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African-American Faith and Politics in Post-Emancipation North Carolina

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African-American Faith and Politics in Post-Emancipation North Carolina LIVING IN GOD’S TIME: AFRICAN-AMERICAN FAITH AND POLITICS IN POST-EMANCIPATION NORTH CAROLINA Matthew James Zacharias Harper A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History. Chapel Hill 2009 Approved by: W. Fitzhugh Brundage, Adviser Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, Reader Laurie Maffly-Kipp, Reader Donald G. Mathews, Reader Heather A. Williams, Reader © 2009 Matthew James Zacharias Harper ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT Matthew James Zacharias Harper: Living in God’s Time: African-American Faith and Politics in Post-Emancipation North Carolina (Under the direction of W. Fitzhugh Brundage) This dissertation argues that black southerners’ theology guided their collective action from emancipation to the beginning of the Jim Crow era. Black theology in this time produced both conservative and radical political agendas and set the terms for political debates within African-American communities. This project makes their rich, diverse, and at times confusing religious thought intelligible to the twenty-first-century reader and demonstrates the weight of those theological ideas on the ground in particular places and particular times. The branch of their theology that located them within a divine plan for the race—their eschatology—gave black political leaders more hope and confidence than a mere secular reading of their circumstances could justify. The dissertation focuses on one southern state, North Carolina, to reveal the importance of black theology to local and statewide political issues: emancipation and Reconstruction, migration and black land ownership, temperance and prohibition, and disfranchisement and segregation. iii To Elizabeth iv ACKNOWLEGDEMENTS As an extrovert, I was hardly prepared when this dissertation sentenced me to countless hours alone in a library carrel. Surprisingly, I found the company of nineteenth- century people to be quite satisfying. But during the course of writing this dissertation, I communed with plenty of folks from the twenty-first century as well, and it’s to them that I owe this work. Librarians are a historian’s best friends. I want to thank the many archivists and librarians who helped me along the way, especially Nicholas Graham, Eileen McGrath, Jason Tomberlin, and the entire staff at UNC’s North Carolina Collection; Linda Simmons-Henry at St. Augustine’s College; Phyllis Galloway at Livingstone College; Monika Rhue at Johnson C. Smith University; Jane Johnson at the Public Library of Charlotte and Mecklenburg County; Bill Kreuger at the Iowa Masonic Library; and all the reference librarians at UNC’s Davis Library. Thank you for making my life easier. I received financial support to help me travel from library to library. The Off- Campus Research Fellowship from UNC’s Graduate School took me all across North Carolina; the UNC Graduate and Professional Student Federation Travel Grant sent me to Cedar Rapids, IA; small grants from the William B. Umstead Endowment, the Center for the Study of the American South (CSAS), and the Mowry Fund in UNC’s Department of History all funded research closer to home. v During my research travel, several strangers took me in. When I arrived in Cedar Rapids, Diane and Andy Pettifor offered me a room, good food and good wine, and transportation around town, at no charge. Before Diane picked me up at the airport, I had never met her and—what more—we had no mutual friends. Now I count Diane and Andy among my good friends. The Benedictine monks at Belmont Abbey in Belmont, NC, likewise took me in and fed me with no charge. They might have thought they were entertaining angels unawares, but it was I who was in the company of angels. As I settled down to write, a generous year-long fellowship from the Louisville Institute and the CSAS McColl Dissertation Fellowship cleared my schedule and filled my pantry. Even with all the financial support, I never would have finished the dissertation had it not been for the members of my dissertation writing groups. Seth Dowland, Sarah Johnson, Brantley Gasaway, Elesha Coffman, and Jackie Whitt offered support and insight through the writing of each chapter. Thank you for reading rough and scaly chapters and “chapter thingies” and for your brilliant comments. Each chapter bears your mark, and you have saved future readers a lot of difficulty. I owe special thanks to Seth, who read my work for more than two years, and to Jackie, who read every word I wrote even as she frantically finished her own dissertation. If readers occasionally find my prose easy or inviting, they have only Emily Brewer to thank. I know of no other editor with such a perceptive eye. If there are any grammatical, orthographical, or citation mistakes in this final copy, it is only because I failed to key in one of Emily’s edits. My adviser, Fitz Brundage, read numerous drafts of each chapter, and each time, his comments sent my work in new directions. He has had the uncanny ability to say vi clearly what I wanted to say but couldn’t. Thank you. The other members of my committee demonstrated great patience with me as my topic changed and changed again; I hope they feel their patience has been rewarded. I owe a number of my ideas to J. Cameron Carter, who wouldn’t even let me buy him coffee for his wisdom. Christopher Cameron, Rosalie Genova, Elizabeth Harper, and Heather Branstetter offered reader responses at important points along the way. Countless friends let me use them as sounding boards; I have room to name only some of them: Elizabeth Harper, Andei Williams, Hilary Green, Todd Granger, and Benjamin Sammons. For my sake, family and friends became cheerleaders, counselors, proofreaders, babysitters, errand-runners—whatever it took to help me finish. My parents, Jeff and Patty Harper, deserve the most gratitude. What haven’t they done for me? Jim and Barbara Keim, Shirley Sennhauser, and Nancy Pennington offered moral support and childcare when I needed them the most. Lillian arrived a year into the research of the dissertation and has known only a world where parents are dissertators. When she and the dissertation competed for my attention, she usually won, and I thank her for that. And finally, I dedicate this work to Elizabeth because she, more than anyone, has made the years of research and writing happy ones. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ix INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER ONE A Theology of Emancipation and the Politics of Reconstruction 24 CHAPTER TWO A Theology of Racial Independence and Denominational Politics 58 CHAPTER THREE Exodus and Jubilee: The Politics of Land and Migration 110 CHAPTER FOUR A Jeremiad: Temperance and Prohibition Politics 161 CHAPTER FIVE A Persistent Theology of Hope and the Politics of Jim Crow 210 CONCLUSION 248 BIBLIOGRAPHY 255 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figures 1.1 “Address to the Colored People of North Carolina” (1870) 57 4.1 “Anti-Prohibition Speech” (1905) 208 ix An Introduction In 1867, Edwin Jones, an African-American political leader, addressed a mixed- race audience in North Carolina about black voting rights. The topic could hardly have been more important or more timely. Jones spoke two years after emancipation but before black men in North Carolina won the right to vote. Jones told the crowd “that the negro was about to get his equal rights.” He was confident that African Americans would soon secure the right to vote. As evidence, Jones cited “references to the II and IV chapters of Joshua” which, he explained, offered a “full accomplishment of the principles and destiny of the race.” At this point, we might imagine, the white justice of the peace who recorded the speech must have been scratching his head. Why had Jones’s speech abruptly switched from black political rights to the Book of Joshua? More confusing was the passage itself. The second and fourth chapters of Joshua offered no prophecy and said nothing of “destiny,” much less of African-American destiny. What did this Old Testament account, which described the siege of Jericho and the crossing of the Jordan River by ancient Hebrews, have to say about black politics in North Carolina? 1 This dissertation is an attempt to explain the connections that leaders like Edwin Jones saw between theology and politics—to understand, for example, why passages like 1Report of Speech by Edwin Jones, Aug. 22, 1867, Letters Received, Oaths of Office, and Records Relating to Registration and Elections, 1865-1869, ser. 1380, Post of Wilmington, Record Group 393 Pt. 4, National Archives, quoted in Eric Foner, “Reconstruction and the Black Political Tradition,” in Richard L. McCormick, ed., Political Parties and the Modern State (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1984) 62. the second chapter of Joshua mattered to black life in the decades between emancipation and Jim Crow. In his speech, Jones made two related theological moves, moves that his colleagues made throughout the late nineteenth century. First, he wrote black experience into a biblical story, in this case, the siege of Jericho and the crossing of the Jordan River. Jones knew that the second and fourth chapters of Joshua recounted an ancient event in the early national history of Israel; but he also claimed that the passage described the emancipation of southern slaves and their fight for citizenship rights. Black Protestants saw biblical stories like these not as distant history that offered only moral lessons, but as living, ongoing stories that spoke directly to African-American experience. Because the stories were, in a meaningful way, about them , black Protestants could use biblical narratives to interpret their own future and not just recount the ancient Hebrew past.
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