in the survey. To these periodic migrants can be added those who were seasonal repeat migrants, that is those who spent the intervening dry season at home or elsewhere; they accounted for 8 percent of all non-Gambian migrants. Thus it would appear that extended or periodic stays within The Gambia are much more important than repeated movements by Strange Farmers between their homelands and The Gambia each farming season. One small addendum to this conclusion is that the data show seasonal movements were noticeably higher for the Senegalese, which is a function of the much shorter distances between their homelands and the Gambian groundnut area.

With respect to Gambian Strange Farmers, 53 percent were away from home during the 1973-74 dry season, an almost identical proportion to non- Gambians. The vast majority of these men were in The Gambia, where they had a greater concentration in towns than their foreign counterparts (55 percent compared with 28 percent). This greater urban commitment is indicative of a general movement of Gambians into the towns with the beginning of the trade season, when they try to supplement their earnings as wet season farmers. A relatively small proportion of the Gambians in the sample of Strange Farmers found jobs outside their home country, and those who did were almost exclusively in Dakar. As might be expected, the number of Gam- bian farmers who were away from home both in the previous dry and wet seasons was much smaller than for non-Gambians--one-fifth, compared with three- quarters. The inference is that, while non-Gambians spend extended periods in The Gambia, Gambians indulge more in repeated seasonal movements between home village or town, and locations where they become wet season groundnut farmers.

But if many Strange Farmers had been away for more than one dry season (especially non-Gambians), what had they been doing in the dry season prior to becoming groundnut cultivators? The short answer is that they were involved in a variety of occupations whereby they integrated dry season employment with wet-season farming. Off-farm employment in the dry season is commonplace in West Africa, and this usually involves some form of migration. In the present case many migrants were alternating between farm and factory, or town and countryside after an initial move from their home areas where they might have been either urban or rural dwellers. - G. 60 -

Inasmuch as the Strange Farmer system is an ideal mechanism for settlement, it also possesses many advantages for maximizing opportunities for income formation. Only a short season of farming groundnuts produces quick cash-returns followed by a dry season in which additional job opportunities may be available. The quickening of economic activity in Senegam- bia with the commencement of the trade season is very apparent, and there is a marked up-swing in the prospects of employment in both the formal and informal sectors. Thus, the initial attraction of strange-farming is further heightened for many men (especially from Guinea and Mali) by the prospect of a dual occupation. The returns from the Strange Farmer Survey showed the range of dry season activities and occupations to be considerable, but for the purpose of the present analysis they have been reduced to a simple six-fold classification. IL DRY SEASON ACTIVITIES, 1973-74

The 1973-74 dry season activities of migrants working away from home are shown in Annex Table 3 where they are classified into 6 groups. Firstly, there were those engaged in the formal sector--that is, in regular wage-earning employment--which comprised 26 percent of dry season activities (Group A). 1/ In most West African countries, the number of wage-earning opportunities are limited and generally confined to the governmental sector; for example, in 1974 some 80 percent of wage-earners in The Gambia were employed in the government or quasi-government sector (The Gambia, 1974). Wage-earners in the survey were commonly involved in dockwork, where demands for seasonal labor are high at the beginning of the trade season in groundnuts. Road and well-repairing undertaken by the Public Works Department were other dry season activities. But, the single most important job category for wage-earners was in the groundnut mills, the chief processing industry of The Gambia, where 90 percent of exports by value derive from groundnuts. There are two mill and groundnut-press complexes, one mid-way up-river at Kaur and the larger one at Denton Bridge on the outskirts of Banjul. In addition, there are some 88 buying and loading depots distributed along the river.

It is possible to make an estimate of the average financial rewards for those combining groundnut farming with employment in the formal sector, since the basic wage rates in the latter are fixed by the government. The daily rate for laborers in 1974 was 2.05 dalasis (E 0.51) which, assuming a work period of 4 months in the dry season of 1973-74, would have given an average income of 212 dalasis (E 53). Combined with an average income from groundnut farming of 240 dalasis (E 60), this would have yielded a total annual income of 440 dalasis (E 110). Compared with farming at home, especially in Guinea or Mali, migration as a Strange Farmer and factory worker would seem to afford considerable attraction as a means of satisfying either short-term needs, especially for consumer goods, or of producing capital which might be invested back home.

Another important area of dry season employment was in the informal sector, comprising petty trading, sewing, tailoring, baking, building, and taxi and lorry-driving (Group B). Overall, this was the most important group of dry season pursuits, accounting for one-third of those spending the dry season away from home. This category included a group of men whose motives for farming were overtly stated as the need to acquire money for business, for example for trading stock, or to purchase equipment such as sewing machines. But the small number of migrants who specifically expressed this motive formed the nucleus of a much larger group engaged in business activities in the informal sector. Unfortunately, it was not possible to estimate the earnings of these workers, but there is no doubt that they will show considerable variation compared with the formal sector.

1/ The formal sector refers to large-scale enterprises, either foreign or government financed, operated by salaried and wage-paid labour. The informal sector refers to small-scale indigenous enterprises financed by local capital (See Hart, 1970).

- G.61 - - G.62 -

Annex Table 3: LOCATION AND TYPE OF EMPLOYMENT/ACTIVITY OF STRANGE FARMERS WHO SPENT THE 1973/74 DRY SEASON AWAY FROM HOME (SAMPLE SURVEY 1974-75)

In The Gambia In some other country A B C D E O Total A B C D E O Total

GAMBIAN 39 44 17 2 2 16 120 2 9 - - - 1 12

SENEGALESE 23 18 23 3 3 13 81 _- - - - - Nil

MALIAN 22 20 22 2 2 3 71 16 10 5 - 1 3 35

GUINEAN 22 55 17 3 1 28 126 7 17 8 - 2 8 42

OTHER 2 4 4 - 1 8 19 - - 3 - - 3 6

TOTAL 108 141 83 10 7 68 417 25 36 16 - 3 15 95

A - Formal sector B - Informal sector C - Agriculture/fishing

D - Education E - Miscellaneous 0 - Inactive - G. 63 -

The participation of the principal national groups in the formal sector showed some interesting variations, but it was apparent that all of them were primarily working in The Gambia compared with other possible locations. Among the non-Gambians, the Malians and Guineans were particularly conspicious in the formal sector; and if one takes account of the relative numbers of migrants from these two countries, it is the Malians who assume the greatest significance. Detailed examination of the data showed them to have been the major element in the work force at the groundnut mills and buying sta- tions. Since the Malians come from long distances, which have to be covered by road or rail, this additional time spent working in factories no doubt de- frays expenses, as well as being an extra premium to that which they already enjoy by farming groundnuts in The Gambia. In addition, opportunities for wage employment in Mali are severely limited.

The other important element in formal sector employment is The Gambian. The presence of Gambians in this sector is not only important in terms of their overall dry season activities (which is the case with the Malians), but also Gambians form the largest element in the formal sector if classified according to nationality of employees. The movement of Gambians into towns in the dry season has been referred to above and is now underlined by the data in Annex Table 3, but this is a dry season movement of longstand- ing and reaches back into the nineteenth century (Reports showing the Present State of Her Majesty's Colonial Possessions, 1870).

Small-scale businesses in common with the formal sector (such as the docks and commerical houses) experience a severe curtailment of trade during the wet season. After the groundnut trade season begins in late December, there is a tremendous upswing in business as cash becomes available. Even the most casual observer in towns such as Banjul, Basse, Dakar and at the river crossings cannot fail to observe the stocking of shops and the incursion of traders, who may come from as far away as Mauritania. In Basse, most shops are removed to the wharf side, where they are joined by a variety of petty traders at a point where economic activity is maximized. Thus, for many Strange Farmers there is a seasonal interchange between trading or small business activities which form a complement to wet season farming for groundnuts.

Of the non-Gambians involved in the informal sector the dominant element was Guinean, both in absolute terms and proportionate to their presence as Strange Farmers (Annex Table 3). The majority of Guineans were Fulas from the Fouta Djallon who have a penchant for trading, which is not the easiest of occupations in the present economic circumstances of Guinea. Also, the Fula have become increasingly isolated politically within Guinea and have for a long period been moving into Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, and Senegal. The Gambians were also well represented in the informal sector and, although they did not assume overall superiority as in the case of the formal sector, nonetheless among the Gambian group, informal sector activities were the most important category. The accumulation of cash from the sale of groundnuts affords the opportunity to invest in stock for petty trading, or to purchase equipment to engage in small-scale manufacturing, and move into the towns or to the ferry crossings where income opportunities can be maximized. - G. 64 -

Formal and informal sector employment accounted for 60 percent of migrant dry season activities, which demonstrated the importance of off-farm employment in the dry season. These dry season workers, especially in the informal sector, were producing manufactured goods and providing services as well as distributing imported goods, which it has been argued represents a specialist substitution of goods and services formerly produced within the agricultural community or household (Hymer and Resnick, 1969). In particular, the increased incomes from cash-crop farming have led to a greater use of imported cloth which is made into clothing by local tailors. In turn, the tailors buy imported sewing machines which comprise the principal capital in- vestment associated with their business.

The third group of dry season activities concerned those who were involved in agriculture or fishing (Annex Table 3). If the former seems a curious occupation for the dry season migrant, closer inquiry showed that many Strange Farmers, especially non-Gambians, spent the dry season doing what can be termed compound work, that is repairing and re-building fences, storage huts, and houses. Such work may be found almost anywhere in Sene- gambia, but the majority of men in this category stayed with their hosts of the previous wet season before beginning work again with them as Strange Farmers. In other words, they were "working their passage" from one wet season to the next without having to move. This kind of work is subject to greater variation in the mode of payment than other categories, and frequently is in the form of payment in kind. Its most important aspect is that it represents a close attachment to the host and often indicates the migrant is in the process of settling within a village. Other categories of dry season activities comprised those engaged in education (Group D), those involved in miscellaneous activities (Group E), and finally those who were inactive (Group 0). The majority of this latter group in common with those engaged in compound work (Group C) were to be found with the hosts for whom they were to work in the 1974 wet season and with whom they had been in the previous wet season of 1973. X. CONCLUSIONS

The emergence of longer stay or periodic migrants from Senegal, Mali, and Guinea raises the question of permanent settlement, which is the concern of both the sending and receiving areas. The migration histories examined above are of a very brief kind, but in addition Strange Farmers were asked whether they were intending to settle in The Gambia. This question produced an unexpectedly good response, and it was interesting to see how many men who could be described as periodic or repeat migrants expressed a desire to settle. Of the 210 non-Gambians farming in 1974 who had been in The Gambia in 1973, 173 stated that they wished to settle, which, together with a few other first-time migrants with a similar intention, amounted to 24 percent of those interviewed.

The observed patterns of movement into and within The Gambia suggested that the Strange Farmer system might be a means of transitional mobility, whereby repeated movements for farming subsequently combined with other forms of employment leading to permanent settlement. This transitional mobility can be expressed in the following stages, all of which are discernible within the Strange Farmer population at any one moment of time. Stage I is represented by occasional seasonal movements to work as a Strange Farmer; Stage II, repeated visits with the intervening season back home; Stage III, prolonged stays of wet season farming integrated with dry season employment; Stage IV, extended stays of a semi-permanent or permanent kind (Annex Figure 5). This kind of transitional mobility is the means whereby Senegalese, Malians, and Guineans gradually shift their centers of gravity from their homelands into The Gambia, although ultimately they may return home with advancing age. In the case of Gambian Strange Farmers, the same process may be used to shift their residences into the orbit of the capital, Banjul.

Attitudes toward labor migration vary enormously, and much depends on one's ideological or economic commitment, as well as one's status and role. From the migrant's point of view, in the short-run the Strange Farmer system can bring tangible benefits, despite the social disruption entailed and the fact that returns to their labor are less than they should be due to the workings of the overseas commodity markets and marketing organizations. In addition, in the short term, the usefulness of the migrant labor to the host farmer may be real, although this has not been examined here.

The governments concerned may have a different perspective toward labor migration based on the longer term and their management of the economy. At the moment, it would seem that attempts to stem the tide of migrants into the Senegambian groundnut areas, and into The Gambia in particular have not been particularly successful. The harsh reality is that in both Guinea and Mali, there has been a failure to diversify the economy in such a way as to retain the manpower now diverted to migrant farming. It is true that the natural environment can impose severe constraints, but of greater importance is the effect of the political fragmentation of West Africa. What does seem apparent is that unless the social and economic circumstances of the sending and receiving areas alter radically, the migratory labor system will continue.

- G.65 - - G.66 -

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MOBILITY Annex Figure 5. A TYPOLOGY OF TRANSITIONAL FOR STRANGE FARMERS I BIBLIOGRAPHY

DEMOGRAPHIC ASPECTS OF MIGRATION IN WEST AFRICA:- Volume 1

ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES

Ghana Sierra Leone Liberia The Gambia

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