The attempt to apprehend the components of a society as an intimate ecosystem has reached new dimensions due to the impact of science and technology over the new mechanisms of socialization, urbanization, and . This impact shifted the social paradigms in unanticipated directions, as the new relationships are now increasingly determined by a clinical separation by lines of professional interests, hobbies, sports and cultural passions, at the expense of sharing an intimate space. At the same time, the new puzzles triggered by the empirical realities of the physical world, in concert with spiritual consciousness new questions are now raised in reference to what it means to be a human being livingand cultural in a holistic meaning, society seem of theto converge 21st century. toward a unified worldview. Therefore,

Ioan–Gheorghe Rotaru is an educator and a theologian specialized in the philosophy of religion, human rights, church law, and the practice of religious liberty. He is an Associate Professor at ‘Timotheus’ Brethren Theological Institute of , and an ordained pastor in the Adventist Church in , North Conference, where he worked for 18 years as director of the Public Affairs and Religious Liberty program. He holds two undergraduate degrees (Reformed Theology and Law), one masters degree (Theology) and two doctorates: a PhD in Philosophy (awarded by the , in Bucharest, Romania)

Doctor Habilitatusand a PhD in in Theology Theology. (awarded Rev. Dr. Rotaru by the authoredFaculty of six Orthodox books, and Theology over 200 of “Babeș– studies Bolyai” University in Cluj–Napoca, Romania.) He also holds the degree of as a peer reviewer for over a thousand two hundred international journals and conferences,and scientific and articles. is a member He is a inmember various in committees various scientific and academic organizations, boards inserves over forty countries. (contact: [email protected])

Denise Elaine Burrill is a PhD candidate at CTS-IARSIC, CORHIS 7400, Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier 3, in , where she is working on a doctoral thesis on networking for interfaith dialogue. Ms Burrill is a co-founder of the Institute for Peace Studies in Eastern Christianity (IPSEC), and currently serves as the Chair of its the Board of Trustees. IPSEC is a non-profit organization located fromin Cambridge, Harvard University.Massachusetts, Upon and graduating it is affiliated from with Harvard, Harvard she Divinitywas awarded School the as Harolda field V. Langlois site. Outstanding Ms Burrill holdsScholar a MastersAward forof Liberal“demonstrated Arts in Management exceptional academic accomplishment and promise as a manager,” and was the recipient of the Dean’s List Academic Achievement Award from Harvard University. She has sectors. She has taught Business courses at Hellenic College in Brookline, MA, and currentlymore than creates sixteen and years teaches of working MBA courses experience on Management, in the financial Human and technologyResources, Organizational Behavior, and Leadership at Fitchburg State University in Massachusetts. She is the Company Project Manager at a Payroll/HRIS company in the Boston area. (contact: [email protected]) THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Proceedings of Harvard Square Symposium Volume 3 | Year 2017

Scientific Editors

Ioan–Gheorghe Rotaru Denise Elaine Burrill

The Scientific Press, Cambridge, MA THE SCIENTIFIC PRESS Cambridge, MA The Scientific Press c/o Institute for Peace Studies in Eastern Christianity Foreword (Harvard Square) P. O. Box 380246, Cambridge, MA 02238-0246, U.S.A. www.rais.education The attempt to apprehend the components of a society as an © 2018 Authors intimate ecosystem has reached new dimensions due to the impact of science and technology over the new mechanisms of socialization, First published 2018 urbanization, and globalization. This impact shifted the social This volume was printed with the generous support of “Sano Vita” Foundation. paradigms in unanticipated directions, as the new relationships are now increasingly determined by a clinical separation by lines of Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data. networks of professional interests, hobbies, beliefs, sports, politics, and cultural passions. At the same time, new puzzles triggered by the empirical Rotaru, Ioan–Gheorghe, 1960– Burrill, Denise Elaine, 1971– realities of the physical world, in concert with spiritual consciousness editorsThe Holistic Society: Multi–Disciplinary Perspectives: Proceedings of Harvard and cultural meaning, seem to propose a new convergence of Square Symposium / Ioan–Gheorghe Rotaru; Denise Elaine Burrill, scientific Includes bibliographical references. Under the action of such variables, the world becomes increasinglyvariables meant stretched to promote and compresseda unified worldview. by movements of trendy ISBN 978-1-945298-18-9 (e–version); 978-1-945298-19-6 (paperback) This volume is published together with The Research Association for and economic migration, predictable and unpredictable leaders, andmercantilism, organized politicalreligions extremities, which are increasingly new military abandoned alliances, inconflict favor Peace Studies in Eastern Christianity (Harvard Square) Cambridge, MA of individual spiritualities. National societies are subjected to Interdisciplinary Studies (RAIS) Beltsville, MD 20705 & The Institute for severe stress tests of identity, and the original sense of patriotism is 02238–0246, U.S.A. impaired by disillusionment with the public servant, or the narrative of patriotism is simply stolen by political extremism.

raised in reference to what it means to be a human being living in a HarvardCover, typesetting, Square Symposium layout & production: is not affiliated Viorica with Burcea Harvard & Marian University, G. Simion nor is a holisticUnder society such of conditions the 21st century. of social Attempts fluctuations, to answers new questions some of theare Harvard University program or activity. questions implied by these new realities are provided by scholars The Scientific Press, the editors, the Research Association for Interdisciplinary Studies, and the Institute for Peace Studies in Eastern Christianity have no legal responsibility for the facts or opinions expressed by the authors, or for the acoming holistic from society several should fields look of like.social Therefore, sciences. theTheir third answers edition are of thenothing Harvard more Square than contributions Symposium was to a suggestively common definition framed as,of what“The Holistic Society: Multi-Disciplinary Perspectives,” and welcomed willpersistence remain, oraccurate accuracy or appropriate.of URLs for third–party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or papers authored by prominent academics from several countries. 6 Foreword

Beyond restrictions of academic performance, the contributors made a concentrated effort to generate and imprint a sense of global resonance by encouraging some arguably conservative views to be expressed not necessarily as a countercultural intellectual undertaking, but more so as an attempt to balance the opposing Contents contributors are also sensitive to the needs of particularities to be exploredviews. While and expressed, cultural and at least spiritual for the loyalties sake of their remain own visible, validation. the Countering the current tendencies for isolationism and suspicion toward the other, the authors are more than intentional in Foreword generating a meaningful global dialogue. Their efforts fall in line with Ioan–Gheorghe Rotaru & Denise Elaine Burrill 5 the very goal of the Harvard Square Symposium to reunite promising and well established scholars in formal and informal creative environments, to propose holistic ways of thinking by nurturing the engagement of the global intellectual elite into conversations meant Society The Development of Skills to Secure Motivation in an Ever–Changing to tackle the new challenges faced by the mankind. The contributors Samuiel Bâlc 11 to this volume remain nevertheless skeptical about the sustainability Romania’s Holistic Development in its Transition from to of some contemporary cultural trends to unite divided societies and Democracy to create a holistic society. Eugen Jugaru 19

The Holistic Literary Character: The Body and the Soul The Holistic Medicine in Literature Ioan–Gheorghe Rotaru Simona Liutiev 30 DeniseScientific Elaine Editors Burrill

Timotei Rusu 50 Self–Leadership: A Theological Approach

Marian Gh. Simion 59 Orthodox Church–State Relations in the European Context The Holistic Development of Society The Contributions of the Christian Church Ioan Stinghe 86

and Challenges ApplyingArthur the Wagner Milieus–Oriented Concept in a Church Context: Prospects 98

7 8 Contents Contents

9

The Dimensions of Holistic Personality Development in Contemporary The Role of the Holy Spirit in Attaining a Holistic Society Society Sorin Badragan 281 Consuela Wagner 112 The Holistic Perspective of the Lutheran Chorale as an Integrating Factor Church Dynamics and Rural Development: The Case of the Baptist of the Christian Faith Churches in Romania Cristian Caraman 290 Daniel Fodorean 125 Communication Ethics: The Sacredness of Communication Ştefan Florea & Marian Puiescu 300 in the Past and Present SpecificDaniel Aspects Gligore of the Church’s Contribution to A Society’s Development 134 Christian Morals in Shakespeare’s Tragedies Andreea Puiescu 311 a Sociological Perspective Holistic Development in Society An AnalysisIon–Lucian of the R Moral–Religiousăcilă Values in the U.S.A. and Europe from 148 Claudia Buda 318

The Religious Leadership Mass Media: An Integral Component of Holistic Social Development Cosmin Tudor Ciocan 173 Emanuel Dobrin 324

The Concept of Sect in the The Becoming of the Society: Perspectives from Aristotle and J. J. Rousseau Lucian Ionel Mercea 192 Ioana–Anca Gherasim 333

The Holistic Approach of the Literary Symbol in Dimitrie Anghel’s Poetry Dialogue Cosmina Andreea Roșu 342 OrthodoxStelian Perspectives Manolache on Globalization: The Imperative of Interfaith 206 Strategies for Holistic Social Development Law as a Drive for Social Development in Philippe Malaurie’s Thinking Grigore Nicu 353 Ligia–Roxana Rotaru 227 The Use of Movies in Youth Ministry: A Different Approach to the

Marius Nechita 234 Teodor–Ioan Colda 363 Gender Differences in the Health Status of Elderly People Image–Driven Culture

Consolidation of Relations between the Members of a Church RelativeRemus Type Soare Extra–Ecclesiastic Activities and Their Contribution to 251 the

Iacob Coman 259 Redefining the Idea of Society by its Holistic Development DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435095

The Development of Skills to Secure Motivation in an Ever–Changing Society

Samuiel Bâlc, PhD Theological Baptist Institute, Bucharest, Romania [email protected]

economic transformations with major challenges in the sphere of theABSTRACT: dynamic human The present adaptation times to thesebrought changes. about The immense consequences socio–

of renewing the volume of information, has directly affected how informationof the contemporary is presented. technical–scientific This paper emphasizes evolution that thesein the changes sphere generated the challenge of an individual’s inability to adapt, and the incapacity to actively participate in the social and personal transformation. A change of mentality presupposes assuming risks,

such a change needs to take place at the individual level, and then continuesustained by effort, developing stress, skills conflicts, and securing and endurance. motivation To in be the efficient, context

of an ever–changing society. At the same time, this paper emphasizes mentalitythat the mere that existencesays “if I had, of an I would ideal is do insufficient and so I would unless be,” there to “I am,is a sowillingness I will do and to adapt I will byhave,” making one canchanges. say that When a very we important pass from step the has been made for reaching the goal.

KEY WORDS: skill, motivation, society, change, education. Ithe school and the church will be faced with a growing number n the context of an ever–changing society, the family, as well as, is extremely important, coupled with the necessity of continual adaptationof diverse problems. to the changes For this made. reason, At thethe stimulationsame time, ofa distinctlyflexibility

11 12 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Bâlc: The Development of Skills to Secure Motivation in an Ever–Changing Society 13 important aspect that can contribute to the development of society Speaking about the evolution of human responsibility, is the change of mentality. Such a change has a determining role in Serban Iosiffescu, Paloma Petrescu and Constantin Vitanos were the developing of skills and the securing of motivation in the context

learnemphasizing to be and the to fact become. that this3 In is the done contemporary in the following society, cycle: education to know; of an ever–changing society. Without a doubt, such a change takes isto alearn complex how developmentto do; to want of to the be; personality to learn how from to be all with perspectives. others; to time, Asbut, separate as Lazar as socialVlăsceanu time andremarked: space are, as far removed from This is made concrete through the maximum capitalization of the each other they are also. Communication is more and more human personality. A distinctly important problem in the education process has and more autonomous and busy with the construction of their become assuring an education that contributes to the development owncross–bordered identity and and styles. intermediated. Individualization Individuals is slowly become taking more the of skills and security of motivation. place of socialization. . . . The social groups and networks are multiplying and transforming quickly and permanently in It has become obvious, Serban Iosifescu said, that, no matter new social movements, even global. The social systems and its actors are unplugging themselves contextually and eventually reform themselves through crossing some social and cultural how well scientific work is organized; no matter how good borders, especially because of migration which is more and notthe materialgrow at the conditions expected of level, work; but and on no the matter contrary, how they great grow the more intense.1 evenincentives less. Most of rewards’ of the time, system the wouldreasons be; for the these performances situations are do In order for the change to be adequate, education needs to also which are at least as important as planning, organizing, 2 be awarded special attention. It is known that education is the human relationships involved in that specific organization, indispensable to human existence, social development, and to the 4 evolution of each individual. Education not only secures a continuity operational leading, and control–the classic core functions of of human civilization, but also aids in research and innovation To thethe question: scientific management. “Can the bureaucratic organization face the necessary for social progress. Over time we can observe an evolution turbulent times that we live in?” The unanimous answer, of the in the educational realm. For example, in the medieval period, the managers, as well as, of the researchers in the area, is a negative one. foundation of the education ideal was established in the formation Thus a switch is needed from the management that is “centered in of the knight, which presupposed the developing of physical and esthetical characteristics, joined with some of the moral virtues. that is centered in commitment. These objectives of the school, In the enlightenment period, a change of mentality took place. organization,control” (specific and to church, bureaucratic are more organizations), rapidly and toeasily the managementattainable. This can be deduced from the promotion of the formation of the Surely, in this context, questions like these can arise: “Can the th school unit lead without a rigorous control? How do I know what century, the pedagogical movements considered that the educational man who was a creator of culture, an enlightened man. In the 19 others work for supplementary advantages? How can I motivate peoplemotivates given people the material to work? conditions Why do some that work we live out in?” of passion while ideal was founded on personality; conceived as being deeply To answer positively to each of these questions, intelligent education,human; harmoniously together with developed; available whichconditions was andaccounted resources for bymade an management is needed which can have set its goals in developing theintegral adaptation education of man along and with change self–education. of mentality Thus, possible.. the evolution of skills and securing motivation. 14 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Bâlc: The Development of Skills to Secure Motivation in an Ever–Changing Society

15 The fact needs to be pointed out that the activity of learning, in aboutDouglas people McGregorand their work in his whichwork “The he named, Human “The Side X of Theory” Enterprise”, and completes the experience of the ones involved in the educational “Thewhich Y appearedTheory”. in 1960, identifies two sets of presuppositions itself, is motivation if it meets the needs, fulfills the interests, and 5 said, given the fact that: The X Theory The Y Theory process. This fact is so much more important, as Lazar Vlăsceanu For all the observers of the contemporary world, individualism, Man dislikes work and, if he can, an invention of the Enlightenment and of modern society, is he avoids it. for the spiritual development of man. Work is a natural activity and it is necessary growing and the maximization of the personal liberties has Man needs to be forced or bribed Man desires an interesting work and if he become a purpose unto itself, with little correlation between it to make necessary effort. has good conditions, will work with pleasure. Man prefers to be lead rather People orient themselves towards acceptable of association have grown with no limits, because of social than accept the answers. duties and in the proper context accept the mobilityand the responsibilities and the internet, toward interpersonal others. While trust the or possibilities trust in the answers. traditional institutions has grown smaller proportionately. The Man is motivated, especially by In proper conditions man is motivated by his consequence is visible: the growing freedom of association is money and by the insecurity of his safety. will to fulfill his dream. increasing isolation and an incapacity of engaging morally being combined with a poorer life as a group; along with an Unquestionably, Serban Iosifescu said, that man is a complex are convincingly illustrating that the level of criminality and being, his activity being the result of the intervention of a series of that is shrinking. All of the actual statistical–empirical data determining and favorable factors. Still, what motivates us to act one way or the other? In other words, the motives for our actions (and ofsocial interpersonal disorder has trust grown; in traditional that family institutions and family haverelationships reduced are no longer sources of social cohesion; and that the levels of our peers) are essential for our living together in the sphere of an to alarming levels. 9 organization, as well as, for the realizations of its end. For this reason, A different theory of motivation, initiated by Victor Vroom is knowing some of the theories of motivation can be an explanatory the “theory of expectation”. According to him: “people are not factor and an extremely useful leaning point for the concrete action.6 merely ATMs or “black boxes” that react determinately to stimulus Regarding the way to motivate the ones involved in the depending on the situation in which they are. They come with educational process, helping them at the same time to develop different experiences, with attitudes, value systems and their necessary skills, Abraham Maslow proposed the theory of 7. In building this theory, the personality.10 author starts from these premises: own models of behavior; in one word, they come with their own “hierarchy–zing the human needs” According to Serban Iosifescu, the premises of this theory are: • Human behavior is directed by those needs that are not met. • The human behavior is not determined by reality, but the way others take their place. • ManThere is isnever a certain fully satisfied: order (hierarchy) once some in of the his apparition needs are met,and in which this reality is perceived by each individual; the satisfaction of the needs, generally the same for all people. person, and by the value which they attribute to one or more • Relating to reality is influenced by the preferences of the more important ones from rising.8 • Generally, not meeting some less important needs blocks the elements from the perceived reality; 16 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Bâlc: The Development of Skills to Secure Motivation in an Ever–Changing Society 17

• Each person has expectancies regarding the possibility that

• Thus, actions are instruments which need to result, generally, depression.a permanent The reflection disease andof depression no decision; converted the calling in inaction of the incertain what actionsthe person will willsbring for certain and perceives results; as rewarding.11 isimposed actually way, the itsidentity non–existence reverse of and the subsequentlack of construction falling into of self and of the lack of support in the structural protection The fundamental concepts of this theory are the expectancy that which no longer exists. The other disease is generated by value person attributes to the results of those certain actions, directly conditionedconfusion and by by the the selection anomic state and specificorientation to transition. of value Itso is that the correlatea certain actionto the measurewill lead into which certain those results; results and are the desired. value which a disorderdisease of in value action confusion. is congruent We know with athat coherent any normal value action system. is In and modernity, Transactions towards the In transition there is no “exterior power” capable to introduce reflexive modernity, on the subject of the individual’s identity order and equilibrium in the system of value and norms. The accentuated these: eliminate the anomic redundancy is the individual himself and responsibility in an ever–changing society, Lazar Vlăsceanu throughonly agent his capable own identity of fixing construction.the coherent value Identity sphere becomes and to

the disease of confusion which corresponds to the anomic courseThe individual of action presupposes,has come to beforebe alone all else, regarding to know a whode– statethe condition the agent of responsible the efficient for action, successes. the wayThe individualof overcoming self, heconstructing is and what and he wants.re–constructing By discovering universe. who he Choosing is, he will a trusting his own strengths, builds his own identity, becomes

as illustrations of identity crisis. The construction of identity in the meanders of transition. Unfortunately, the proportion precedesfind a proper action, way and of thenacting. it derives Violent from actions it. Indeed, can also not be every seen ofan thoseagent oflate efficient in identity actions construction because otherwise and affected it will beby lostthe action is derived from the constructed identity. Socialization disease of depression or value confusion is still numerous. The and professional formation is achieved, already internalized. inequalities do not seem to stagnate or to enter in recession, but they are instead growing, reaching epidemic proportions.12 openings are multiplying. Identity processes generate the ways Beyond these, the diversity of the field of action and of social the requirements and challenges of daily life. Forming life skills offers ofto identitybe and to appears act in order to be to a test;cognitive possibly activity change; which to organizesremain in theThus, opportunity skill development to assume allows initiative each individual and responsibilities to efficiently forconfront one’s theconstruction; necessary to information signify; and forto fix self a direction. in regards The to construction a course of action. Individual failures in transition are, actually, failures in building the identity. Two diseases seem to be the source of own life; helps one think critically and creatively; brings solutions to conflicts; develops toleration towards others; builds relationships; from the explosion of freedom and from the multiplication these failures: depression and confusion. The first is derived personaland enables needs, efficient motivation communication is extremely with important one’s peers. in the choices When considering the dynamic of society coupled with of cultural references; of consuming; of action; etc. This is professional evolution of each one. Motivation stands at the base of freedommanifested and through autonomy uncontrolled confronting inflation a multitude of the aspirationsof possible thethat behaviors one makes, and as wellthe actions as, the integrationdone by an in individual society, and in athe group. socio– It optionsand options; risks andto generate through aa stategrowing of action subjectivity. and a continualPersonal can be said that motivation represents the agent which helps us go forward when changes come unexpectedly. Consequently, we need to give it special attention. prospection: too many possible options and none mobilizing; too many ways of actions and no option for an alternative; 18 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES

NOTES 1 Sociologie și modernitate. Tranziții spre modernitatea DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435104 reflexivă 2 Lazăr Vlăsceanu, moderne,” (București: in Educaţie: Editura Educaţie Polirom, specială 2007), 9. 3 Ioan-Gheorghe Rotaru, “Educaţia – prin prisma ideilor unor filosofii Management (2011 nr.1): educaţional 5–10. pentru instituţiile de învăţământŞerban Iosifescu, Paloma Petrescu, Constantin Vitanos, “Proiectul: descriere generală4 şi concepte fundamentale,” in Management educaţional Romania’s Holistic Development in its pentru instituţiile (București: de învăţământ Ministerul Educaţiei şi Cercetării, 2001), 313. 2001),Şerban 46. Iosifescu, “Comunicarea managerială,” in Transition from Totalitarianism to Democracy “The Human (București: Side of Ministerul Enterprise,” Educaţiei in Managementul şi Cercetării, educa5 ţional pentru instituţiile de învăţământ Douglas McGregor, Eugen Jugaru, PhD Pentecostal Theological Institute, Bucharest, Romania 6 (București: Ministerul Educaţiei şi

Cercetării,7 2001), 47–48. Iosifescu, “Comunicarea managerială,” 49. [email protected] 8 Teoria lui Maslow este cea mai cunoscută teorie a motivaţiei şi are aplicaţii ABSTRACT: This paper offers a perspective on the holistic development în toate domeniileSociologie relaţilor și umane. modernitate, 72. of Romania, a former communist society which collapsed more than 910 VictorIosifescu, Vroom, “Comunicarea E. Deci, The managerială,” Human Motivation 49. a quarter century ago. The transition from a totalitarian regime to 11 Vlăsceanu, democracy in Romania was the most violent transition out of all 12 Sociologie și modernitate , Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975. Iosifescu, “Comunicarea managerială,” 53–54. political changes in , leading to the execution of the Vlăsceanu, , 169–170. status quo, in which the dictatorship wasdictatorial replaced couple by democracy Nicolae and and Elena the Ceaușescu,centralized andeconomy the sacrifice by a free of capitalist1166 lives economy, (IRRD). Within the holistic this development of the society was still a strenuous process because there were no clear social and political patterns to follow. In this context the author refers to the development of education, the importance of innovation, technology, administration and ecology. The holistic development of society continues today in spite of being obstructed by bureaucracy, corruption and various patterns of thinking inherited from the past. The conclusion of this paper is that the holistic development of society is an ongoing challenge, paving the way toward a better society.

KEY WORDS: holistic development, , democracy, society Introduction

he holistic development of the society is an important concept for Tany group within the society as a whole and for every community within a country. In this process of development, areas such as

19 20 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Jugaru: Romania’s Holistic Development in its Transition 21 education, economy, environmental friendliness, material wealth, system represented by the bourgeoisie with another system that democracy, play an important role. Unlike democratic countries, praises egalitarianism. Among the measures proposed by Marx, his that promote a multiparty political system, and open economy, in Manifsto include: former communist countries was promoted a totalitarian political model while the individual initiative was choked, the economy was 1. Abolition of property in land and application of all rents of centralized, information was censored and freedom of expression land to public purposes. 2. A heavy progressive or graduated was suppressed.& income tax. 3. Abolition of all rights of inheritance. 4. Centralization of credit in the hands of the state, by means of a Europe as the year of the fall of communist regimes and the transition nationalConfiscation bank of with the State property capital of and all anemigrants exclusive and monopoly. rebels. 6.5. The year 1989 remains in the collective memory of Eastern of these communist countries from totalitarian political systems Centralization of the means of communication and transport in to democratic and capitalist economic systems. The fundamental the hands of the State. 7. Extension of factories and instruments problem of the transition from communism to democracy, from centralized economy to open market economy was the lack of of waste-lands, and the improvement of the soil generally in practical models and examples. History has recorded transition accordanceof production with owned a common by the plan. State; 8. the Equal bringing liability into of allcultivation to work. from to communism, but was very poor in relation to Establishment of industrial armies, especially for agriculture. information on the reverse process. In this way we can explain the gradual abolition of all the distinction between town and 9. Combination of agriculture with manufacturing industries; lasted decades. To be able to talk about a modern society in this country by a more equable distribution of the populace over difficult process of transition from communism to democracy which the country. 10. Free education for all children in public schools. Abolition of children’s factory labor in its present form. under the communist regime, and secondly to the challenges of the Combination of education with industrial production, etc,.”2 transitioncontext we from must communism first refer toto thedemocracy. past-time of Romanian society It is important to emphasize that communist ideology is not

The Romanian Society under Communism by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in the aftermath characteristic to the Romanian society; this ideology was imposed communism was “a regime of occupation imposed by force, that has the emergence and development of communism in Romania as a survivedof World Warthrough II. As force a political and by ideology, the exercise from the of terror.outside Communism of Romania, promiseThe Romanian that fascinates, psychotherapist as a falling and in love, writer when Dan love Gogleză gets him explains or her 1 “in a trance”, where emotionality feelings plays an important role. 3 Before being Communist , according to the Marxist vision, developed awas communist thus forced country, on people Romania and not was something a monarchy, accepted with a willingly;capitalist a strong social emotionality trend, by suggesting personal happiness economydisavowed system. not admitted; From the rejected moment not when supported.” the communists came and social equality between people following the principle from to power, they have consistently pursued implementation of the each according to ability, to each according to his needs. new Marxist political direction: abolition of private property, In his Manifesto of the Communist Party, Karl Marx presented his centralization of credit in the hands of the state by means of a unique political ideology, his view about economic and social development national bank, centralization of means of industrial production, that would represent the basis for a new socialist society (with no transport and communication, extension of the number of factories distinction between social classes), that would replace the capitalist 22 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Jugaru: Romania’s Holistic Development in its Transition 23 owned by the State, uninspired relocation of people from villages Accordingly, to legitimize communism, the political leaders to cities, free education for all children in public schools and so on. forged the history of Romanian people, especially the history of The development of the communist system in Romania of communism.” The songs got a profound but inexpressive patriotic itself from the USSR. The peak of this distancing policy was reached language,monarchy, and negating the National its legacy, Day at thewas same changed time frompraising May “the 10, benefits the day received a local flavor after 1960 whenescu Romania strongly has triedcondemned to distance the of independence of Romania (May 10, 1877) to August 23 when the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia. in 1968During when communism dictator Nicolae in RomaniaCeauș political pluralism was annihilated and political party leaders were arrested, many of RomanianCommunist army switched persecution against did Germany not even and spare allied the with Romanian Soviet whom were beaten, tortured or physically excluded. Also, the private intellectuals,Union (August who 23, did1944). not agree with the new policy and therefore property was dissolved, all means of individual production was were not enlisted in the Communist Party. Many of them were persecuted, humiliated and arrested. An open wound, that cannot closetaken toby political force and leaders. passed to the State heritage. Gradually, a new was the existence of orphanages for disabled children who were privileged class, known as nomenclature, developed; it was a class actuallybe cured true even concentration after a quarter camps century where since children the Revolution were beaten, of 1989, tied is the most dehumanizing system ever invented by man because to the bed, let to languish in misery, uncared for and starved. enslavesAccording people, to destroys Grudem, human out of all freedom economic of choicesystems, and communism the entire During the communist regime there was almost a “starving the nation becomes a huge prison.4 population” policy, with empty stores where meat, butter, cheese, The persecution under communism was directed toward privileged people. Bread was rationed according to the number of the country has been politicized being an important weapon in familycoffee members.and fine soaps The fuel were as petrol a true and luxury diesel available were also just rationalized, for some thereligious arsenal and of politicalethnic minorities; leaders. No at doubt the same that communism, time, the culture like any of the drivers could buy up to 20 liters of petrol per month and ideology, requests a price to be paid, its effect lasts for a long period But not only the poverty was widespread at national level. communist leaders ideas: the fascist ideas of Hitler results in more Themotorcyclists entire population between was5 to 10suffering liters, depending of hunger onand their low engine temperature power. thanof time. twelve Norman million Geisler lives lists during some the of theseholocaust, tragic the consequences Marxist ideas of during the long winter time because the gas pressure was very of Stalin suppressed at least eighteen million lives. Freedom of low. Electricity was frequently interrupted and TV programs, expression, which is a fundamental right in any democracy5 has been suppressed, the strong censorship developed and watched carefully shortcomings, there was a state of general distrust between people, to stop sneaking any kind of anticommunist ideas or concepts thehighly population politicized, was lasted kept inbetween tension, 4 aand continuous 5 hours. terrorBesides because all these of the secret police or security. The dictator Ceausescu developed the freedom of speech has to be protected by the government because so called “systematization project of the country” aiming to destroy in newspapers,this way human magazines liberty, or religious books. Asspeech, W. Grudem the ability underlined, of the 8000 villages and relocate the entire population to towns and cities.7 individuals to decide issues for themselves, to prevent the abuse of To save Romanian villages from destruction, a group of journalists, power by the government and to enable government to be chosen photographers, architects, economists formed in Belgium the by the people, are protected.6 organization Opération Villages Roumains which encourages mayors of villages from Europe to adopt Romanian villages.8 Following this 24 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Jugaru: Romania’s Holistic Development in its Transition

25 purpose they wrote tens of thousands of letters to Romania which to wander a while like Ulysses.”11 The wander of Romania toward slowed the crazy plan of destruction villages. democracy lasts more than we, citizen of this country, imagined. In conclusion communism was a drama experienced by the Communism left an unwanted legacy for Romanian population, former communist countries and their societies. The failure of a political deprivation, poverty, environmental degradation, a communism is most evident and proved by the generalization of centralized economy, lack of jobs, a lot of closed factories, political poverty, by trampling and violation of human rights. None of the external isolation and lack of information. Besides of that, former communist countries experienced economic development we inherited from communism: bureaucracy, abuse of power, comparable to the capitalist economy of western countries. corruption, dishonesty, lack of respect of the law. The process of transition was slow, it takes a lot of work to recreate the self esteem, to restore the respect for individuals and to develop ethical Suggestions for Holistic Development behavior that included undoubtedly respect for law and for the The Difficult Road from a Communist to a Capitalist Society people. Paul Johnson noticed that the changes in Romania was more a change of person than a change of political regime while the old communist nomenclature has retained political and military space for presentation of social life during communism in Romania, power, changed its name and the title of parties, regained control Intentionally, in the first part of this article, we offer relatively a wide of newspapers, radio and television stations.12 from a centralized economy towards a capitalist open economy, Soon after the fall of communism the National Salvation Front towardsin order toa holistic show the development difficult way of fromsociety. communism to democracy, (FSN), a new political body, assumed responsibility to pave the In the heyday of communism almost no one believed that way for free political elections, and created the opportunity for this political system, which affected all social strata, will collapse the old traditional liberal and democratic parties to emerge. The society which lost the exercise of freedom during communism, history as the year in which the people went out in the street, chose during that political elections many of the former communist riskingone day their irretrievably. life under The a real year rain 1989 of bullets, remains to change in recent a totalitarian Romanian leaders, only a few people who were not affected by the virus of system with a democratic one, it remains as the year when the communism succeeded in politics. There it was also a tendency to colossus of communism crashed. In Romania this uprising against determine the former communist leaders of Communist Party to step back from politics, but unsuccessfully. of injured people and 1166 dead people. th of The fall of communism was followed by a long period of communism was powerful and general; 9there were thousands transition marked by various reforms which aimed to transform shot, in other words “we () broke upFinally of communism on the 25 just asDecember we began, the by dictatorial a crime.” 10couple Nicolae and Elena Ceaușescu was There was a general consensus that Romania had to turn back The fall of communism has left a political vacuum which was fromRomanian communism society afterforever the and pattern develop of the a Westernnew society European following model. the from dictatorship to democracy was a social shock, it was like the to capitalism and switch from the centralized state economy to suddenrequired transition to be filled of someas soon prisoners as was possible.sentenced The to lifeabrupt imprisonment transition Western model, to follow the way of transition from communism to total freedom. An unusual new situation for that former prisoners, has better results than the centralized economy because it meets living in the new context of liberty, they will have for a while “the betteran open the market desire economy.of the population, W. Grudem gives says liberty that tothe the free employer market nostalgia of prison, which offers them some security, will make them to hire employees which are best suited for the job, and allows 26 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Jugaru: Romania’s Holistic Development in its Transition 27

13 According to time.17 Today, Romania is a European country with great openness yearsfreedom of efforts for the for people Romanian to work people, where the they process fit better. of transition from forpeople, technological the first having development, the feeling is aof country being watched where there during are working a large communismsociologist and to politicaldemocracy, researcher from centralized Vladimir economyPasti, in 2004, to capitalism after 15 number of large companies from all over the world. system ended.14 Holistic development also requires a harmonious development, An important component of the holistic development of a good balance between the rural and the urban areas. Unfortunately, society is the development of education. If communism focused in Romania, the rural areas where agricultural activities happen, on transmission of theoretical information and the peoples’ ability which is a major one, didn’t know as a profound development as the to memorize this information, the holistic aspect of education urban areas. A lot of means for working the land remained largely involves training toward practical transformation, development of rudimentary, many irrigation systems were damaged and many personal gifts and inclinations, in other words to help the person young people left the village to study at universities in the cities, or to develop himself. Also the formation of different kind of networks to work in urban areas where salaries are higher. for sharing of ideas or information is an important component of Aiming the holistic development of Romanian society in holistic development, which is in opposition to individualism and its new democracy, we can’t avoid talking about a high level of competition promoted by communism. 15 air and water pollution. The conscience of people in society, knowledge, and not just the accumulation of theoretical knowledge, especiallyconscience, of a theclear moral ecological conscience, commitment according and witha real Carl fight Henry against is help toFinally, develop finding holistic a practical society. frameworkConsidering for these the prospects,application the of like a mudlark in contemporary life, its paternity is questioned, its existence is troublesome, its claim for attention and responsibility of individual identity. It is interesting to note that according to some is burdensome.18 The duty and the imperative of this generation socialholistic analysts, education the aims social to findmaturation different has ways as anfor indicatorthe development not the is to show respect for the environment, „an ethical imperative of intelligence but the empathy, the emotional ability of resonance to respect not only for the right of the present generations to a healthy the environment. Reduction or absence of empathy is dangerous environment, but also the right of future generations to inherit both for individuals and for the mentality of the nation.16 from present generations, a healthy and ecologically balanced Holistic development of society requires recognition of the environment” The earth is rich in minerals and raw materials, 19 especially for the younger generation. As we know, modern technology as water, food, clothing, shelter, energy and has given to people the isimportance used today of oninnovation a large scale and the in businessinfluence and of technology administration. on society, The dominationaccording to over J. Stott, these God resourced. stored in20 this planet different resources Unfortunately, massive deforestation, water and air pollution saves time, helps to develop business, opens opportunities for are some of the challenges that the current generation must solve communicationimpact of technology between is beneficialstudents, people, because politicians it makes and life societyeasier, both for the sake of our present time and for our children’s future. as a whole. Technology exerts a powerful mirage in this postmodern Exploitation of natural resources must be done in a reasonable time, it permits companies to search world-wide for capital, for lower costs on products and for raw materials. But, in spite of that, we have to be cautions using technology because it can hinder the sourcesway, not of in energy a selfish in suchand greedy a way that manner, „the amount according of energy to theologian remaining W. direct relationship between people, it can affect trust between inGrudem, these peoplesources possess will last ingenuity even beyond in discovering the current and developing predictions.” new21 employees and employer since it affects, in a way the privacy of More and more people in former communist countries develop today 28 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Jugaru: Romania’s Holistic Development in its Transition

29 a friendly attitude toward nature, they start to use more products NOTES that are environmentally friendly and to recycle materials as glass, 1 metals and paper. People of the third Millennium have to exercise a Viața cotidiană în comunism, ed. Adrian Neculau Dan Goglează, „Preluarea trecutului comunist. O răfuială analitică cu good stewardship which involve living with an awareness that „we moștenirile2 Cf. https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/download/pdf/Mani de mentalitate,” în - (Iași: Polirom, 2004), 347. 22 which he has entrusted to us for this brief season here on earth.” 3 are managers not owners; that we are caretakers of God’s assets, festo.pdf (Last accessed: October 19, 2014)Viața cotidiană în comunism, ed. Adrian Alexandru-Florin Platon, „Între descriere și analiză. Repere ale unei istorii sociale4 a vieții cotidienePolitics-According în comunism,” în to the Biblie Conclusions Zondervan,Neculau (Iași: 2010), Polirom, 262. 2004), 31. Wayne Grudem, Systematic Theology, vol. 2 (Minneapolis, (Grand MN: Rapids, Bethany MI: Holistic development of the Romanian society, released from the House,5 2003), 18. 6 Norman Politics-According Geisler, to the Biblie, 4. the major challenge in the last quarter of century. Since the 7 Paul Johnson, O istorie a lumii moderne 1920–2000 Grudem, revolutionscommunist politicaland riots regime against after the communist 45 years of oppression,political system represents during 8 Dennis Deletant, Istoria României (București: Humanitas, 2005), 735. for a better standard of living, for an economic development of the (București: Editura Enciclopedică,- the year of 1989, the people in this Eastern European country hope mane,1998),9 (Last 565. accessed: November 4, 2016) noticed that the transition from a totalitarian to a democratic system, 10 Cf. http://www.agerpres.ro/social/2014/05/29/institutul-revolutiei-ro whichcountry is anfollowing obligatory the transition example of for Western a holistic European development countries. of society, We 11 12 Johnson, Goglează, O „Preluarea istorie a lumii trecutului...,” moderne, 366.736. was neither easy nor simple. Many Romanians were disappointed 13 Ibid., 359.Politics, 277. by political class, by the price of transition, by bureaucracy, and as a 14 Vladimir Pasti, Noul capitalism românesc consequence they have gone to work abroad for a better-paid job and Grudem, - catie.html15 (Last accessed: November 4, 2016) (Iași: Polirom, 2006), 21. Cf. http://fizcom.blogspot.ro/2008/03/despre-o-abordare-holista-in-edu the country because it is a continuous process, sometimes hindered 16 17 Beyond Integrity byfor anthe easier scourge life. ofWe corruption are optimistic and about lack theof vision,holistic but development the holistic of Goglează, „Preluarea trecutului...,” 365. development continues to put its mark on society more strongly 18 CarlScott F. B. H. Rae, Henry, Kenman Etica reștină L. Wong, personală , 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: today as ever, now at the beginning of the third millennium. Zondervan,Cf. http://www.omicsonline.com/open-access/approaches-and-strategies- 2004), 420–421. for-holistic-social-development19 (Last accessed: (: October Cartea 18, Creștină, 2016) 2004), 591. 20 John Stott, Issues Facing Christians Today Zondervan, 2006), 148. 21 Politics, p. 361. , 4th ed., (Grand Rapids, MI: 22 Randy Alcorn, Money Possesions and Eternity (Carol Steam IL: Tyndale Grudem,

House Publishiers, 2003), 152. Liutiev: The Holistic Literary Character: The Body and the Soul 31

image. But good is not necessarily beautiful and beautiful is not DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435106 asimplicitly a hypertrophic good, as Jungbody pointed image canout. transcribe The ideal of the an most I–self profound in which the appearance plays an important role and the ideal I–self featured body, and still wants the body, even when it poetizes and raves and suffering. “And this most honest1 existence, the I–it speaks of the

The Holistic Literary Character: sheflutters talk withabout broken something wings.” else? The body image concept, explained The Body and the Soul by SchilderWhen a(L’image character du talkscorps about his/her physical image, doe he/ The Holistic Medicine in Literature Francoise Dolto (L’image inconsciente du corps has its roots in childhood, when, Paris, “it Gallimard, includes almost1968), entirelyand then the by Simona Liutiev, PhD , Paris, Seuil, 1984) Independent Scholar, Romania 2 [email protected] Realityunconsciousness is a conscious and it lendsoption. itself Does to all body dichotomies: language psyche–soma, express in a affect–pulsion, life–death, and consciousness–unconsciousness.” more the bodily representation becomes standardised, the more emotional choice. Medicine and novel writing seem to prolong the themetaphorical–symbolical way a person talks aboutmanner his/her a personal appearance silent defence? expressing The ABSTRACT:disease nature Intimacy has given in tofiction mankind. is an Someaesthetical, writers’ symbolical propensity and for dissatisfaction for any body part in the mirror, “the body image, structural themes and motifs from pathology can be considered both crossing every second with the physical type, our existential a professional and a somatic diagnosis predisposition. Life as a fate 3 becomes a defensive mechanism against To suddenly utter, that the soul is the body could have destabilised anguish. “The body image as a self image is pulsional, dependent humanisticleading to death sciences, was aand general it meant idea the at thedecentralisation end of the 19th of century.literary uponsub–layer the language in the world” and updated by transfer,”4 hence the inoculation character, the shift of narrative techniques, the conversion of of insecurity and the pathologies of donjuanism or femme–fatale. In psychology to physiological analysis emphasising the authenticity of , beauty and narcissism are not synonymous. Hortensia Papadat Bengescu’s characters cannot free that it’s easy to see their soul. Illness is their only connection to the world.sensation. Each Hortensia character Papadat tragically Bengescu’s aspires to characters a common are life, so refused fleshless, to themselves from the tyrannical look into the mirror, this is the all of them by their psychological or physiological condition. them a sense of autophilia. The tremolo of sensations is conveyed not decentralisation, holistic medicine onlyessential to other element characters filling (Lenora,their solitude Rin, Lina, and Nory)at the butsame also time to placesgiving KEY WORDS: somatic diagnosis, intimacy, authenticity, character such as the mansion that “apparently consumed that day in its body the drama of life together with all the beings it had incorporated.” Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics Freud considered narcissism as a common feature of all people, and5 Jung noted that “whoever goes to himself risks a confrontation with he physical aesthetics, the sensorial discourse mostly or Tcompletely visual is an archaic type of communication, usually related to narcissism and its avatars or to the concept of body himself. The mirror does not flatter, it faithfully shows whatever looks into it; namely, the face we never show to the world because 30 32 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Liutiev: The Holistic Literary Character: The Body and the Soul 33 we cover it with the persona, the mask of the actor. But the mirror To Hortensia Papadat Bengescu, the aesthetic choice of lies behind the mask and shows the true face.”6 subjectivity overbidding has been not only a temperamental constancy but also a trick ensuring her credit into the literary man- particularly the lonely woman’s accessory, since “the love for me dominated world, “a passionate disguise,” a physiological problem In Hortensia Papadat7 whether Bengescu’s static or madefirst texts, for the the lady mirror bag, the is that she turns over again and again, giving15 the false impression that “the complete objectivity may result from two subjectivities.”16 carriedhurts nobody’s through heart;” the grey outer events,”8 just like in Herta Muller’s textmirror the is handkerchief “a magnifying replaces glass meant “the person’s for autoscopy acute loneliness” and a reflector and it confers the necessary maternal protection (discourse at receiving9 Spiritual Body or Psychoanalytic Interpretation of Literature the Nobel Prize for Literature). Aimée has a Super Ego which she in her beauty, a belief made stronger in front of the mirror and maintainedfiercely cultivates. by the “Aimée’s admiration arrogance she stirred came mostly among from her themates belief at intoAfter the Freud body shattered and the otherthe theories way around, about the ego body instances moves ininto 1933, the the boarding school. A doll with no character, no expressivity in spirit.”Merleau–Ponty17 “Body amwrote I, and that soul—so “with psychoanalysis, says the child. theAnd spirit why shouldmoves beauty, but perfect and especially distinct in the material used by one not speak like children?”18 This seems to be the oldest literary mother nature . . . a statuette upon which the eye lingered without dilemma, periods of continuous castling successively proclaiming impressions, simply annoyed by the immobility of a yet living one author or another’s supremacy, surprising every time, though creature.”10 Everything she feels is only the tension of her own vexed they merely restated the same theories. After Nietzsche and Freud will, even “that subversive triangle of sensations”11 the Persu sisters in modern times, the New Age theories talked about the almighty spirit, the mental supremacy over physical, and the powerful motivation capable to transform the physical body, the illness and carnalhave prepared compromises especially taxation.” for her12 and the incestuous flirting with Walter,Actually, it all seems the intimacy to be a mandatory subject itself repayment is an auctorial of “some game kind of that can change the body and its organs, the divination and angels mirrors supposed to halve, to be accomplice to yourself or someone era,the destiny, somehow even bringing to prolong back life; the the Oriental theories theories of hypnotic of levitation regression and else, to free a multiple self (a third Freudian I), a sort of taking preparing the spirit for immortality, the spiritual era carrying since into possession in which “the exterior is structured by the interior early days, even ab nuce, the stigmata of disease, the astrologers and pattern”13 hence the idea of symbolically representing the soul in healers era. The body may not count if one has the right attitude, not ignoring but loving and accepting a shell that plays its own part to successfully keep the distance between inner withdrawal in auto in strengthening the soul. the shape of a house/place. It’s more difficult nowadays for a writer fiction and slipping into para–literatureLa vie devant throughsoi, under radical the pseudonym schizoid The body–sensitivity inadequacy or the quarrel between soul Emileauctorial Ajar). forms Intimacy (in the is an case aesthetic of Romain symbolic Gary choice who fullwon of twice emotion, the psychology,and body, this Holy sub–substance Spirit—in theology, of sensible the openliving core carries of being—in different andGoncourt this isprize the withgreat the paradox novel of its excessive coverage, since the names in humanistic sciences: mind–dust, unconsciousness—in exterior has already been worked upon, relating it to the alterity and adapting it to the scale of unique non-repeatable person, disclaiming innerBuddhism, self which magnetic eventually flux—in claims neurobiology. its rights. Hortensia They become Papadat so “the violence of exteriority, objectivity, truth.”14 Bengescu’s characters fall ill after they fight anaesthesia of their

fleshless, “the character is transparent, we can see through him or 34 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Liutiev: The Holistic Literary Character: The Body and the Soul

35 her without noticing the face,” that one can easily recognize the continuous consciousness that clinically detects the inner breaches 19 and is clearly opposed to the unconsciousness in psychoanalysis. “The only reality they are aware of is their soul becoming sensitively physical.”spiritual body;20 Seen the as world “the isultimate merely afrontier projection of postmodernfor such characters. times, Even the most intelligent characters, such as Elena Drăgănescu, body”21 has been sometimes clearly separated from the body, and thewho ingenious attempt to Charles listen Mauron’sto their I–self idea andof psychoanalytic harmoniously interpretation unite the two the soul as a projection of codes, socio–cultural patterns and ofcoordinates, literature endand up has dramatically. consequently Ov. S.overlapped Crohmălniceanu the author’s has taken texts over in Department of Iowa University, rejects the Darwinian theories in a clinicalsometimes analysis identified of corporality, with it. Antonio marking R. Damasio, that there head is no of delineation Neurology 26 starting from the notionorder to of find dishevelled similarities, maiden without (in novels, “translating old pages into of prosesymbols, and forcingpoems soul”22 on the other. The soul, the engine of the ontologically fallen inthe French) profound that self became to take ana definite emblematic traceable expression shape,” used as a title and body,between the theillness flesh as and an anticipatedblood body sin,on one “the hand body and that “the enslaves ethereal us and shuts down our reason, and takes into possession life”23 has 27 To suddenly utter, in the cultural been given cultural meaning by Stoicists and this has ultimately considered “oxymoronic, since the secondthe soul term is themakes body the could first have one destabilisedambiguous up the to whole nullification.” area of humanistic sciences, and it meant the Diogenes Laertios, Epicur, Lucretiu proved to be Naturalists avant decentralisationcontext after the ofFirst literary World character, War, that the shift of narrative techniques, lalead lettre to a perfect identification of the two components. Damasio, the conversion of psychology to physiological analysis emphasising the authenticity of feeling, of sensation, “the evocation through analytical where the, before two meet. Descartes This was gave the the birth first of methodical the living body definition concept of, but also sensitive methods.”28 the body and soul dualism, finding the pineal gland as the place postmodern phenomenology in humanist science. That meeting taking care of the person’s mood, Doctor coquetry Walter and recommends gymnastic, sleeping yet the pointan anatomical between soul metaphor and body that in which has weinfluenced want to place all modernour inner and self functions(reminding of lifeof Wagnerseem to be practicing more complicated hydrotherapy than that. for “Neitherhis neurosis), could might actually be an empty space, and the literary updating of this she separate the soul from the body, in the same way she couldn’t junction is in fact the existential crisis which has been an intersection for numerous arts. Following in the footsteps of his master Ortega y separate that spider web of nervous system from the flesh and the 24 and places itself on the wasmuscle. creating Still shea yet believed impalpable in a substancedifferent, spiritualwhich was body. to be What proved kind real. of Gasset, the psychiatric–phenomenologist Lopez Ibor concludes that Thatbody? substance Around those emanated fibres from of the sensitivity nerves like could tentacle, take varioustheir function forms already“the I–self emphasized has an executive this idea. disposition” at various living creatures and thus it made an organism.” After all, trajectoryThroughout of a necessary the whole fate; HallipaUnamuno series, and Alfred Hortensia de Vigny Papadat have 29 Bengescu seems to reject the solution of harmonization between only one that ultimately cuts them off. body and soul, she destroys the material support in all her characters we are just a ball of flesh twisted on a spiritual core and death is the out of a generation neurosis, some sort of social alienation blocks any communication between inner and outer body, particularly any Interferences between Literature and Medicine or privacy. The spiritual body, in Papadat Bengescu’s novels, Some writers’ propensity for structural themes and motifs from way of living in a unified body where they can hear their also intimacy called pathology can be considered both a professional and a somatic 25 corresponds to William James’ concept of “mind–dust,” 36 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Liutiev: The Holistic Literary Character: The Body and the Soul 37

writer was aware she belonged to a climate which needed a rebirth: “People with Renaissance souls, we all live a life of overstimulation intodiagnosis a new predisposition. vision of the world, Writing a new is a somatic “somatoprosepoem.” technological30 literary There and psychic restlessness amid irritating events. I kind of wait and areextension numerous of the examples eyesight; of theymedics all completewriters: Augustin each other Buzura, and merge Vasile want the brutality of war as a healing for my frail pains, I prepare Voiculescu, Friedrich Schiller, M. Bulgakov, C. D Zeletin, Bourget, my soul to belong to an active nurse who takes care of physical wounds and saves lives, I’m convinced I’m probably more guilty of giving back life than the calamity which shortens it and I see in the Verga, Lampedusa, Cătălin Vasilescu, Thomas Mann, Tolstoy, passion for charity a way of displaying an unused or unsaturated ChoosingDostoyevsky, such and a theme Chekov, doesn’t who found automatically in suffering guarantee a refined a source valuable of passion.” inspiration for great literature and successfully turned it into fiction. 35 because it requires a longer incubation period. Blending medicine of life and creation,Illness is aconsequently specific aspect of ofliterature, life and wewhy all should live under illness its work, since it’s harsh, cruel, repugnant, and also artistically difficult, bethreat expelled with aby “natural literary apprehension;” works and artists? as long Does as mana work is the of artessence stop being artistic just because not everybody likes it? Hortensia Papadat natural,with literature even monumental is the Naturalists’ unity. and The Physiologists’ theme is best aim; expressed such writers in Bengescu herself saw disease as something so inherent to life, that Marinwent beyond Sorescu’s their lines: field “Doctor, and invaded I feel something science, achieving deadly/Here a strangely in the region of my being,/All my organs hurt,/At daytime, my sun hurts,/ eyesight, “a spirit that clearly possessed the privilege of seeing.”36 “I’d And at night my moon and my stars hurt,/I feel a pain in the cloud shenever didn’t thought think I might she had have a preference a tendency for towards it; she illness, simply buthad a medical natural on the sky/That I haven’t even noticed before/And I wake up every apprehension . . . it just came to me extemporaneously . . . I confess I have a double curiosity about illness and ill people: a nurse’s and a pills,/Have I hated and loved, learned to read/And I have read some doctor’s curiosity, so to speak, because I do not read medical books, booksmorning/With for sure,/Uselessly a winter feeling./Uselessly have I talked to people have and I taken thought/Have all sorts of I or psychological books, I couldn’t have the patience to do it. But been kind, have I been beautiful…/All these haven’t had any effect on I do have the patience and the passion for my own investigation, me, doctor,/And I’ve wasted so many years on them/I think I’ve fallen an equal curiosity about the physical and psychic drives . . . Still, ”31 illness and ill people was never the sole subject of any of my more seriously and dying fast, others more gently and living longer. writings . . . To be honest, I look them under the magnifying glass ill withLife death/One as a fate leading day/When to death, I was this born. is the We theme all fall of ill,great some writers of us or under the microscope, maybe that’s why they seem obsessive.”37

32 subject which was intensely discussedand critics, lastGasset’s century and Lopezand already Ibor’s (in theorized his essay byabout sociologist “penetration and orThe cultural new scientific functions, tendencies show nothing in favour but of the transdisciplinary interaction between facets philosopherof the body into Julien the Freund. intimacy It was field”) a general state of mind at the end of knowledge, way beyond parallels, influences, patterns, social th century and beginning of 20th century, “the exhaustion of view, bringing spirituality and psychology to the fore (Dumitru of living, the sickly prostration, the feeling of decay, the sarcastic various medical fields, recently interpreted from the New Age point sadness,of the 19 the disillusion, the sensuousness of suffering and the Valeriu Popa, Anatol Basarab, Louise Hay, Doreen Virtue) both in grimace of facing reality,”33 so Papadat Bengescu aligned her works diagnosisConstantin and Dulcan, causes, Serghei since Lazarev,illness is Brian seen Weiss,as “a pre-orderedDan Mirahorian, way with European writers. Survivor of some intimate catastrophes, she 38 “I’m an emotional person. But when I write, really elaborated pathologies of intimacy “to express the order of a world that lacks its original meaning.”34 Moreover, the Romanian death,of self-destruction;” because a ruthless sense of reality, a terrible weakness of I cannot favour any of my characters; I cannot favour either life or 38 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Liutiev: The Holistic Literary Character: The Body and the Soul

39 even as the river and the sea are one . . . and when the earth shall and life remain organs on my dissection table.” Cognitivism and claim your limbs, then shall you truly dance.”44 neurosciencesseeing reality justsay thatthe wayperception it is takes and away expression my subjectivity.39 of reality depend World In many novels the hero is usually punished in the end by on the structure and patterns in human brains, “extension and nexus illness or death, but the novels of this series start with illness and, of a new body surpassing pure animalism.”40 Exploring the body is in an “imitative polyphony of a dominating leitmotif endlessly a merciless, surgical act, accordingly to Foucault’s episteme of man: proliferating,” with every breaking up of a couple, they inevitably man = body + solitude, the body can be seen and touched but the go to the downfall45 of a whole generation, not as pain or punishment solitude is universal and common to everybody. The limit and the but as release, in Edgar Allan Poe’s words “the crisis . . ./And the fever pointer of ontological solitude in postmodern society is love itself, called Living/Is conquered at last.”46 One doesn’t pity them and isn’t an unsacred, invented, pure biological love, a body inferno. afraid of becoming tainted, but rather relieved. If birth is a pain for Thanks to Hortensia Papadat Bengescu’s works, the Romanian two, shared between mother and newborn, death is a pain for only literature gained the richest medical vocabulary, the physiologic one, anyone. In front of death we all stand alone, empty handed. man is shown with a rather technical skill, from a biologist’s and a clinician’s point of view, acknowledging that any suffering of the body is mainly a suffering of the soul. This clinical study of various weWe diesimply we opensurrender. our hands When expressing we come intosurrender the world and showingour fists theare illnesses is a critical no tight, expressing the will to live, to fight for victory, and then when social disruptions since we carry deep within our subconsciusness come in a conscious manner is a terrifying experience, so the death the endowment of the ,whole all these human individual beings. disorders “Every person reflect isthe a isothers ultimately we carry a release. nothing “ out of this world. Waiting for the death to spiritual history of the world”41 or, as Blaga said in a poem, “in the dying.”47 Blaga thought that talking about death is talking about life, nameless country every human being will have to start/learning We are ourselves both in winning and in once again/the forgotten stories of the blood./Man is nothing but the measure/of a complete journey.”42 inbeauty, sorrow rising for high,the death flying, to about come the and invisible take you thread away. that Only bonds around man The last novel of the series, The Stranger, is a proof of “the most to God. Thinking about death is enjoying the gift of life, not waiting severe pathology, the history pathology.”43 Magdalena Popescu saw in are no longer frightened, they long for death. Suffering is the wisest this novel a virgin and rich source for the psychoanalytical criticism, anddeath the you hardest find the teacher, true measure it opens of our life. eyes Those to the lying most in hospital unsuspected beds paths, “through pain the sky and earth separate themselves in us.”48 The unsettled war between masculine and feminine, between nobodywhile G. has Călinescu ever seized marked in a that more “an subtle ill creature and comprehensive arise interest way for theclinicians state ofonly.” illness, Whatever in a world the critics doomed say, to there’s perish no by question all physical, that and death, author and character. “In order to continue living after social, moral, aesthetical meanings. The characters’ lineage doesn’t master and slave turns into the fight between desire and hatred, life go further than two generations, and according to the cyclical rules, the character.” Art is, according to Buddha, the safest madness on after the extinction comes a superior new level, why not the life he saved himself49 through his character, the authorthe has safest to sacrifice way to after death, much better than anything they’ve lived and tried in break ourselves from the world and yet the safest way to tighten ourselvesthe way to to salvation, it.” To those and whoaccording do not to like Goethe this theme “ and refuse to think like children50 do, that “body am I, and soul,” Nietzsche answers the narratedheart of life? life, as. . . KahlilIf you Gibran’swould indeed prophet behold says: the “You spirit would of death, know in Thus Spoken Zarathustra: a Book for All and None: “To the despisers openthe secret your heartof death. wide But unto how the shall body you of life. find For it unless life and you death seek is one,it in of the body I want to speak. I would not have them learn and teach 40 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Liutiev: The Holistic Literary Character: The Body and the Soul 41 differently, but merely say farewell to their own bodies—and thus th century become silent.” The work of art is not to be confused with the aesthetical value,51 it includes, it stores different forms of aesthetical the correlation between appearance and soul. In the 19 value and only one of them can assure the entire artistic value of the Thethe Germanattempt tophilosopher derive human Lavatter nature came out of back the physiognomyto the physiognomic and the certitudedoctrine, influencingthat an ugly the person writings can only of Balzac be mean and just even like Dostoyevsky. a beautiful value. “Being a product of the human spirit, the work of art is closely person can only be good, have gone a long way and they are easy to relatedwork. The to thework creative of art act,is an it asset;can never the aestheticaldetach itself phenomenon totally from isthe a recognise in Papadat Bengescu’s texts. creative process, between artist and his work there’s an organic How could the Hallipa series be bright if it has darkened the relationship, full of consequences for the total understanding of the author’s face? Throughout the pages of the novels the malice goes work.” hand in hand with ugliness, inner and outer deformity, depicting 52 monsters or giants who cause nothing but pain and show nothing but “Besides On the the shaded other supple hand, Ionfragile Caraion attributes distinguishes of literature, the literature– under the multicolouredaesthetics–life intelligenttrinity which hat ofgives aesthetics back the there writer come his to sitold now status. the statue immobile et presque insensible.” Everything is normal here virile bristled harsh intense attributes of life.” The writer has to asignorance, far as it is “l’homme–enfant, pathological, and un the parfait degradation57 imbécile, by unillness automate, and death, une sketch an abstract drawing out of the memories53 he kept in his skin, though seen as a superior sensuousness, is socially experienced, an intensive drawing made up of the impressions of mingled bodies, reminding of Thomas Mann’s Magic Mountain. This paradox is invisible sensual tattoos. Literature has discovered the soul of this explained by Michael Riffaterre as a reversal between semantic semes, between the comparison terms, that ends up eliminating the text is contaminated by the body.” the imitation becomes surface. Writing and expressing are54 inseparable from the body. “The the main referent and the natural comes58 out of discussion “by the way she chose to write is a kind of trade mark seemingly differences and a “similitude in identity;” anticipatingHortensia the Papadat linguistic Bengescu theories is definedabout the by thisdissolution type of writing, of the a subversive comment of an interpretation it deconstructs using a language. “The letter is dead, the body is alive. As I like to say, the secondbeing replaced grade referent, with the a copy.”artificial, Because since the not Decadentismevery human characterproduces is illustrative of the society, the59 writer was forced to resort to certain individual types. Even the unconsciousness has a historical feature, yourword somatic comes to sensitivity.” life only after it is given a body. When I say word, I due to the fact that every person takes over the whole psychic actually mean sense. Well,55 this sense has to spring out of your flesh, structure of the for that matter, everything that rises up from within, can only be our The Anamnesis of Body and Soul Illnesses. The Pathological own if we are capableancestors. of inner “What amplitude comes equal to usto thatfrom of outside,the incoming and, as Narrative Art (Pathology with Medical Record/Hidden content. Real increase of personality means consciousness of an Pathology) we can never be adequately related to the magnitude of our object. Itenlargement has therefore that been flows said from quite inner truly sources. that aWithout man grows psychic with depth the that an ugly person is also mean, but he went further combining greatness of his task. But he must have within himself the capacity Reflecting upon diary as taciturn writing, Eugen Simion agreed combined with malice have? Not a bright face.” him. More likely he will be shattered by it.”60 these two features with stupidity: “What face56 does stupidity to grow; otherwise even the most difficult task is of no benefit to These reflections have their roots in the antic Greek tradition, which held in honour 42 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Liutiev: The Holistic Literary Character: The Body and the Soul 43

Should it be only by accident that we meet, sometimes over 67 hundreds of pages, not a single positive character? They are otherwise, the characters refuse to understand that “everything representative of this fake haut–societé, eager whether to gain or to that’sseem toon be the mainly plate/has related to tobe “the lived.” crazy68 state of mind in the world;” maintain their social status, and therefore it was necessary that the A woman, Hortensia Papadat Bengescu, records all the inner individual drives to be adequate to the social mechanism, in physiological misery of some bodies crying out for help. Most often, other words to be a perfect congruity between the internal and the the fragile nervous system is the one that suffers, the neuron being external biography. “The individuals’ fate can no longer be separated, the only cell not able to regenerate. One can seize the interest for from various points of view, from the fate of the category and the group what remains unexpressed, for the will that doesn’t come into act they belong to and they project themselves further on the historical and its repression can establish a biography. One of the artistic canvas depending on these relations”61 Somehow rebellious, Vladimir accomplishments the writer uses to make the mentally ill person a Streinu called these writers quakers, using the English term for the drama character is repression, his/her illness, however easy to be religious society of friends, taken from the spinning dervishes and recognized, doesn’t eventually get any name, because anyway “the all sorts of mystics in trance. So, after pathetically confronting life, moral disorder and degeneration go hand in hand and mingle.” stirring 69 happiness of morally convulsing, and they tend to impose to our herself to the Naturalist writers who make a physiological art that entiredeath, fate,culture nation, the God,twisted “livid formula with fear, of theytheir experience soul . . . these the existential formulae “doesn’tWith her step back style, in front Hortensia of indecency Papadat or Bengescu humiliation sort or of theaffiliates most with a strict individual and even biological content have vulgarized shameless rudeness.”70 The Naturalism came into the literary scene philosophy making it handy. Could this style of desperation, of dry when the writers tried to compete with the scientist, invading the hospitals with the pen in their hands and recording the detail, come from, sparing our Church but invading our Culture?”62 And when sure that they were making educational work. The pathological asuffering, “complete be study the disease of health of dissonance”our century?63 Whereadds to did all these,these thequakers man being looked upon as a succession of interdependent physiological unlike Naturalists, in her texts the body is revealed through soul, and psychological phenomena, it’s more than obvious that the author andconditions these motifsare Hortensia are inseparable, Papadat Bengescu’s nobody else favourite until her field has too ever but, is a legitimate spokesperson of her time, as notices: insisted so much upon these two and related the physiology and “The process of bourgeoisie disintegration, under all its pathological psychology to the social life. After Freud elaborated the principles aspects, has found in this female writer a lucid, then ironic, then of psychoanalyse, the interest for the hidden life of soul has become sarcastic interpreter who is no stranger to the human suffering side common and has been proudly accepted by the writers, as another of a tragic impossible aspiration towards the purity Johann Sebastian proof of “how serious the novelist’s work is.”71 So, to make science in Bach’s music symbolizes.”64 One step from the grotesque, the writer a novel comes to be a real literary merit. Proust said that medicine is the one that prolongs the disease nature has given us. horrible and humorous.” adds: medicine and novel, talking about the clinical applicability and doesn’tPapadat reach Bengescu’sthe Naturalists65 propensity caricature, for butpathological “a tragi–comic study, boththat likely in Papadat Bengescu’s novels. since “pathology suited very well the mechanical determinism psychiatry and leave to the medics the descriptions of psychical thatCălinescu the school talked of about, Médan can saw be in explained life.”66 Physiology by Naturalism always influence, leaves a states.We In oftenreality, hear no thatwriter the has writer taken has this to into avoid account the contact and it withwas psychological mark. Disease is never the same, never simple, never impossible to do so because a writer’s main mission is to describe cured, reason of fears and self-analyses. Disease and its psychology the universe within so that, one way or another, the writers have 44 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Liutiev: The Holistic Literary Character: The Body and the Soul

45 always been predecessors of science. More so the border between their way on the social scale and end up with deep scratches, in delimitation, and, secondly, so instable that each of us can cross overthe normal it several and times the so during called theill psychic day. On is, the first other of all, hand, a conventional psychiatry nothingOvid. S. Crohmălniceanu’selse than “the solution” words. the Their author attempt found to to dominate “restore” thisthe is concerned not only about illnesses (understandable solely in frustratedsocial universe personality results on in the a consciouspsychical way falsification, to death. Nory, and oneillness of the is relation to healthy state), but also about merely disorders. That way, characters, actually spreads the idea of a class privilege of suffering. the writer cannot avoid the psychiatrist and the psychiatrist cannot Is the disease a restoration? Yes, in the sense that only through avoid the writer, and the literary approach of a psychiatric theme disease man eludes the striving of defending his social status, that has taken all his power, and the spirit is “the life that cuts out right in master of the psychiatrist is the novelist.”72 76 Conventions, obligations, everything is dissolved cannotReferring harm the to aesthetic the hidden value. pathologies Georges study, Dumas Perpessicius said that “the places real in the miracle and “the nobility” of illness. Towards the universe the their literary approach in front of psychiatry: “Either there’s a case illnessthe flesh reveals, of life.” the man is ultimately freed. Liberty or the illusion of perhaps innocent hysteria, favoured by certain disorders and as of liberty can only be gained by escaping the metaphysical. There’s a consequence of sexual shyness, or there’s a case of intellectual a double escaping, hence two kinds of illnesses and ill characters: obnubilation, where the dysmnesia of evoking is accompanied by a some of them are “luckier” and completely free themselves from complex of symptoms, whatever the psychiatry may say, how many universe (incurable disease such as Maxentiu’s phthisis), while the diagnoses it may make, how many conclusions and analyses it may others are ill as a sign of weakness, of psychical disablement to bear draw, nothing makes it equal to the novel of this case, that only Mrs. the social constraint, and this is a pathetic way of being free (Lenora, Hortensia Papapadat Bengescu could make up of so many hidden 73 These words synthesize in the best way the theme of the novels. The Cioran,Drăgănescu man findhas three their lives:shelter intrauterine in Walter’s (unconscious), hospital). They extrauterine are the only medicalfibres and record so much makes weightlessness, way for the real well-rounded characters of and the human.”book: the (conscious)one to share and the postmortem human feelings (afterlife), of self–pity. and without Accordingly the last to one Emil it anomalies of any kind, a catalogue of absurdities that ends up with would all be foolish and meaningless. At birth, the soul comes not the transformed character living in a mechanical, sleepy, paralysed in order to be happy, but to serve its time, because happiness is to state, a mechanical reduction of the human being typical for the be found up there, around the divine being, and no experience on Naturalist literature. The diminished mobility of mind and body earth can compare to that. Man “comes with a certain purpose in depicted by the novelist gives life to “the monumentality and the this world, he comes to take his dose of bitterness and sadness, to mystery of nature itself.”74 change something at mankind.”77 can live among these people who are able to show in distress “the slice of humanity within characters free and searched a solution to restore them, choosing them.”. Each S. Crohmălniceanu character tragically yet thought aspires, one in his/her own way, illnessWhen as an the answer author is reallyquestioned tragic because,about the on ways its conscious to make wayher to a common75 life, refused to all of them by their psychological or to death, illness cannot be a solution, it is nothing more than “a physiological condition. So, in Hortensia Papadat Bengescu’s work, vague mysticism of moral purgation through suffering.”78 There’s no there are a hidden pathology and a medical recording pathology, two escaping even with doctor’s help. The few chameleonic recoveries groups that gathers all the characters of the Hallipa series. Papadat (actually, the agonies before dying) the ill character has are due to his own psyche making a last effort. Medics are, in the Hallipa series, “the most seriously ill characters the author has imagined.” Either Bengescu’s human being is defined by a social universe. The Hallipa, 79 the Drăgănescu and the Valter families climbed but also crawled 46 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Liutiev: The Holistic Literary Character: The Body and the Soul 47 impostors in practicing medicine (dr. Rim, the twin bacteriologists 14 Jean Baudrillard, “La sphere enchantee de l’intime,” in Autrement (nr. 81,

T. Vianu, “Hortensia Papadat Bengescu,” in Sburătorul (an II, nr. 23, 30 oct. 1986): 15. Hallipa, professor G.), or eminent clinicians in a field which is by 15 Scriitori români ai sec. XX 16 Simona Sora, Regăsirea intimității diseases),excellence they ambiguous, perform that their is own psychiatry healing. (dr. Some Walter of them and solve Cojan), their or 1920); also in (București: Editura Minerva, 1979), 216. inferioritywith a clear complexes specialization (Rim (dr. and Răut—TBC. Caro), others—their and dr. Caro—infectious frustrations. 17 Signes (București: Editura Cartea Românească, That’s why the most serious illnesses are analysed relatively Regăsirea2008), 89. intimității, 82. M. Merleau–Ponty, (Paris: Gallimard, 2001), 290 as quoted by Sora, independent from the curative medicine and closely dependent on 18 Friedrich Nietzsche, Thus Spoken Zarathustra Dana Dumitriu, Ambasadorii sau despre realismul psihologic psychology, and their concern for the disease gives a sense to their 19 , 89 lives, saves them from the existential dissatisfaction. True death is 20 , Arca lui Noe (București:. not rottenness but repulsion to life, indifference to feelings. “Man Editura21 Cartea Românească, 1976), 194–195.Trupul și litera. Explorări critice în biografia is forced to struggle with the daily death of his body in order to și opera lui Gh. Crăciun , vol. II (București: Editura Minerva, 1981), 11 80 22 AntonioAndrei Bodiu, R Damasio, Georgeta Eroarea Moarcăș, lui Descartes. Emoțiile și creierul uman, trad. transcend it.” That’s why people’s death is different from animals’, (Cluj–Napoca: Editura Casa Cărții de Știință, 2012), 57. and only the most unlucky people die like dogs, not like humans. Regăsirea intimității, 44. Irina23 Marc Tănăsescu Richir, Le (București: corps. Essai Editura sur l’interiorite Humanitas,, Optiques 2004), asPhilosophie quoted by (Paris: Sora,

NOTES 24 Juan Jose Lopez Ibor, El descubrimiento de la intimidad y otros ensayos, 1 Friedrich Nietzsche, Thus Spoken Zarathustra: a Book for All and None, trad. Hatier, 1993), 44. The Principles of Psychology, (Cambridge: Harvard University 2 Psihologia simțurilor Coleccion25 Austral (Madrid: Espasa–Calpe,Regăsirea 1952,intimității 38. Șt. Aug. Doinaș (București: Editura Humanitas, 1994), 90. Editura Trei, 2008), 104. 26 William James, Cinci prozatori în cinci feluri de lectură 3 Gisele Harrus Revidi, , trad. Nicolae Baltă, (București: Press, 1981), as quoted by Sora, , 93. 4 Ibid, 107. 27 Ovidiu S. Crohmălniceanu,Studii de literatură feminină (București: HortensiaCf. F Dolto; Papadatsee Revidi, Bengescu, 105. Fecioarele despletite 2004),Cartea Românească,44. 1984), 160. 5 28 TudorElena ZahariaVianu, Arta Filipaș, prozatorilor români (București: Paideia, , ediție. îngrijită de Gheorghe6 Radu,Collective prefață Worksde Eugenia 1. The Tudor Archetypes (București: and the Editura Collective Pentru Unconscious— Literatură, Hortensia Papadat Bengescu, Fecioarele, vol despletite II (București:, pref. Eugenia Editura pentruTudor 1966), 154. Opere complete 1. Arhetipurile și inconștientul colectiv literatuă,29 1966), 209. C. G. Jung, 30 “ 7 Mihaela Stanciu Vraja, Hortensia Papadat Bengescu (București: în oglinda Editura prozei Trei, de (București: Editura pt. Lit., 1966, 188. tinerețe2003), 29. Gheorghe” in Crăciun, Observator Mircea Cultural Nedelciu (nr. 133): și 74. curtea interioară a literaturii. 8 Corina Ciocârlie, Femei în fața oglinzii Corpuri31 Marin netransparente, Sorescu apud Mariasociografii Bâgiu narative, Marino, Oamenitratamente și oameni ambulatorii, in Pactul Caiet. (București: Herta Muller Editura la Pro București Universitaria, 2015), 127. SA,somatografic, 2003), 24. (Cluj–Napoca: Editura Echinox, 1998), 28. 9 32 Juan Jose Lopez Ibor, El descubrimiento de la intimidad y(Brașov: otros ensayos, SC Imp 10 Hortensia Papadat Bengescu, Opere, 27–28, sept. 2010 (București: Editura Coleccion Austral Regăsirea Humanitas Fiction & Centrul de carte germană, 2010), 5–20. intimității, 18. Academia Română, Fundația Natională 33 (Madrid: Espasa–Calpe,Hortensia 1952), Papadat 38, Bengescu as quoted „marea by Sora, europeană“ pentru11 Stiință și Artă; ediție, note și comentarii de Gabriela Omăt; studiu a literaturii române. Pledoarii introductiv de Eugen Simion (București: Academia Română, 2012), 864. 12 Ibid, 1033. 34 Sora,Carmen Regăsirea Georgeta intimității Ardelean,, 34. 13 Ibid, 1029. La poetique de l’espace, Presse Universitaire de France, Hortensia Papadat Bengescu, (Cluj–Napoca: Scrisori către Editura Ibrăileanu Eikon,, scrisoare 2013), 42. din 10 iulie 35 Gaston Bachelard, Paris, 2007, p. 23; 1916, ediție îngrijită de M. Bordeianu, Gr. Botez, I. Lăzărescu, Dan Mănucă și Al. Teodorescu (București: EPL, 1966), 52. 48 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Liutiev: The Holistic Literary Character: The Body and the Soul

49 36 36 Viola Vancea, Hortensia Papadat Bengescu: citadin repere și Michael Riffaterre, Decadent Paradoxe, in Perennial Decay: On the Aesthetics interpretări and58 Politics of Decadence, p. 66, in Angelo Mitcheivici, Decadență și decadentism, 37 “Cu scriitoarea Hortensia Papadat Bengescu despre romanul (București: Editura Eminescu,Vremea 1980), 40. The Decay of Lying–Decăderea minciunii, traducere Dan Petrașincu, Romanul românesc în interviuri (Bucure59 şti: Editura Curtea Veche, 2011), 56. Logodnicul și despre creație,” in (anul VIII, nr. 389, 26 mai 1935): 9; AngeloOscar Mitchievici, Wilde, discourse op.cit. reprinted38 in Dan Petrașincu, Hortensia Papadat, 42. , (București: Editura și 60note Jung, Magda Opere Teodorescu, Complete 1, 128.prefață de Mircea Mihăieș (Iași: Polirom, 2001) in Minerva,“ 1984), 639–640. 61 , p.De 57; la Nicolae Filimon la 39 Carmen GeorgetaVremea Ardelean, Cu scriitoareaRomanul Hortensia românesc Papadat în interviuri Bengescu despre romanul Logodnicul și 62 Cf.Marin Vladimir Manu Streinu’s Bădescu, article in Preocupări literare (Piteşti: Editura despre creație,” in (anul VIII, nr. 389, 26 mai 1935): 9; reprinted in Dan Zodia Fecioarei, 1998), 99. Cumpăna cuvântului, 328. Petrașincu,40 Șase cuvinte cheie pentru, (București: proza luiEditura Gh. Crăciun Minerva, in Trupul1984), 63 Liviu Petrescu, Realitate şi romanesc (VII, 8–9, aug–sep 1942): și636–637. litera 417–421,64 Mircea as Zaciu, quoted Masca by Ivașcu, Geniului 41 Marino,Alexandru Oameni Mușina, și oameni Ion Bogdan Lefter, Scurtă istorie (Bucure a romanuluişti: Editura românesc Tineretului, 1965), 96. 42 Ibid. (Cluj–Napoca: Casa Cărții de Știință, 2012), 53. 65 (Bucureşti: E.P.L., 1967), 198. 43 Andreia Roman, Hortensia, Papadat49. Bengescu–Vocația și stilurile modernității 66 Literatura română între cele (Pite douăşti: războaie Editura mondialeParalela 45, 2001), 50. 44 Marino, Oameni și oameni 67 Ovid.Mircea S. Nedelciu, Crohmălniceanu, Zodia scafandrului (Pitești:Ardelean, Editura Hortensia Paralela Papadat 45, 2007), Bengescu 108. 68 Mircea, vol Nedelciu, I (Bucure Prozăşti: E. scurtă: P. L, 1967), Aventuri 445. într–o curte interioară 4546 Marino, Oameni și oameni, 122.345. (București: Compania, 2000), 60–61. 47 Ibid., 126. , 105. Constantin Ciopraga, Hortensia Papadat–Bengescu (București, 48 Ibid., 313. Compania,69 2003), 19. Aspecte ale androginiei textuale la Gh. Crăciun, in Trupul și 70 Cronicile optimistului (Bucureşti: Editura litera,49 ed.cit., Cartea71 Românească,Cealaltă 1973), față 155. a prozei ThomasLiliana Tru Mann,ță, Pătimirile și măreția lui Richard Wagner, trad. Alexandru 72 NicolaeGeorge Manolescu,Călinescu, Arca lui Noe (Bucureşti: E. P. L, 1964), 143–144. 50 p. 116; 73 P.Mihai Perpessicius, Zamfir, Scriitori români (Bucureşti: Editura Eminescu, 1988), 25. Nietzsche, Thus Spoken Zarathustra 284. (Bucureşti: Editura 100+1 Gramar, 2000), 181. David,51 Cf. (București:an article authored Editura Humanitas, by Victor Iancu 2013), and 44. published in Preocupări literare, 74 Radu Petrescu, Meteorologia Lecturii, vol. III (Bucureşti: Editura Minerva, 1989), 52 , 89. Cumpăna cuvântului 1939–1945. Mărturii ale conștiinței românești în anii celui Literatura română (Bucureşti: Editura Cartea Românească, de–alan VII, doilea nr 8–9, război august–septembrie mondial 1942): 458–466; as quoted by George Ivașcu, 1982),7576 Nietzsche, 148. Thus Spoken Zarathustra Ion Caraion, “ Orizont 77 Marino,Crohmălniceanu, Oameni și oameni, 272. , 449. 53 Cumpăna cuvântului, (București: Editura Eminescu, 1977), 322–323. 78 Ibid. , 315. Războiul“ artei,” in (an I, nr. 6, 1 februarie 1945): 5, in Roxana Sorescu, Interpretări Ivașcu,54 Trupul şi Litera., 549.Explorări critice în biografia şi opera lui Gheorghe 79 CrăciunCezar Gheorghe, Intersecţiile literaturii cu filosofia în opera lui Gheorghe 80 Marino, Oameni și oameni, 70. (Bucureşti: Editura Cartea Românească, Crăciun” in 1979), 208. , eds. Andrei BodiuÎn ş căutareai Georgeta referinței Moarcăs (Cluj–Napoca: Editura Cărtii de Stiinţă,55 2013), 215. EugenGheorghe Simion, Crăciun, Fragmente critice I , (Pitești: Editura Paralela 45, Colec56 ția 80, Seria Eseuri, 1998), 242. Jean Jacques Rousseau in Radu Petrescu, (Bucure Meteorologiaşti: Editura Lecturii Grai şi suflet, 1998),57 280. , (Bucureşti: Editura Cartea Românească, 1982), 150. Rusu: Self–Leadership: A Theological Approach

51 Even it is obvious, it is important to ask whether or not is DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435108 biblical to speak about leadership, especially in churches. Does

postmodern society, we may ask if somebody has the right to tell othersGod, through what to the do? Bible This say challenge anything is realabout because leading? “in Also the agein the of pragmatism in the secular world, where the ends justify the means, the temptation is for leadership to prostitute Christian character for Self–Leadership: A Theological Approach the sake of success. Moreover, in a culture that increasingly extols success at any cost and puts down virtues as a worthy goal, leaders Timotei Rusu, PhD may unwittingly pursue the glitter of success and lose the joy of Baptist Theological Institute of Bucharest, Romania serving Christ.”1 To responding to this situation and to answer this [email protected] question is very important for this thesis. Alex D. Montoya presented four biblical guidelines in this regard: ABSTRACT: It is not a secret that the leader is the strategic person in a community. But what is the one secret of a leader that really • make a difference for the society? The thesis of this article is The entire history of God’s dealings with His people is development and to the development of a society. This paper surveys actually God’s involvement with a particular person whom He that the self–leadership is one of the important keys to personal •uses to accomplish His will. When God wanted to accomplish designatedsomething, Heleadership was looking for His for church.a person The to leadapostles His people; were the Paulthe self–leadership in the New Testament. quality of the spiritual leaders, and focuses on The New Testament spells out in clear terms that God has a the particular ingredients of self–leadership as described by Apostle first designated leaders (Matt. 10:1–42; 18:18–20), then the KEY WORDS: self–leadership, character, family, community. elders are overseers of the congregation (Acts 14:23; 20:17; very person should be a leader. Even somebody is not in a •Titus Certain 1:5; Phil. charges 1:1; 1 Tim.addressed 3:1) Leading to individuals is listed among in the the New gifts E Testamentgiven to the indicate church that(Rom. these 12:8; men 1 Cor.were 12:28); to exercise leadership himself. There are so many decisions to be made every single day in the church. Both Paul and Peter gives clear exhortations to andposition so many of targets a leader to beor reachedhold an officeand everyone as leader needs he must wisdom, lead • The church has received special exhortations regarding of every person. elders (1 Tim. 5:17–25; Titus 1:5–9; 1 Pet. 5:1–5); 2 determinationThis is even and more action. so So, for self–leadership visible leaders, is athe must one have who quality have Heb. 13:7, 17, 24.) treatment of church leaders (1 Cor. 16:16, 18; 1 Thess. 5:12–13; In this article we will concentrate on spiritual leaders, as the highest a leader is the one who go before others, show the way, pave 3 responsibility to move others toward a better future. By definition form of leadership, but the principles apply very well to any kind leadership for leaders is so critical. Real leadership, when people the way, lead the way and live the way. For this reason the self– saying:of leader. “Leaders The most are condensednot to be chosen text in at the random, Bible concerningnor just because self– in the life of a leader. leadership is 1 Tim. 3:1–7. David Guzik introduces this passage by follow out of respect, is impossible if the self–leadership is absent they volunteer, nor because they aspire to the position, nor even

50 52 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Rusu: Self–Leadership: A Theological Approach

53 because they are “natural leaders.” Instead they should be chosen Theological Seminary conducted a large nationwide study to explore 4 Here the expectations of congregations and judiciary executives regarding is the biblical text: the role expectations of the pastor in congregations of all sizes. “The primarily on how they match the qualifications listed here.” roles are listed in rank order: personal integrity, preacher, care giver, overseer desires a noble task. Now the overseer is to worshipsurvey discussed leader, sense and ranked of call, twenty–one interpersonal possible skills, ministrypersonal roles. Spiritual The Here is a trustworthy saying: Whoever aspires to be an renewal, wisdom, spiritual guide. . . .”7 This survey makes clear that the controlled, respectable, hospitable, able to teach, not given to drunkenness,be above reproach, not violent faithful but gentle,to his wife,not quarrelsome, temperate, notself– a lover of money. He must manage his own family well and see first expectation for a pastor from many is his character, his integrity, that his children obey him, and he must do so in a manner Even preaching, care giving, and worshiping are ranked higher than worthy of full respect. (If anyone does not know how to manage homiletics,and his spirituality. charity, andA pastor’s music byactivity those is responding a reflection to of this his survey.character. Others think differently. Robert C Anderson, surprised by the not be a recent convert, or he may become conceited and fall manner in which the people enter into ministry, wrote: underhis own the family, same how judgment can he take as the care devil. of God’s He church?)must also He have must a good reputation with outsiders, so that he will not fall into During the course of each school year dozens of inquiries came disgrace and into the devil’s trap. across my desk regarding men who are being considered by

of the person being considered, his personality traits, and either a overseer, bishop, elder, pastor, or a more general term— thechurches. talents . . of. Without his wife. exception, Rarely does each a inquires questionnaire as to the deal abilities with minister.This passage refers to the needed qualification of a spiritual leader, character traits. . . . Although the Bible often states the kind of but what5 he will be. Even this preoccupation was present through things that elder, pastor, or overseer do, nowhere does it specify Most of these qualifications are not about what he will do, the talents we may expect in them. . . . Although they need those qualities to perform their duties, the Bible’s major emphasis is witnessed an increased emphasis upon the spiritual life of the pastor the centuries; the twentieth century of Christian church history has well a person is able to perform a certain function, it focuses to be, followed by to do. In the New Testament, insteadin an entirely on what different kind of direction; a person heinstead is.8 of insisting on how as the main spiritual leader. When Jesus called people to discipleship, andHe first most called important them part is the description of his character. Ministry isespecially not a job, in a the way texts of making where athe living, pastor’s nor rolea profession. is described, These the types first of sentiments have been increasingly stressed in recent literature. possibleIt becomes mistakes clear thatas far the as firstthinking question about is: a minister “Who is isthe concerned: pastor?” “or,reductionism “What kind, theof personcharacteristically is he?” Thomas modern C. Oden misjudgment presented about two determine the characteristic of the pastors who are most crucial to ministry, attempts to reduce the essence of ministry to a human In the 1980s, the Leadership Network conducted a study to social function or the philosophical insight or to moral teaching or to a pastor of a congregation with 1,000+ members was: “The pastor psychological counseling or to political change advocacy. (Failure to mustthe development adhere to private of a vital spiritual congregation. disciplines, The developfirst requirement ‘holy habits,’ for understand divine commission) . . . and triumphalism, a habit more

6 But this expectation is love God with a passion—he or she must live in the Scriptures, itscharacteristic divine origin of andpre–modern eternal purpose.” consciousness. The pastor It loses is nottrack a divineof the pray, love God with fidelity and integrity.” human, finite side of ministry in the interest9 of inordinately stressing not only for pastors at the large churches. In 1989–90, McCormick 54 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Rusu: Self–Leadership: A Theological Approach

55 being, and at the same time, is not a person who decides by himself The Husband of One Wife “he [the pastor] is an ordinary person who knows the Lord Jesus to become a minister. A balanced definition of the pastor could be: The spirit of this text is not saying that a pastor must be married. To

Christ as a personal Savior, has experienced the call of God in his10 even more than just that a pastor should have a monogamous life for full–time Christian service, and knows that he is fit for such marriage.be married Lynn is not Anderson a spiritual noted qualification. that in the God family, is saying the leader’s something true service because he meets certain biblical character qualifications.” In other words, the pastor is a saved, called and qualified person. Above Reproach partcharacter is that comes the husband through. is Being a lover the and husband makes of the one wife wife feel means securely first cherishedof all moral and purity valued. and They fidelity have of athoughts healthy intimateand actions. relationship The positive and This quality is seen as essential by many for a modern pastor. John are happy together. The husband demonstrates by the stability of his marriage that he can keep covenants. Concerning being pure, which the rest are supportive is that he is to be ‘above reproach’. That Robert Anderson said that the pastor “should15 avoid the things that is,MacArthur he must be said: a leader “There, who the cannot single, be accusedoverarching of anything qualification sinful. Allof corrupt the mind and erode conscience. He should be careful not to skill, only amplify that idea.”11 “It is common for employers,” said should he feed the prurient recesses of his mind with pornography.”16 Edwingthe other Louis qualifications, Cole, “to be except impressed perhaps with teaching man of and charisma, management talent, view films or television indiscriminately, and under no circumstances ability, and as a result, commit some aspects of management or love and affection and heart is given to one woman, and that being church life to the man. Then they suffer the chaos and loss from his hisDavid lawful Guzik and is wedded very explicit wife. Thiswhen means he points: that the “The Biblical idea isleader that is unfaithful practice. Faithfulness is the cornerstone of character.”12 sexual interest in other women, including the depictions or images lets us see his concern about the subject and his disappointment ofnot women a playboy, in pornography.” an adulterer,17 a The flirt, idea and of does purity not is show to be romanticheld even or if concerningGardiner Spring, the way in histhis chapter subject “The is received. Personal “There Piety isof noa minister,” topic on a pastor is not married yet, purity not only of the body, but also of which the writer addresses his brethren in the ministry, either young his heart, mind, and eyes. or old, with more reluctance and shamefacedness, than that which is “Managing his own household well” is a big umbrella over here indicated. ...True piety is its own evidence wherever it exists in the activities at home. The pastor has to keep his children under the soul.”13 James Stalker presented that the purpose of a minister in control with dignity. He is to gain the respect of his children. “If an a parish “is not to cultivate scholarship, or to visit the people during elder cannot inspire the love and respect of his adult children, why the week, but it is to live among them as a good man, whose mere should he expect the love and respect of the church?”18 His wife presence is a demonstration which cannot be gainsaid that there is plays an important role in this. They are supposed to be a team a life possible on earth which is fed from no earthly source, and that and work together and be an example of loving discipline. Surely the things spoken of in the church on Sabbath are realities.”14 This the kids are not to be perfect, but they should not be accused of dissipation or rebellion. “Hospitable,” that love of strangers or guests, is the key that hestandard is supposed is very to high, pass but three not tests: too high (1) the with test the at help home, of (2)God. the When test opens the house for others. Spiritual relationship with others inwe the look church, at the andareas (3) in the which test theoutside pastor the should church, work, in the we society. find that deepens best as people are gathered in each other’s homes. This 56 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Rusu: Self–Leadership: A Theological Approach

57 does not mean to have a lack of privacy. Rather, it means to offer an precious goods in life cannot be obtained with money: health, example for the church members to follow. especially in the area of appetites. The key thought here is knowledge, peace, forgiveness, joy…! moderation.“Temperate” No excesses holds the are idea commendable, of being strong even and in self–controlled, his work. nor the“Not accomplishments self–willed” is of a his restriction goals. An oppositeagainst arroganceof this bad traitand “Prudent” has a connotation of sensibility. He will not do certain selfishness. A pastor is not to be concerned about his satisfaction things that will offend others. “He is not loud or rude or boisterous in places and situations where such behavior is not considered is humbleness. To be humble means23 to accept the will of God gladly and to“Self understand controlled” that is the God last is fruitin control. of the Spirit. “A humble This characteristic spirit is the images . . . he is not overly competitive in his activities.” hallmark of the man God uses.” acceptable.“Respectable,” He does not or flaunt of a a good ‘macho’ behavior, image to conveyholds theexaggerated19 idea of umbrella. “The person who by the help of the Holy Spirit can control orderliness of personality, modesty and decorum. There is no room himselfis also very certainly broad. will Many have other no problem qualifications succeeding can instay any under task thatthis for vulgarity of speech, offensive actions, or any indecent dress. 24 “Able to teach” is not necessarily a gift of teaching. Rather, it A pastor is to have a “good reputation with those outside the means to be ‘at home’ in the Bible, and to know how to teach, advise, church.”God had This in mind means for that him he to is do.” to be a good neighbor who demonstrates and correct. It indicates a person who loves the Bible, reads the Bible, memorizes the Bible, and lives the Bible. The pastor should be colleagues? How does he treat people outside the church? The pastor representsthe love of the God church to them. in the How society. is he The known expectations among ofhis people business are also a matter of being pleasant and having a good reputation so that big concerning a spiritual Christian leader. Bob Russell implies the themorally people qualified will love to to teach hear before him or he ask should his opinion be a gifted on a certain speaker. issue. It is fact that purity is not only for the ministry in the church, but outside “Not addicted to wine” is a matter of controlling the appetites, an idea larger than only wine. Lynn Anderson notices than some 25 Christians consider that they have the freedom to drink without whatthe church. a pastor “When should we failbe into liveorder lives to ofstart purity, doing the ministry. world mocks.” If these becoming addicted. “But let us say emphatically that people who are passedAll these successfully, qualifications, there presented is a great chance in the three to have tests, a wonderful describe are obsessed with looking for freedoms, especially those freedoms church with excellent leadership. But what are the functions of the pastor? Even the most spiritual pastor is of no help if he does nothing. 20 They are slaves of their freedom. So, what is a pastor supposed to do? that could jeopardize the call of God, are not people with a heart for In conclusion, we have found that the character of the spiritual theGod!” temper. The leader is not to be easy provoked, and, by no “Not Pugnacious” means to avoid fights and to control “uncontentious.” The pastor is not “to glory in a good argument,”21 leader is the highest priority. He is a person with a calling from God notmeans, to devastate to hurt somebody opponents in with any words.way. Close to this qualification is anand example with a godlyof a faithful character. and lovingAbove fatherreproach and is husband, the main managing and all– “Free from the love of money” is also an issue of control. The hisinclusive own house, characteristic being an ofexample a pastor. of characterHe must be and a spiritualself–leader wisdom, being pastor should control the money, not let the money control him. He and having a good reputation among the people from outside the is earned fairly and honestly.”22 Money are deceitful because they promise“wants no a partsecurity in ‘ill–gotten and happiness gain’. He they makes cannot sure offer. that hisThe money most church. Only in this way, a spiritual leader is a role model for self– leadership, which is so needed in our society today! 58 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES

NOTES 1 Cf. Alex D. Montoya, “Leading,” in MacArthur, Jr. John, et al. Rediscovering DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435111 Pastoral Ministry, Shaping Contemporary Ministry with Biblical Mandates, (Dallas: 2 Montoya, Leading 3 World Publishing, 1995), 286–87. spiritual contexts leaders, 285. can not use any means of urging people to follow or takeWe action. called They spiritual have onlyleadership the power as a ofhighest their formcharacter of leadership, and example. because, People in Orthodox Church–State Relations 4 Cf. https://www.blueletterbible.org/comm/guzik_david/studyguide_1ti/1ti_3. cfmfollow (Last because accessed: they November want, not 10, because 2016) they have to! in the European Context I will use the term “pastor” as the inclusive term for any type of spiritual leaders.5 Marian Gh. Simion, PhD 6 Norman Shawchuch, Leading the Congregation (Abington: Roger Henser, Harvard University Divinity School, USA University of Pretoria, South Africa 7 Shawchuck, 116. [email protected] 1993),8 Robert 115. C. Anderson, The Effective Pastor, A Practical Guide to the Ministry

Thomas C. Oden, Pastoral Theology, Essentials of ministry (San Francisco: ABSTRACT: This paper surveys the historic relationships developed (Chicago: Moody Press, 1985), 3–4. 9 between Church and State in Eastern Europe during the past two 10 Anderson, The Effective Pastor, 4. millennia, and claims that—in light of their path dependence—the Harper11 John & MacArthur,Row Publishers, Jr., Answering 1983), 55. the Key questions about Elders, (Panorama process of the European Union. Based on ecclesiology, spirituality and 12 Edwin Louis Cole, On becoming a real Man (Nashville: Thomas Nelson historicalOrthodox records,Churches national can play Orthodox a positive Churches role within had the been solidification consistent City, CA: Grace to you, 1988), 14. 13 The Power of the Pulpit, Thoughts addressed to Christians the secular political power, but always willing to work it. A hiatus is Publishers, 1992), 86. (Edinburgh: The Banner of Truth Trust, Ministers and those who hear them alsoassets introduced in the public with life; regard never to attempting the ambivalent to eliminate relationship (completely) between Gardiner Spring, and Orthodoxy. 14 James Stalker, “The Preacher and His Models,” in Anderson, The Effective Pastor,1986), 145–47.4 st European Union Lynn Anderson, They Smell like Sheep, Spiritual Leadership for the 21 KEY WORDS: Eastern Europe, Church–State, Third Way, nationalism Century15 16 Anderson, The Effective Pastor, 6. 17 Cf. https://www.blueletterbible.org/comm/guzik_david/studyguide_1ti/1ti_3.(West Monroe, Louisiana: Howard Publishing, 1997), 144–46. ircea Eliade once wrote that “we cannot conceive a European cfm (Last accessed: November 16, 2016) M 18 Anderson, They Smell like Sheep, predestined place of multiple, varied, and complementary creations, Anderson, The Effective Pastor, 7. culture reduced to just its Western forms. . . . Europe is the 1920 Anderson, They Smell like Sheep, 162.149. both spiritual and cultural. Europe is not—nor can it ever be—a 1 21 Anderson, The Effective Pastor, 12. monolith.” 22 Anderson, They Smell like Sheep, 161. a dream that haunted generations of nations that lived on the 23 LeRoy Eims, Be the Leader you were meant to be, Biblical Principles for With these words in mind, Europe’s unification was leadership sword, through empires and states trumping religious, ethnic and 24 Anderson, The Effective Pastor, Bob Russell (Wheaton, When IL: God Victor builds Books a Church, Publishing, 10 principles 1975), 31.for Growing a Dynamic culturalEuropean identities, continent. or byThis peaceful “unification” methods, was such often as todayattempted with theby Church25 19. unionist model of the European Union. Published initially under

(West Monroe, Louisiana: Howard Books, 2000), 76. 59 60 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Simion: Orthodox Church–State Relations in the European Context 61

its previous record, the post-totalitarian state became a bon 2 this paper surveys enfant. The ex- communists started handling the catechism the title,historic “Beyond relationships Huntington’s developed Gate: Orthodox between Social Church Thinking and State for swiftly, the television comforted us with ‘pious’ documentaries, ina Borderless Eastern Europe Europe during Preliminary the past Reflections,” two millennia, and then claims and the public life became heavily loaded with ‘worshipful’ that—in light of their path dependence—the Orthodox Churches personalities always present at religious festivals, albeit their visible non-Christian behavior.4

European Union. Based on ecclesiology, spirituality and historical Teodor Baconsky’s determinism caricatures the behavior of the state can only play a positive within the solidification process of the records, the Orthodox Churches had been consistent assets into as purely oppressive and Machiavellian, while somewhat overstating 3 public life, never claiming to replace, but always willing to work Church’s vulnerability to political manipulations. Should this have with the secular authorities. been the case, one could have noticed it in the polls conducted in Romania to measure the trust level in public institutions where the Church ranks consistently higher than the State. Following Church–State in Eastern Christianity the collapse of Communism, the numbers recorded by polling institutions such as The Gallup Poll indicate that the Romanian In Eastern Europe, since the creation of the nation states—a nineteen Orthodox Church has consistently enjoyed the top level of trust, century project designed to defeat the —the followed by the National Army and Mass Media. Orthodox Churches have never experienced secularism in the way 5 that the Anglo-Saxons did, merely as an ‘armistice’ between Church the State nor the Church accepted the Anglo-Saxon version of and State based on mutual non-involvement. This is because the secularism,It is for regardless these reasons of the character of mutual of influencethe incumbent that politicalneither East-Europeans have never been divided by religion in the way regime. The Church never ceased seeing itself as a moral warrant that the Anglo-Saxons were, for the Anglo-Saxon model to become and as the defender of the weak, particularly because the Orthodox Church has always been a Volkskirche, or the people’s Church.6 seventy to ninety-nine percent of the population, the state was married priests usually assigned in their home village, the Church merelya necessity. interested With the in Orthodoxcontrolling, Church befriending, representing and even anywhere oppressing from often functioned outside its institutional framework—more With like the Church rather than in separating itself from it. In the words of Teodor Baconsky, a Romanian theologian turned statesman, the nearby monasteries. nation state feared the Church to the point that it systematically a spiritual movement, occasionally influenced by elders living in mistreated and humiliated the Church, never offering an apology for its crimes. As Baconsky writes, Historical Perspective on Orthodox Church-State Relations7

murders it has committed, and thrilled by its alleged mysticism, theWearing modern a republican state offers—on hat, burdened matters with theof memoryreligion—the of the centuries,The decisive when factors the Church which determinedinteracted with the the nature State of on Church–State positive and gloomiest alternatives. It either visibly persecutes the Church relations in the history of Christianity emerged during the first three (as Communism did recently), or it entrenches the Church negative grounds, which were both religious and secular in nature. into political partisanship and manipulates it for electoral The positive religious factors were related to the Church’s purpose, transforming the Body of Christ into a resonance ability to promote an innovative social doctrine that worked across box, and into a docile voting machine. . . . Compared with the social strata, fostering an ethical equalitarianism, and bringing 62 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Simion: Orthodox Church–State Relations in the European Context 63

The negative secular factors emerged from the strong sense religions, Christianity brought the promise of an imperial cohesion, of equalitarianism promoted by Christianity which altered the stronglya superior desired juridical by the thinking. Romans. Superior The positive to all secular existing factors Greco–Roman included established class relations between slaves and their owners the sanctioning of state sovereignty by the Church as legitimate (threatening monopoly over property and workforce), ethnic groups and divinely ordained (“Render to Caesar what belongs to Caesar (threatening the citizenry status), and spouses (social order)—all posing a real threat to the social establishments of the Roman State. Secondly, Christianity were usually labeled as a “Jewish sect” meaning ofand Christianity. to God what Third, belongs the state to God.” started Matthew promoting 22:21). a lay Second, culture the in a religious force that had access to masses, and a presumptive ally oppositionstate redefined to the its religious social structures culture promoted in contrast by thewith Church. the precepts The negative religious factors emerged from a clash between Claudiu ordered the expulsion of all the Jews from Rome for reasons of publicthe enemies disorder of andthe thisRoman included State. Christians During A.D.55–56, of Jewish originsEmperor as First, paganism served as a symbiosis between the Roman State well. Furthermore, less than 10 years after the Jewish revolt from Christianity and Greco-Roman pagan religions. Palestine, Emperor Nero ordered the bloodiest persecution against itself with, and eventually served as an element of accusation against the Christians on similar accounts of anti-Jewish suspicion.10 theauthorities Christians, and aspolytheism these were to oftenthe extent regarded that asthe offenders State identified of the emperor’s public image and authority. In this case the State saw itself forced to defend paganism and punish Christianity. 1. The Roman–Byzantine Era Second, the pagan religions felt threatened by Christianity because their civic privileges decreased with the loss of membership into the Christian faith. Consequently, false accusations were often imperial attempts to befriend the Church was a rather unsuccessful the easiest weapon against the Christians. Following severe persecution against the Christians, one of the first Third, the initial close relations between the Christian and the all the laws incriminating the Christians. As Eusebius of Caesarea Jewish communities from the led to negative relations writesedict endorsed in De Vita by Constantini Emperor in A.D.311, which abolished with the Romans. As the initial Christian missionary activities targeted the Jewish communities, the Jews were often troubled that “Christians are allowed to, “Galerius,exist again,” in andterror that of the death, Christians, issued emotionally and ready to denounce the Christians to the Roman “willthe famous be able edict to hold of toleration.” from now on—freely—allEmperor Galeriu’s their edict conventicula declared authorities. Most of the early Christian passion narratives, such as Martyrdom would not disturb public order, and do not break the State laws.” of the Holy Polycarp8 depict the Jews ready to denounce and even In(gatherings); exchange for to thisbuild privilege, churches the only Christians under the were condition required that to praythey the martyrdom of Saint Stephen (Acts 6:8–8:3) and the attitude of some millennial Christians led to disobedience towards State, as well as their own prosperity.11 thepersecute Roman the authorities. Christians. Just Fourthly, to paraphrase the anarchical Professor and quasi–nihilist Floca, in the to theirTwo God years for the later, health a more of the successful Emperor, edict for the issued prosperity this time of the by expectation of Christ’s Second Coming, numerous early Christians Constantine and granted the Christians with the right to exist and the recognition of their religion. Yet, this edict received disequilibrium, as they often displayed attitudes of rejection towards strong opposition and was never implemented throughout the socialwere “filled establishments, with a religious civic zealauthority which and pushed public them order.” into emotional Roman Empire. 9 64 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Simion: Orthodox Church–State Relations in the European Context

65 It was only two years later in A.D.313 through the Edict of all the canons and dogmatic decisions of the Ecumenical Councils Milan granted by Constantine and Licinius that Christianity became were already turned into public law, Emperor Marcian took a step a religion equal to all other religions within the Roman Empire. further by declaring that the laws of the Church supersede the laws The reasons invoked by Constantine and Licinius were those of of the State, wherever a dispute might arise between the interests public security.12 of the Church and those of the State. Emperor Constantine transformed the Christian Church into a represents one of the most excruciating phases in the development despite his retaining the religious title of Pontifex Maximus until his of Church-StateThe epoch of relations—a the Byzantine partnership Emperor Justinian emphatically I (A.D.527–565) known deathbed,dominant religiouswhen he waspower baptized even in Christian. relation to Admired the official for his Roman wisdom, cult as symphonia, or the harmonious power sharing between the Emperor Constantine was proclaimed sanctus by the Christians and patriarch and the emperor. As the emperor becomes the civil ruler divinus by the pagans.13 As a result, the Church not only became of the Church, all the bishops become state dignitaries. As direct a public institution, but the concept of freedom of religion14 was representatives of the emperor the bishops were further invested with authority beyond that of public judges inherited insofar. warrantor of it. The succeeding barbaric invasions fostered a closer relationshipinaugurated forbetween the first the time, Church with and the theState State—particularly as a neutral superseding in the East—ensuring their mutual collaboration on issues of dogmatic strengtheningEmperor Justinian the unity called of the the Fifth Church. Ecumenical Furthermore, Council he inrequested A.D.553 unity and imperial defense. thatnot only all futurefor doctrinal bishops clarifications, be highly erudite. but more A ratherfor the illustrativepurpose of The emperors usually called for ecumenical councils to ensure observation of Emperor Justinian’s involvement in Church affairs that the Church preserved its dogmatic unity, while their theological is offered by Professor Floca, when he writes that, decisions were enforced through public law. If under Emperor Constantine the Church becomes one of the state religions, in A.D.380 “by renewing strategic confessions of Christian faith either through State laws and regular legislation, or through the should be the only State religion. Starting with the second ecumenical forewords and the introductions to his collections of laws council,Emperor every Theodosius dogmatic I decision(A.D.379–395) became decreed State law that and Christianity the Church (Codex and Novele), by adding other confessions through which the content of Nicaeo-Constantinopolitan the Symbol of Faith is turned into the main political ally of the Roman Empire. As a political four ecumenical councils as equal to the Scripture, Emperor State’s power internally, but also to cautiously sanction the State’s Justinianreproduced, appears and by in declaring the posture all dogmatic of a Pontifex decisions Maximus of the of first the policiespartner, theof defense Church againstused its theinfluence barbaric not invasions, only to consolidate which began the Church.” during the second half of the fourth century. In return, the State 15 defended the Church against the pagans and heretics through the The most notable piece of legislation inherited from Emperor nomocanons and novelas, whereby the State rather than the Church Justinian are the nomocanons, which are mixed collections of Church was the one to enforce dogmatic orthodoxy. In A.D.418, Emperor canons and State laws concerning ecclesiastic affairs. elaborated Codex Theodosianus which included all the canons and dogmaticTheodosius decisions II (A.D.408–449), from all Ecumenical also known Councils.as “Theodosius the Young,” the PersianUnder andthe Byzantinethe Arab attacks, Emperor yet Heraclius political jealousy(A.D.610–638) led to the relationship between Church and State intensified as a result of inaugurated a new phase on Church-State relations. If by this time its peak as a political power, its authority started diminishing. The The Byzantine Emperor Flavius Marcian (A.D.450–457) first attempts for power separation. Despite the Church reaching 66 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Simion: Orthodox Church–State Relations in the European Context 67 superseding authority of the Church laws inherited since Emperor Nevertheless, with the nationalist movement in South Eastern Marcian found its decline with the iconoclastic crisis. This crisis put the Byzantine State not only in a posture of hostility towards control, but also its political authority in South-Eastern Europe as the Church, but the Church was simply persecuted by the State. Europe, the Ecumenical Patriarchate started losing not only its fiscal This crisis was resolved only under Ecumenical Patriarch Photius establishedsome prominent their nations, own autocephalous such as the Greeks churches, (1833), even the patriarchates Romanians (1865) and the Albanians (1922–1928–1937), broke away and vanished(835–867; under 877–886). the Ottomans. Yet, the legislation that was favorable to the of Constantinople of 1872 that incriminated nationalism (a.k.a. Church stayed in force until 1453, when the Byzantine Empire ethnophyletismas in the Romanian case. The “Resolution” of the Great Local Synod remained unsuccessful. 2. The Post–Byzantine Era Religious orpluralism, love for one’s imposed kin) as by sinful the andsecularist conflict-generating movement that came along with nationalism, opened new venues for western missionary activities to be conducted in South-Eastern Europe not only spontaneously by the Protestant churches, but more guaranteedWith the collapse inferiority of the16 and Byzantine captivity Empire.17 In light under of viewing the Ottomans authority in systematically by the Roman through Concordats as1453, divinely the new ordained, rulers did the not Church eliminate accepted the Church, the Islamic but offered rule as a or ‘international’ agreements signed between the Vatican and the legitimate, offering its obedience. new nation States. Although the Orthodox Church lost numerous assets, it recognized the right of the sultan to invest the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, and it retained its key positions inherited from the Towards a Theory of Adaptability18 Byzantines, such as the recognition of bishops as State dignitaries with authority over the Christians only. During the Ottomans, all There is a general consensus amongst the Orthodox ethicists that the Slavic states along with the Romanian principalities inherited the that of an ephemeral, worldly authority. For instance, the standard (or the Czar) was given the honor of a Byzantine Emperor, while textbookOrthodox Churchon orthodox does not ethics have aused clear in definition the Romanian of the State, theological beyond theByzantine Metropolitan Church–State received model that ofof apolitical Patriarch’s. relations. The bi-cephalous The Prince schools with the endorsement of the Holy Synod of the Romanian Byzantine model was implemented in the feudal states with no Orthodox Church states that, hesitation, whereby bishops and abbots were respected as state dignitaries and feudal seniors. All political issues were discussed “According to the ethos of our Church, the Christian Ethics in councils that included both political rulers and religious leaders, is concerned with the State only within the framework of the State’s mission as a ‘political and juridical unit of human with the Metropolitan as an honorary president. The main Byzantine society on a limited territory.’ Therefore, the Church does not legislation inherited by the feudal states included the typical have its own concept of State, which would be imposed into Basilicals and nomocanons. the consciousness of the faithful. According to our teachings, The sultans assumed the privileges that rested with the it is the authority of the State itself and not of a particular Byzantine emperors as heads of the State, and recognized the political system or doctrine that has divine origins. ‘Let every Ecumenical Patriarch not only as a religious leader of the Christians, soul be subject to the governing authority. For there is no but also as their political leader, or ethnarch.

authority except from God, and the authorities that exist are 68 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Simion: Orthodox Church–State Relations in the European Context

69 of just war21 for the purpose of defending its community externally State—whose organic basis is given by the people living on (against the barbarians) and internally (against the lawbreakers). appointed by God.’ (Romans 13:1)” The Church regards the with the mission of defending and promoting the common became sociologically vulnerable to a culture of “a high level of group a specific territory—as a ‘moral and organic unit’ entrusted good, through laws and policies, which are the general social solidarityLater, with and the “Germanizationa warrior aristocracy,” of Christianity,”22 which ledthe Westernto the Crusades Church premises necessary for progress.” 19 and the turmoil which erupted into the Protestant movement and religious nationalism. This is because in its history, the Orthodox Church has been subject The Eastern Church disposed of its responsibilities with the to a variety of governing systems which manifested completely policing and defending the community because it never faced a different attitudes toward the Church, ranging from persecution to vacuum of imperial power. Unlike with Alaric the Visigoth, Mehmet power sharing. Therefore, one can only have a clear perception of II the Conqueror had a far more sophisticated understanding of the relationship between Church and State in a historical context, Christianity, as Islam saw itself as an Abrahamic faith, sharing limited rather than limited to a particular period of time. The later approach can only lead to reductionism and confusion, as one expert in the was completely meaningless to Alaric, for Mehmet II the Conqueror, Jesusaffinities was with the lastChristianity. greatest prophetIn other beforewords, Muhammad. while the name of Jesus field puts it, Looking comprehensively into the relationships between contemplates over two main sources of authority, the Emperor Church and State in the history of Eastern Christianity, one can easily andWhenever the Patriarch one speaks of Constantinople, of Byzantium, or the one Empire instinctively and the agree that this relationship was always a moving target. Emerging Church. This relationship representing the two sources of from the concept of hypostatic union, whereby Jesus Christ was power, the profane and the spiritual, is usually reduced to one recognized as fully divine and fully human, the Eastern Church single pejorative term: caesaropapism. This term is as obsolete divine and human institution. In practical terms, in the history of statehood ideas as the term theocracy itself.20 this meant that when the human aspect of the Church was under severedefined jeopardy itself as a(anti-Christian persecutions under the Romans, Ottomans and Communism), the divine aspect of the Church (the Visigoths left a Church immature and vulnerable to embracing claimsWhile infor the political West, governance, the destruction in the of East, Rome the in Church A.D.410 faced by thisthe political vacuum only a thousand years later when the Byzantine TriumphantIn other Church), words, wasthe ableOrthodox to thrust clergy sufficient never sensegoverned of spiritual in the publictriumph life into in theterms hearts of policing of its flock. and defending the community due Church already had a compelling record on how to handle political to inherent theological constraints imposed by the nature of the Empire fell under the Ottomans in 1453. By that time the Eastern power and accepted the Ottomans as a legitimate authority, yet only Eastern Church. Besides, under conditions of persecution, the divine within the constraints of Paul’s endorsement of political obedience. nature of the Church turned this institution into a timeless moral (Romans 13:1) force which transformed a martyr into a saint. Following the destruction of Rome by the Visigoths, the Based on these preconditions, the relationship between expense of its spirituality, while Augustine’s Civitate Dei ceased being theological constraints. According to an Orthodox canon lawyer, “in viewedWestern in Church its eschatological took upon dimension. itself the Induty the absenceof governance of an imperial at the Church and State developed on the ground of specific historical and people, and the people live under the conditions of time.”23 Conditions order to fulfill its mission, the Church performs its work through power, the Western Church had no option but to adopt the concept 70 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Simion: Orthodox Church–State Relations in the European Context 71 of time imply the existence of cross-pressures and regulations in the way that they legitimized the existence of Lutheran and imposed by the world in which the members of the Church live. In Calvinist States, they have crystallized a political distribution of power between France, Sweden and Netherlands and somewhat authorities, and yet make their decisions on the principles of the 24 and they led to the this context Christians must find ways to remain obedient to their emergence of nationalism as a political ideology. Regardless of the guaranteed obedience that the Christians GermanyNationalist (split intoideology several proceeded small States), to the invention of tradition, offeredGospel, sinceto the none state, can the serve Church two was masters. treated (Matthew more or 6:24) less friendly, and to the creation of the myth of common descent.26 Furthermore,25 nationalism shifted the notion of sacredness from a universal This “moving target” type of relationship is best described by a language () to indigenous languages which became sacred proverbialas its loyalty expression resided with recorded the principles by a medieval of the Moldavian Gospel. chronicler, in their own respect, and endorsed a sense of group superiority 27 Miron Costin, who rhetorically wondered whether people live under the Age, or the Age under the will of the people. As implied engineered the secularist movement which led not only to a by this expression, the members of the Church dangled between separationthat solidified between the idea the of Church a nation and state. the State, The Peacebut to ofa declarationWestphalia imposing their moral will within the state—when conditions were of war against organized religion itself. By removing organized permissible—and being subjected to State oppression whenever their religious beliefs posed threat or discomfort to state policies. created an existential vacuum of meaning and loyalty that was religion from the political epicenter, West European secularism The great success of the strategy of adaptability consists in the fact the dualist model of ‘insider versus outsider,’ or ‘us versus them.’ that it ensured the survival of the Church, as it neither antagonized Europe’sfilled by the fragmentation ideologies of was nationalism further ignited and patriotism, by the concept both builtof state on the political power, whenever it proved completely hostile to the Church, nor accepted to be instrumentalized, whenever the political pietism, as power proved friendly. This is because, while the Church endorses sovereignty which justified the concentration of power internally. and legitimizes the State as divinely ordained authority, it does not PietismThis process as a Factor was hastened in the Rise by of the German effects Nationalism of the German. pledge its loyalty to it. This is the reason why, the Church neither detailed by Koppel S. Pinson in his highly documented 1934 book, revolutionized against the State, nor obeyed it whenever the State “Pietism,” says Pinson, “brought into the eighteen century

hitherto lacking. This provided the emotional basis for demanded something contrary to the Gospel. subsequentGermany an nationalism. emotionalism In andaddition, enthusiasm Pietism which introduced were Leadership between Religion and Secularism and diffused the concepts of individuality and of multiplicity and variety, which provided the doctrine of nationalism with During the past four centuries, the model of statehood proposed by a philosophic basis. Pietism, therefore, in appealing to the lower classes gave them the greater feeling of self-respect and prestige and thus helped to cement the widely separated Hugo Grotius (1583–1645) was mainly an armistice meant to end doctrine and political loyalty which emerged from cuius region, involved, in turn, a more intensive cultivation of the language eiussectarian religio violence in Western Europe over the issues of Christian classes into a unified whole. The appeal to the lower classes 1648 that this model found practical applicability with the signing and the aristocratic French, a more concentrated effort at (“Whose rule, his religion”) disputes. It was only in publicof the lower education classes, and German, an increased as opposed concern to with the sociallearned welfare Latin Osnabruck. These treaties contributed to Europe’s fragmentation and philanthropy.”28 of the Peace treaties in the Westphalian towns of Munster and 72 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Simion: Orthodox Church–State Relations in the European Context 73

Consequently, the leaders of the state became accountable only states”—as the EU attempts to become—one should undoubtedly to their own citizenry when they acted internationally, rather legitimize a grassroots type of globalization “from below” rather than to universal moral norms imposed by religious ethics. than a globalization “from above” dictated by corporate interests.32 The main consequence of the war against organized religion was29 but more so for economic reasons. The economic challenges words, the state replicated the Augustinian version of God’s City Globalization is very complicated not only for cultural reasons, whichthe state’s found claim expression to fulfill in the the duties Church’s towards assumed the public.responsibilities In other emphasizes that the integrative process of globalization affects towards the public such as social justice, policing and defense. theimposed world by as globalization whole, not just are particular best identified states by or Richard unions Falkof states. who In the absence of religious ethics, secularist ideologies argued Second, in Falk’s view, globalization is often associated with the over the distribution of wealth, leading to totalitarian extremes such as (corporate control of wealth), and Communism territorial control of governments. Third, the private sector has (proletarian control of wealth.) Sobbing over these historical becomerise of financial increasingly trade transnational, and markets whichdiminishing are not the subjected importance to the of realities, a Romanian theologian wrote recently that territorial boundaries. Fourth, international institutions such as the United Nations are anachronistic with contemporary realities, All these years, our continent was haunted by the destructive because the UN was designed when states had full control over gamut of totalitarian ideologies and utopias, which were based on race-hating (Nazism) and class-hating (Communism). By along with the global civil society has no right of participation or illegitimately mixing theology with politics in a sui generis representationtrade and financial within markets. the UN. Fifth,33 the transnational private sector fusion of a ‘secularized’ religion and a ‘religious’ politics, these On the other hand, globalization is a thorny phenomenon utopias represented ‘perverse imitations’ of Judaism in Nazism because of its potential in creating cultural and religious mutations. 30 and of Christianity in Communism. These mutations might damage the stability of societies whose

In the words of a prominent Orthodox theologian, Ioan Ic Europe one should look into revitalizing the Kantian universalistic outlook on life is grounded in values now trumped by fiscal interests. model,Currently, with the rapid diminishing of the Christian Grotian statistuniversalism— model in not apart from, but in alliance with “The destiny of cultural traditions and religions in a globală, Jr., world is symptomatic. Folk traditions are turned either into solidify Europe’s new identity. In the absence of Christianity, the themes for ethnocentric essayistic speculations, or into folklore EU“there might is becomeneither subjectedJew nor Greek” to a limited (Galatians vision and3:28) to —whicha guaranteed will and objects of ethnography. Folk traditions become products failure because the current loyalty to a dogmatic secularism fails to for entertainment, being degraded into artisan manifestations, build durable coalitions. folkloric tourism, or into a type of entertainment aimed to the As the Kantian model encourages a more cosmopolitan outlook, private consume of a community that sees itself as a warrant stressing trans-national solidarity (jus cosmopoliticum 31 one has for historical consensus. Religions, on the other hand, either yet to wrestle with questions of procedure imposed by the current replicate themselves in a collectivist fashion based on identity ); of fundamentalist fashion—case in which they are ready and extreme, superseding, and anti–modernist movements hasfiscal chances expression to succeed of globalization. once it manages One can tomake denounce the case the that corporate with the to display a radical, exclusivist and polemic character— or they melt into a diffuse individual religiosity which is ideologycollapse of which communism, currently even dominates the fiscal internationalexpression of globalizationtrade. Or, in eclectic, relativistic, anonymous and syncretistic, as well as the words of Richard Falk, in creating “regional compassionate institutionally and politically disengaged.”34 74 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Simion: Orthodox Church–State Relations in the European Context

75

The Third Way enable persons to come together in ways that can be vividly experienced.“When communities The bonds are smallof communal or of intermediate solidarity formedsize, they in In the new political theories of Europe, the alternative to Richard them enable the persons to act together, empowering them Falk’s proposal for a “compassionate state” based on social to shape some of the contours of public life and its larger social institutions such as the state and the economy. In a democracy is often referred to as The Third Way. This concept democratic society, the government does not rule but rather is often credited to the EU’s Founding Fathers, such as Alcide de serves the social ‘body’ animated by the activity of these intermediate communities.”37

DemocratGasperi, Konrad political Adenauer, philosophers. Robert Shuman, Jean Monet, and Denis Built on the principle of non-trust, a Subsidiary State is designed de Rougemont who are currently the most influential Christian to be decentralized precisely to diminish the natural tendency of which mediates between the left–wing politics, based on democratic power gravitation towards central monopoly. In other words, as the socialismThe, andThird right–wing Way is a politics, political based concept on laissez–faire of social democracy capitalism. Romanian Orthodox ethicist, Ioan I. Ic , puts it,

“The Subsidiary-State is designed toă, Jr.protect both the state ‘freedomAccording asto Anthonyautonomy,’ Giddens ‘no rights of the Londonwithout School responsibility,’ of Economics, ‘no against abusive individuals, or groups of individuals, as well The Third Way values ‘equality,’ ‘protection of the vulnerable,’ as to protect the civil society and its groups against the abuse authority without democracy,’ ‘cosmopolitan pluralism’ and of the State.”38 ‘philosophic .’ Despite a visible appeal to religion displayed by the EU’s Founding

“should be to help citizens pilot their way through the major against religion as the text refused to acknowledge Europe’s revolutions“The overall aimof our of third time: way globalization, politics,” says transformations Anthony Giddens, in religiousFathers, the past. first Loyal draft to of a dogmaticthe EU Constitution secularism, continued the EU still the refuses battle personal life and our relationship to nature. Third way politics should take a positive attitude towards globalization—but, crucially, only as a phenomenon ranging much more widely historic resentments against the Vatican. Furthermore, with the than the global marketplace. Social democrats need to contest inclusionthe obvious, of Romania thus placing and Bulgariathe EU on into the the grounds EU, two ofmore Anglo–Saxon Orthodox economic and cultural protectionism, the territory of the far right, which sees globalization as a threat to national integrity debate that seeks to recognize Europe’s religious values. Obsessed and traditional values.” Churches bring their political influence and rhetoric on a public 35 It is often contended that this political concept originated from accustomedwith the remembrance to the East of European the Thirty religious Years Wars experience and with in anti-Vatican the public the Subsidiary Principle of the Catholic social doctrine in symbiosis life,resentments, nor do they West care European learning about secularist it. ideologues are neither with Communitarian Personalism.36 This Subsidiary Principle argues that between the state and the citizen there should be a multitude of A United States of Europe: A Two–Factor Proposal intermediary and autonomous groups working towards the common good. Or, in the explanation of a Catholic ethicist, David Hollenbach, S.J.,

responseThis question to a proposal was pluckily of appeasement raised by one made39 of bythe the most Archbishop influential of Orthodox theologians, Dumitru Stăniloae during World War II in 76 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Simion: Orthodox Church–State Relations in the European Context 77

York.40 “It would be both a naiveté and a grave danger to create an for purpose of cost, it should be in the interest of smaller states to organization not on the basis of what the people are now, but In Stăniloae’s reading, the Archbishop of York suggested that, on the basis of one’s dreams and imagination. Soon, reality will this idea as in complete agreement with Christianity’s universalism, take revenge and will sweep you away altogether with your 44 Stsecureniloae their seemed survival particularly by joining the concerned larger ones. with While the commending question of organization, bringing also great disappointment.”

ă procedure. Just like Max Weber, who claimed41 that an organization prophetic vision and institution building, St recommended If Dumitru Stăniloae’s contention was anticipatory (as he wrote this could not be stable unless it benefited from the two factors such as represented but the epitome of his argument. that the only way in which a United Europe could be accomplished, in 1939), the French vote on the EU Constitution of the early 2005 ăniloae ideological fundament. is for the institution building efforts to adopt the Gospel as an Engaging the Church “In order to achieve the United States of Europe it is necessary It is often argued that in order for the EU to secure its political stability, it has to recognize Europe’s Christian values. Yet, these ato recent first of experience all Christianize that throughthe souls,” simple wrote paragraphs Dumitru Stăniloae. from the values need to be recognized not only by the EU as a secular statutes,“Within the or throughframework brotherhoods of the League established of Nations, on Europeideas other has institution, but also by all Christian churches through an inter- than Christian, one can not achieve durable peace and unity confessional dialogue conducted in a manner that will avoid sectarian exclusivism. This process can receive substantial guidance displays its power through the behavior of groups, which amongst Europe’s people. The demon of human selfishness is exaggerated and deviated. Subjected to a strong human Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew II denunciating ethnophyletism asfrom a politicalthe dynamics ideology of the that existing contradicts ecumenical Orthodoxy’s movement. universalism With the exclusivist imperialist passion and desire to submit other selfishness and pride, the national sentiment turns into an States of Europe, unless the few strong nations would clash prove stable allies in EU’s institution building endeavors. In a long withsmaller one nations. another Whoin their can endeavor guarantee towards that withinsupremacy, the United would term,and is the often Orthodox conducive Churches of conflicts, not only the will Orthodox assist in Churches breaking downcould guarantee the inherent rights of smaller nations, would cease

42 ethnocentric selfishness, but they will unavoidably help redirecting to bring them under their sphere of influence, and would the ethnic creations and values to the benefit of all. A similarprevent two any factor attempt proposal towards selfwas affirmation?” later suggested by Samuel Cultural Dialogue P. Huntington43 international development should be based both on ideologies of social change along during with the institution late 1960s, building who .recommended Dumitru St niloae that contended that for the “United States of Europe” to ever become a countries,”In the mid–1990s, made Professor a few provocative Tomáš Špidlík observations of the Pontifical in reference Institute toin stable institution it needed a prophetic vision anchored on Europe’să Rome, in a lecture45 entitled, “The difficulties of democracy in the Slavic basic religious identity which is Christian. tocultural a certain disparities extent, betweenseem to bethe common Slavs and throughout the Anglo–Saxons. Eastern Sworn Europe. to paint an assertive contrast, most of the patterns identified by Špidlík, 78 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Simion: Orthodox Church–State Relations in the European Context

79 These patterns include the government’s personalism, government’s excessive sensibility to criticism, inseparability of truth from the person claiming it, fidelity towards person, analytical or synthetic truth, truth As Špidlík’s comments raise questions of dialogue between as life, sacredness of the word, and the mentality of compromise. Eastern and Western Europe, one should note that criticism, even Speaking of government’s personalism withinif constructive—is contradicting a challenges, dynamic offor personal an East European, sensibilities. accepting While a invokes Homiakov’s story of the mother who despite severe poverty solutionit might thatbe easier one disagrees for an Anglo–Saxon with, is usually in regardedfinding compromises as a personal is yet organized well enough to provide for her, Professorchildren and Špidlík even loss often accompanied by an emotional display.48 build a church with her savings. This same image of dependency detachment during the decision-making process is a status quo in towards a caring authority is transposed into the Slavophil’s dream of While personal a batiuşka czar (daddy ruler), a mentality which, during communism, any sphere of social activity. eliminated any consciousness of personal responsibility towards the Western Europe, for an East European,49 personal relations dominate common good. Concerning the government’s excessive sensibility to criticism Conclusion

“They, Špidlík say that writes for an that,American, criticizing and scrutinizing the Therefore, in the context of the EU’s institution building process, it government is not just a privilege, but a duty of the free citizen. is highly unlikely that the Eastern Churches will ever seek political . . . On the contrary, in the Slavic Orthodox countries, criticizing power as to govern in the public life. Yet, it is very likely that the Eastern Churches will not ignore public policies that contradict the into the open of mistakes and inabilities of politicians is often perceivedthe Government as a surgical often intervention creates confusion, that lacks while an anesthesia.” the bringing46 electoral venues. As the Church is here to stay, the EU leaders need basic precepts of the Gospel and will manifest their influence through Nevertheless, the social attitudes towards people and values to be open and engage the Eastern Churches as partners rather that emerge from cultural observations should be less regarded than rivals. The contribution that the Orthodox Churches could make for mutual cultural self-knowledge. Despite the highly acclaimed towards the EU’s institution building efforts can hardly be as obstacles between East and West, and more as opportunities underestimated. Despite its record of occasional endorsement reveals new depths of individualism, particularly on issues of of a primordialist nationalism, Orthodoxy offers an inherent western individualism, the eastern fidelity towards a public person sanctioning, and universalizing the most exquisite national creations. leadership.“Democracy As Professor presupposes Špidlík a continuous writes, recycling of leaders. Apartcounterbalance from bringing to anationalist new attitude conflicts towards by life carefully and values, selecting, Eastern Those who today get into positions of maxim responsibility, tomorrow they fall and turn into simple citizen. And, they have patriotism towards the larger European family, while reconciling to accept this course of events with a smile of the face. The politicalChristianity partisanships, seems sufficiently serving preparedas a moral to warrant redirect in the interpreting feelings of Slavic Orthodox reaction to such changes is usually referred to through comments such as: ‘Poor him, yesterday he was private entrepreneurship in light of the Parable of the Talents law and justice, and promoting world peace. While safeguarding abuses which are conducive of political extremism and violence. famous, but today . . . just look at him!’ An Englishman47 hearing (Matthew 25:14–30), the Church can also temper political and fiscal such sobbing from a Slav had furiously replied: ‘Why poor him! He did his job, the hell with him! Who cares!” 80 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Simion: Orthodox Church–State Relations in the European Context 81

Eastern Christianity could make not only towards building a Blessed are the terrible and unmerciful, for they shall fear borderless Europe but also a borderless world cannot be ignored nobody. Blessed are those who laugh and are happy, for they need civilizations have the inherent capacity to generate complex zones nothing else. ofor dialoguetreated superficially. which often engenderHistory demonstrates the most exquisite that cultures blending and of Blessed are the bold ones, for they shall be remembered. Blessed are , for they shall be called the sons cultural and civilizational establishments. Huntington’s contentious those sowing wind of the tempest. in Europe, alleged to separate Transylvania from the rest fault line Blessed are the sneaky for they shall hear many secrets. Blessed will you be when they shall worship and glorify you, Huntington’s lack of familiarity with the existing cultural blending of lying for you, for you already received your reward here on anof Romania, indigenous not form only of proved Latin Orthodoxy an ideological fiasco, but demonstrated now, and tomorrow you will be forgotten. of this cultural and spiritual mix dominant in Transylvania, Dumitru Wealth, the supreme ideal of the man obsessed to pull from life St heralds the strong potential. Writingfor cultural from fusions the perspective between as much and intense earthly joy as possible, during the short time given to the man for this illusion. ăniloae commends the Transylvanian Power is the means towards achieving wealth. mixcultures as a andunique spiritualities. experience Apart with froman unchallenged the Greek, Slavic potential. and Middle As the Shrewdness, aggressiveness, false accusation, meanness, self- RomaniansEastern spiritual lived influences,at the buffer St zoneăniloae of history, situated between the appraisal, are all tools which make you gain the power and keep it. Once you have gained it this will Ottomans, Russians and Austro-Hungarians, they became a unique make up the essential values of the modern moral code, even when your hypocrisy nation in understanding how to bridge cultures and spiritualities

52 related to cultural communication. will present all of these as benefic. between East and West, and how to offer criticism on strategies NOTES “If we will abandon our Orthodox tradition, not only will we 1 , The Fate of Romanian Culture, cease to be a , but we living bridge between East and West 2 This paper was initially published under the title, “Beyond Huntington’s will also lose our innate trait of being a unique synthesis București: Athena Press, 1996. of spirituality. . . . In our spirituality we combined the Latin in a festschrift titled, Antioch Agenda: Essays on the Restorative Church in Honor ofGate: Orlando Orthodox E. Costas, Social Thinking for a Borderless Europe Preliminary Reflections,”

lucidity, or the confidence in a rational apprehension of the real, expression was used symbolicallyedited by Daniel in relation Jeyaraj, to Robert Orlando W. E. Pazmino Costas’ work and RodneyOutside specific to the West, with the sentiment of the impenetrable50 theL. Petersen Gate: Mission (New Delhi: Beyond ISPCK Christendom Press, 2007), 89–112. The “Huntington’s Gate” In conclusion,mystery of in existence, order for specific a borderless to the East Europe Europeans.” to function beyond Samuel P. Huntington’s Clash of Civilizations in Foreign Affairs, then as a book The Clash (Wipf of & Civilizations Stock Publishers, and the 2005), Remaking and Samuel Huntington’s Clash of Civilizations of the World Order theory (published first as an article must be allowed to speak in its proper version, and not in its reversal, as scornfully put by Mircea , who determinism, says the Gospel cultural differences SimonSamuel & P. Schuster Huntington Paperbacks: placed a deterministic New York, London, spin on Toronto, cultural 51 Sydney, 1996). While Orlando Costas referred to a global mission that is open to Blessed are the wealthy—answersVulcănescu this Age to Christ—for they conflict. By contending that Orthodox Christianity belongs to a culture which have the kingdom of this world, and there is no world other along the borders of former empires in Europe. To Huntington’s disappointment, followingWestern Europe this ideological can hardly notoriety, accept, theHuntington Orthodox predicted Churches an have unavoidable even increased clash than this. their ecumenical cooperation with the Catholic and Protestant Churches from Blessed are the strong, for they shall rule the earth. 82 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Simion: Orthodox Church–State Relations in the European Context 83

13 Eusebius of Caesarea Ecclesiastic History X, 5, 1–17 and Lactantiu De as of January 1, 2007, both Romania and became full members of the mortibus persecutorum in Philip Schaff, ed., Nicene and Post–Nicene Fathers Vol. EuropeanWestern Europe, Union. while Transylvania remained a part of Romania. Furthermore, 3 An exception is the Moscow Raskolnik community, which not only split the 14 “It being clearly in accordance with the tranquility of our times that each one should7 (Peabody, have MA:the libertyHedrickson of choosing Publishers, and worshiping2004), 2–12. whatever deity he pleases.” Believers during the 17th century, but also claimed that the authority of the Eusebius of Caesarea Ecclesiastic History X, 5, 8, cf. Philip Schaff, ed., Nicene and ChurchRussian should Orthodox supersede Church the into authority the official of the Russian State. Orthodox Church and Old Post-Nicene Fathers 4 Floca Drept Canonic Ortodox, Gândirea Socială a Bisericii: fundamente, documente analize, perspective, edited 1516 Vol. 1 (Peabody, MA: Hedrickson Publishers, 2004), 379. Teodor Baconsky, “Decadenţa etatismului şi renaşterea ortodoxă,” in Vol.The 2, Orthodox299–300. Church and ‘Guaranteedit emerges from inferiority’ the nature is an of expressionIslamic Law coined (Sharia), by which the Oxford based scholaron the by5 Ioan I. Ică, Jr. and Germano Marani (Sibiu: Deisis Press, 2002), 354. ConstitutionTimothy (Kalistos) of Medina Ware, regarded in his work Christianity and Judaism (Penguin as a heretical Group, 1993),rather With minimal variations, the data collected between 1994 and 2006 indicate than false religions. In this way, jihad is not to be declared against Christians and the following average: The Church 87%; National Army 67%; Media 62%; Mayor Jews, but be offered a status of inferiority and subjected to high taxation. See 45%; President 40%; BarometrulPolice 37%; de Banks Opinie 28%; Publica, Government Romania, 26%; octombrie Justice 200422%; Majid Khadduri, War and Peace in the Law of Islam, Baltimore, London: The John NGOs 23%; Parliament 18%; and Unions 17%. For datasets recorded between gallup.ro/romana/poll_ro/releases_ro/pr041020_ro/pr041020_ro.htm1994 and 2004, see, (Last; 17 ‘Captivity’ is a term preferred by Steven Runcimann in his seminal work The Gallup Organization, Romania (Bucharest: Gallup, 2004), 53. http://www. TheHopkins Great Press, Church 1969. in Captivity: A Study of the Patriarchate of Constantinople from Barometrul de Opinie Publică published by the Soros the Eve of the Turkish Conquest to the Greek War of Independence, Cambridge: Foundationaccessed January for an Open27, 2007.) Society, For October additional 2006 datasets http://www.gallup.ro/download/ see Mircea Comşa, Andrei BOP31_oct2006.pdfGheorghiţă, Ovidiu Voicu (Last accessed January 27, 2007) 18 The expression theory is not based on heuristic devices imposed by the rules 6 Gândirea ofCambridge social sciences, University but itPress, is used 1985. in its generic and etymologic sense, whereby the Socială a Bisericii: fundamente, documente analize, perspective, edited by Ioan I. theoria, means looking at. In other words, this “theory of adaptability” Radu Preda, “Biserica în stat. Şansele şi limitele unei dezbateri,” in as related to Church-State relations in the Orthodox Christian experience, is 7 This historical outlook is based on a chapter titled, “The Relation of the Greek word ChurchIcă, Jr. and with Germano the State” Marani from (Sibiu: Orthodox Deisis Press, Canon 2002), Law: 369. Church Legislation and reliable data, one can easily assume that a “theory of adaptability” could be built Administration, written by the prominent Orthodox canon lawyer Ioan N. Floca. andbased tested on an under observation the rules of of historical social sciences. records. Yet, as history provides sufficient Professor Floca’s compendium is used as the standard textbook in all Romanian Teologia Orthodox Faculties of Theology in Romania, and it is endorsed by the Holy Synod Morală19 Ortodoxă Vol.2 (Alba Iulia: Editura Reîntregirea, 2003), 301. of the . See Ioan N. Floca Drept Canonic Ortodox, 20 Preda,Nicolae 367. Mladin, Orest Bucevschi, Constantin Pavel, Ioan Zăgrean, Legislaţie şi Administraţie Bisericească 21 Roland H. Bainton Christian Attitudes Toward War and Peace: A Historical Survey and Critical Re-evaluation 8 “The Encyclical Epistle of the Church Vol.at Smyrna 1 (București: Concerning Editura The Martyrdom Institutului ofBiblic The şi Holy de Misiune Polycarp,” al Bisericiiin Ante–Nicene Ortodoxe Fathers Române, Vol.1 1990), edited 279–307. by Alexander Roberts 22 James C. Russell, The Germanization, ninth printing of Early (Nashville: Medieval Abingdon, Christianity: 1979), A Sociohistorical53–100. Approach to Religious Transformation (Oxford: Oxford University Ioan N. Floca Drept Canonic Ortodox, Legislaţie şi Administraţie Bisericească, and9 James Donaldson (Peabody, MA: Hedrickson Publishers, 2004), 39–44. 23 Floca, Drept Canonic Ortodox Press,24 Antonio 1994), 212.Cassese, International Law, second edition (Oxford: Oxford Vol.10 Floca,2 (Bucureşti: Drept Canonic Editura Ortodox Institutului, Vol. 2.,Biblic şi de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe , Vol.2, 279. Române,11 Cf. Philip 1990), Schaff, 288. ed., Nicene and Post–Nicene Fathers Vol. 1 (Peabody, MA: Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds, The Invention of Tradition, Hedrickson Publishers, 2004), 416. The 292.text of the edict is found in the work University25 Press, 2005), 22–45. of Lactantius De mortibus persecutorum (cf. Philip Schaff, ed., Nicene and Post– 26 The Myth of Nations, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Nicene Fathers Press,Cambridge: 2003. Cambridge University Press, 1992. 12 Floca, Drept Canonic Ortodox Patrick J. Geary, Vol. 7 (Peabody, MA: Hedrickson Publishers, 2004), 320–321. , Vol. 2, 293–294. 84 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Simion: Orthodox Church–State Relations in the European Context

85 27 Benedict Anderson Imagined Communities: Reflexions on the Origins and Introduction to Comparative Politics: Concepts and Processes, second Spread of Nationalism, New York: Verso Press, 2006. 28 Koppel S. Pinson Pietism as a Factor in the Rise of German Nationalism, Wiarda44 Naţiune şi Creştinism 100.edition (Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth, 2000), 57. review published in Church History Dumitru Stăniloae (Bucureşti: Editura Elion, Politica 2004), extensiveNews York: research Columbia performed University by Pinson,Press, 1934, John asB. Moosequoted points by John out B. the Moose seventeen in his dell’Est.45 Una lettura critia del ruolo dei cristiani nel sociale e nel politico, a , Vol.4, No.1. March (1935): 79. Regarding the Tomáš Špidlík “Le difficoltà della democrazia nei Paesi slavi,” in Gândirea Socială a Nationalism,”pages of bibliography Church History tracing German pietism from sermons, moralistic works, Bisericii:cura del fundamente,Centro Aletti documente (Roma: Ed. analize, Lipa, 1995),perspective 17–24. See also Tomáš Špidlík religiousRichard poetry, Falk, etc. Religion John B. and Moose Humane “Pietism Global as aGovernance Factor in the(London: Rise of PalgraveGerman „Dificultăţile democraţiei în ţările din Estul Europei,” in 29 , Vol.4, No.1. March (1935): 79–80. 46 , edited by Ioan I. Ică, Jr. and 30 Germano47 Ibid. Marani, Deisis Press: Sibiu, 2002), 385–390. EuropaMacmillan de Press,azi,” in 2001), Gândirea 1–12. Socială a Bisericii: fundamente, documente analize, 48 InTomáš my Špidlíkpersonal „Dificultăţile missionary democraţiei,” work towards 387. establishing St. Parascheva perspectiveIoan I Ică, Jr., “Biserică, societate, gândire în Răsărit, în Occident şi în Romanian Orthodox Church in Boston I often noted that if a person’s idea gets 2002), 47. See also A. Bensancon, La confusion des langues La crise ideologique de l’Eglise , edited by Ioan I. Ică, Jr. and Germano Marani (Sibiu: Deisis Press, 31 classified49 as lower in priority, that person takes this as a personal insult. 32 Falk, 12. (Calmann-Levym, 1978), see note 28. able Asto build Professor a harmony Špidlík from concludes, opposing The elements. Orthodox, If they and will the succeed Slavs in are realizing indeed 33 Cassese, 3–21; Falk, 42. capable of democracy, but they first need to know and respect one another to be 34 Gândirea Socială a Bisericii:Ibid., fundamente, 61–76. documente analize, perspective this, they will certainly play a very significant role inTeologie our increasingly şi Viaţă pluralist Ioan I Ică, Jr., “Globalizarea: Mutaţii şi Provocări,” in Biserica în Misiune: society.50 See, Špidlík, “Dificultăţile democraţiei,” 390. Patriarhia Română la ceas aniversar (Bucure , edited by Ioan I. Ică, Jr. and DumitruIt is often Stăniloae argued that“De cesarcasm suntem has ortodocşi,” a strong in therapeutic effect, serieensuring nouă, a Germano Marani (Sibiu: Deisis Press, 2002), 489. See also people’sanul51 I (LXVII) survival Nr. under4-8, aprilie-august an oppressive (1991): regime. 15. In the Romanian case, this seems The Third Way: Thești: RenewalEditura Institutului of Social Biblic Democracy și de to be an inheritance of a Roman moral philosophy coined by the proverb which (Cambridge:Misiune35 al Bisericii Polity Press,Ortodoxe 2003), Române, 64. 2005), 694–695. says, ridendo castigat mores ‘by laughter one derides the wrong ways of life.’ 36 Anthony Giddens, Gândirea Socială a 37 David Hollenbach, The Common Good and Christian Ethics (Cambridge: Bisericii:52 fundamente, documente analize, perspective CambridgeIcă, Jr., “Biserică,University societate, Press, 2002), gândire 102. în Răsărit . . . ,” 47. Mircea Vulcănescu, “Creștinul în lumea modernă,” in 38 , edited by Ioan I. Ică, Jr. and Telegraful Român, LXXXVII, Germano Marani (Sibiu: Deisis Press, 2002), 84. 39 Ică, Jr., “Biserică, societate, gândire niloae,în Răsărit Naţiune . . . ,” 49. şi Creştinism EdituraDumitru Elion, Stăniloae, 2004. “Statele Unite ale Europei?” in nr.4740 (1939): 1. See also, DumitruThe Church Stă Times , Bucureşti: 41 On Charisma and Institution Building, Selected Papers EditedDumitru and with Stăniloae an Instroduction quotes by S.N. Eisenstadt, October Chicago,27, 1939 London: The Max Weber’s work 42 Naţiune şi Creştinism University43 of Chicago Press, 1968. Dumitru Stăniloae Political (Bucureşti: Order Editura in Changing Elion, 2004), Societies: 99. The Responding Governing ofto the Restless developmentalist Nations (New studies Haven, of theCT: 1950s Yale andUniversity 1960s, SamuelPress), suggestedP. Huntington that in “instead his 1968 of influentialfocusing on book social change, scholars and government change, such as armies, bureaucracies, and political parties.” Cf. Howard J. officials should concentrate on building strong institutions capable of handling Stinghe: The Holistic Development of Society 87

n the course of human history, whenever humanity is situated DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435117 Iat a crossroads it turned its attention to the great events of the past for help at that time and for the future. A careful review of the works on the emergence and history of Christianity can provide enlightenment for the present and inspiration for the future in the context of contemporary society. As Paul the Apostle points out in

The Holistic Development of Society were written for our learning, that we through patience and comfort The Contributions of the Christian Church ofhis the letter scriptures to the Romans might have 15:4: hope.” ,, whatever1 things were written before The study of the history of Christianity is invaluable for Ioan Stinghe, PhD (cand.) researchers and for the layman, for personal development and therefore of human society. In this sense historian Earle E. Cairns [email protected] says “by exposing the genetic development of Christianity, the New “Babes–Bolyai” University of Cluj–Napoca, Romania Testament Church history is what the New Testament is to the Old Testament.”2 terms we will describe and we will see how early Christianity helped Church as a natural factor in the holistic development of society. In ABSTRACT:this respect, This the main paper role aims of theto reflect Church upon will thebe viewed role of thein light Christian of the the holistic development Given this perspective, of the society after back a thenbrief anddefinition after that of thewe will see the contribution of Christianity in todays society. Factors such as access to information, the increase of knowledge, and twenty–first century Christianity, in the context of the global society. on the contribution of Christianity to the holistic development of often give the impression that they are the main development drivers humanFinally society. we will present findings on the observations and findings ofthe the emergence postmodern of knowledge–based society. However, societythe development in a globalizing of society world is naturally linked to the development of the individual within different Dicționarul Explicativ contexts such as provided by family, school, church and society. From al Limbii Române also known as DEX: a Christian perspective the holistic transformation of humanity and HOLÍSMFor a brief: Concept definition underlying of the terms, the irreducibility I use of the sum of the restoration of universal order is the ultimate goal of the divine the parts, meaning that some of its features can not be explained in the “relocation” of His Kingdom on earth. During the twentieth in terms of properties and relationships of its components. - From century, the trend manifested by the Church was more on the edge 3 of social responsibility as an agent of a secular society, affecting the fr. holisme. application of the principle of Christian responsibility. According to CHRISTIANITY: All forms of faith in the person and writings the principle of Christian responsibility, the relationships within a that contain the words and teachings of Jesus Christ. - Christian + suf. -ism (After fr. Christianisme).4 Sociologic and religious research combines theological thinkingsociety are of an Christianity expression with that flowssocial naturally conditioning, from thethus relationship giving the Christianwith God. Church the responsibility of being a serious contender and agent for a holistic transformation of humanity and of restoring the Early Christian Contributions to the Development of a Holistic Society theology, church development, Christian church, holistic societyuniversal order; thus fulfilling the divine plan. KEY WORDS: Christianity is born from Judaism not only as “an extension of Judaism,” 5 86 but as a prophetic fulfillment in the life, ministry, death 88 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Stinghe: The Holistic Development of Society

89 and resurrection of Jesus Christ, shortly after his ascension to the The Central doctrine of the Christian message is Jesus Christ called by prophets and disciples Messiah, born in Palestine in year upon a group of faithful Hebrew. Father, during Pentecost (Acts 2:1–4), when the Holy Spirit came Jesus Christ did not dispute the Jewish religion, but realized Spirit (Acts 2:47), especially after the martyrdom of Stephen (Acts 5 BC, and died crucified in year A.D.30. 8:1), shortlyThis group trasforming has grown into quickly a religious through movement the influence that ofdeveloped the Holy limits placed by the Jews establishing a universal religion based on quickly with an outstanding.spread in the context of the then. fulfillment of the prophecies concerning Him, and exceeding the Christianity appears as a reform movement of Judaism, at love ofChristianity God and love based of neighboron the teachings as a fulfillment promoted of by the the moral Apostles law, the rapid growth led to Christians holding their meetings in mostly waspromising centered all eternalaround life the in life, the death,Kingdom resurrection, of God. and teachings privatefirst the homes. proclamation However of thethe Christian Gospel took Church place was in asynagogues distinct group, and separated from synagogue life. redemption of sinners, became the Savior and Lord of those who Christianity originally was addressed to Jews, after the believeof Jesus in Christ, Him, hadSon aof simple God, who way gave of worship. Himself as a sacrifice for the conversion of centurion Cornelius (Acts 10) at the Council of Christians gathered in homes or in places safe from persecutors and who ran the meeting was preaching from the teaching of Jesus Christ and the apostles then they prayed together, sang Christian distinctJerusalem from in theJudaism. year A.D.49 it was decided that the new religion hymns and the Lord’s Supper was celebrated at the end of the shouldThe also essence address of earlythe Gentiles, Christianity thus was Christianity Judaism whichbecame proclaimed a religion meeting. monotheism, the highest ethics based on the 10 commandments, a philosophy of the emerging history and the messianic hope all based moment of Christianity’s emergence by saying that “it entered the on a book Torah, later called the Old Testament. historicalGeorges scene Florovsky, as a Society a professor or Community, of church as ahistory, new social captures order the or even as a new social dimension, as a Church.”6 development was preparing the context by creating a vacuum The Church is the divine-human institution that arose through Greek contribution to Christianity’s emergence and divine presence manifested in the lives of believers at Pentecost. Best understood word for church is the assembly, as historian through whichthe failure Christianity’s of the Greek message philosophy was forwarded. and then through the Adrien Ladrierre says “when the Apostle Paul writes to the Church GreekThe language Romans that contribution was used to throughout the development the Roman of Christianity Empire, was materialized through Roman conquests that led to blurring of Corinth. But when he says, ‘Christ loved the Assembly’ it means all the beliefs of the conquered nations creating a common ethos, also trueor Assembly believers, of washedGod which of their is at Corinth,sins in the he preciousgoes to all blood the Christians of Christ, the Roman Empire built an infrastructure of communication roads, which helped to spread Christianity in a relatively short time. 7 Thus Christianity fueled from the spiritual sources of but being still on earth. (1 Cor. 1:2; Acts 20:28; Calendula 2; Eph. and1:22, are 5:25) united with each other and with the Lord Jesus all having a infrastructures and context of the Roman Empire, could become the Because the Church is made up of those born of God (John 3:9) onlyJudaism, universal expressed religion by withmeans a globalof Greek historical culture impact. and favored by the innew close life, connection is called the with body each of Jesus, other he and is the with Head the (EphHead 1:22–23; Jesus Christ. Col. 1:18; Rom.12:4–5). Each believer is thus a member of this body being 90 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Stinghe: The Holistic Development of Society

91 Thus the Church becomes the incarnation of the divine through the Holy Spirit to those who have accepted Jesus Christ as Lord in the upper class of society, early Christianity formed in the lower their lives, revealing His character in their lives. stratumcreated conflicts. of society Just a concurrent as the local movement aristocracy that was has united spread and quicklyformed Church members are endowed and equipped for service to and was open to all social classes.10 others in the Church and society through gifts of the Holy Spirit (1 Theissen emphasizes in early Christianity both the transfer of values from the top to bottom class of society, which led to the The divine purpose for the church is to be “a spectacle to “democratization” of aristocratic values. For example, the aid of angelsCor. 12:1–13). and men” to be ‘light of the world’ and ‘salt of the earth’ (Mat others or generosity towards enemies were features and privileges only of those in power. which5:13–14) we andlooked ‘to atgive the His Sun people rising knowledgefrom on high of to salvation, give light which to them is constituted a feature, an aristocratic rule. So the poor widow who thatthe forgiveness sit in darkness of sins; and because in the shadowof the great of death, mercy to of guide our God, our after feet donatedGoodness all her penniessaying “is becomes more blessed a example to give of noblethan to generosity. receive”—also Even the golden rule—valid for the privileged classes in ancient times, was Church’s role in society is ‘‘to ready for the Lord a people well preparedinto the way for ofHim” peace.” (Luke (Luke 1:17) 1:77–79) for His second coming. ruler, aristocrat behaviour is transferred to all.11 To accomplish this work the Church is involved in society in proclaimedNotice inhow Mat Theissen 7:12; Luke demonstrates 6:31 for all thatpeople, the thusearly repeatedly church was a existential areas such as social, health, education and spiritual. able to provide models of Roman society which had been in operation The social fund of early Christianity was investigated by one for all members of society, starting from a personal relationship

Theissen, who published an extensive study dedicated to social within which a inclusive extraterritorial culture is developing, history.of the most experienced specialists in the field theologian Gerd revealingwith Jesus, the then full benefiting potential from of early belonging Christianity. to a universal community Early Christianity penetrated the ancient society with Christian First is about urbanization. Even if Christianity started with people ideas and changed people’s concept about the world and life, thus in ruralGerd areas Theissen it was defines spread four to the trends cities, available where indue early to the Christianity. different entering into competition with other schools of thought. One of the primary aspects of early community life that highlights this change is and imperial powers. the charitable activity “and sold their land and goods and distributed relationshipSecond, between is the tendency Jews and of pagans universalizing led to conflicts openness with tolocal all sympathizers removing the command of circumcision—which also That Joseph, also called Barnabas by the apostles meaning Sonthem of to Encouragement all, as any had needed a Levite each” from (Acts Cyprus 2:45). (Acts 4:36), sold his A third trend is the dynamic of the growth of social advancement. land inherited from his parents and “brought the money and laid it Earlyled to Christianityconflicts. was born in the lower social strata, but according at the apostles’ feet”, reveals the organization of the early Christian to Plinius8 in the second century there were Christians in all walks of life. And this has led Corinth to tension between rich and poor, between the powerful and the weak. community,Another coordinated important at aspectfirst by thedescribed apostles in and Acts entrusted 6 is a toclear the Lastly Theissen talks about the trend9 of spiritualization because distinctionseven deacons between when the the number apostles of Christians involvement increased. in the (Actsspiritual— 6:1–6) Jesus promised freedom from sin for all people. Early Christianity educational sphere and the social sphere which is supported by promised freedom to all, especially the inner worth—which also deacons. Also it is seen in the social sphere the care for the poor 92 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Stinghe: The Holistic Development of Society

93 categories widows, orphans, the poor and the foreigners, social of antiquity. The history’s ascertainment regarding the Christians - culture relationship, expressed by historian Florovsky reveals that beginning early Christianity adopted a positive attitude about they are not “doomed to the denial of culture”, but Christians “must protection measures covered in Judaism. We note that since the be critical of any cultural situation and measure everything by the and Lord of all things. The man is the manager of all goods received measure of Christ.”13 frommaterial his Creator.things. In the Christian belief God is the Sovereign Creator It is well known that in the New Testament the word “church”, All material things are made available to the man as gifts “ekklesia”, has two different meanings. One meaning is one universal because using them on his journey on earth he can live decently and Church, a community of all believers united “in Christ.” Another managing them after the Christian principles, the character of man to meaning is given by use of the word in the plural, meaning local Christian communities from all places. The early Christians had a strong sense of identity and Christianity although having a social doctrine and orientation, belonging.be knighted They and thoughtready to theyenter were the Kingdom a “holy people,” of God “a(Matthew holy nation,” 6.33). a society on new principles, after the model offered by Him. was aboveThe early all a churchcommunity besides aimed its social at praising and education God and preoccupations, rebuild human “chosenThus, people,” the early a new Christians society that had fulfillsa sense God’s of extra-territorial plan, as the Apostle (Phil. was concerned with changing hearts and minds, thus paving the way 3:20)Peter taught.outside (1 the Peter existing 2:9.) social order, they were “travelers” or for ethical and social changes, becoming a model for a new humanity. The fact that in early Christianity reporting to the divine all the daily duties responsibly, putting divine authority over the had a primordial place, made it omnipresent in all humanity’s human“foreigners”, one, beingbut they spiritually remained detached. in the society (in the world) fulfilling existential aspects.

“this detachment from “the world” can only be temporary, since ChristianityWriting by about its very this, nature the historian was a missionary Florovsky religion emphasizes and aiming that XXI Century Christianity for a universal conversion. The subtle distinction “in the world but not of the world” could not solve this primary problem, since Christian vocation to bring the light of truth to every nation, every “the world” had to be redeemed and could not be tolerated in its unreformed state.”12 every Christian to openness towards people of other faiths. In terms of culture Christians have accepted the challenge of peopleIn andthe everyXIX and man XX (Matt. centuries 28:19), the determines world continued and empowers to move towards a determined by science and technology, to promote a culture based on new principles, a new perspective, through the process of industrialization, development of means of asmeeting citizens the of two a “new cultures, country” Greek which and isRoman; centered but on they the felt heavenly called communication, resource exploitation and economic development. Jerusalem. As recorded by the Orthodox priest and university professor, By the coming, particularly life and resurrection, ascension and increasingly alienated from the Church “especially after the received a new dimension which caused major cultural changes in positivismIoan Rămureanu, of Auguste during Comte the seemedlast centuries, to give mankinda form to became human theplacing life of of humanity Jesus Christ after at 33the AD right Through hand ofcontact God, ancientwith other culture cultures has development on the way to the “religion of the future” which no Christianity changed their meaning, giving them the dimension of longer admits anything except what the positive science admits.”14 repentance; the immediate effect was noted as the re-culturalization 94 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Stinghe: The Holistic Development of Society

95 The secularization process was the result of a confrontation Christians today to conduct a historical review and update what their ancestors and parents thought and created. sacralize and to expand its authority over the world and as a reaction The church of the XXI century is called amidst the global between the Church and . The Church tried to problems of mankind to make visible the divine presence through In the next step the process of secularization has caused a shift ordination, intercession and its service in the world. Western culture gave birth to the process of secularization. Citing the Torah in the book of Isaiah, Jesus Christ stated the it passed from teocentrism to anthropocentrism. Christianity is mission statement of the Church: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, of the center of gravity of life and culture from God to man, meaning reason thus preparing the era of reason. Me to bind up the brokenhearted, to preach deliverance to the slaves abandoned; the man gives up the divine ruling adoring his own because He hath anointed Me to preach the gospel to the poor; sent science and technology and paved the way for mankind’s spiritual grace year of the Lord.” (Luke 4:18). regression.World secularization has stimulated the development of world of war and the blind sight; to absolve the weary and to proclaim the One of the challenges of Christianity in the XXI century is to recreating the world by releasing people from all forms of slavery become ecumenical and catholic again, through openness to the and oppression,The reign of personal God means and the social. full transformation of humanity and values of contemporary humanity and to support efforts to achieve them. reality of this world is only a pale imitation of the model of eternity, Advocating for the right to personal freedom Mochael Novak and historyChristianity records affirms the intention the value of of Christianity the transcendent to shape element, society the in said: “We are, I believe, at the threshold of a new social evolution. the image of God’s Kingdom. Many of the old ways no longer15 work. We must rethink our goals. Conclusions rationality,We must rethink purely our functional, methods.” experimentally demonstrated which provedRenaissance bankrupt becausedeveloped it hasthe thinkingcreated anthat imbalance led to a scientificbetween technical and moral. In everyday life, the Christian family, spirituality, personal itsThe course emergence to refresh of Christianity the entire humanity. in the flow After of twenty history centuries was like we a and social ethics, now plays a vital role for the Church’s activity in mighty river flowing over the sides with divine blessings changing society. From the sociological perspective, the Church is called to intercede in prayer for those in need, the helpless, underprivileged can seeThe how rapid Christianity spread ofhas early influenced Christianity society, is but one society of the has most also and powerless. amazinginfluenced phenomena Christianity. in the history of mankind. Churches by the human component of their members, through Of particular interest in researching the social functions of early creation and ontological union of Christ are related to human society. Christianity have to be primarily taking into account the impact of Thus it is called in the postmodern world to promote peace, combat the new religion. poverty, and work for social protection, health and religious freedom, Christianity brings a qualitative leap from the relational anthropology ideal to the Christological one of the Eucharistic Church’s task is not only to work to protect the identity and community. Christian behavior derives from this relational reality unityto teach but and to toprepare proclaim for thethe Gospel.future as a community concerned to vertically and horizontally, which constitute the ecclesial community, transmit Christian values to new generations. It is important for giving it an interior and exterior dynamic, in solidarity and mission. 96 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Stinghe: The Holistic Development of Society

97 Faith, love and hope were the mysteries of the Christian Church, NOTES fundamental elements on which was later built what we now call 1 Dumitru Cornilescu, Biblia 2 Earle E. Cairns, Creștinismul de-a lungul secolelor , București: Casa Bibliei, 2010. History has shown that in many cases, economic considerations 3 https://dexonline.ro/ (București: Societatea “Western culture.” have played an important role both in society and in the Church’s life. Misionară4 Ibid. Română, 1992), 17. Church service is very important, but we must not separate the JonathanDex-Online Hill, 2009. Istoria Gândirii Creștine (Last accessed October 19, 2016) social and philanthropic work from the spiritual one as the charitable 56 Creștinism și Cultură work of the Church is sacramental and pastoral and the social one 7 Adrien Ladrierre, Biserica sau Adunarea (Oradea: Casa Cărții, 2007), 13. Georges Florovski, (Belmont, MA: Nordland, 1974), 19. is the concrete expression, of the former. 8 (Dillenburg: Gute Botschaft Verlag, The economic crisis, accompanied by a moral crisis, deepens 1993), 6. the consequences of the deeply secularized life of today’s society. 9 Plin. Ep. XI, 96,9. 10 Theißen, Gerd, Von Jesus zur urchristlichen Zeichenwelt. „Neutestamentliche characterizes life. Grenzgänge“ im Dialog. (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH, 2011), 28. Theißen Gerd, Von Jesus zur urchristlichen Zeichenwelt. „Neutestamentliche Man Todaylives only when for society himself; is increasinglyhe lives in an fragmented absurd rhetoric and suffers that 11 Grenzgänge“12 Florovski, im Ibid. Dialog. (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH, 2011), 29. diverse mutations, what can the Church do to help the holistic 13 Ibid,Ibid. 21.44–45. development of the postmodern society? 14 Istoria Bisericească History shows that Christianity demonstrated over time a Universală, vol. II (Bucure capacity for innovation and potential of adaptation matching the Ioan Rămureanu, Milan Șesan, Teodor Bodogae, ști: Editura Institutului Biblic și de Misiune Al Bisericii needs of the current time. Ortodoxe15 Române, 1993),Gândirea 337. Socială a Bisericii (Sibiu: Deisis, 2002), 418. Michael Novak’s ideas had been published as a chapter in Ioan I. Ică, Jr and required for the challenges and needs of contemporary society to Germano Marani, eds. adaptChristian its working Church methods today and also those benefits of approach from tothe society potential and peers. Renewing human society has been and will always be possible through Jesus Christ from the inside out and from individual to society through the cleaning of the spring. Therefore obtaining a simple life full of love and devotion to confess Him whatever the cost, the availability to be all things to all, markedChrist, willingness the life of Christiansto serve unconditionally in each historical and epoch.selflessly, There the were,joy to there are and there will be voices that continue to stand up to preach creatures. The whole history shows us that nothing lasts without faith, truth, love, justice, hope that God has been and will be with His the presence and blessing of God which is in charge of the universe. Applying the Milieus–Oriented Concept in a Church Context

99 addressingWagner: the current church reform intention. Often because they DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435119 try to overcome the “crisis” of the church, manifested by reduced

attention. To what extent the holistic sociological orientation is usefulvisitor numbersand a successful for the divine approach services, within decreased the church finance context—this and public is the subject of the discussion. Applying the Milieus–Oriented Concept in a Church Context: Prospects and Challenges Milieus–Oriented Concept in Society and Church

Arthur Wagner, PhD milieus? Social sciences have described social inequality in the past through categories of class or social blanket. The [email protected] What are Independent Scholar, Germany the basis of many qualitative studies representative. Ulrich Beck’s differentiated typology of social milieus appeared since 1987 on ABSTRACT: During the recent decades, within the process of individualization of a society, there have been various attempts within the innate belonging to a social class. On the contrary, the individual the spectrum of social sciences to materialize the differentiated and cantheory and of must individualization discover and create does nothimself, define fact the for individual which he assumesthrough segmented image of a society. Consequently, modern research of the the responsibility alone.2 milieus deals with the study of different social “worlds”, characterized by a pattern of common values, communication and experience. “Consumer Society,” when In theorythe 1990s about the society milieu theorybecomes reaches a theory the Church activity, providing a valuable approach to the emerging new aboutcenter milieus of attention. through the publication of Gerhard Schulzes, perspectives.The holistic, Yet, milieu–oriented its adoption signals concept not only found opportunities, resonance but within also Milieu theory starts from the premise that our society is fragmented and “breaks” in milieus and sub-milieus. Milieus are the possibilities and limits of applying the concept of social milieus models or social constructs through which social reality is tried to be challenges. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to reflect upon described. Milieus are recognized by the fact that they own common the same time, its potential. to the Church, and to analyze it in a critical manner; highlighting, at patters of values, communication and experience as well as due to “an intense internal communication.”3 Milieus are self-contained worlds, KEY WORDS: milieus, Church, liturgy, mission potential, challenges groups of people with the same aspirations, who feel connected to oday, it is known and accepted that modern western society each other by attitudes, mode of communication, thinking, and mode Tis highly fragmented from a social point of view. The extent to of action, education level or similar material state. Unlike milieu, which this affects and causes changes in the church—was the topic of many research studies over the past 10 years. These research studies groups attitudes yet sustainable, feelings or patterns of action.4 are trying to include the image of the society in a manner as holistic mentalitiesMilieus (premodern, differentiation, modern, as life and worlds postmodern) is also valid are for unreflected the church as possible. This article refers to such studies, which—due to the with its forms: as a local church, as a group initiative, or regional milieu oriented concept—threw an ample “sociologic look” on to the church. Following the application of various survey instruments in church.1 However the debate will take place in the theological context the church,5 it resulted that local churches are determined by a few dominant milieus. Consequently church attracts only people who

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and weakWagner: where postmodern orientation dominates or at the bottom church services are not an offer “for all”—as was thought before.6 of society. 12 belongIn toa group those ofmilieus similar or people—who have intentions think, of talk social and ascent; live alike— thus These surprising results led to further taking the concept- oriented milieu, which through various research tools (like SINUS) created by separating from the other milieus. For these and generally made its way into the church in order to deliver valuable information. the individual finds peace in a time of disorientation and identity, They combine a subjective perspective of life with objective from the other. This relationship is certainly critical because the characteristics in order to achieve a more complete overview. That autohuman recruiting communities mechanism are defined dominates inside ina society a group: just one by groupseparating only is because only a holistic description of the individual leads to a 7 At the same time it must not be forgotten real description of everyday’s life. Thus, the SINUS project gather a lot of information about individuals, such as: the social status, their theattracts formation people of that a milieu. fit it. This occurs because faith is not conceivable own philosophy of life, image about society, attitude towards labor, withoutthat religious a social forms form. in turn influence the individual habitus and thus towards marriage, family and leisure, aspirations and patterns, lifestyle, aesthetics, etc.13 between different milieus and the church, particularly the studies Thus it became clear that church parishioners who come from Since 1999 publications have appeared about the relationship different types of milieus are very different in their expectations structure research.” This was followed by the study in the evangelical and image on: the liturgical service, sermon form and content, of M. Vester, from the “Working group in the social interdisciplinary understanding of the faith, the Bible, theology, art and motivation.14 in the diversity of its features,” which has developed a typology of This fact has led simultaneously to the critical analysis of the theory lifestylesProtestant with church 6 types. (Germany)8 According of toFrederike the EKD Benthaus-Apelstudy we can see “Church “which of individualism, which is in danger of neglect, not perceiving the society milieus are represented in the church, which needs, interest existing similarities in social groups or milieus. and aesthetic preferences they [church members] bring with them The process of social differentiation15 lingers on, like Frederike Benthaus-Apel postmodernism, while the church clientele, as the traditional- points out that there is a clear causality9 “between social milieu, conservatives group shrinks more and more. There are almost no lifestyle,and which commitment church offers and are participation satisfied.” of the Christian religion.”10 milieus as a role model for others. Most people have their own system of values, which goes without saying and does not need the church as mediator of values.16 In this framework, to what extent can the In 2005 he followed an extensive study in the Catholic Church in holistic milieus oriented concept to offer a solution for the church? theGermany- church, based and to on which socio-scientific milieus church typology it truly Sinus arrives. (with The 10 milieus), effect of thoseaiming results to see, can to whatbe felt extent until today: differentiation even if there of society are church is reflected members in in all milieus, though there are only certain types of milieus, who Prospects and Potential Applications actively participate in church life. Church reaches through its offers of the Holistic Milieus–Oriented Concept in the Church to people from following milieus: high cultural, tradition oriented or sociable- oriented to tradition, in part and high-cultural-modern. Thesis 1: The holistic milieus oriented concept helps develop From these milieus the church recruits its “public”, though the the perception vis-a vis the current fragmentation of society and seniors’ age is overrepresented in these milieus.11 consequently the church. Even if the church parishioners are found in all groups of milieu, yet only a minor part answers the church’s Generally the offers. Same in the activity of a normal community not all milieus Church is strong in regions where a premodern mentality dominates; 102 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Applying the Milieus–Oriented Concept in a Church Context 103 are represented. I have already mentioned that the church is limited Wagner: to 2-3 milieus: traditional group, conservative group and middle how the fragmented human community can recover and take the civil group.17 In this sense the milieu concept is a “perceptual aid” formfrom otherof the milieus, church. toThe discover concept with of milieuthem the here Gospel provides message support and essential,18 as it helps the church to gain back a sense of reality in identifying both the connecting bridges as well as the obstacles. and in view of an effective action. to an inappropriate form or language, unknown, due to a manner necessaryMeanwhile in contextualizing milieus oriented the perspective 19Gospel in a offers postmodern release from society the insensibleThough the towards Gospel’s milieu message to islead attractive, to refusal. it is It possible is precisely that duethe pressure created against the church, to achieve people from all walks mission’s space where the people need to be approached closer to of life. It’s possible some other milieus to discover and highlight other their understanding.23

Thesis 3: The holistic milieus oriented concept offers valuable anotheraspects ofadvantage the Gospel. related The factto this of discoveringconcept.20 Through different a aspects Christian of impulse in local and inter-regional church organization. In principle openingfaith reflected towards by different people frommilieus other in a diversitymilieus it sense can be- constitutes achieved each representative denomination’s local community can be considered a “milieu church”, meaning it holds a certain style and community fellowship. way of being, thus attracting only a certain category of people. This both a widening of the spiritual horizon and an intensification of should not be necessarily seen as negative because these churches Thesis 2: The holistic milieus oriented concept offers a clear 24 and open perspective on the church’s efficiency in society—mission. The local community cannot and must not exceed every milieu limit. operateThey according is mentioned to the a motto: 3-way “wechoice have in treatingsuccess withthe milieu this style!” reality. dependence is from a theological point of view nothing less than First there is the possibility that each community to “specialize” in a theIn this question regard regarding G. Werner the said: mission. “The question. . . The incarnation of the church’s takes milieu place in the milieu.”21 In this context it becomes obvious that the church, outlook communities will be removed so much from one another, before the advertising industry appeared, has already adapted to thatmilieu prejudices profile which and alienation to promote will further. appear But and as threaten a consequence, the unity the of different categories of people: elderly, youth, women, men. Today the church. A second possibility would be for the church to offer a society is much more differentiated, so that the age criterion is no new language of “faith” to a milieu. Parishioners should then give up longer convincing. People who have a similar age may still belong their original milieu and to take in the new one. So then the Church from a cultural point of view to entirely different worlds. Today’s in the Neo-protestant churches which develop at the same time. will createSince its the special 2nd and path specific is not milieu. compatible This possibility with isthe often major seen25 theyouth milieu is no research longer only just addressed proves very through clearly a singlethat these “youth age activity”; groups denominations, it advocates for one last option: a church that arejust veryas little heterogeneous. the senior categoryThus the milieuthrough oriented the “50+” concept project. further For provides an optimization proposal.22 For the mission does not mean giving away “a container with limitsunites of Milieus other Milieusbetween or them. produce We offershave seen for all that Milieus. it is not Therefore possible a regionalfor communities cooperation - due makes to their sense cultural as well specificity as a pluralization - to go beyond of forms the of Jesus of Nazareth, who could not and did not want other to show in community life. This involves close collaboration at the middle Histheory, love called for man the by Gospel”. other than (H. becomingHempelmann) a man Following among men the - andmodel so administrative level, in order to achieve a complex missionary plan. the mission has to descend deeper and seek fellowship with people Through specialization and / or communities’ cooperation between 104 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Applying the Milieus–Oriented Concept in a Church Context

105 them it becomes possible to address many Milieus in the region, as in decision-makingWagner: at the middle management administrative 26 In this context mediation, diaconate work, youth work or in regional cooperation.31 churchwell as makingimage, ecumenical specific offers interconnection and religious orspaces. deacon orientation.27 level regarding counseling and community development, conflict we see 5 project directions: to build on what it is, church growth, Thesis 4: The holistic milieus oriented concept provides important Challenges in Applying the Holistic prognostic information regarding the future of the Church. Various Milieus–Oriented Concept in the Church Context research studies related to the milieus oriented concept track targets that are indispensable for the future development and management Thesis 1: The holistic milieus oriented concept requires a review of of the church. For example it is important to understand how social the role of the church in society, because the Gospel belongs to all transition unfolds and in what manner the church can adapt to it. people. A church linked to certain social groups has a repelling effect On the other hand the medial reception mode of church offers in on the others. Many people are kept at a distance from all religious forms and offers not because of lack of openness or interest in the faith, but because of milieu cultural barriers. The more the religious todifferent the milieu milieus oriented can reveal concept important valuable details information for an efficient on important medial religioustransmission issues of forthe parishioners Gospel. In addition or about the the church church may connection obtain due or the more the church will be associated with this lifestyle. The effect separation factors.28 ofactivity rejection identifies of some with completely pre-modern unknown or traditional mentalities forms is not of neutral. milieu, Even the question—whom does the Church address, and whom The more a form of milieu is farthest from their own the stronger does it not?—requires a regular update process. Milieu regional is the effect of alienation and rejection. 32 Social shutdown leads to studies may also indicate the milieu changes, milieu concentrations rejection, social exclusion, which massively prevents the missionary or reductions in a particular geographic region, which is an aid in long-term planning of missionary activity. 29 openingefforts. Without but also overcoming risks at the samecultural time. boundaries it is not possible Thesis 5: The holistic milieus oriented concept also offers to openYet theit is Gospelnecessary to people. for the churchCultural to contextualization ask the question: involves to what practical-analytical instruments in pastoral activity. First the milieus to turn its intentions or must attract people? They all have different oriented concept provides practical tools for analysis, which can religious attitudes and perceptions. How they react is a matter of theological position.33 Does the pre-modern mentality correspond milieu), regarding the spread of milieus across the church district to the traditional-conservative Christian one? Does it make sense (thebe used location in awareness of the milieu), of differences in terms of in preparing mentality offers (clarification tailored toof only servicing this social category? Or is it possible to also adapt the target groups (focus of milieu), and in terms of openness to unknown 34 This is a challenge milieus (expanding of milieu). In addition these practical tools make which the Church cannot turn away from. Gospel in the modern or postmodern context? lead to a fair distribution of the opportunities for participation in Thesis 2: The holistic milieus oriented concept is argued in the theit possible liturgical to analyzeservice. 30the profile of the local community, which may market economy system, orienting itself by supply and demand. But contextualization of the Gospel does not imply a pure adaptation or service of pastoral related tasks as: planning of the staff, causalities, only satisfaction of the needs. The Church must speak not by the will behaviorThe milieustowards oriented parishioners concept’s estranged instruments from thefind Church their use as in well the

of the people, because the Gospel is not a commodity product, as 106 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Applying the Milieus–Oriented Concept in a Church Context 107

In thisWagner: context it is recommended in the church evaluation do some.” (2 Cor. 2:17) Michael Ebertz talks about adaptation (from from a social structure point of view, to track both the processes the 2ndApostle Council Paul of says, Vatican) “For andwe dodistinguishes not corrupt between the Word conformism, of God as of exclusion and inclusion as well as typical phenomena and the individual ones.43 warns against a simple orientation towards the milieus,35 which he external coordination, opportunism, flattery, etc. And G. Wegner Thesis 4: Milieus segmentation and differentiation constitutes 36 a challenge for church unity that must be defined beyond Milieus. It definesIt asmust treason not beto theforgotten Gospel. thatIt takes a sociological a spiritual penetration model does of notthe presentmilieu perspective; a whole or otherwise the reality, only but the just consumer a look marketof it from will a extend. certain the role. If a community goes down a road together then it needs perspective. The milieus oriented concept owns such a perspective, torequires agree ona clear a common definition target. of the But church, precisely in order here tolies understand the challenge it’s its goal bring a closer understanding of society.37 Sociological

38 It is our duty to judge, andon the how unity is this because done? thereSome aresee aunity lot of in conceptions the homogeneous about characterit. We are moderate,structure models to deduce are consequences.really just tools The to aid role in ofthe the analysis, milieus reflection oriented ofdifferent, a group: and similar yet we aesthetic are all Christians; tastes, similar but whatfellowship binds style,us? Where same and in preventing or detecting deficits. meaning in life, same aspirations and same detestable things. Others is a theological task not a sociological one, that requires theological see unity in the common sinful condition and in the universal offer viewpointsconcept is not in formulatingto define what consequences. the church must or must not be. This of the redemption plan, aspect which exceeds the allegiance to a 39 milieu.44 Determining the unity domain in the church remains a Thesis 3: The holistic milieus oriented concept as “aid perception” challenge not only on the theological level but also practically. is not a panacea Thesis 5: The holistic milieus oriented concept may overburden the problems of .the Social-scientific church, but only instruments, a instrument. such40 asThey the do Sinus not local community. The feeling and pressure to provide programs for replaceor MICROM-GEO-Milieus human needs necessary are not for a detachmentpanacea, especially from a milieuin solving and 10 milieus can overwhelm and create stress to the local community. involvement in an entirely different one. But who does not widens In addition we add the question of resources: in the church we are his horizons that will not discover anything new.41 In this context it dealing with volunteers, which cannot be had forever. The additive is about the milieus oriented concept’s limits: system - meaning more and more, better quality, more differentiated, * The idea - that with more diligence any milieu limit can be more intense, more personal and individual - no longer works. overcome and the communities will be welcoming for anyone - is This situation imposes the need to formulate appropriate questions45 an illusion. that generate answers which cause no extra burdens, but instead * The individual is not just the representative of a milieu. produce a decongesting of the situation.46 Perspective on milieus catches only the social differences. But life Such appropriate questions might be such as: in which areas are contains fundamental human issues that are common to all, even if my talents and where are the talents of others? Is there a disposition 42 to delegate tasks according to individual gifts and talents? How can * Sinus milieus table - designed for marketing purposes - does they be promoted? Is there encouragement for regional cooperation, the way of expression is milieu specific. which can make available new resources and generate relaxation and synergy effects?47 considered.not include all the population; from a church point of view it may even be seen a major deficit: e.g. immigrants are only partially 108 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Applying the Milieus–Oriented Concept in a Church Context

109 and at sameWagner: time can provide direction and hope. A Church which Concluding Reflections 52 ecclesia semper reformanda thecontinuously holistic milieus allows oriented itself to concept, be recreated and also and at shaped the same by timeGod— to clarity, continuity and the static, thus a parish image of the church achieve a balanced balancing—can between only53 individuality profit from the and challenges community. of wasUntil welcome. mid 20th centuryBut today, life duein Western to social society fragmentation, has been marked religious by communities have become rather groups of similar people. Now the NOTES 1 Soziale Milieus und ofchurch the church—as needs integrative a combination offers, to of approach milieu communities—would people in their specific be Kirche 2 UlrichSee Bremer Beck, Risikogesellschaft Vögele, Helmut Wolfgang, Michael Vester, life environments. Perhaps48 reflecting on the holistic future prospects 3 , Würzburg: Ergon Verlag, 2002. In the set of countless theological discussions on options zu den Katholiken in Deutschland, in. Frankfurt Herder-Korrespondenz an Main, 1986. 80 (2006): 174. fora beneficial reform, itoption. must be necessary to bring to light some objective 4 HeinzpeterMichael N. Ebertz, Hempelmann, „Anschlüsse Gott gesucht. im Mileu Ergebnisse. Wie Sinusstudien einer neuen der Milieu-StudieKirche helfen distinctions between theology and sociology. The sociological eye on können, Menschen zu erreichen the results related to social milieus proves that the situation is more Kirche . 2. erweiterte (Auflage, Brunnen Verlag, Gießen,

2013),56 Heinzpeter 35–36. Hempelmann, Kirche im Mileu. Die Sinus-Kirchenstudie evidence of weakening the relationship with the church, and on the “EvangelischWolfgang inHuber, Baden und. 1. Württenberg.(Stuttgart; Berlin: Ergebnisse Aufl., Kreuz-Verlag, und Impulse 1979), für 47ff. den complex than it seems at first glance. For on the one hand there is Gottesdienst the possibilities of approach. The fact is that the Church must balance 7 8 Claudia .”Schulz, BrunnenVerlag, Eberhard Gießen,Hauschild, 2013), and 42–43. Eike Kohler, twoother goals: hand, on the the studies one hand—developing confirm the interest and inmaintaining religious beliefs their own and Milieus Praktisch II. KonkretionenIbid., 74–75. für Helfendes Handeln in Kirche und Diakonie identity, and on the other hand: reaction to the differentiating and the changing of society, distinction as well as integration. Ibid. (Göttingen, 2010),

49 43–44.910 reaching the people staying away from the church, though one Kirchenmitgliedschaft. Zur Differenzierung der ‚treuen Kirchenfernen,’“ in KirchenamtIbid., 205.; der EKD See (Eds.): also, Friederike Benthaus–Apel, „Lebensstile und shouldEven not iflose contextualizing sight of the fact the as Gospel a compelling is important and enthusiastic in holistic Kirche –Horizont und Lebensrahmen. Weltsichten, Kirchenbindung. Vierte EKD Erhebung über Kirchenmitgliedschaft. Hannover, testimony of faith, usually has a positive effect despite milieu barriers. Finally, above the professionalism and cultural – Kirche in der Vielfalt der orientation50 is the love for people: “And if I have not love, I am Lebenszüge.2003. Friederike Die vierte Benthaus–Apel, EKD-Erhebung „Lebensstilspezifischeüber Kirchenmitgleidschaft Zugänge zur Kirchenmitgliedschaft“Michael Vester, Peter in von Huber Oertzen Wolfgang et. al. Soziale (Ed.), Milieus im gesellschaftlichen , Frankfurt a. Main, 2001. , Gütersloh, the application of the milieus oriented concept in religious context Strukturwandel 2006;11 See Schulz cit. in Uta Pohl-Patalong, „Kommentar ‚Lebensstile’ und Kirche,“ willnothing” never (1 reach Cor. 13.2). its possible Without target. developing a spiritual perspective Kirche in der Vielfalt der Lebensbezüge. Die vierte There will always be differences of milieu and yet the church EKD Erhebung über Kirchenmitgliedschaft. parishioners—even if they don’t have too much in common— in:12 Huber Hempelmann, Wolfgang Kirche et.al. (Ed.): im Mileu “practice the same things together and with each other.” Before 13 Cf.– www.Praxisinstitut.de (Last visited on,(Gütersloh, August 11, 2006), 2016) 274ff. 14 Claudia Schulz, Eberhard Hauschild,, 15. and Eike Kohler, 51 Milieus praktisch II. Konkretionen für helfendes Handeln in Kirche und Diakonie the Last Supper, it becomes clear that the church transcends the 282ff. orderGod all imposed the differences by milieus. of milieu So the are church cancelled. can harness In liturgical the diversity acts, e.g. Hempelmann, Gott im Mileu (Göttingen, 2010), 15 , 35. 110 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Applying the Milieus–Oriented Concept in a Church Context 111

Wagner: 16 Ibid., 67ff. 44 Soziale Mileus und Wandel der Sozialstruktur. Die 17 gesellschaftlichen Herausforderungen und die Strategien der sozialen Gruppen Wolfgang Huber, (Ed.),Schulz, Erwachsen Hauschild, glauben. Kohler, Ibid., Missionarische 47; Comp. Ingrid Bildungsangebote. Eilers, Kurse zum Grundlagen- Glauben Kontexte-Praxisfür verschiedene Sinus–Milieus, in: Arbeitsgemeinschaft Missionarische Dienste (Springer,4546 Hempelmann, 1998), 102. Gott im Mileu, 123. 18 47 Schulz, Hauschild, Kohler, Ibid., 219ff. Hempelmann, (Gütersloh, Gott im Mileu 2011), 81ff. Analyse, falsche Strategie?“ in Zeitzeichen 1920 Hempelmann,Schulz, Hauschild, Kirche Kohler, im Mileu Ibid., 13ff.; 69. 48 Schulz,Franz Grubauer,Hauschild, „ZweierleiKohler, Ibid., Logik. 247. Mileus und Kirchenreform: Richtige 21 , 91ff.; comp. Schulz, Hauschild, Kohler, Ibid., 247. Volkhard Krech, Soziologische Aspekte.(2/2012): Reformspielräume 48–50. in der Kirche : 22 Hempelmann, Kirche im Mileu, 43. Comp. Ibid., 97–98. Ortsgemeinde49 und Regionalstrukturen am Beispiel der Evangelisch-lutherischen 23 Wegner 2000, 53-70. Landeskirche in Braunschweig 33. 24 , 95. Kirche im Mileu Ibid., 49ff. Phänomen Freikirchen. Analysen eines wettbewerbsstarken 50 . Vol. 43. (Heidelberg: FEST, 1997), Milieus.25 Schulz, Hauschild, Kohler, Ibid., 250; Hempelmann, , 62–63. 51 Ibid.,Schulz, 280. Hauschild, Kohler, Ibid., 264-265. 246.Jörg Stolz et.al., 52 Hempelmann,Ibid., 279. Kirche im Mileu, 63. 26 Hempelmann, Bd.5 (Zürich: Gott Pano im Mileu Verlag, 2014), 25ff.; comp. Schulz, Hauschild, Kohler, 53 27 28 Hempelmann, Kirche im Mileu, 98–99. Schulz, Hauschild, Kohler, Ibid., 250ff. Gott im Mileu, 103. 2930 Hempelmann, Gott im Mileu , 20–21. 31 Schulz, Hauschild, Kohler, 232ff; Hempelmann, Gott im Mileu 32 Hempelmann, Gott im Mileu, 42.103–105. 33 Hempelmann,Schulz, Hauschild, Gott Kohler, im Mileu 237ff.; comp. Hempelmann, , 105ff. 34 Pastorallblatt für die Diozösen. Aachen, , 130; Schulz, Hauschild, Kohler, Ibid., 261. Martin Lätzel, „Jedem das Seine?“ in

StudieBerlin35 Essen,zu den Hildesheim, Katholiken inKöln, Deutschland,“ Osnabrück in:(2007): Herder-Korrespondenz 181–185, here 183. 80 (2006): 173-177,Michael here N. 176ff. Ebertz, „Anschlüsse gesucht. Ergebnisse einer neuen Milieu- 36 .Über die Selbstwirksamkeit des

(Eds.)Gerhard Gottes Wegner,Sehnsucht „Potentiale in der Stadt. provozieren Auf der Suche nach Gemeinden für Morgen Glaubens und seine Verkleisterung,“ in Pilipp Ehlhaus, Christian Hennecke 37 Soziale Milieus und Kirche. (Würzburg: 2011), 121-144.

38 Wolfgang Vögele, Helmut Bremer, Michael Vester, (Würzburg:Hempelmann, Ergon Verlag,Gott im 2002),Mileu 121–131. 3940 Comp. Vögele et.al. 2002, 22ff. Gott im Mileu, 101. 41 Hempelmann, Gott im Mileu, 109. 42 Schulz, Hauschild, Kohler, Ibid., 13ff.; Hempelmann, , 135. Mileu-StudieComp. Joachim und Kirche,“ Wanke, in Lebendige „Was uns dieSeelsorge Sinus-Milieu-Studie über die Kirche und43 ihre Pastoral sagen kann – und was nicht. Anfragen und Anregungen an Bd.3: Mileumarketing implementieren 57 (2006): 242–246. Rudolf Tippelt, et.al., „Weiterbildung und soziale Mileus in Deutschland,“ in . (Bielefeld. 2008), 88–95. The Dimensions of Holistic Personality Development 113

Wagner: DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435121 that underlie it. as an individual task, it requires a reflection of differential criteria

The Context of the “Personality Development” Concept

Already this concept composed by double term contains a lot The Dimensions of Holistic Personality of different directions and meanings, which are found in part Development in Contemporary Society development actually mean? The current development psychology Consuela Wagner, PhD startsin different from the but premise related ofscientific a dialectical disciplines. development What model, does human where

active impact on the environment. This model also postulates— Institut für Bildung und Persönlichkeitsförderung, Pfinztal, Germany unlikethe outside the traditionalworld influences mechanistic the individual model—the which existence in turn has of an [email protected] individual who actively participates and acts in its own development ABSTRACT: The holistic development of a society implies the 1 holistic development of the individual. Both the dialectical term process. The mechanistic model is contrary unidirectional and starts “development” and its transfer over the entire duration of life prove from the premise that the development of the interior capacities to be favorable of researching holistic personality development. unfolds irreversibly, according to an interior pattern.2 The direction of development or the description of its content is Besides the extension of the term of development from a passive role to an active one of the individual, there are modern approaches the human being and the moral values that underscore the concept. Yetdependent despite culturalon the cultural–ideological boundaries, various context;sizes and the areas image of personality regarding that extend the term of development from childhood and youth to development can be established and differentiated. On the other the entire range of life, from the overall development domain of special areas of development or from a standard development of of personal development—often expressed by concepts like “mature the development of special groups (gifted, disabled, delinquents, hand, a general meta–criterion can be formulated in setting the goal personality” or “personality stable.” Thus, the active holistic support etc.). Meanwhile stands the discussion transfer of the development for the development of human personality proves to be an urgent need in the complex context of contemporary society. towards maturity in favor of sustainable development—meaning both gains and losses.3 Thus the personality development involves, development, contemporary society according to Staudinger “irreversible transformations age-dependent KEY WORDS: development, personality, holistic dimensions, target in solving ability but also complicity in contexts of development.”4 ecause a society is composed of individuals, a holistic development This has to do with “intra-individual transformations relatively Bof society automatically implies a holistic development of its sustainable over time related to living and behavior.” individuals. This can be seen from several perspectives. This article The term development is often used in a positive5 sense as proposes a debate on the characteristics of individual personality “growth”, when referring to the interaction between biological development from a psychological perspective, namely to what 6 In every phase of life it is extent the idea of holism is applicable in this context and if it is possible a gain of new knowledge. Meanwhile development involves possible to formulate a uniform concept. In the current postmodern aconditions selective optimizationand environmental or “specialization”, influences. meaning not only gains society, when consciously planned personal development is seen but also losses due to a conscious or unconscious surrender to

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115 certain options.7 On the one hand the trend toward perfection, to Wagner: 16 maximum achievements indeed produced high performance in art, In addition Cloninger’s concept deserves to be remembered, which isan based emphasis on both of the primary-genetic individual specific structures of the human(four dimensions personality. of temperament) as well as structures formed through socialization targetstechnical, can science quickly and collide other withfields the of culture, criteria but of notjustice, any higherfair play level or (three dimensions of character).17 withcan be one defined of a “good as progress. life.”8 Some optimization or maximization It becomes obvious that genetics and culture - both aspects According to Ulich D. personality development means a steady contribute to the development of the human personality and transformation, adapted to the age in one “positive” direction, which includes the center of self. So in this context developing involves interfere throughout life, “development tasks” are dependent on age a holistic understanding of the individual and the values found andinfluence personal each maturity, other. Personal, and together biological create and a “biographyinstitutional script factors of in the legal context of personal and society’s expectations. Both life,”18 the image of man and moral evaluation as well as the cultural9 and and the practice of individual socialization. On the other hand ideological framework, namely the image about what is best, highest biographical which inpatterns turn further are precisely influences the the result individual19 of such development formative development.10 Because not everything that can be realized is also implementation, involving the experience of failure. Both external or most desirable in development, influences the direction of the factorsfactors, e.g.:which social in turn structures influence and the premises, perception institutional of a good life or causal,and its question intervenes. Added to them are also different expectations and the interior—such as our own wishes and beliefs—are partly ordesirable, concepts beneficial of a good or life. allowed, It is noticed the issue that of not the only rules wishes and values adapt toin unpredictable.20 the possibilities but also the other way around: certain desires have a motivating effect in widening the space of possibilities.11 The term “personality” is the sum of human forms of living The Dimensions of the Development of Human Personality and behavior, their internal interdependence as well as to external The notion of “personality” or mood changes, but more about the center of each individual.12 To of development. Thus changes are differentiated in cognitive issues itfactors. belong This behavioral is not about habits, the specific dispositional behavior qualities, in a particular environmental situation (perceptual, structure of thought, not only ability defines to concentrate, but limits the attitudes, dimensions etc.), motivational, emotional (feelings, value and personal effectiveness, as cognitive - psychological characteristics.13 emotion regulation, etc.) as well as social. At the same time changes influences,Regarding own bio-psychologicalthe description of and human emotional personality concepts there as well are different paths in psychology. On the one hand, it is regarded as a core as in the context of social changes and personal resources.21 as a stable part of the individual which leads to the formation and are definedIn addition of the there’s abilities a belongingdifference to between them both qualitative over the agechanges as well— framing in some types - such as the theory of temperaments or “basic when something else is added and something is replaced or forms of fear.”14 On the other hand there is the possibility of looking disappears—and quantitative changes, when there is an increase or at an individual not in the categories but “like a mosaic of lots of decrease of “the same way.”22 In developmental psychology today is features” based on several dimensions. In this tradition was Eysenck, considered that both types of changes occur. Since the mechanistic then the concept of the “Big Five” concept sees the individual as a complex machine, it emphasizes Terms like e.g.: subjectivity, interaction,15 personality as structure or quantitative development, while the organismic concept, due to process, such as temporal causality orrepresent the concept concepts of Gray that (1990). allow 116 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES The Dimensions of Holistic Personality Development 117 underlining elements of self-organization, emphasizes more the Wagner: qualitative changes.23 31 The concepts “personal maturity” and “wisdom”—marking the to receiveIn principle appreciation, both concepts but out (adaptivityof principle. / Well-beingHedonia and is maturitythus not direction of personality development—have been rediscovered and /the Eudaimonia product but) are the regardedprocess of as personal “gains” fulfillment.in development. Yet there partly engaged in empirical studies lately.24 The question, if these are overlaps, because a mature behavior may at least in part have concepts are valid targets or directions of development, and if so, in an adaptive character too. On the other hand not all hedonistic joy is based on an eudaimonist cause. One can thus understand concepts that underlie them plays an important role in this regard. why certain changes in life that cause non-adaptive reactions may what Thedefining term context. used here The imageof mature of man stable and ethical personality philosophical differs eventually lead to maturity yet.32 both from the image of man of the organismic concept and to the Because a mature personality represents a variable cultural adaptivity term. Thus the difference between maturity and adaptivity concept,33 is not based on the premise of the existence of some lies in their motivation. By adaptivity is meant the optimal mental absolute criteria, but on only the realization of a meta-criterion: functioning, which manifests25 itself in a state of gratitude.26 A mature consideration towards others, or otherwise expressed—balance personality exceeds however the level of adaptivity and contains an between own and others well being. The decision on the values and additional aspect of value. It thus includes certain attitudes, values forms of expression linked to this is given to the individual itself.34 So and patterns of behavior that do not have only a functional character. the question on what constitutes a positive development or the road Personality maturity is measured by balancing the interests of self to it is still the subject of ethical-philosophical debate nowadays. and others. Consideration for others does not have an adaptive According to Alensbacher studies a strong personality 35is character, but is understood as the principle that consideration for characterized practically by: human orientation and capacity others is manifested in Kantian27 imperative sense and not in the of contact, activity and attitude of joy, concern for connections, interest of its own advantages.28 orientation towards information and conversation, desire for The psychological difference between the concept of maturity learning and socialization, serviceability and hospitality, tenacity as adaptivity and the concept of maturity as value aspect was born 36 based on two philosophical conceptions about happiness in antiquity: personality Hedonia and Eudaimonia. formingand respect, the capacitycontinuous for reflectiondevelopment and ofchange. stress processing skills in factors that lead to a 29successful life and that in consequence and toleranceG. Roth concretely of frustration. understands Thus emerges by the the term image of of a mature formulated normative rules Philosophy in ancient was times, the first sayings, to show concepts interest personality, which along its entire life perfects it systems of of wisdom or happiness. The philosophical concept of happiness complacency or self-control, self-motivation and perception of Hedonia comes from Aristippos of Kyrene and builds on adaptivity reality as well as the qualities of empathy and attachment.37 and wellbeing, which is expressed by positive feelings, personal satisfaction, internal control and extraversion.30 The concept of personality, what model of development is promoted? I saw that Eudaimonia implies in philosophical context a positive development in termsWhat of contenthowever development involves the there successful isn’t common development consensus ofin realized by developing the maximum development of own potential on the ultimate goal of development, which can only be achieved if in life and self-fulfillment. It comesEudaimonia from the famous as a combination Aristotle and of youWestern take intosociety. account It’s possible the responses only achieving in a generalized a general form, consensus such as: self-acceptance, personal development, interpersonal relationships, andautonomy, qualities. life Ryfftargets (1989) in daily defines activity. Here it is important to act not optimism, health, etc. 38 wish fulfillment, the possibility of an activity meaningful life, safety, 118 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES The Dimensions of Holistic Personality Development

119 Psychology as empirical science was currently occupied more own development),Wagner: as well as personal skills in behavior towards with the pathological aspects of human behavior than developing a crisis (see a positive meaning, inner peace, an attitude of calm) and concrete social support systems. successful life does not merely mean the absence of disease or failure 45 -promotable which led in profile recent to years reach toa “good the development life”, a positive of development. a new perspective For a positive sense to less pleasant activities, identifying with personal embodied in the “positive psychology” program. However the targets,Third commitment Brandtstädter to meaningful brings into projects, view the the ability capacity to provide to adapt a psychological parameters (personality and temperament39 factors, between the development potential and limitations, and overcoming sociodemographic factors, marital status and age factors, situation “optimization” problems through positive activities. All these are factors) present in empirical studies until now only a moderate important premises for a successful development.46 causality towards the state of subjective contentment.40 Personal values and attitudes each affect human behavior, they resilience in the face of problems and a sustainable good condition are however only partially convertible. Happiness, wellbeing and both theFinally causes Brandtstädter and the result sees of a successfulin the adaptive life management. potential, Thethe contentment do not constitute permanently sustainable elements adaptive potential enables the individual to plan an active life, but in life, so that a successful development does not automatically at the same time the possibility of compensation and overcoming mean a good feeling.41 Starting from the elements of a general the losses and balancing the needs and personal interests in the successful personality social community.47 development, for which he formulates general criteria, which raise theconsensus chance Brandstdtädterof success, contentment talks about and happiness,a regardless of the path, the direction or development context. He believes that Holistic Development of Personality in Contemporary Society Final Considerations where Hedonistic pleasure blends with everyday usefulness and moralthe biggest goodness. Eudaimonic42 profits come from customs and activities The complexity of today’s society requires the urgent need of a holistic development of the human personality. Reaching a personal maturity and freedom of decision regarding achieving self realization and toFirst, their it iscompatibility the ability and with willingness the needs, of personal interests reflection and goals that of also constituted the base goal of the Cultural Revolution of the 20th othersis needed and vis-à-vis in analyzing the proposed the fail targets,situations. the Inself achieving needs and long-term interests century. The 21st Century is however marked by contradictions: targets auto regulative skills and emotional control are needed, that on the one hand holds many opportunities and possibilities, on the implies the ability to expect and to give up an immediate gain in other hand however - many risks, limitations and dangers.48 favor of long-term gain.43 In the ongoing process of change of current society the the “principle of intelligence” which directs more on the unity of individual is compelled to continually adapt to what is “new” and to In this context Korsgaard (1997) recalls 44 dictates of so-called freedom, the feeling of being alone responsible will andSecondly minimizing it comes the intra- to qualities and interpersonal that are at conflicts, the basis than of on a forredefine his own its identity.life. The individual lives and suffer today under the frameworkthe question of of resourcesefficiency. which makes it possible to overcome 49 the critical situations in life and keeping a positive outlook about themselves and life. This includes both social skills to achieve and selfQualification life objectives. for a Thestrong individual personality has toimplies create today in the the midst ability of social contacts (a friendly spirit, help, interest of knowledge and ato pluralist cope in anworld ever abundant changing ofworld meanings and to and find values and clarify a self a ideology, purpose 120 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES The Dimensions of Holistic Personality Development 121 which consists of a personal self concept, a concept of the world, Wagner: So the optimization process of the individual involves a continuous54 dispute with new options and possibilities task is a great challenge, especially for young adults and requires a self-fulfillment. lota concept of personal of personal skills along values with and social a reflected and material image of resources society. Thisand by swinging the balance between personal needs and society’s a value-political framework for action. But a strong personality, expectations.of choice. But It precisely can support a stable its own personality perspective is against ultimately the majority, defined which has a strong self-awareness and50 professionalism can and but also at the same time is able to succumb its own interests and must face the challenges and contradictions of the 21st / century. needs in favor of the group. It becomes obvious that contemporary society through its51 If the desire of personal55 development represents an individual’s structural complexity and challenges automatically imposes a personal need—this surely depends on his own conception of holistic development of the human personality. A holistic image man and self. Unfortunately many people cannot translate this of the individual involves an ample vision on him, in which the need in life positively.56 According to Rattner the engine of human size and areas of personality development are in a relationship of development is the aspiration57 after personal value, which needs to interdependence and are perceived as a whole. be anchored in the community. In this regard it proves important 52 the fact to help reduce blockades both interior and exterior, in order a holistic view of human personality, even if—due to pluralism— to activate the continuous development impulse. thereWe is no saw promoted that modern concrete psychological model of its concepts content. already The dialectical contain 58 understanding of human development—based on reciprocity between interior genetic elements and environmental action—also proves to be right for a holistic vision of human development, as NOTES 1 Toni Faltermaier, et. al. (2014). Entwicklungspsychologie des Erwachsenen- well as expanding the concept of personality development over the alters. entire lifespan. 2 Charlotte Mickler, Selbstbezogene Weisheit: ein Instrument zur Messung Development of human personality takes place in a space of von Persönlichkeitsreife.3. Vollständ. überarb. Entwicklung, Auflage., Kohlhammer Validierung (Stuttgart: und Alterseffekte Verlag, 2002),(Bremen: 35. possibilities, in which the individual—due to external and internal Dissertation, 2004), 21. factors—makes only one side. This horizon of possibilities—limited 3 Rolf Oerter, Leo Montada, eds., Entwicklungspsychologie by the constitutional and cultural factors—raises the question 4 . 6., vollst. überarb. regarding a good choice, maybe even the best in the despondent Aufl. Beltz PVU (Basel: Weinheim, 2008), 5–6. Was ist Leben? setting. So a successful development depends not only on the Ursula M. Staudinger, „Möglichkeiten und Grenzen menschlicher Erfahrungen über die Lebensspanne,“ in J. Hacker and M. Hecker, eds., Vorträge anläslich der Jahresversammlung vom 23. bis 25. September 2011 zu Halle on the attitude towards boundaries and obstacles. (Saale).Arnold Schriftenreihe Lohaus, Marc Nova Vierhaus, Acta Leopoldina., Entwicklungspsychologie Stuttgart: Wissenschaftlichen des Kindes- und fulfillmentThe direction of desires of developmentand reaching targets the proposed areas of targets, 53thinking, but feeling also JugendaltersVerlagsgesellschaft,5 für Bachelor 2012), : Lesen, 257. Hören, Lernen im Web and action where there are losses, progresses or stagnations. Even (Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, 2013), 2. if the direction of development turns out to be dependent on the 6 . 2., überarbeitete Auflage cultural context there are basic criteria which condition a successful Wachstum und Reifung in Natur und Ursula Gesellschaft. M. Staudinger, Gaterslebener „Demographischer Begegnung 2011 Wandel(Deutsche und Akademie Wachstum– der development. In this respect it is imposed still the necessity of research ein Widerspruch?“ in Anna M. Wobbus, and psychological-empirical deepening of a “good life” criteria. 7 P. B. Baltes and M. M. Baltes, „Optimierung durch Selektion und Kompensa- Finally, in the present society development it is about balance tion:Naturforscher Ein psychologisches Leopoldina: Modell Halle, 2012),erfolgreichen 175. Alterns,“ in Zeitschrift für Päda- between society and the individual, between social solidarity and gogik

, 35 (1979): 85ff. 122 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES The Dimensions of Holistic Personality Development 123

Wagner: 8 Positive Entwicklung: zur Psychologie gelingender Contrasts of personal expressiveness (eudaimonia) and hedonic enjoyment,” Lebens Journal of Personality & Social Psychology Jochen Brandtstädter, 30 Comp. Michael Argyle, The psychology of happiness in 9Psychologie (Heidelberg: Verlags Spektrum Union Akademischer Verlag, 2011), 9. Stefanie Theves, Hedonistisches und Eudämonistisches (64/1993). Wohlbefinden (2011) 10 Comp.D. Ulich, Patricia „Krise und H. Entwicklung.Miller, Theorien Zur Psychologie der Entwicklungspsychologie der Seelischen Gesundheit“. Aus d. www.sinnforschung.org/gesellschaftsrelevant/hedonistisches-undeudamonis, Methuen/London: 1987;- (München: 1987), 85ff. (Last accessed November 6, 2014). 31 Amerikan. übers. von Angelika Hildebrandt-Essig. Mit e. Vorw. zur dt. Ausg. von tisches-wohlbefinden Journal of Personality & Social Brigitte11 Rollett. (Heidelberg, Berlin: Spektrum, Akad. Verl, 1993), 39; Oerter, PsychologyMickler 2004, 24ff.; Theves, 2011; C. D. Ryff, Happiness is Everything, or is Montada12 Manfred 2008; Amelang, Faltermaier Differentielle et.al. 2002.33. Psychologie und Persönlichkeitsforschung. 6. It?32 Exploration of the Psychological Wellbeing,” Brandtstädter, 2011, 9. health measures,”6/1989. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 13 Comp. Faltermaier, 2014. 33 Mickler 2004, 25–26; comp. WilliamWahrheitstheorien C. Compton, “Factor : eine structure Auswahl of aus mental den volls.14 Fritz überarbeitete Riemann, AuflageGrundformen (Stuttgart: der W. Angst: Kohlhammer Eine tiefenpsychologische GmbH, 206), 47. Studie, Diskussionen über Wahrheit im 20. Jahrhundert (71/1996). Comp. Gunnar Skirbekk, ed., P. Borkenau, and F. Ostendorf NEO Fünf Faktoren Inventar nach Costa und Mc 34 Mickler, 2004, 26. . hrsg. und eingel. von Gunnar CraeBasel,15 (NEO-FFI). München: Taschenbuch Ausgabe Reinhard, , 2009. Skirbekk. - 1. Aufl., Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp,Glück 1977. und Wohlwollen. Versuch 16 Hermann-Josef Fisseni, Persönlichkeitspsychologie: auf der Suche nach über35 Ethik Philosophie der einer Wissenschaft;Manual., ein Theorienüberblick. 2. Aufl., Hogrefe, Göttingen: Verlag, 2008. Lebenskunst.Brandtstädter Eine Grundlegung 2011, 27; comp. R. Spaemann, 36 , Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1989; Wilhelm Schmidt, 17 Bildung braucht Persönlichkeit.2.Aufl., Wie(Göttingen: Lernen gelingt Hogrefe (Stuttgart: Verl. für , Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1998.Gesellschaft Klett-Cotta,Psychologie, 2011), 1991), 36ff. 267. im ÜbergangNoelle-Neumann,. Problem-aufrisse Elisabeth und (1995). Antizipationen Erinnerung (Baden-Baden: an die Entdeckung Nomos 18 Gerhard Roth, des Wertewandels“ in J. Volker Kreyher, and Carl Böhret, Hrsg., Theoretical advances in life course 37 Roth, 2011, 308. researchComp. G. O. Hagestad, “Trends and dilemmas in life course research: An Verlagsgesellschaft,38 1995), 28–29. Social Philosophy and Policy international perspective,” in W.R. Heinz, ed.,

1920 Iibd.,, Weinheim11. Deutscher Studien Verlag, 1991. SeeComp. M. L.E. C. P. Becker, Seligman “Good and lives: M. Csikszentmihalyi, Prolegomena,” „Positive Psychology: An 21 Brandtstädter, 2011, 10–11. Introduction,“(9/1992):39 15–37. American Psychologist 22 Entwicklungstheorien. Psychologischen Theorien 40 der menschlichenOerter, Montada Entwicklung. 2008, 17; comp. Lohaus, Vierhaus, 2013, 6. 41 Ibid., 17. , 55/2000. Flammer, August (2009). 42 Brandtstädter, 2011, 28–29. 23 4., vollst. überarb. Auflage (Bern: Huber Verlag 43 Ibid., 23. Hogrefe24 J. B. AG,Asendorf, 2009), Psychologie20–21. der Persönlichkeit 44 Ibid., 66–67. See Miller 1993, 39–40. Ethics and Practical Reason Mickler, 2004, 21. . 2., überarb. und aktualisierte C. M. Korsgaard, The Normativity of Instrumental Reason,” in G. Cullity & B.

Auflage2526 Comp. (Berlin: U. M. Springer–Verlag,Staudinger, M. Marsiske, 1999), 14ff.; and P. comp. B. Baltes, Oerter, „Resilience Montada, and 2008, reserve 10ff. Gaut,4546 Ibid. eds., , Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997. capacity in later adulthood: Potentials and limits of development across the life 47 Ibid., 24; 67ff. span,” in D. Cicchetti and D. J. Cohen, eds., Developmental psychopathology. Vol. 2: 48 Postmoderne und Persönlichkeit : Theorie - Risk, disorder, and adaptation EmpirieIbid, – 25; Perspektiven. 66. 2008), 12. 27 Immanuel Kant, Immanuel Kant in Rede und Gespräch. hrsg. und eingel. von Comp.Rolf Frankenberger, Berhard Heinzlmaier, Gerd Meyer, Performer, Styler, Egoisten. Über eine Jugend, der , New York: Wiley, 1995. die49 Alten die Ideale abgewöhnt1. Aufl. haben(Baden-Baden: Nomos, 28 2013), 22. RudolfComp. Malter, Richard Hamburg: M. Ryan, Meiner Edward Verlag, L. Deci, 1990. “On happiness and human potentials: Helmut Klages, Wertedynamik.. 1. Aufl. Über (Berlin: die Archiv Wandelbarkeit der Jugendkulturen des A 29review Mickler of 2004,research 23–24. on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being,” Annual Review SelbstverständlichenVerlag50 KG, of Psychology (Zürich: Edition Interfrom, 1988), 147. (52/2001); A. S. Watermann, “Two conceptions of happiness: 124 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES

51 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435125 AmgartenFrido Pflüger,eds., Minimalia „Katholische christlicher Schule Bildungspraxis als missionarischer. Das christliche Ort – die Verständnis besondere vonSituation Bildung in in den einem neuen konfessionsneutralen Bundesländern,“ inStaat Wolfgang Müller, Bruno Santini- 2006), 188. Regina Obermayr-Breitfuss, Intuition – Theorie (Zürich: und praktische Theologischer Anwendung. Verlag, 52

2. Aufl., (Books on Demand: 2009), 83–84. 53 Zapf, Individualisierung und Sicherheit untersuchungen zur Lebensqualität Church Dynamics and Rural Development: in 54der Brandtstädter, Bundesrepublik 2011, Deutschland 13. Beck Verlag, W. The Case of the Baptist Churches in Romania 55 J. Rattner, „Über der Begriff der seelisch-geistigen(München: Entwicklung,“1987), 138. Psychologica. Comp. Pflüger, 2006. Miteinander56 leben lernen. Zeitschrift für Tiefenpsychologie, Persönlichkeitsbildung Daniel Fodorean, PhD und Kulturforschung (3/2006): 12. Baptist Theological Institute of Bucharest, Romania Katharina Kaminski, Selbstwertstreben und Selbstwertgefühl. Traditionen Liberty University Divinity School, United States und57 Perspektiven University Law School, Romania [email protected] 58 (Göttingen V/R Unipress, 2014), 317. Rattner, 2006, 13–14.

the study of the relationships between urban and rural sociologic ABSTRACT:contexts. This Holistic paper assertsdevelopment that one of of a societythe contemporary can also be imbalances defined as that exist in the Romanian society is related to the difference between fairly large urban setting and the rural one. This imbalance manifests itself both in social, economic, emotional and religious aspects. In general, Romanian village has been affected by all these changes that took place in Romania during the most recent years. Therefore, a holistic development of the national society would mean the narrowing of this gap through a combination between foreign investment in the villages and the existing resources provided by the inhabitants of the villages. As an intervening variable, this paper analyzes what the Church is able to do to support rural development.

In answering these questions, this article focuses exclusively on theWhat presence should ofbe Baptistdone to Churches change thein rural dynamics areas, of based rural on Churches? my own research and personal involvement. The article will also outline some

particularly the strategy for revitalization of the Baptist churches in orderof the tomost bring influential a positive factors contribution that affect to social the ruralrural development.development;

KEY WORDS: Rural Development, Church Dynamics, Baptist Church

125 126 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Fodorean: Church Dynamics and Rural Development 127

General Factors That Influence Rural Development in Romania been a considerable decrease in population. Romania’s population citizens finally in legal terms, which is why in recent years there has hat prompted the Romanian village to get in this situation not On July 1, 2010, The National Statistical Institute estimated the began to decline soon after 1990, when the gates were opened West. rural society. inhabitants per km2. Central Commission for population and housing so good? We will reflect just a few of the main factors affecting census,existence issued of 20,294,683 in a press releaseRomanian dated population August 24, and 2012, density preliminary of 89.9 1) The Economic Factor results on census population estimates that the number of resident Limitation of jobs available and the lack of investors have made 2. Because there Wthe rural economy to become very weak. This, he forced people to are margins of error for such statistics, the results are approximate leave the countryside and move to the cities. The main source of butpopulation show that is 19,043,767, Romania is of continuously which 9,764,011 decreasing women population.The income in rural areas was agriculture but lack of investors has been main factor in population decline is emigration to other countries. were pointing toward cities. that itThe does changing not provide professional financial statussupport of tothe the rural population, areas observed so they theirBecause number the migration is estimated flow somewhere is in constant around development, two or three it million. is very difficultIn toterms estimate of distribution the number in of the Romanian territory, leaving the Romanians the country, have but shortage of employees, due to the reduction of industrial involvement a more pronounced level of rurality. Rural settlements are less toafter provide the 1990s alternative forecasts sources that of in income. the coming It is estimated years there only willbetween be a populated and smaller scale as an alternative to urban settlements. 1 Out of 4 million people employed in rural areas registered in early the population lived in urban areas, and census results show that 1996 and 2008 the number of employees decreased by almost 25%. Last Statistical Yearbook 2010 shows that3. The approximately statistics show 55% that of people are moving towards cities or at least around them. population2008, only accounted segments for(those 1.56 whomillion have compared the source to 4.6 of millionincome) urban was the urban population dropped to 52.8% caused,employees. mainly, This due substantial to the increasing decrease number of about of 255 retired 000 persons. employed 3) The Internal Migration Factor for rural inhabitants, this “job” was not fully borrowed and their was the predominant direction from rural areas to urban areas. descendants.As after Moreover,1990, agriculture rural areas became have beenthe main drained source of manpower of income Regarding internal migration between the 70s and 90s, it with the young and the most in the vast unable to continue engaging (villages) in urban centers (cities) began to decline and mobility in in agriculture. Socio-economic context is determined by economic theSince opposite 1992 the direction number (from of those urban who areas have to moved rural areas) from rural increased, areas power available to Romania. which was mainly due to as economic transition and declining work opportunities in cities. 2) Demographic Factor Demography is the science that studies, using quantitative the number of those who have moved from rural to urban centers, methods, the phenomena and processes on the numbers, whichAfter partially 1997 is migration due to the from phenomenon rural to urban of urbanization. areas has exceeded4 geographical distribution, structure, density, movement of human Sociologist Mircea Kivu in a brief interview to a magazine newspaper said that “the most surprising news of the preliminary communist regime, it was possible to leave the country by Romanian results of census 2011 trend reversal evolution ratio population population and its composition by age, gender. With the fall of the 128 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Fodorean: Church Dynamics and Rural Development

129 urban—rural population.” (Internal migration, people moving no place for people who do not know Him. Too often the work was from urban areas in rural 5areas.) Due to urban-rural migration, understand as a job and things took a strange turn. to be treated with seriousness church work in rural areas receive The leader must have a clear vision, the latter meaning not special attention. The number of those who move to areas adjacent to cities has greatly increased in recent years, and if it is a time to be vision toward the Church. Leadership is responsibility of what addressed more serious activity of the Church in Romania in rural only to have some ideas for church, and he must share God’ given areas, now is the time. received. Studies show that church models that have experienced revitalizationGod has provided and and growth not the worldwide least responsibility are those thatfor what the leader and the church got passion and vision, as the two most important Church Revitalization and Rural Development elements that people have been attracted to Christ8. However in

1) Select Visionary, Competent and Dedicated Leadership! confused with their own desires and their own prospects. Because Church ministers must be actively involved in church life even the process, there is a danger that the vision offered by God to be if serving in churches in rural areas. For this reason, “it takes a big man to lead a small church.”6 The leader plays an important role of this risk, the vision of God has some specific elements: throughout this strategy, because he is the person to whom all will church.* God offers the vision; He is the initiator. head to look in the process towards him they will be forwarded * No vision should not goes beyond the God’s intended purpose for problems and he will have to have answers. John Brown, in the nineteenth century by one of his students wrote a letter that had opinion* Fulfilling of thethe churchvision God leadership. through His people. just been ordained leading a small congregation: * Vision is God’s will for that particular church and not a personal 2) Recognize the Need for Change and Get Involved in This I know the vanity of your heart and that you will feel frustrated that your congregation is probably very small compared to Change! It is not recommended to start the revitalization process unless tell you when Jesus Christ will come in before His judgment there is clear and strong conviction that there is need for a change. throne,other congregations it will appear around to have you; been but too believe much. an7 old words that The change also must start for further servant heart can partake with others change it. If someone wants rededication, there must be This active involvement of the church leader can be achieved if He compassionate and ready to be sacrificed for the Church that he special in his life when rededication to God and to the church. The outweigh the interests of his own. In the process of revitalization, difficulty will arise when someone tries to be something it is not. theleads. leader It requires must understandselflessness fromvery himclearly to putthe community place it occupies interests in Rededication to God is shown in the fact that our trust in Him grows. this process. Leaving aside the fact that some leaders have lowered Faith in God is the engine by which we believe that everything is standards should always and always to be staring at the great men made of Him and through Him. This aspect of confidence in offering God can also be used in the right confidence that leaders must have true that leaders must do everything as unto the Lord, but this does in God’s plan and vision he has for them. who have led the people of God, culminating in Jesus Christ. It is Besides the dedication to God, people must recommit to the work of God, and this means to use their spiritual gifts received make it very professionally. There can be no perfect, but God’s work from Him. God decides what is best for believers and He decide the 130 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Fodorean: Church Dynamics and Rural Development 131 spiritual gifts shared for each believer. The right man in the right may have or have them but not use them to produce spiritual revival place seems to be an appropriate way to illustrate how important it and social impact. These are:

Christians serve in their spiritual endowment, they act less by their ownis for strengtheveryone and to serve more where by the God power has placedof Holy him.. Christian Generally, Schwarz when * Sharing experiences with God. 9 * Personal and Community Prayer says that “the reason this is particularly important because it is * Studying the Word for encouragement. the only way reform applies phrase ‘priesthood of all believers’”, * Close relations with each other * Used to work hard speaking Europe, „shows that 80% they do not know their spiritual There are certainly elements that hinder development of the church, and he10 presents a survey among 1,600 active Christians, German- gifts” .The survey is creepy, but perhaps this is true for many of the but focus on the positive aspects can bring church where it is. faithful Baptists in rural Romania. The church should create different ministries in which they engage, in order that believers to use their 4) Cooperate and Receive Support From Other Churches! spiritual gifts. There are situations where churches are lacking servants. In the process, members of the church are called to be devoted to the cause, not active participants and critical observers. Mark lost hopes. One of the best ways a rural church can be revived is While it is a fact hard to accept for some, however, they are not 11 a vine has many branches, one body has many members.” Each both sides. In order to achieve this partnership every church must Dever said that “temple has many bricks, a flock has many sheep, understandthe support theof other need churches,you have the usually other. larger. A concrete Winnings example can ofbe this for right connections and collaborations is the attitude that the Church member of the Body of Christ must fulfill his job. 3) Use Resources That Already Exist in Rural Churches! of Corinth has for Christians Macedonia (1 Corinthians 8). Then it Even if there are few resources in rural churches they need indicates the strategy missionary apostles, who were trying to send them to be exploited to the full. Churches rural tragedy is that often people consecrated for service every newly planted church. lack the “youthful energy” to call it. Most young people and young Another dimension of this collaboration is partnering with families go to big cities to aim for a better future. First, it must use other churches in rural areas. In this sense, refers not only to support the resources that are handy. To be asked for help, everything can large churches that have an important role in this process, but also be used for dynamic Church. Even if we speak of older brothers or to the cooperation between them small churches in rural areas. There are several reasons for collaboration with churches in rural are closer than they appear to be. Human eyes see things stately areas is important: mostlyolder sisters, the smaller they may ones be douseful not innotice God’s them. house. Napoleon Secondly, Hillresources was a famous American author of motivational books and literature among * support in prayer and spiritual and emotional support. other things, he says, “if you can not do great things, do small things * support material according to the needs encountered. in a great way”12. Also Apostle Paul says “for consider your calling, * support for service personnel and active involvement. * maintaining the Church’s witness. * engage in service to young people and others who want the opportunity brethren, that there were not many wise according to the flesh, not to serve. ofmany the mighty,world to not shame many the noble; things but whichGod has are chosen strong” the (1 foolish Corinthians things of the world to shame the wise, and God has chosen the weak things

1:26–27). There are several small churches potential resources that 132 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Fodorean: Church Dynamics and Rural Development 133

Christian A. Schawarz, Dezvoltarea naturala a Bisericii Conclusion Impact9 Media, 2003), 23. 10 Ibid., 24. (Timisoara: Editura 11 The Church can contribute to social development in rural areas 12 Cf. (Last accessed only to the extent that it would change its state, if it changes its NovemberDever, 109.13, 2016). 13 Darrowhttp://www.citatepedia.ro/index.php?id=64518 L. Miller, Ucenicia natiunilor (Cluj: Editura Logos, 2001), 236. understand the importance of social involvement and understanding thatdynamics. all Christians However are itcalled is quite to do difficult this. Through for some the involvement Christians toof Christians in society, the world can acquire another situation, people change their evil impulses. Darrow L. Miller, try to capture this idea of ​​active involvement in global discipling people urging the sense of conscience. He says, “the earth is the representation of what is in our hearts and minds. If the mind is dull, the world will be barren. If our hearts are hardened, our world will be a tough one”13. Social involvement with the proclamation of Christian values ​​orientation can change places, cities, countries, nations and probably worldwide. The church relevant in rural areas is the responsible social context relevant area of evangelism strategies. The model effectively

Church is represented by affirming vision of each member. Thus, Socially,challenges it isneed important to be identified for the church and they to beshould involved be given to receive clear people’sanswers attentionto that then and can thereby be defined building a strategy relationships. for church growth.

NOTES 1 Mediul rural românesc: evoluții și involuții

2 CfFlavius Mihalache & Alin Croitoru, rezultate%20preliminare.pdf(București: Editura Expert, 2011),, (Last 55. accessed November 13, 2016). 3 Cf. http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/statistici/comunicate/alte/2012/RPL_http://www.recensamantromania.ro/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/ REZULTATE-DEFINITIVE-RPL_2011.pdf, (Last accessed November 13, 2016.) 4 , (Last ac- cessed November 13, 2016). http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-11403176-.htm?nomobilehttp://ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId=8835&langId=ro, (Last accessed

November5 13, 2016). 6 Sheepherding the Sheep in Smaller Churces (Dallas: Annuity

7 MarkPaul W. Dever, Powell, Ce este o Biserica sanatoasa? Board8 Ibid., Press, 26. 1995), 23. (Oradea: Editura Faclia, 2009), 38. Specific Aspects of the Church’s Contribution to A Society’s Development

Gligore: 135 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435129 and then lets it go on its own.2 On the contrary, according to Saint John Godthe Evangelist,is not just a cosmiccreation clockmaker, is continuous, who starts“My Father the mechanism worketh 3 every moment, the universe would crumble, as the inspired Psalmist confesses,hitherto; and “All I to work.” You expect If God to would give them not exercise their food His at creative the right will time. at You giving them their will gather You opening Your hand, all will be Specific Aspects of the Church’s Contribution to A Society’s Development dust.filled Sendwith Yourgood spirit things; and But they if willYou beturned build Your and renew face away, the face they of will the in the Past and Present be disturbed; take their spirit and they will end and will return to4

Daniel Gligore, PhD weearth. get The to manglory and of the his Lord relation forever! to his Rejoice Creator the andLord the in His creation works.” in [email protected] whichBased he lives. on these Man, realities,as Olivier of Clement God’s permanent says, goes care through for creation, the life Pr. Parohia Capu Dealului, Argeș, Romania

of this world looking at its unspoken depths; encounters mysteries ‘the whole law and the prophets,’ are constantly preached by the worldeverywhere is transparent, and sees the its reflection borders are of other always worlds. moving, Nothing it penetrates is closed ABSTRACT:Christian Church. ‘Love From for God’ its beginnings, and ‘love forthe all Church men,’ has which contributed include permanently to society by promoting a relationship based on love intoin itself, other nothing worlds finished, and other nothing worlds definitive penetrate fixed into in thisit. There world. is The no between people and nations, taught the people to live a disciplined impenetrable opacity in the world. The created world is not isolated from man as well as it is not isolated5 from its Creator. It was created science, to culture, diligence, and other biblical values essential to life, guided them to the knowledge of God and His edification, to human life. Therefore, this paper is meant as a reassessment of these 6 Man, created to be born, grow, multiply values in the contemporary context. andfor man become and through perfect manin nature, it fulfills has its the purpose, noble namely duty “to “to interpret share in development the freedombook of nature of God’s”, tosons.” understand the universe in his marvelous KEY WORDS: Church, teaching, knowledge of God, Gospel, society structure in its harmony and to give it a rational articulation. Man is creation’s archon and together they must reach the Creator of all.

Man: the Connecting Link Between Spirit and Matter whichNicodemus he summarizes the Hagiorite and testifiescontains that within man, him in as the a micro contemplative cosmos.7 od, One in Being and three in Persons, is the Supreme Creator prayer,Man, brings the forthlink between to God the spirit whole and sensitive matter, is and molded intelligible in the “image world of the universe in all the glory of its harmonious diversity. The 8 The human being (body and soul), in collaboration with the divine grace which was in elementary state a fundamental dimension the universe, in its continuing support and governance through of God.”his, aims to deify himself and with himself all creation, the entire theinfinite uncreated goodness divine and energies, Divine richness to participate manifests in the in richnessthe creation of the of kingdom that was created for him with this goal. GIntratrinity Divine love, in complete solidarity.1 The gracious state is man’s state of harmony9 and communion 134 with God, with himself and with the entire material and spiritual 136 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Specific Aspects of the Church’s Contribution to A Society’s Development 137 creation. In this state all creation is characterized by that interior Gligore:“In the fullness of time,”14 when the world was ready for the union of each with everything,10 whole universe becomes a transparent medium of expression and in full. Incarnation, Passion, Resurrection, Ascension and sending and of the whole with God; the thecoming Holy of Spirit the Savior, into the the world divine to grace make was the given 15presence to man of byChrist God–Man in His The primordial harmony, existent through creation, tended Church real until the end of time bring all people the divine grace, normally,manifestation naturally, of God. because of the uncreated divine energies in the objective salvation that each one and all in the spirit of love and communion with Christ must appropriate it.16 perfection, in sustaining the good, the beautiful, in communion In the baptismal consecration of Jordan, the Holy Spirit is it and due to the cooperation of man with Divine Grace to reach placed on the human nature of Christ and from Pentecost becomes the Intra-Trinity Divine Love. a worker from within human nature. The effect is the vitality and with God to glorify Him continually and thereby to forever share effectiveness of the force with which the Apostles preached unto Alone man of all visible and thoughtful was built mortal and death compared with the fear before this moment.17 immortal, visible and invisible, sensible and understandable, seer of the visible creation, knowing of the thought.11 Church–Pentecost Continued to Earth Jesus Christ or the Man’s Restoration The church is the body of Christ, is the continued Pentecost on earth, Man’s natural, native state is the gracious state, constitutive to him is the image of the Trinity, the absolute Church of the three divine Persons. The church can be understood only by experience, by grace, and breathed into his face the breath of life and made him a living 18 being.”since creation.12 The Holy God Fathers took dust state from that oncethe ground with the and breath “formed of life, man God Holy Apostles John and Peter20 has also given man divine grace. sincethrough the participation world began,” in19 itswhich liturgical shows life, that “Come the act and of see!” creating the After the Fall, the image of God in man was altered, the original world, carries in itself, beforehand, the talk Saints about Community “the Lamb in sacrificed Church, gracious state was altered but not completely destroyed. Immediately iconomy. The after the expulsion from paradise after the punishment, man receives confession of faith places the beginning of the Church in Heaven. the promise of a Redeemer who restores the possibility of regaining as the alpha and omega of any of God’s21 to talk creative to the man: thus the the gracious state and will objectively rise to the maximum approach 13 foreshadowedGod “came in the in coolthe Edenic of the evening,”state, prophetically anticipated in the essence of the Church is pictured in the bond between God and man; to God. forth the Celestial City,22 the living Church of the Lamb’s wedding. The nova” Thewhich Incarnate is just beginning, Son of God, new after creation His Resurrection, in which man blows is restored, again Old Covenant ordinance, it is fulfilled in the incarnation and puts on the Apostles, gives them the grace to work with God to the “creatio is made man, and thus It unites through marriage, which is created Holy Fathers bring forth the greatest fact of divine philanthropy: God withobjectively life”. His saved action by wasGod. inside the man. As a result of the Fall, the to the principle of consubstantiality, becomes Christ - the Church: Spirit’sSt. workCyril says:becomes “The exterior Holy Spirit to nature.was given Afterwards to first man man together is in a with what is uncreated. Jesus Christ, the23 God-Man, by extension due Beyond the image of the world that is transient, faith reveals through His Son. theGod permanent - humanity, act divine-human that does not fullness. change: the world’s destinies and fallen state, and therefore only the love of God can restore man 138 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Specific Aspects of the Church’s Contribution to A Society’s Development

139 each other’s are intertwined at the level of the Church, from this populationGligore: was content if it had bread and circuses (the most popular predetermined center of the universe. Man is saved in the Church, the arena), behold the Savior teaching to love all people, including nature.”24 thebeing enemy the gladiatorial takes shape fights—they and is taught, fought often until by blood one ofof themthe martyrs. died in thewhich Trinity: means the according unity of to human St. Peter nature that in“he the participates multiplicity in God’sof its This huge leap was made from the human dignity of Christianity, hypostases. Deified The theologyhumanity of thus the depictsChurch, the in livingits scale, “imitation” especially of with the purpose of reaching highlights the universal participation in the divine life conditions: 29 the integrity of nature and its immortality. every human being in “God’s image,” 25 deification. Moreover, Christ identifies with each of us “I was hungry and you gave Me food; I was thirsty and you gave Me drink; I was 30a Specifics of the Church’s Past Contribution to Social strangerThe and woman you tookreceived Me in;a new I was dignity naked in and Christianity. you clothed They Me; are I was the Development onessick and who you Christ took revealed care of Me; Himself I was to in after prison His and resurrection you came fromto Me.” the dead and they proclaimed the apostles. More women are mentioned as Lidia31 who was baptized together with her household, “a woman “Send You Your spirit and will be build and You will renew the named Damaris,”32 who believed the words of St. Paul etc. Continuing faceGod hasof the permanent earth.”26 care of His creation, renewing it in His spirit: this path, girls began to go to school and be active in society. Apostles and their successors, the threefold ministry (teaching, The incarnate Son of God, entrusted the Holy studied future ministers of the Holy Shrines, deacons, readers, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the copyistsThe of first manuscripts schools were etc. I setexemplify up in thethe statedChurch’s with porch. the school Here Holysanctifying Spirit, andteaching ruling): them “Wherefore, to observe goingall things and whatsoever teach all nations, I have inside the Princely Church in Curtea de Arges. There appear many commanded you, and lo, I am with you in all days, until the end of graphite inscriptions: “here I am, I signed on my own accord, the world. Amen.”27 Moreover, under the universal priesthood basis, every Christian is responsible and obliged to his peers to preach through word, Gabratin”, dated, abefore “grammar 1369, school” probably where names the teacherof craftsmen and scribe who worked on building the church. Mircea the Great certainly had in the sacramental priesthood or universal: “And you are a chosen byCurtea the princede Argeș at generation,prayer and good a royal deeds priesthood, which he areceived holy nation, in turn a peoplefrom God earned through by Michael studied, who recorded at 10 June 1415 a document issued you may proclaim to the world the greatness of Him who Mustafa Celapi came.”Argeș33: “I Michael grammarist, in Arghiş, called you out of darkness into His glorious light, you who once were July 10th in the year 6923 141 and indiction 8, during the time when God, that servants of the Church, renowned craftsmen making decorations, mercy, and now you have mercy.”28 monumentalMoreover, projects—mostly the first industrial churches schools and weremonasteries, also set sacredup by not a Churchpeople, andteaching now youis applicable are God’s people;in daily you life who and oncetouches had noall objects (Crosses, carved book covers, embroidery etc.) aspects of life. To gain an insight into the Church’s contribution to society’s development in the past, I will list some key aspects for of printing, printed with the methods of the time, were also in the human life. The first books transcribed by copyists and after the invention In full slavery period, in which people were regarded as mere Romania: Missal Octoihul Four Gospels possessions and could be sold, bought by the wealthy, and the general Church setting. The 1508 printed books are well known in present day (1508), (1510) and the (1512). 140 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Specific Aspects of the Church’s Contribution to A Society’s Development 141

preaching,Gligore: catechesis, public and private discussions, participate in a harmonious development of society. throughoutThe first the hospitals Christian were world built in also present around day Churches. Romania The being famous near Education, in the fullness of the word, is the most precious Vasiliade, founded by St. Basil the Great (IV century) were spread heritage that we can acquire or give as legacy to our children, even today in some Churches, such as the Church near Curtea de grandchildren and our fellow men, its fruits returning to those the strongest centers and being called “Bolnițe”—designation exists who give it and bearing hundredfold fruit, today and forever. I Civil legislation was Christianized, certain pagan provisions beingArgeș eliminatedmonastery. over time, like the death penalty. (“what you sow, so shall you reap”37), on the experience of humanity Over time hierarchs were close advisers of kings but also synthesizedbase these affirmations in history (nations on the whoWord had of aLife sound in the education Holy Scripture both in theory and applied in real life day endured most - and I mention misunderstandings etc., they were part of the Royal Council, took here our ancestors, the Dacians, for which culture, education and thehelped place with of diplomaticthe King when missions, he was mediation gone, etc, of certainall of these conflicts because and religious life were essential, educated people, as a percentage, it is they were highly educated men and well trained. Romanian Country reached only in modern times by us,38 the applicability in everyday rulers, along with the hierarchs who consecrated their rule and guided life is visible in the family care - as shown by scenes from Trajan’s them and the people in good faith to Christ, were followers of the Column in which captive Dacians protect their little ones and their best Roman and Byzantine traditions. After the fall of Constantinople wives) but also on own experience. Through education, we take the fruits of the Holy Spirit, the sap wisdom39 gained by predecessors, those who preserved and supported the Orthodox Church both in preparing us at the same time to go through the future: “Hear the theto the country Turks and (1453), throughout Romanian the Countrywhole Orthodox rulers and world hierarchs of the time.were instruction, to get wise!”40 the Priest wrote: “in all sides from the East to the West and from Noon toExamples Night, all are holy Radu churches the Great he fed and and Neagoe showed Basarab. much mercyAbout everywhere.last, Gabriel lose his own soul? Or what shall a man give in exchange for “What is a41 man profited, if he shall gain the whole world, and And wasn’t only good to Christians, but also to the pagans, and was a his soul?” merciful father to all, resembling the heavenly Lord, who shines His sun and rains on the righteous and on the wicked, as shown by the Gospel.”34 With this question begins the Catechism, or the Foundations of Faith. Romanian Country was successor of the Byzantine heritage, being a It’s a question that at first glance, is related to religion, very few even trueTherefore it is justified the claim” Moreover,of historian in RomanianNicolae Iorga Country that the question’s connotations that our Savior Jesus Christ asks, starting “Byzantium after Byzantium. among believers taking it seriously. Let’s briefly take a look at this cultural heritage of the Byzantine Empire bloomed and brought forth from the root of human life, ie at the stage of infancy and childhood. Most of us, bodily or spiritual parents, we do our best for our bodily children or our spiritual children. Often we endure many to The Christian Church has always urged to knowledge: “And this provide them whatever they need, to not want of anything, to be isa culture, eternal anlife: art that and they an Orthodox may know Christian You, the life only specific true God,to Romanians. and Jesus happy, to have, as the saying goes, everything we lacked. This is the Christ whom Thou hast sent to knowledge and skill in all aspects general mentality. But what is the biggest dowry that we can give of life, from the words of Sacred35 Scripture: “Leave the unwiseness to to children and our fellow men? stay alive and walk on the right;” path of understanding!”36 Through the religious education but cultural and social that The answer has to do with the human being in its complexity, the Holy Church ministers give parishioners of all kinds, through body and soul. The most precious dowry is faith (here we understand 142 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Specific Aspects of the Church’s Contribution to A Society’s Development 143

TheGligore: explanation is simple. Man is composed of body and soul, acquiring wisdom, understanding, harmony and all deep values. and if he is fed only materially then he becomes unfortunate, he is our loveLet for me God illustrate and others with and a reality the whole described building in theof God), Holy education, Scripture unbalanced. The believer at any time of life, even in moments when and continued in the Holy Tradition. It is about the rich man who he feels overwhelmed by certain situations, persecuted or even came to Jesus and asked him what to do to gain eternal life. After he tortured, he retains his balance and even joy for having communion the Savior told him to sell all he has to divide it to the poor, and followtestified Him that and from thus childhood be complete. he fulfilled The young all the man words saddened, in the Law,says believerswith Christ, who the survived Son of Godthe torturesIncarnate, and he persecutions is certain that with this dignity, life is the Scripture because he was rich. From the Holy Tradition we learn fleeting and full happiness waits for him. So I was happy to see we trust in ourselves and in our wallet, as a fragile mentality does, Romans destroyed Jerusalem leaving not one stone upon another, with prayer and could have a tremendous emotional balance. When hewhat realized happened the words next! Heof the continued Savior and living their as before,absolute and validity. when the thewe wouldsituation crash is under at any the imbalance protection together of the Heavenly with our Fatherwallet. that Who does has things, is had by any rich man in material things, who gives material notGod allow the Father, temptation as we say greater in the than Lord’s the Prayer—Our power and Father,the help whatever that He wealthThis to experiencechildren, relatives, of the young but doesn’t man in thealso Gospel, offer spiritual rich in material riches, offers His sons and daughters. which are part of the human soul, the result being well known. How many wealthy individuals do not keep their children in luxury, pampering them with everything, how many people do not give Hold On to What You Promised Yourself Into! fabulous fortunes to their followers but without preparing them not crush by them, how many people who gained fabulous sums Steadfastness in the vocation we have. It was during my most beautiful

Where the mind is not, woe is the foot. “Hold what you promised yourself and occupy yourself into that fully overnightAnalyzing have reached these we how understand they got. What better is aboutthe explanation? the profound We updays and in collegerejoice, whenand fully I read enhance from the your Wisdom work. of. . Jesus. Trust son in of the Sirach: Lord valuesfind in itthat the we people: can give to those we love and care about. Material and stay fully in thy labor. . . . The blessing of the Lord is the reward of the believer and in an hour rather raises His blessing.”42 I confess fundamental to the life of our peers. that in many moments of life this wisdom, and many others, which dowry has its role, is pleasing to God, but spiritual heritage is we hear in sermons in Church, at spiritual evenings, round meals, younger generation? I will summarize a few key dimensions: symposiums etc., helped me to be mentally balanced and live my a.What Prayers has alland this religious got to knowledgedo with preaching essential the to Gospelthe Christian to the of various international awards have reached the certainty of the operatedlife more thanon by anything career doctor, else. We who learn does a itlot from and theforget passion a lot. andCounts, has life. Their role is essential. Great scholars, academicians, laureates as wisdom says, that remains after we forget. What it means to be even if he cannot live from it and is forced to work something else to existence of a Creator and testified in their works, as reason has made it all his life? What it means a career priest who serves fondly whoguided have them gained to God. the wholeArriving world here (known they grew everywhere, in knowledge with butcolossal also career teacher who educates children without thinking how much is fortunes,in the joy ofwith life. everything The reverse? we What can imagine) happened but with they many came celebrities to drug valuedsupport or his paid family by the or to society, support with his thepriestly awareness mission? that What his pupilit means may a addiction, psychological treatments, reaching to suicidal gestures. be tomorrow’s neurosurgeon who will operate on his brain. This is 144 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Specific Aspects of the Church’s Contribution to A Society’s Development

145 the difference between having and not having a religious education. tomorrow’sGligore: young and a little later will be the next generation of realize your own limitations and the inability of those around you, Another significant aspect! In difficult moments in life when you isdoctors, this taught? teachers, At Church, mayors, at priests, the Religion etc. What class, is at more spiritual rewarding evenings for raising, salvation from the hardships of life. anda parent reading in old books age thanuseful to to see the his body children and soul. worshiping him? Where communion with God is the only way that gives you hopes of healing, c) Learn to do good deeds to fellow men, with the assurance . “As you did it to one of these too small What You Sow; So Shall You Reap! brothers of Mine, You have done it to Me.” importantthat God identifies for a parent, with grandparent,them and a45 normal person than to a) If we baptized the children and feed them physically, we contribute after means and prowess to the pursuit What of could this goal? be more This also need to feed them spiritually and to care for their training in is the pinnacle of education and good growth. Be polite, do good the complexity of the human being. Education is human being’s deeds, to be forgiving, to rejoice even when someone does or says food, and the religious dimension is basis, the journey but also the something bad to you. d) Providing spiritual and physical health for the children. Through religious education they are taught to discern right from allfinality for admission of man’s forming. to college. I objectify His Lordship this with House the was model a true of Professor cultural- wrong, thus acknowledging the disaster of sins materialized in educationalAlexandru Ionescu, center God(is my rest model him with and theI wish righteous. to be aHe teacher), tutored allus various deeds or vices: drinking, smoking, drugs, prostitution, rooms were occupied by his or his wife’s disciples. His children depression etc. How expensive is this? were not given a great material dowry but gave them spiritual food men, with families and everything they need, and Ms. Ionescu, the By Giving, You Shall Acquire! children’sand cultural mother, heritage got toand see God the worldhelped with them the all help to ofbecome who was great the mother of both bodily and spiritual. How much difference between e) They have the consciousness link between helping others the Christian family and those receiving all for granted and not and salvation. “He who turned the sinner from the error of his way will save his soul from death, and shall cover the multitude of sins.” 46 Father Calinic, Hierarch of Arges and Muscel, asked us something So an essential work of every Christian in life is to be an apostle of knowing to appreciate anything! At the end of college, His Eminence religious education both at school and in the Church and society. that we put to heart was: “Be not deceived: God will not be mocked; Let’s think about the value of this aspect. The wise man sowing grain fordifferent: what you “What sow, sois shalleveryone’s you reap favorite.” 43 verse?” Finally, the verse having the best seeds to have a blessed harvest, also gives seeds to years have passed since, what does religious education received Here then, after more than 15 rewards—is a material aspect—if the neighbors all have good seeds theyhis neighbors. avoid the dangerAlong with of interbreeding the religious and aspect cultural - God degradation multiplies anddue from individuals dedicated to serving God mean. We forgot a lot, but neighborhood with inferior kinds. Thus we have the awareness that said,some ‘Honor were printed your father and bear and fruit,your mother.”with the 44help Parents of God, who in ourencourage hearts. spiritual advantage also implies material advantage, since the Lord childrenb) Respect to take both for parents, religion grandparents class in school and and all to fellowalso go men: to Church “God is the Possessor of the spiritual world and the material one, the two services, actually support and honor themselves, ensuring that they are interdependent. will be respected by their children and other children who will be 146 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Specific Aspects of the Church’s Contribution to A Society’s Development 147

All of us have experienced the joy of faith in different factual Gligore: circumstances of our lives or our relatives, this feeling reminding 1920 Rev. 13:1–8 me of the words of Nicholas Stainhard “giving you acquire” and the 21 22 Rev1 Peter 21:22 1:19 23 Gen 3:8 share it with another, otherwise it is just in you.” 24 2 Peter 1:4 wisdom of historian : “Wisdom is yours only when you Evdochimov, 1996, 137. the best and, above all, to help us bring forth in us the love, which 2526 Ps 103:31 Evdochimov, 1996, 137. accordingGod to bless the counsel us with of joy, St. faith, John hope,the Evangelist, wisdom, steadfastnessis immortal, it inis 27 28 eternal because “God is love and he who remains in love remains in Mt 28:19–20 47 God and God in him.” 2930 I Peter 2:9–10 31 ActsGen 1:2716:14 32 ActsMat 25:35–3617:34 NOTES 33 DRH, B, 34 This information comes from a brief note recorded during the seventeenth 1 Teologia Dogmatică Ortodoxă Ţara Românească, vol. I, doc. 38, p. 80-82. Neagoe Basarab. Cf. 2 Dumitru Stăniloae,Sacerdo ţiul omului. Omul–preot al, crea Vol. ţ I,iei (București: Editura Sfântul Neagoe Basarab, voievodul Ţării Româneşti – EdituraInstitutului Dacpress, Biblic şi 2004), de Misiune 7. al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, 1996), 287. Argumentecentury by pentrua monk canonizare, Gavriil the Tropar, Elder Condac,of the Holy Sinaxar, Mount Slujba Athos şi Acatistul in reference (Curtea to 3 Daniel: 17Gligore, (Curtea de Argeș: 4 John 17:3 de Argeş: Editura Episcopiei Argeşului şi Muscelului, 2009), 8. John 5 Ascetica şi Mistica Ortodoxă, Vol. II (Alba Iulia: Editura Deisis, 3536 37 5 Ps 103:28–32 38 Solomon 9:6. 6 RomDumitru 8:21 Stăniloae, roman,Gal medicina,6:7 matematica),” in Dumitru Protase, Alexandru Suceveanu, eds., 1993),7 Nichifor 18. Crainic, Sfinţenia împlinirea umanului i: IstoriaMihai românilor, Bărbulescu, Daco-romani, „Învăţământul Romanici, (literatura, Alogeni filosofia, mitologia,: Editura dreptul 164. , Colecţia „Teologie şi , vol. II, (Bucureşti Spiritualitate”8 Nr. 2, (Iaș Editura Mitropoliei Moldovei şi Bucovinei, Trinitas, 1993), Enciclopedică,39 2001),Bucuria 228. Credinţei, 40 SolomonEliza Milcă, 8:33 „Din cuvântările Preotului Daniel Gligore, ‚Educaţia şi roadele ei. 910 VladimirGenesis 1:26–27 Soloviov, Fundamentele spirituale ale vieţii, Traducere de Diac. Ioan I. Gligore, 2004, 13. Astăzi41 Mat şi 16:26în veci,’” in nr. 2/ (2015-2016): 42. 42 11 Ion Bria, Tratat de Teologie Dogmatică şi Ecumenică Ică (Alba Iulia: Editura Deisis, 1994), 88. 43 44 Wisdom 11:21–24 12 , Colecţia Didaskalos Gal 6:7 (Bucure13 şti: Editura România Creştină, 1999), 107. 46 Mat 15:4 14 Gen 2:7 45 Gen 3:15 47 1Mat John 25:40 4:16 James 5:20 15 Gal 4:4 în Argeşul ortodox, Ioan–Gheorghe Rotaru, “Fie ca învierea lui Iisus să ne schimbe inimaanul XI, şi nr.să ne mărească credinţa!,” Săptămânal teologic, bisericesc și de atitudine16 al Arhiepiscopiei Argeșului și Muscelului, Curtea de Argeș, 546,17 Paul 25 aprilie–2 Evdochimov, mai Ortodoxia (2012): 5. Gligore, 2004, 37

18 , Traducere de Irineu Ioan Popa (Bucureşti: Editura Institutului Biblic şi de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, 1996), 159. Ibid., 135. An Analysis of the Moral–Religious Values in the U.S.A. and Europe

149 TheRăcilă: role of religion in the contemporary society has become DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435133 Indonesia and Pakistan. A quick reading of Fig. 1, will be convincing enoughincreasingly to notice significant that Christianity, particularly Islam in USA, and SriHinduism, Lanka,2 Thailand,are large

the main religions that reshape the values in contemporary society andenough the tobest manifest example a instrong this caseinfluence is the in revitalization the public life. of religionThese are in An Analysis of the Moral–Religious Values in the U.S.A. and Europe Hindus and non-Hindus (e.g., Christians, Muslims, and others), in PakistanIndia. While Islamization Hindu nationalism of the civil society led to has some made distancing inroads during between the from a Sociological Perspective reassert Islamic identity. The impact of such religious activity led to Ion–Lucian Răcilă, PhD thelast marginalization four or five decades; of religions as governments that had smaller and regular number citizens of members. try to Independent Scholar, Romania [email protected]

ABSTRACT: This paper serves as a sketchy comparative analysis of religious values from the perspectives of European and American cultures. Using the sociological method, the author presents a trend analysis of the role that religious and moral values play in the private and public life. Because values are rooted in their substrate and social change, the sociological positivist theory of classic transition is analyzed in its relationship with the trend of relativism. They highlight the living conditions and interests, as they meet in the nodal point of legal positivism. Fig. 1. The graph great religions in the contemporary world

KEY WORDS: society, religion, values, moral In Sri Lanka, the politicization of Buddhism had already taken place Introduction for some time—the Buddhist monks playing an active role in the government and holding political positions—and this led to a sense of political confusion and antagonism. ames Vander Zanden once wrote that “conceptions values ensure In Israel, one can see a similar pattern, where one can argue that Jthat we assess people, objects and events, and we appreciate their Judaism had been somewhat distorted as it had been highjacked by violent organizations. The militarization of the Zionist movement led in some instances the ultimate rational for the choices we make in to the marginalization of various religious (Muslim and Christian), life.”importance1 based on merit, beauty or morality. We appeal to values and ethic minorities (Palestinians). In a different way, religious fervor is noticeable also in the understood With these in the words United in mindStates and of America through andthe lensesin Europe. of sociology, United States of America, where the Christian right is defused into this paper will analyze the moral–religious values as defined and a struggle against international terrorism, immigration and Islam.3

148 150 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES An Analysis of the Moral–Religious Values in the U.S.A. and Europe

Răcilă: 151 Faith in God | Various surveys were conducted to determine the 1) Contemporary Religious Moral Values in​​ the United States

power,beliefs 8%Americans do not believe about thein anything, God of the and 899 1% adults did not surveyed, know. A 200876% the European culture, and had developed on its own trajectory sin- studyexpressed on 1,000 their people belief concludedin God, 9% that, believe based in ona spirit their orbeliefs, a universal rather ceThe long US beforeculture the is USa Western became culturean independent that originally country emerged with its from own than on identifying their religion, 70% of Americans believe in a unique social and cultural characteristics such as dialect, music, arts, social customs, cuisine and folklore. Today, the U.S. is an eth- and other 12% are deist.7 nically and racially diverse country with a mosaic of multicultura- personal God, about 12% of Americans are atheists or agnostics, lism generated by a widespread immigration from many different countries throughout its history.

Fig. 3. Religious Orientations/Religious Traditions in the United States8

Fig. 2. Religious affiliation and religious guidelines contemporary U. S. A.4 The survey was conducted nationwide on a representative sample of

It was the deepest Religion in the United States is characterized by great diversity in both survey2502 US on citizens religion, (over values, 18), policies,in 2006. Theetc., surveyamong included North Americans. two over- religious beliefs and practices (Figure 2) and a high level of religious Thesamples: approach 250 Hispanic was based and on 250 the African methodology Americans. developed by political participations. Numerous Americans consider the role of religion in their lives as being “very important.” A modern poll indicates that It managed to identify certain issues relating to religious values: 83% of Americans say they belong to a religious denomination, religiousscientist John orientation, Green, who matters made of a faith,composite Bible called study, “religious prayer, religious factor”. behaviors, importance of religion, etc. every week. 40% say they5 attend religious services every week, and 58% pray believe that the moral-religious values ​​in America are weaker than contemporary Whether values. we However, are talking despite about thisthe northlevel orof theapparent south, they wereA major 20 yearsfinding ago. in theMost study Americans showed attribute that most moral Americans decline over 50% affirm that religion is an important factor in addressing to Mass Media. National Cultural Values Study​​ found that 68% of that religion was the most important aspect of their lives, compared Americans say that the media - entertainment and news - have a religiosity, according to a 2008 survey, only 9% of Americans stated negative effect on moral values in​​ America. In addition, 74% believe of their family, and 17% who made very important section: money andwith career 45% .who6 stated that religion was very important in the life that moral values ​​are weaker due to the direct influence of media, 152 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES An Analysis of the Moral–Religious Values in the U.S.A. and Europe contemporaryRăcilă: period bears no mark of a stream which can 153be value after parents and families. whichLower is the standards second largest of sexuality factor9 influencingare another moral factor and to decreasereligious like hedonism, individualism, ego-society. At this stage the values ​​ in value, 16% believe that sex between unmarried adult is not aredefined very in different, one word, they although have evolved many researchers and morphed have over tried time, names it is

in the past. anytimeindicated, and 49% for say any it reason. depends Only on 67% the situation,believe that 65% premarital excuses sex sometimesPrevailing difficult value to assignsystems a name are treated abstract with concrete, indifference as was done and outside of marriage, and 45% believe that divorce can be offered grows increasingly struggle between the keepers of values ​​and homosexuality is wrong. their innovators. In a crisis of education, comes a new form of among high school students is somethingAmerica lostbad, the 49% fear believe of God, onlythat communication between generations, the younger generation refuses authority of the older generation, are widening gaps in Another major finding is that communication and the communication between generations 52% believe that the Bible is the Word of God and has authority, 36% actual values ​​becomes an impossibility. In this respect, the values ​​ believe we should live by God’s principles; 15% live according to of the older, fade and do not go to the young, because the younger their Also,personal lost principlestheir perception and 45% of prefergood andto combine evil, in theother teachings words, generation aspires to other values, in another life. of God with their own values. exclude religious principles from government. No young people 1. Scientific 2. Love 3. Reasoning 4. Individual 5. Emancipation thinking (thought) autonomy from religion do53% not are have willing the correctto tolerate perception assisted of suicide, good and 28% evil, are even willing among to students observing major decline among religious moral values​​ Promethean spirit Person Democracy Relativism Critical Spirit Beauty Dignity Intelligence Pluralism Progress and standards. Body and sport Justice Training Tolerance Entrepreneurship The study shows very clearly that America’s cultural decline Sense State Happiness Knowledge The idea of law​​ Honesty Time (measured) Saving and Respect Efficacyinvestment Hospitality Money thatis due lying to the is remotenessnot good in ofany God’s situation, principles. 46% Despite say that the you decline have toin Fidelity Work Brotherhood yourmoral promises Americans in anystill case,believe 31% in arethe willingvirtues toof breakclassic the 51% law, believe while The spirit of Goodwillself-help 6. Reason 7. Utilities 8. The Right 9. Leisure 10. Family a65% division say it of is the wrong Centre always, for Research 57% would and Media not deceive founded partner in October and (instrumentality) of peoples to Activities self- 200625% wouldto expose accept media illegal campaigns drugs. againstInstitute traditional for Culture values and and​​Media help is determination restore America’s cultural.10 Human rights Peace Freedom of Consumption Debt interventionEmpowerment conscience WelfarePrivate property Women’sNature Separation of Market Protection church and state Competition 2) Religious Moral Values in Contemporary Europe Happiness Technology Social justice Solidarity Equality a dominant trend that might come off during this period. If in the Social security When it comes to contemporary culture, it is very difficult to define Table.1. European contemporary values11 past, they could find notions Ages or romance or , the 154 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES An Analysis of the Moral–Religious Values in the U.S.A. and Europe

155 Also, the general media provides a powerful channel of circulation socio-culturalRăcilă: renewal. This comes in contrast badly with regard to values, where the spread of the contraceptive pill is one of the major religious practices in society. conditions for abolishing the taboos on sex. Reborn in the void of history manufacturers values ​​of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, socialist liberal sociologists, anthropologists, some emphasizing traditional values ​​and giving them new forms of expression, most however, giving them an

Also, the transmitters of values (journalists, artists, writers, actors,advantage professors, over those priests) “new” specific spreading weather the valuescontemporary. ​​and ideas of

Perhaps it is best equipped in terms of cultural criticism Fig. 4. Variation religious practices in Europe (2010) toproducers. a given situation But innovative and determine role is confirmedto change that well.12 that I had in the field ofScientize clerics. noteworthy social progress and becoming more According to the indicators (Figure 4), Russia, Estonia, France, obvious the twentieth century, we must admit that the modern era Iceland, Belarus or Ukraine, lies along the northern countries of has its problems and failures. Ascension brings science cynicism Europe, the secular public in terms of religious practice. In these and moral relativism; secularization of pathological creates tensions month, and religious behavior in public, was sharply reduced. In companies, less than 15% of the population attend church once a ofthat the lead masses”, to chaos resulting and innihilism; a culture selfishness of mediocrity and and individualism conformism. in public religious practice during this period. Regarding our country, Contra-illuministencourages social social alienation; ideology democratization argues that the modernleads to era the requires “revolt itscontrast, place is Bulgaria, headed Slovakiain Chapter and religious Latvia recorded practice. significant It is interesting increases that a perpetual social crisis. It springs from impotence secular reason in Russia and the former Soviet states, which are predominantly to create symbolic structures that give high values ​​and thorough Orthodox though, lies not with the Bulgaria or Romania, but they guidelines, which give our lives meaning and coherence. are the opposite. Individualism is the characteristic of our epoch, the ego Enlightenment with the apocalyptic: “No one knows who will live in the futureMax inWeber, this cage in a or deliberately if the end of thisturns long expectations process will Millennium not appear prophets entirely new, if not a spectacular rebirth of old ideas and socialism,or selfishness where prevailing abandoned at collectivism.the expense Inof general, the community. individualism This behavesvalue new like contemporary a manager and flavor, ask canwhat be personal found in rights: neo-liberalism the right orto a sort of spasmodic conceit. For about the last stage of this cultural be happy, the right to be respected, the right to be paid, the right developmentsideals, or if we wedo mightnot reach as well a petrified say, rightly: mechanization, specialists without perk up spirit, with to have a child or not, the right not to decide anything in my right without me to have a say. level of civilization never before never been touched.”13 Also, personal values ​​outweighs the Institutional personal sensualistsSecularization heartless; is this that nullity which imagines induces thata cultural they have crisis, reached and ita collective happiness. Psychological balance is very important, which the Enlightenment except that reason can help build a good society isfaith, consulted marriage, psychiatrist etc..; personal or psychoanalyst, happiness exposing is more thatimportant pathologies than andstarts rational. a modernization They tend, insufficient however, that and religiousmisdirected. revival It also to initiaterejects 156 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES An Analysis of the Moral–Religious Values in the U.S.A. and Europe

Răcilă: 157 dominant in our era no longer hysteria, but narcissism caused by Spontaneity, permissiveness, sexuality, intensity, hedonism and a continuous search for self and favored techniques of analyzes of present time are linked because they interact, but it also presents spirit as yoga, dynamics group, Zen, and other kinds of therapy. a logical entity. Freedom, as a new form of search of self, ready for a new Spontaneity can be regarded as a value of a human guide sensitivity that purpose in itself, a release of any constraint, distrust postmodern and contemporary, it is free to seek their destiny, of attachments sustainable independence to the requirements of without an itinerary before stability. Cultivated still in school, society, a free life, expressed in the saying: “It’s my life, I’m free to spontaneity feeds imagination and creativity and enjoy tolerance, do what I want when I want and how I want” (popular phrase). going so toward permissiveness. Personal fulfillment is a manifestation of individualism, which is to feel good about yourself. Personal appearance is emphasized. acts (recourse International to abortion, comparative the practice surveys of on homosexuality, European values adultery, ​​(1981, personal development means developing their own individual buying1990, 1999), stolen which, goods, in tax a particular evasion, etc.) matter It shows have compiled that permissiveness a list of 22 potential.Whether to You be musthappy, not have follow to contribute the predetermined to the happiness rules, ofbut others, must be yourself, aspirations and dreams. This accomplishment can take that France is among the most permissive countries.16 The desire to makeis increasing the most in ofvarious every fields, moment especially in hand in and matters search of intensity sexuality, is and on mental state, etc. the agenda and hence explosion to get involved in as many things, different forms: from professional fulfillment, social issues, a certain to travel more often and further, a cult of the body. though, Albert Einstein, in addition to the lessons that gives us the All these aspects form the other and hedonism, because historyEverything and life, says: can “It’sbe sacrificed not important to become to be a mana man of successof success, but pleasure is the one that dictates all the longings of the human body, a man of value.”14 Experimentation is the next logical aspect, in which the immediate gratification, free of taboos, defendant, carpe diem is offered, although they may be values ​​or relevant solutions (Romans)/Live for the moment! From 1980 to 2000, the prospect forindividual himself finds and nothis ownfor the happiness, community, experiencing so relative the values. solutions The of thisConviviality increase from, pairing 53.3% spontaneity to 63.6%, 60s and was the one prospect of axial of values,future multitude of value systems and conduct, created this relativism becomingdeclines from a pipedream 40.8% to currently 34.5% of present respondents. in some circles, subgroups so that no one can claim to have found the solution or the truth, or societies showing values ​​as: return to nature, simplicity, at most can claim the right to be different. Even in science, the celebration, etc. notion of truth is very relative, because there are no facts, only Ecology, or respect for nature, is an enduring value of this interpretations. This relativism must also be tolerant, especially movement, increasing in proportion to the increase every age in the presence of others so personal experience becomes key to nuisances and industrial pollution. any election, including ethics or religion. Even the imposition of Contemporary environmental issues, representing a danger for good and prohibiting evil become unacceptable, because you have the survival and existence of life on this planet increasingly requires to try, to experience it yourself alternatives and then draw their the intervention of ethics in their resolution. In the face of challenges own conclusions (even promote religion in the United States shall: of the contemporary era intelligence can stay accountable and In this way, it makes the transition humanism applied, not exhortation to pure virtue. Concerns and ideals from a moral theory in a practical15 living. of contemporary consciousness had to turn their attention to nature Try Jesus!/Tried for Jesus!). 158 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES An Analysis of the Moral–Religious Values in the U.S.A. and Europe

Răcilă: 159 protection thus developing an environmental ethic that includes new are certainly courageous in psychological and sociological sense, values ​​centered nature.17 but not moral. Courage becomes a value and a moral virtue only Equality is manifested on several levels: before the law, equal treatment of all citizens who are in the same situation, refusing privileges integrated morals. But in this case the value has evolved somewhen extent,it comes, because at least I enunciation in part, in thetotal service is unlikely. of others; Therefore, it shows the towards equality in opportunities. So, no matter what environment recommendationthat it was issued Bible in a tosomewhat love our neighborselfish interest as thyself immediately. refers, in fact, To you what race you are, you have the same opportunities. All the activities that have been initiated to demand equality before the or even altruism. Seen thus, courage is present in any moral action opportunities are part of the postmodern heritage. The value that asthat present selfishness and prudence,educates issued by the by way. ego, which we also call generosity looms behind these requirements is called “non-discrimination” and actions are called “positive discrimination”. Traditional Central values Latent values Postmodern values Duty | At the end of the twentieth century, there were naturally values Religion Love Justice Individualism between moral duties and obligations. Equally naturally, as far as Authority Family Solidarity a number of protracted conflict situations, which manifests itself Moral rigor Friendship Benevolence Liberty achieving parameters required for organizing a democratic modern Obedience Honesty Kindness ExperimentationFulfillment Duty Dignity Relativity least for the time required Assembly powers to pass or consumption Successful Sincerity andtype digestion conflicts generally of the victims, those wealthbetween fraudulently debt will subside accrued and etc. they, at professional Work Honesty | In the twentieth century, more and more philosophers, Responsibility Property Tolerance logicians and mathematicians have shown that the idea of ​​truth Fidelity Consumerism Spontaneity Safety Permeability safety epistemic is not so clear and understandable because, besides the Leisure activities Sexuality fact that there are several conceptions of truth (the realistic truth- Science/ Intensity mail, outlook utilitarian-pragmatic, consensual theory etc.), each Technology of which usually evolve to a more thorough explanation and richer Progress Hedonism in meaning. Democracy Present tense Caution | Prudence implies uncertainty, risk, random, unknown. Peace Conviviality 18 For this reason, and wisdom needs it because not a crazy wisdom. Table 2. Values at the beginning of XXI century If science is a formal politeness, prudence is a real science to live and be happy, both now and in the future. It assures us that we must Traditional Values | Traditions have not forgotten how to be, choose and what to avoid. Courage | To understand courage must be started from an form, but not disappear from society. On the other hand, traditions important distinction, that between its appearance psychological, changealthough with they society, are always even changing.if changes Gradually,are not ever they as suddenconserve or in radical, some sociological and moral. Psychosociologists declare that: the courage as happens often with society. is a trait that is the lack of sensitivity to fear that, whether it is hardly If we compare the new postmodern19 values, many of the old felt, is well tolerated, sometimes with pleasure. For example, fans values prevalent​​ for centuries, they have witnessed decline faster or of dangerous missions, expeditions to the poles or on top of the world, lovers of scandal free with another band in the neighborhood, slower. Whatever indicator is chosen, all over the world, it signaled 160 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES An Analysis of the Moral–Religious Values in the U.S.A. and Europe 161 the decline of religion, faith understood as practical, action and throughRăcilă: a form of therapy or another and healed. Place of the priest behavior. in the confessional is taken by psychologists. During the separation of religious institutions and faith Fidelity knew a devaluation and later, a certain motion curing. generalize a list of ideas: the man has the right to create their Hat formerly held in high esteem because vital guarantee duration and soundness attachments. Must be entirely faithful to the homeland, family, political or ideological institutions superiors partner. own laws; It is not created, but is the result of an evolution, so it themselves,is perfectible; the taking latter care having of hisincreasingly journey on less earth need can someone eliminate to all suffering and loneliness. God and man are starting to distance secular: religion regulates them increasingly less rhythms, habits, celebrations,explain the universe, public space. to live or to find happiness. Society becomes The next step would have been authority because it is representing the value of new values ​​in whose name expansion is blocked. Even if it is the state authority in the family, at school, at work, she is known as oppressive, alienating. It is found everywhere not only by laws, the regulations in everyday relations between superiors and inferiors, etc. Fig. 5. Shared Religiosity in Europe (2010) Another step, is the moral rigor as representing the force which resists gains of freedom and permissiveness. There is nothing “old- fashioned” than to refer to ethical or “moral order.” see that the average values of religiosity reach the maximum Malta, Obedience and duty are complementary values ​​derive directly Poland,In the context Ireland, of showingtraditional a predominance values, according of religious to data (Figure values 5), and we a from the authority and moral rigor. As societies to function well, low degree of secularization. In contrast, the data show very concrete idea of a profound secularization of societies Protestant majority authority. and the preservation of religious values in societies predominantly moralityWork must represents be respected, an important and the value, man tobut fulfill it is nothis synonymousduty to obey Catholic (Denmark, Sweden). France (mostly Catholic) are among the champions of secularism and Bulgaria and Romania (predominantly Orthodox) is at the opposite pole. attorney.with duty The to thework state is not and valued no longer in any representscircumstance. a final Contemporary value. It is manlinked wants to personal as far as fulfillment, possible, whichbe master determines of his own the labor.satisfactions Does not of revitalization and effervescence of religion, especially in Eastern give the best of it unless its tasks are quite interesting, that if allow Europe,If we such look as at Bulgaria,Figure 5, grasp Latvia, easily Slovakia, appearance while of secularism a phenomenon has to be involved in the decisions and initiatives they take. Responsibility spaces where religious values ​​already lost more ground. the current postmodern are not responsible. There can be no act Itadvanced is also interestingdramatically to insee countries that countries like Ireland, with such Great profound Britain, is closely linked to freedom, and in the first phase, secularization, Denmark, Sweden or Finland, manifest religious processes that lead to certain behaviors determined that, in turn, effervescence during this period. Core values ​​are present in the causesthat could disturbance, be qualified feelings as sin of or guilt, mistake; anxiety. there These is only can psychological be addressed center of our culture and are subject to general agreement. Also, 162 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES An Analysis of the Moral–Religious Values in the U.S.A. and Europe 163 crossing eras disorders and metamorphosis. May change in some advancesRăcilă: have spawned centuries idea of progress,​​ is an increase ways, but not in their essential features. of linear and uninterrupted humanity. Friendship is a value that prevails in our society fall within Together with democracy (supreme value among political values ​​that citizens share and consider them as the foundation and for those who have little satisfaction in family life. for human governance), peace has in turn become a central value interpersonal,Love | As intaking Christianity, first place recognized in the younger the supreme generation value options, of any (company’s establishment of international peacekeeping in the world).21 culture as the foundation of torque and marriage. civilization,The category but specifically of moral values, treated honor each and of them dignity is arenuanced consistently in our considered the most important, although it can be manipulated Values: ​​latent/hidden through behavior inspired equivalent value, like racism or xenophobia. The meaning of the good In the economic sphere, the key value is the professional conceived as something useful or something that answers a need or success because it is the foundation of social position and income desire trends generating | Inthe contemporary resulting satisfaction. Western thought,Although good ethics is that provides access to property and consumption. Most people put is an obstacle to conquering human impulses, it proves to be very great weight on the concept of private property: my house, my car, necessary to strengthen tendencies towards good and deliberate my stuff. use of new media and particularly strong energy that mankind has Also, all the polls and surveys show that, regardless of space or for over half a century. time, the family, is the amount forefront, which is based on exclusive In the twentieth century, moral thinking, good and evil were love of two people who founded a home. considered permanent researchers, based on different assumptions. Another central value in the life of contemporary society is the If utilitarianism believes that good or useful identify with what consumerism—offer endless objects and services offered with the ensures maximum welfare, other thinkers argue that good as a simple choice, the pleasure of buying—is a value so striking that used to property. Emerges as metaphysical values associated​​ the knowledge call “consumer society” corporate body promotes.20 like an interesting talking about intuition moral values: good as a Although contemporary society tolerated substantially different forms of “deviance” and maintained permissiveness, an intrinsic value of human consciousness, which ensures dignity. propertyJustice, unnatural, solidarity which (fraternity), depends largely benevolence of individuals; and mercy good are as multidimensional value: safety in the face of crime and delinquency, shown in public speeches or edifying stories. However, they are theespecially streets inand moral public matters, transport, reaffirms work safety the need in the for face security; of illness a poorly rated in surveys and rather placed last in the list than others. and various recurs of life. Leisure activities are part of the consumer society, while dormant. They wake up when an unexpected event occurs when a procuring income and leisure, entertainment, travel, activities, situationThey are classifiedis prolonged as “dormant” considered since scandalous, he is present or when in a consciencea situation multiple services. Even this value represents annual holidays in the ends up causing a feeling of saturation. In these moments, may get most spectacular. a surprising and unexpected driving force. Desire for knowledge that characterizes civilization from its Sense of justice against an oppressive system can induce a inception, continues to act and be manifested in particular by the revolution. Solidarity can trigger when a disaster occurs. Indifference value it synonymously ascribed to science and technology, whose or hostility against a foreign group can turn into goodwill if from 164 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES An Analysis of the Moral–Religious Values in the U.S.A. and Europe

165 this group exudes a commendable initiative. People can give up debt sameRăcilă: moral agent, which forms part of various human groups: family, relatives, friends, group work, entertainment, research etc. than them or that are suffering. New moves can be triggered from thosetheir ownmotivations interests as and “humanitarianism” if it finds kindness or any prove other people initiative poorer to values ​​and moral virtues such as honor, dignity, kindness, honesty, alleviate human suffering. modesty,Can courage,be conflicts on the between other hand.debt, on the one hand, and other Justice | The new principle of justice does not invite tolerate Spirit of justice | Philosophers and writers such as Dostoevsky injustice, but requests that she be tried and punished in such a argued that if justice would disappear from the earth, that people way as to lead both to repair the spiritual and material, and the continue to live would not have any value. Hence, it follows that improvement of people’s consciousness to advance on the path of justice had and will have an essential place in lists of values ​​and spiritual life more full. moral virtues. Not coincidentally, it is considered that the best Equity is a correlative value of justice, so, it is a more concrete writings of moral philosophy of the twentieth century remain form of moral justice, manifested in the human characters and not dedicated to justice. in actions to strengthen legal legality. The most ingenious and most common type of government the Logic and legal philosophy impressive contemporary informal peoples of modern and contemporary society is democracy. Main insists that understanding and interpretation of legal laws to be lack of democracy was and remains that the less skilled get to decide made both in letter and in spirit (which is also moral). But the urge in democratic bodies respectively in parliaments. to judge fair is one of the main forms to be within the law. Because of this correlation justice with fairness, required two concepts of responsibility: legal and moral. It seems that just equity creates 3) Developments and Religious Contrasts in Contemporary Europe social or distributive justice and corrective justice. Because it can turnthe most into difficultiesreality should in explaining be clear, however, justice in that two not main only forms rights of herbut meet a fairly high degree of variability in terms of traditional complete theory of human needs, including the problem of hunger When we do an analysis of the former communist countries, we andalso povertyobligations in the must world be today.specified. Also, it has developed a more Duty countriesreligious cultures. with a strong In this Catholic space, wetradition, find countries such as Poland,where Orthodoxy Lithuania, the debate over debt and obligations. If utilitarian argue that we predominates, as in Russia, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Belarus and Romania; need to follow | In Anglo-Saxonas many consequences philosophy for after good World deontologists War II widened argue that we must pursue debts basic (gratitude, repair morality, loyalty, Slovakia; traditionally Protestant countries, such as Estonia and CatholicEast Germany; tradition. or multi-confessionals companies, such as Hungary, for supererogation (heroics and holiness). whichEverywhere also has a significant in these countries, Protestant communism community, buthas alsoattempted a strong a self-improvement, beneficence, not harming, justice), leaving room forced removal of religion from the public and the private sectors and at the same time led a strong policy of atheism. But all policies Conflicts debt are factors of moral progress, some ethicists against religion were different from state to state, as was different verysay. Others diverse. deny They the can existence be: between of such socio-moral conflicts, ranking meanings it here of debts and and the social impact of these policies. sociologist E. Durkheim. Debt moral conflicts manifest themselves Extremely important is the aspect that all European countries by profession, religion, political opinion, etc.; between old debts and new debts on the same type of legal or moral system; between under the influence of Soviet power, religion was considered “the 166 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES An Analysis of the Moral–Religious Values in the U.S.A. and Europe 167

Răcilă: opium of the peoples” and was one of the enemy’s main communist Estonia: power, and throughout the twentieth century, communism, fought 88% not apart to church religious feelings among the population: were demolished and closeda fierce churches battle to wereweaken imprisoned religious priests,institutions the churchand destruction was fenced of Latvia | In the Baltic countries (Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania), involvement in public life has been drastically reduced religious forced secularization effects were different in the three companies education, religion was pushed to an area of increasingly​​ anonymous in Lithuania (Catholicism) the level of religiosity remained high, “private nature of religion is in many cases daily experience of despite atheism policy. In Latvia and Estonia (Lutheranism), the hundreds of millions in communist states.”22 degree of secularization has skyrocketed due to industrialization and In these countries, secularization has emerged as a natural modernization, and religion began to play an increasingly reduced. consequence of modernization, industrialization and promoting a 25 pluralistic vision of the world, but it was forced product. However, 64% do not belong to a church (in these countries the most religious population group is Russian.) secularization effects are felt much less in former communist countries Hungary | In Hungary, the Catholic Church remained strong, but Protestantism was strongly affected so that the Catholic Church than in Western Europe. Some researchers identify factors that23 but each of them manifested differently from one area to another: is still very large, while the Protestant lost many members. influenced the degree of secularization in ex-communist countries, The level of political repression against religion and against 42% of Hungarians say they do not belong to a particular church churches 30% have never belonged The modernization 14% go to Mass weekly Dominant denomination 42% are Catholics Closer ties between religion and national ideas Bulgaria | Bulgaria (Orthodox majority) suffered after the fall Although there have been subordinated to political power and were transformed into departments of the , the schism, because of clerical disputes. Orthodox Churches have kept a close link between Orthodoxy and of Communism. In the 90 Bulgarian Church was on the verge of a national identity. So, for Romanian, Bulgarian, Serbian Orthodoxy Only 32% since membership into a religious (Orthodox Church) has remained closely linked to national identity, its guarantor.24 Czech Republic | In the countries of Central and Eastern Europe The5% attendcountry’s religious most permissiveservices frequently in terms of homosexuality, divorce, Only 7% say that God is important in their lives amid a departure faithful to the Catholic Church, seen as an aggressor suicide, euthanasia, etc. national(East Germany, identity Czech and Republic, Protestantism Estonia), was the subjected secularization to persecution occurred by political power. Poland is the most religious country in Central Europe. Poland

62% of Czechs do not belong to a church 8% frequently go to religious services politics.(mostly Catholic)But religious ranks extremism, first in Europe antidemocratic, in terms ofsupported population by somereligiosity, clergy but and also a number the influence of legislative of the initiatives, Church in the public Church life tried and 17% believe in life after death to impose by force (abortion), decreased popularity church. 30% believe in God 168 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES An Analysis of the Moral–Religious Values in the U.S.A. and Europe

169 SociologyRăcilă: classic transition positivist theory developed in this 66% of Polish people go to church every Sunday relativism: values ​​are rooted in their substrate and social change 4% never go with it same position in legal positivism, for which justice is closely related to morals.. They highlight the living conditions and interests; meet the 90% consider themselves religious Paradoxically, only 45% have faith in the church Positivism that eliminates moral problem because it is not homosexuality adultery abortion euthanasia disarm racism 26 If there is no absolute, no transcendent standard to Czech 28% 32% 67% 32% 26% 30% 48% 37% discern good and evil, it is not possible to evaluate a social system Hungary 38% 37% 25% 35% 60%53% scientific. Poland 40%19% not have no basis to consider the unacceptable actions of Hitler, of Bulgaria 40% 31%45% 40%50% 48%58% 44% Stalin,than from Pol Potour orown the value apartheid system regime. and his own justification. We did 50% 59% 50% 49% 57% Table. 3. Beliefs that the Church must engage in moral issues by country This 25% relativism no truth, there is no objectivity, no absolute, neither universal nor homosexuality abortion euthanasia suicide was widespread and became a record; There is Czech 24% 34% 26% 12% Slovenia 17% 34% 18% 12% The plurality of concepts, ideologies, tastes, behavior and Hungary 16% 37% 27% 16% interpretations,fixed values. All notionsinduce theare greatoutdated, majority obsolete. of people the idea that Poland 6% 26% 8% 8% all ideas and modes of action are available. Bulgaria 88% 60% 82% Also, moral and religious values ​​have undergone many Lithuania 2% 20% 21% 7% transformations and permutations of value over time, the 69% Latvia 7% 42% 41% fundamental categories by categories dormant or power or vice Estonia 42% 13% versa. The world’s religions have been and still are important Table. 4. Approval rate of what is commonly considered15% a sin 9% 29% If we analyze the attitudes of Europeans towards moral issues economy, society as a whole. Communication between East and topics, ways of interpreting the world, and have influence in politics, set out in Table 3-4, with relative ease grasp the role the church should be an active combat, adjustment or reductions but the cultures and people. West was and still is difficult due to the great differences between27 degree of involvement (according to the percentage assigned) , differs depending on cultural and religious baggage, the individual a mystical devotion expressed from moment to moment, to rebellion The debate around God “marked the decisive fate of the West” countries.

autonomousagainst God. Europeanreason legitimizing culture is revelation,undoubtedly which a culture does notmarked want by to Conclusions obeyits depth blindly. reporting people to God. In the modern world, questioning In the history, there have been two major religious currents, undergone an evolution, with ups and downs, with real progress Eastern religions. The two fundamental systems were noted as orWhenever a setback. a company It is interesting reviews to its note history, what he can discovers happen thatwhen it twohas formingwhich has values affected ​​while the sometimesentire civilization: acting inWestern the same religions direction, and big companies meet (Europe and South America, China or Africa), sometimes in totally different directions. achieving relative nature of customs, institutions, values. 170 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES An Analysis of the Moral–Religious Values in the U.S.A. and Europe 171

and administrativeRăcilă: to reduce the gap between what should be and modernity, oriental spirit which is in contrast, is characterized what is man.28 by passiveIf activity resignation, is leading fatalism, Western obedience, spirit, creative tradition. individuality, Thus, the Nazism and fascism were able to remove both their non-values and the differences between religions is essential. thoseIn they the germinated postwar period, Eastern Western socialism. European There was peoples such affecteda tendency by dialogueContemporary becomes more oriental difficult religions, is heavily such religiousas Buddhism, dialogue, Hinduism, since Brahmanism, Confucianism and the other Eastern religions, knowing the same values ​​for moral and religious, all religions moralistic, individuality,for longer-term modernity, trend: the oriental increasing spirit influence which isof inWestern-style contrast, is focused on the concept of good practice, generosity, compassion, characterizedmoral values worldwide. by passive Ifresignation, activity is leading fatalism, Western obedience, spirit, tradition. creative renunciation, patience, wisdom, etc. Thus, the dialogue becomes unwieldy because religious values are very large differences.

The sixteenth century in Western Europe were recorded, on the one hand, intensification of trade and economic activity, and on the NOTES activityother hand, and intensificationincreased economic of religious activity activities are normally by the incompatible. Reformation. 1 James Vander Zanden, The Social Experience: An Introduction to Sociology This is The apparently experiences paradoxical, of many since companies the intensification prove that of increased religious 2 religious activity is accompanied by a decrease of concerns for www.adherents.com.second edition (San Francisco: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, Inc., 1990), 71. secular matters, and intensify economic activities is accompanied by 3 ReligiousMajor Religions diversity of theand World social Rankedunity by Number of Adherents,http://www.muis. 2012, http:// a decrease in pietism or religious indifference. Companies that have gov.sg (Last accessed October 2, 2016) embraced Protestantism did however exception to these historical 4 (19 U.S.December religious 2012), landscape survey (2010), regularities. It is interesting that in post-modernity and implicit in (Last accessed October 21, 2016) RobertThe pew D. forum Putnam on religion and David & public E Campbell, life, American Grace: How Religion contemporary secularization is much more present in Protestant Divideshttp://religions.pewforum.org/affiliations5 and Unites Us churches and less traditional, historic Catholic and Orthodox. 6 Belief in God Far Lower in Western U.S. (28 July 2008), http://www. gallup.com (Last accessed (New October York: Simon 2, 2016) and Schuster, 2010), chapter 1 at note 5. then in the former Soviet empire, contradictions morality worsened 7 HumphreyGALLUP, Taylor, What people do and do not believe in again,Immediately with aggravated after 1989immoral in Central and amoral, and Southeastern both in the Europe,human http://www.harrisinteractive.com (Last accessed October 18, 2016) 8 Robert P. Jones, The Center for American Values in Public(15 DecemberLife 2009), behaviors individual and collective in the complex process of 2006), http://media.pfaw.org (Last accessed October 6, 2016) settlement moral values ​​as human rights, honesty, generosity, (25 October respect other’s property and life, compassion. They have also known 910 Audrey Barrick, Survey: Departure from God is Cause of America’s Moral and practiced. But education, family, social assistance was disturbed DeclinePutnam, (08 March Campbell, 2007), chapter http://www.christianpost.com 1, note 5. (Last accessed October by privatization often associated with corruption, a lot of lying, 20, 2016). 11 Rudolf Rezsohazy, Sociologia valorilor slander, and then transformed into organized crime or deliberate 12 Dumitru Otovescu, Sociologia culturii violence exercised by gunmen on other people, deprived of weapons 13 Etica protestantă şi spiritul (Iaşi: capitalismulu Institutul European, 2008), 150. (terrorism). In this way, morality has become increasingly immoral Humanitas, 2003), 78. (Craiova: Editura Beladi, 2010), 252. and amoral because idealism its characteristic is not balanced by 14 ComanMax Weber, Andra Diana, Societatea contemporană- între valoare(Bucure şi non-valoareşti: Editura ethics appropriate by codes and rules, practice ethical, legal, political (27 Noiembrie 2010), http://www.sighet-online.ro (Last accessed October 1, 2016). 172 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES

1516 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435135 17 FloreaOtovescu, Viorica 257. Torii, Etică şi educaţie ecologică –o abordare interdisciplinară Ibid., 258.

18 Rezsohazy, 122. (Bucureşti, 2011), http://www.unibuc.roValorile tradiţionale (Last accessed trebuie cunoscute,October 26, consemnate, 2016). conservate19 şi protejate, (02 Noiembrie 2011), http://www.traditionalromanesc. ro (LastVirgil accessed Ştefan Niţulescu,September 6, 2016). 20 Managerul în lumea contemporană, http://www.preferatele.com (Last The Religious Leadership accessed October 6, 2016). 21 22 Miklos Tomka, Social compass (Last Cosmin Tudor Ciocan, PhD accessedRezshazy, September 139–142. 30, 2016). Ovidius University of Constanta, Romania [email protected] 23 Detlef Pollack, Modification in (2002), the Religious în http://scp.sagepub.com, Field of Central and 489; Eastern Europe. European Societes

ABSTRACT: Religion is by far one of the oldest and most complex 24 P. L. Franklin, “Religion, Voland 3,Politics No 2 in (London: Eastern Routledge/TaylorEurope,” in Eastern & Europe: Francis Politics,Group, 2001), Culture 136. and Society since 1989 edited by Sabrina Remet (Indianapolis: systems of leadership. Due to this background, many sociologists asserted that religion is, in fact, the strongest and most useful Olaf Muller, “Religiosity in Central and Eastern Europe: Results from the way of imposing obedience over people without giving something substantial (material) in return1. Being so controversial and PCEIndiana25 Survey” University in Religion Press, and 2001), Pattern 304–329. of Social Transformation edited by Dinka Jerolimov, Sinisa Zrinscak, Irena Borowik (Zagreb: Institute for Social Research, disputed, religious leadership has also several types of getting control over masses, as regarding to the mundane leadership. Mostly these types of control are faith-based grounded and even more, 26 Pozitivismul logic,” Afirmaţii. Revistă de ştiinţă, educa2004),ţ ie61–78. şi cercetare didactică divinely ‘giving’, as almost all religious leaders claim. Then why these types of religious leadership are so different and fundamentally 27 UrlichIoan–Gheorghe Neuenschwander, Rotaru, “Gott im neuzeitlichen Denken , No IV, Sept–Oct (2010): 7–9. opposed in most cases, I mean if they are all revealed by a divine power? On the other hand, what if these claims are merely a 28 Etică: valori și virtuți morale (Gutersloh: Band I, Gerd Mahn, 1977), 13. Tănase Sârbu, (Iași: Editura Societății Academice „Matei Teiu Botez”, 2005), 91. smokescreen behind which leaders to fulfill their own selfish interests? While approaching issues related to different types of thereligious questions leadership, above. its attributes and artificial means of reaching such a position in any religion, I will try to find also answers for means, revelation KEY WORDS: Prophetism, religiousness, leadership, trust, artificial

Introduction1

eadership is most probably one of the religious phenomenon Lcrucial elements, and due to that, I was oscillating between leaving this issue at the end of my work or starting with it. Either way, the exposition can be considered as splitting between two

173 174 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Ciocan: The Religious Leadership

175 different from all other mundane leadership or not? This is a great deal to answer to, especially when stating that religion is partially that,components, leaving RL each2 at thedetermining end, it will thebear other’s many features definition from by previous the fact divine while being mostly human. elements,that it stands and inalso front these of itemsthe other will notone. be That fully is understood why I was confidentunless RL “A leader is an individual (or, rarely, a set of individuals) the most common question, what is a religious leader? . . . whether direct or indirect, is previously defined and explained. So, here we are, starting with leaderswho significantly fashion stories—principally affects the thoughts,5 stories feelings, of identity—wherewith or behaviors of a 1. hesignificant shapes characters, number of buildsindividuals,” personalities, and frames culture. It is 2. a person who manifests devotion to a deity and proves important that a leader be a good storyteller but equally crucial that Is it the one who rules a (religious) community; the leader embody that story in his or her life. 3. one who is regarded as an authority on religious law and Religious leaders who changed the world had an enormous itshimself interpretation worthy of andbeing who a model has political of that; power as well3 impact on human consciousness and produced substantial changes in 4. those who often give political4 speeches and criticize “the the lives of both their followers and to the human society in general. wrong person,” due to their “ignorance or sins,” These promoters are known as religious founders of some powerful and Alternatively, is it someone who guides or inspires others?

Of course,5. all these one-sided characterizations can continue forever, Zi,influential Zarathustra, religious Moses. current. Of course, I.e. Jesus to their Christ number of Nazareth, will be addedMohammed many religiousfrom Mecca, promoters Siddhartha which, Gautama although (Buddha), they have Krishna, given Confucius/Kong rise to religions pointing a feature or another of any leadership in general, we can other than those already known, have promoted that belief by giving it saybut thatit is notthe mostthe proper important space aspect to do ofthat. a RL After is to allengage these definitions, large scale (e.g. Apostle Paul of Tarsus), have created new trends (e.g. lead it to its purpose/end, whatever it might be—we will see shortly have organized that more about that ‘given purpose.’ On the other hand, how his would flock and we belief on new principles and reinterpreted the original recipe of their like to ‘gain’ a RL? By self-imposing as one who gives people enough religionMartin Luther, through Ellen their G. own White experimentation, or Carol Parham), and therefore giving it arguments and proofs that they leave the old RL for a new, better- a new direction (e.g. Joseph Smith). is recognized by a religious body as having some authority within and religious leaders, or all those involved in the act of faith thatseen body,and more or through appropriate the means one; by of larger deception/as acceptation one as who one takes who experiencingWho can fundamental provide “religious truths truths”? in their Only own the lives? religious The historian promoters of advantage on people’s belief/superstitions and makes these tools of science Donna Haraway’s assertion that “situated knowledges” are governing them? Moreover, what type of RL ‘best’ matches religion, more accurate than the “god-trick” of universal or objective claims that who models the religious views in accordance with his community that rest on the assumption that it is possible to “see everything needs and wishes, or that who imposes his religious views to people from nowhere.” Contrary to popular opinion, the recognition that all regardless of their capability of following those rules? knowledge claims are “situated” is not a manifestation of relativism However, all these aspects are not different from any other type whereby all interpretations are considered equally valid. Rather, of worldly leadership, meaning that, until now, RL is not different at all from the already known form of human, civil leadership: management, superintendence, supervision, organization, control, “situated knowledges” offer the firmest ground upon which to make demeanor paradigm et. all. Still, is there any aspect that makes RL Theobjective method claims of “situatedness” that are defined assumes not by that their all detachment knowledge butclaims rather are by their specificity, transparency and capacity for accountability. 176 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Ciocan: The Religious Leadership 177

“situated” in that they arise out of particular social/historical contexts know’ to a religious question or debate. He is seen as outside the and therefore represent particular rather than universally applicable divine call, for he does not have a direct personal connection with claims. For example, Paul Tillich says what was true for the apostles we are facing now a boundary conduct born from a demand of the but they are merely the illustration of a personal divine encounter people—“Theydeity and thus toldhe cannot me, “Make speak a ongod G-d’s for us behalf. who will For go that before matter us ofdo John’s, not apply Paul’s, for orme; Peter’s the Gospels and they are do very not real, apply a true,to me historical or you. They act, because, as for this fellow Moses who brought us out of the land of are accurate, unambiguous, but there are no less than the personal Egypt, we don’t know what has become of him.’“ (Exod 32:23). This demand was always, in time and place, the engine that has started each of us lives, cannot be applicable the experience of the apostles, religious movements and has entrusted those who dare taking the butexperience the personal of each one. of us,“But and the in image the historical–social is so real and so context powerful in whichthat it transforms us. Its transforming power points to its historical reality.”6 role of God’s messenger with two characteristics: on the one hand forhe would every lifestylehave to bestow choice peoplehis life formight serving ask about, God, so so that that he he must should be The Limits and Attributions of a Religious Leader beclose available to Him alsoat all permanent. times. On the contrary he must provide God’s will

leadership,’ he ends by forcing himself to mastering any situation Due to these two needed roles of ‘servant of God’ and ‘religious orWhat he justshould have a toreligious do whatever leader he do might and whatconsider he should proper notto be do? done? Are Ifthere he is any entrusted boundaries with when his followers’ he tries to life reconnect and religious his flock well-being with G-d it ofand expectancies to coming up no with one solutionswould end for other every than case; expressing he is challenged their own to not right for him to take whatever action he might think it is best express ‘what G-d would like’ answers every time. With this kind ‘the divine will’. So, for understandable reasons, every RL ends up in other order, it is not just for his followers to take no other action point of view first, and then, in time, proceeding to overlap it with butfor them those to their do in religious order to achieveleader appointed the supreme to, Good?and obey Alternatively, whatever rules he might consider putting over them for the same reason? At believing that his opinion/will is, in fact, G-d’s and therefore they constrainedmust be obeyed to become as G-d would be, absolutely, indisputably. to operateWith onthis a differentkind of patternclimate than around all others. them, He RL is isself-creating definitely bethe obeyed first look, without it seems questioning right, at leastand contradiction. from the religious But at leadership the same a conception of ‘elected’ the and voice behave of G-d, in and kind, that uttering burden sentences set his mind of point of view. It is said in every religion that the voice of G-d must truth for the people who follow him. they won’t believe me and will not obey me but say, ‘The Lord did nottime appear there wasto you’?” always (Exod. in place 4:1). a For threat that in reason leaders’ any minds RL came “What with if A) What are the Attributions of a Religious Leader? that way no one would dare to contradict and disobey their will. same Untilresult, now putting we can in God’s set these account actions his thoughts as normal and attributes suppositions; of a leader, to settle a pattern of thinking and to try to impose it over is evident that the primary function of any “leader” is that of the his followers. Regarding a RL he is expected to give more than a religiousWell, starting model , fromof a pattern, the evolution one who leadsof religiosity the way or manifestation the promoter ofit a particular way of meeting the divinity. He is the living “icon” of what voice through and they never ‘forgive’ a RL that says ‘I do not personal opinion; his followers are always eager to listen to God’s the religious conception means; he is the proof that the described/ 178 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Ciocan: The Religious Leadership

179 preached method is real and functional. However, more than a single Unknown Life of Jesus Christ,”8 “The Secret Life of” are manifestly example, unique and isolated, the religious promoter also has the imposed in a given market to send a clear message9 to the masses: declarative function, of the announcement the religiogen pattern. just with this unannounced occasion you have the great opportunity to To understand the relationship between these two functions discover what it was hided from you, in fact from the whole religious of the religious promoter we should see what is the perception their world until now, and only through these new messengers of “truth” you followers have on effect religious precepts have upon their lives can find out how and through what tricks you have been deprived of and moreover how they do the networking/distinction between the acknowledgment of the fraudulent deception that you have built the life and the content of preaching. Since in almost all cases the an image of a counterfeit religious life. That is why there was always promoter—and not also the subsequent religious leaders—is an outspoken struggle on behalf of the opponents of any religion to discredit its promoter’s authority through these “discovery” of that he has had on entire generations of followers, if their lives are obscure acts, hidden from the followers. higherjudged thanthrough average, the predicative even of the contentspiritual and peaks. the They beneficial seem effectsto halt The struggle of religious phenomena for survival was rarely here from the other world, since they know the way and every step done by convincing the correctness of doctrine or by a test on the towards the pinnacle of spiritual life as if they have went it through, prophesied content, but mostly by demonstrating the authenticity not as they would only have been appointed towards it by a spiritual of the model offered by the religious promoter. His life reveals that being. “No one can come to the Father except through the Son . . . the religious recipe worked starting with him, or, at least on him. Any slippage in the promoter’s life would bring the failure upon the whole facts appear in some disagreement with the context of his superior system of the professed religious manifestation, even if it would spiritualthat came life, from they the Father”tend to (Ioanbe overlooked 14:6; 16:28). or Evenattributed where to isolated other work even better on others. This is the reason why the followers functions that we’ll talk later, that of protection of religious formula. of all great “prophets” and religious promoters have even tried to It could not be otherwise, because any act “not in conformity” with hide the sides which seemed obscure or even inconsistent with the professed context would harm the doctrinal content. For that matter both the followers and the direct opponents of any religion aim less the religious doctrine and more the promoter’s life. This what they wanted to convey through that image; the precursors will constructivealways make aspectsan iconic of “purification” the guiding image.of the imageNobody of thewants archetype to risk life of the promoter assimilated with deity spokesman, prophet “trying”for the successors a recipe that so has that failed they the will complete benefit onlytransformation from the positive, to even parreality excellence reinforces (another this first function), function of is the always model-leader. attacked Thebefore private the doctrine. This is obvious to everyone by default, that once proved to important, this life wasted and the future one lost. Therefore, before be suspicious in n actions or clearly “immoral”—as nonconforming joiningthat one a newwho religiouspromoted system it; the which risk is anyway too great will and never the know stakes in too all with the doctrinal message professed—this would discredit the its depths, anyone seeks information on living examples, of people whole serial pattern religious. That is why there was always a over which the recipe has worked. There are even some confessions, struggle outspoken of any religion’s opponents to discredit the aware of this fact, that maximize their doctrinal preaching impact promoter’s authority by “discovering” certain obscure acts, hidden by encouraging their members to publicly confess “all the good saying much or some really remarkable “truths”, lot of underground confession. Thus, cults such as the Charismatics and Pentecostal conspiracy,from direct followers readings who emerged feared with precisely a clear this religious “disclosure”. commando Without movementsthat did their10 haveGod into theirthem” proselytism for having corehugged exactly the therecipe method of that of tendency. Booklets such as “hidden life of the Prophet,”7 “The

displaying “the Wonders felt” and experienced by supporters as the 180 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Ciocan: The Religious Leadership 181 authentication of their spiritual-religious path or even to “produce” the benchmarks, “you have heard that it was said to those of old (fabric) possible miraculous acts to increase the credibility in their times . . . but I say unto you (something else, differently)” (Matthew “collaboration” with the spiritual world for those who embrace this path. E.g. Speaking in tongues or “glossolalia” (1 Cor 12:30), Snake handling, Latter rain Movement beginning in the years following experience5), which tend of the to exacerbatedivine presence. valuing This this proximity “singular” of path. the Onspiritual what 11 and other teachings are not content to merely sit worldthis event gives is the based belief on? that Definitely what he on does the issafety perfectly acquired compatible in repeated with back and be a part of only a spiritual revival, without the power the divine will and as such, he starts thinking exclusively, meaning displaysWorld War of “signs, II, wonders, and miracles.”12 But we will come again that he (the RL) no longer supports an alternative similar in effect, on miracles when the topic occurs. but different in prerequisites (theological, moral, and cultic) so it In this pattern is framed also the attitude their followers have on subsequent leaders whose life is no longer entirely consistent The conviction of all other patterns come not from an experiment, with the authentic teachings of their religious belief. They tend butwill fromalways the tend feeling towards that a if unique he succeed self-definition. in ‘touching’ the spiritual to sympathize them without accusing of disability the religious world by doing all those things, in this case the recipe is accurate recipe they had to transmit. It simply did not work for them and this and successful and therefore is must be followed as it is, without any frames within the error edges that any recipe of this kind has, one mistakes or deviations. Any deviation from the original pattern is that meets a functional pattern with a unique, unrepeatable person, wrong and harmful for anyone who falls from the path. Since there who’s responsible for his choices and acts. In these situations a later are only few people instructed with recipes of a religious path, it is leader’s life noncompliance with the previous examples invalidates prohibited to intervene into it by anyone who would rather alter the him as a leader and not the plan itself as inoperable. truth and make then a convenient rearrangement of the ‘ingredients’. Through the declarative nature of the model it provides the And here comes the second manifestation, the negative one, to guiding principles for achieving the religious desideratum, the preserve the original recipe and to guard it against any obstruction encounter with the divine. This general objective is preceded by a lot by removing any threat, internal or external. This religious leader is all religions (e.g. mistakes absolution, avoiding disasters, protection violent in most cases—of removal of these threats of corruption of againstof other “evil”,specific improving targets generally the quality present of life, in immortalitythe same form etc.). in almost itswilling recipe. to make any sacrifice and call any method—even aggressive, There is of course theological explanation behind this practical, others, have a different approach and recipe from a leader to another, psychological aspect of the prohibition to accept any changes of but theyEach are of certainlythese specific present objectives, in the theological together with and thecultic collateral system the original plan. In every religion there is a strong theological of every religious phenomenon. The impulse of declaring its own foundation emphasizing the need of following a religious path exactly the way it was thought by its promoter. No matter how it is named, they all say same thing that there is one single path since toreligious others. “recipe”This function are inherently comes to befind manifested in each of in us, two individually, ways: one positiveeach person and anotherbeing willing negative. to externalize First, the proselytism, his “discoveries”, displays findings those should follow precisely that route. For example, Tawhid (Arabic: there is a single possible God reveled to the promoter and we all - توحيد interested, ignorant, or those previously religiously inactive his “recipe” as the one % sure and as entirely functional pattern. Usually Tawheed and Towheed) underlines the declaration of belief in the the promotion is done at this stage as compared to other recipes in tawḥīd, meaning the oneness [of God]”; also transliterated as order to demonstrate the superiority of their own way. Here prevails Islamic beliefs (Aqidah).”13 This kind of doctrine, found in all major oneness of God, “an uncompromising monotheism at the heart of the 182 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Ciocan: The Religious Leadership 183 religious movements, has two-headed aiming: on the one hand, to tell that no other religious way is possible and true, and on the other B) Artificial Means to Become a Religious Leader hand, that the surrender to this path should be total. Confessing that

14 That utter target. Between odd examples I can think of is the use of sex, drugs,18 capitulation“there is no godrequires but God” great allows effort to Muslims maintain to everybody—followers discover that there is alcohol,Many RL sleep.were 20forced to resort to artificial means to reach this ornothing strangers—contained real or true in the on world this path,but God since in hisit is oneness. considered the duty create a19 state of antisocial behavior, inside religious phenomenon of any RL. In the eyes of any RL, from any religious movement, since While in general human societyBehavioral these Disinhibition substances (BD), an overarching behavioral trait which is expressed as an of knowledge, “the greatest sin is shirk, “associating” something inabilitythey are used to resist with expressing a specific purpose, inappropriate that of or restricted behavior.21 elsethe path (other is Godgods, given individual and must persons, be employed power, money, to judge and other so on) sources with BD is a complex of brain centers inhibition, which are composed of both central nervous system structures and endogenous 15 16 which grants the neurotransmitters communicating between these structures, and it God.” Therefore the aim of this first attribution is “the integration has been termed the “reward pathway”, mixed for their proximity: of theMerging whole thoseof life two in afunctions unified thatcommunity,” features the perpetuation and The core structures of the brain reward pathway is located in the protectionfollowers the of theintimacy religious of a recipe,personal its connection preaching andwith defense, God the leadsOne. limbic system, including the hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, to the proselytism method. This is the fundamental technique to any septal nuclei, and anterior cingulate gyrus. Activities that activate religious phenomenon, one that ensures the achievement of both this pathway become associated with ‘feeling good.’22 23 goals of the leader, it transmits to others the pattern of the possibility noted repeated hallucinatory experiences as a part of the mourning process in Hopi24 women. W. Matchett from his point of view, mislead those who want to reach this climax 25 of meetingspiritual God, life. andBecause removes of the all second his inappropriate component competition the proselytism that, often dresses negative forms, violent and even terrorist. But this C. What Makes a Religious Leader be an Authentic Religious Leader? is so frowned upon by some followers or by the local leaders, and approach is in conflict with the initial religious project and thus it “Are religious and sacerdotal vocation something internal, i.e., a asdisavowed another aseffective the official, technique legal (throughmethod of the the report confession, impact/time) even if, reality involved something external to the candidate, an invitation alongunofficially, with political it is often intervention. supported and encouraged by many followers ofspecial legitimate grace authorityinfused into to embracethe soul of the the religious candidate state by orGod; sacerdotal or is the Of course, there are other lots of functions for RL—e.g. the 26 In most cases of RL—that we will consider talking about few pages later the sacerdotal and individual RL. 17 ensuring office?”After considering all these features of RL we should get back righteousnessfunction of transposing by imposing and passingways of his divine mental intervention image of God’s and to our question, if there is any element to distinguish RL from the encounter as a trans-generational transmission; mundane leaderships? From our foray in leadership it stands out spirituality, in the will of becoming a religious advanced person, or the fact that RL ensures punishment of disobedience; helping people evolve with their even prove, but nevertheless believed in. Using this prerogative of space and time to develop all those idea. ‘being elected’ by god to his enact flock a people of things of divineimpossible interest to obtain and pass or in the personal relationship with God, etc.), but this is not enough 184 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Ciocan: The Religious Leadership

185 on this attribute of election, the RL has the power to overcome any the future events of their life and their reason of happening but with a huge doubt that the ‘unpleasant’ feelings will not happen exactly. For this reason also RL have come with a psychological strategy ondifficulty in great a persontimes, to can stand encounter still when in life everybody and due is to staggering that he give (a not to tell the exact and unpleasant truth about the future/present, clatina),psychological/spiritual to keep on doing comfort, things hethat encourage no one else his (‘sane’)flock to would move however instead to bring hope for strengthen the will to overcome probably do instead. All these outcomes and many other only a RL these indubitable or revealed events. It is damaging for a couple to be told from the beginning of their marriage, in front of the altar, that wecan will influence see that his there flock is to no undergo such thing are asthe ‘wrong result religiousof what a pattern’ real RL bring hope that whatever misunderstandings they might have—as asgives opposed to his people; to a ‘correct’ this is notone], the the correct exhaustive pattern explanations he appoints [sinceabout most couples [up to 70%] get divorced in the first year, but it would the life he can give, or the unstained conduct he might display. In plan that, through the RL, can be made to work out in their favor. fact all these features are preceded by the only thing that really Thatanyone is whyelse—they RL are notwill alwaysovercome searched with love, for telling care and a foretold trust in that God’s is matters, giving hope about to happen, but for bringing hope and strengthen the will of is this salvation and how it comes to be seen in different religious defeating that. Therefore, it is not a liar or an impostor that RL who movements we will see. Any shortly religion after. aims for people salvation; what does not ‘tell’ the future, say a lie or try to avoid a direct and true answer to what future lies ahead. Instead is un-experimented that bargain anything, from food to dignity for the real price, but when who does not see the threat in telling people ‘the truth’, and invent it comesNothing to religious else counts belief, as much he cannot as hope accept for people; any compromise. mankind can some possible future. for food, water or less, for social/moral/political values or more, butThere for are a proper situations price in he which can be man made fight for wealth, for treasures, D) Types of Clergy/Religious Leadership into an obedient or vice versa, from a topeaceful fight or one leave into fight a rampant for any militant,of these motifs. is giving The him psychological hope. How it trigger is possible that can to achieve change ‘hope’a fighter in have, we now search for different types of leadership in regard of Embedding several attributes and qualifications a RL has to person/group/ entire community? The answer lies not in the hope four recognized modes of spiritual guidance: rabbi, priest, therapist, ofsuch achieving a manner a higher that it material transforms state definitely or some goodsand unchangeable ‘in this life’, as a orreligiosity teacher .(and There not are of alsoreligion religious alone). leadership In the Western that relates culture, mostly we have to public service and acts of worship, sacramental clergy or universal religious promises, the only valuable one that can literally ‘move priesthood other mundane leaders promise for their electorate; in the case of or role in which it gives its best yield. Of course, there are lines of of this concept, all religious promoters used it, and with high success engagement. Each that type pervade can be all recognizable types of RL byin a certainway or qualificationanother, but Imountains’ might add. is that of divine election. Without building a study case some are higher in a particular type, while other line is higher into Knowing the truth is mostly unpleasant and it gets even worse if another. This is the specialization I will appoint here for each RL someone else tells it “in your face”. Most often we don’t want to know the truth because it will bring down our ego, our will, and eventually quality, but as his distinctive touch. our need to live. That is why, paradoxical, people have always come type, Regardlessnot as it would of the make name him each the type unique of RL carrier is called of onethat common specific requirement is always a rule in place: a suitable candidate to become to priests [shamans or whatever they have been called] to find out 186 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Ciocan: The Religious Leadership 187

that, since the word ‘guru’ means many things because the guru is a is necessary for the priesthood and religious life.”27 However, how cluster of things, teaches, father-image, counselor, hero, hero, even a RL must be called by God to have this vocation. “A divine vocation divinity integrated into one personality.31 vocation . . . this is out of our understanding reach. But since a RL this RL type in spite of others is that, pursuing a path usually strange isGod [seen calls as] or whommore thanHe calls any to, laic what leader criteria (or He a chief,has to onemake in a charge divine and hard to digest by everyone else, he impose What is canons real important of behavior for of something), he is more like a mentor and a coach in spiritual unto his followers without giving them the ‘big picture’ but still he enterprise, that is why increasingly notorious is been used the term never force anyone to do something against their will, because they “guru” in this regard, even when the concept is not exactly related to respect the freedom of the human being. The guru is indispensable the religion in question. Expected to guide and inspire others, the guru for spiritual development, but also remarkable important to any type is, broadly speaking, needed for more than to rule a religious decisions taken in other sectors of life, as one who sees the path and community. Using his personal engagement and relation with divinity can correct any mistakes during the road. “The guru is indispensable and the world of spirits the guru is what we have called ‘iconic image’. since he is the repository of the people’s ultimate knowledge and गुरु) is a Sanskrit term that connotes someone right action as recorded in the Vedas.” 32 who is a “teacher, guide, expert, or master” of certain knowledge From these personal involvement and helpful counseling the Guru28 In (Sanskrit: the traditions of Hinduism the essence of the guru is iconic image of ‘guru’ passes from the spiritual guidance to almost especially vivid with regard of the spiritual development, but it all type of mentoring (e.g. the “guru” of golf, of marketing, of being or field. a mother, etc.), making an ideal example of a guide out of this term. a variety of implications, both social and religious, the guru image SRC—sacramental religious confessions or clergy. Unlike the also concerns many other sectors of public and private life. With these roles as individual. For the energy and potential spiritual to guru’s personal charisma and proofs of ascending into nirvana lacks of an unified hierarchical organization and strives to play state,‘guru’ SRCfigure, personal where theis mainlyveneration needed and forentrustment religious isservices mostly anddue rituals. These aids of acquiring divine attention and support weigh “counselor,benefits a guru who may helps offer mold he values,usually shares became experiential both means knowledge and locus more than the personal engagement, age or experience, since a asof worship.much as literalTraditionally knowledge, a reverential an exemplar figure, in thelife, guruan inspirational serves as a consecrated person can make at any age a sacramental ceremony source and who helps in the spiritual evolution of a student.” The and intercede for one’s wellness. The role of SRC is closer to rituals concept found in Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism or Buddhism, 29has a and ritualism than to spiritual development, for the outside help more than internal progress. is even closer to divinity than any other type of RL, and it gets its In this type, there are very few individuals who can rightfully owntradition place of in inviolability worshiping. and Entrust total entrustment, with more thanthat is religious why this sector figure call themselves “Constitutional religious leader.” Sure, there are of life, the guru is that who reveals the true and whole meaning of people who know a decent amount of the religious Law, but being life and gives directions to live each and all sectors of life according an “expert” on a subject is a completely different thing. “The roles and functions of clergy vary in different religious traditions but is thus an inspirational source for all human needs and deeds and, “therefore,to the master-plan is of paramount that fulfills importance the supreme in any duty consideration.” of man. The guru30 In their religion’s doctrines and practices.”33 The foremost aspect of this this exhaustive implication of guru in one’s life it must be said that typethese is usually ordaining involve just few presiding people overto do specific the worship rituals ceremonies and teaching and guru is not a role, he transcends the role given by his followers or fans and get closer to the heart-function of the guru. It is also stated to be the spokesman for either direction: God to men, and men to God. The distinctiveness of the ordained clergy is to perform “rituals 188 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Ciocan: The Religious Leadership

189 within the sphere of the sacred or numinous communicating with the gods on behalf of the community.”34 The main point of engaging only one or at the most few people in a public and direct worship of divinity is to have more than a religious leader or to dominate a whole community, is to have a powerful function of authority. In fact, the tendency is, in this form of religious organization, to have a sacerdotal priesthood over all (believers), to encompass [potentially] whole humanity. This idea usually comes with a price: the exclusion of everybody else who does not fall into the believers set. Sometimes forbidding others to enter this rigid set, and occasionally welcoming everybody [else] to join the circle, SRC aims to be[come] the rulers of all [people], so that everybody would fall unto their guidance. The basic conception and feature of SRC in this regard is that ‘my NOTES path is the only true path’, so this means that no one else’s should be 1 36 37 “manipulate and disempower us through fear, imposed ignorance and constant considered a real competition. Judaism, Christianity, or Islam, all emptyOne promises” of them, through Andrew the Werner, main construct says that, of whilereligion, using ‘sin’, ‘God’, “designed religion to assume same role, of getting everybody35 to the promise land through the one and only path discovered through their SRC alone. The horrible truth about Religion, 2003. See: http://www.bibliotecapleyades. Free access, universal and un-ordained priesthood (FAP) is net/biblianazar/esp_biblianazar_18.htmimpose a large amount of guilt onto the (Lastwhole accessed: of humanity”. November Andrew 12, 2016).Werner,1 mostly born out of the rebellion against the distinctiveness of SRC, 2 This will be a shortage for ‘religious leader’. the pair of exclusions: on behalf of – not allowed to. Sometimes acting 3 Cf. http://www.thefreedictionary.com/religious+leader (Last accessed: November 12, 2016). against the suppression of the abbeys, sometimes in an attempt of 4 It doesn’t have to be understood in a narrow terms, as mundane, State proving wrong the need of getting someone else mediate and speak leadership or government, but in a larger, wider terms, of engaging both on my behalf, FAP places the emphasize on everybody’s right and economical, communitarian, law-giving, and others, the ruling dimensions over capacity of speaking directly with divinity. Therefore, obviating the surrogacy it also precludes the forbiddance that follows, leading to Leading Minds: An Anatomyany5 type andof Leadership size of a community. (New York: in Basic order Books, to make 2011), it more 16. efficient and involved. a wider range of acts and allowances. 6 RogerHoward E. Gardner, Olson, GodEmma in Laskin Dispute: and “Conversations” Howard E. Gardner, among Great Christian Thinkers Divine Asked 7 The Unknown Prophet, the Review and Herald Publishing Personal service Spiri about Experi Forbidd Dida Self- Mun Chari (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Academic),The Unknown 239. Prophet, AuthorHouse, RL types engage and tual other ence ance / ctic worship dane role sma Delbert W. Baker, ment ceremo role sectors and age allowance nies of life Association,8 Nicolas Notovitch, 1987. William The C. Unknown Henry Sr, Life of Jesus Christ *** *** *** * *** *** *** *** ** -/* Publications,2005. 2008. Robert Siblerud, The Unknown Life of Jesus, Trafford, 2012. Pastor * *** - - * ** * *** - -/** The Secret Life of Jesus the Essene, Radford: Wilder Guru Rabbi ** *** - ** *** *** ** * * ***/- David9 Aaron, The Secret Life of God: Discovering the Divine Within You, London: Sacra Raymond W. Bernard, The truth of the Christian, Pomeroy, religion 1966., mental * ** * *** *** * * * ** ***/* Priest Shambhala, 2004. Hugo Grotius, Jean Le Clerc, Universal 10 Missions & American Pentecostalism, American *** * - - - *** - - - -/*** priesthood London: Baynes, 1829. Gary B. McGee, Miracles, Society of Missiology Series, no 45, 2010. 190 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Ciocan: The Religious Leadership

191 11 Thomas D. Ice, „The Latter Rain Revival Movement”, in DigitalCommons@ 23 Liberty Psychiatry (Last accessed: November 12, 2016). 24 SeeWilliam Dale Foster C. Allison, Marchett, Jr., Resurrecting „Repeated Jesus: Hallucinatory The Earliest Experiences Christian Tradition as a Part and of the Its 12 Ibid,, 2009,6. paper 48. http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/pretrib_arch/48 InterpretersMourning Process among Hopi Indian Women,” 35 (1972): 185–94. - 13 - en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawhid. (Last accessed: November 12, 2016). . https://books.google.ro/books?id=ZbGoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA274&lp- 14 Juan“Tawhid”, E. Campo, in Wikipedia, Encyclopedia the free of Islam encyclopedia. Accessed 4.9.2016, https:// g=PA274&dq=Matchett+(1972)+noted+repeated+hallucinatory+experiences- Muslim identities: an introduction to Islam (New York: +as+a+part+of+the+mourning+process+in+Hopi+women&source=bl&ots=h- Columbia15 University Press, 2013), 82. (New York: Facts on File, 2009), 665. Kzn1eRNiX&sig=wEGf3sfdK8Wa9PpEEYflGR5peT0&hl=ro&sa=X&ved=0a 16 KarenAaron Armstrong, W. Hughes, Islam: A Short History (New York: The Modern Library, as%20a%20part%20of%20the%20mourning%20process%20in%20Hopi%20hUKEwjUgPDH1ozMAhUGCywKHejkBY4Q6AEIJTAB#v=onepage&q=Match ett%20(1972)%20noted%20repeated%20hallucinatory%20experiences%20 17 John k. Nagel, “Unresolved grief and mourning in Navajo women,” American 233.2002), Taking 15. into consideration the permeability of the psychological boarder Indianwomen&f=false25 and Alaska (Last native accessed: mental November health 12, research 2016). betweenVamik the Volkan, child andKilling the “in caretaker, the name the of later identity: deposits A Study an adult’sof Bloody self-image Conflicts,” or ucdenver.edu/academics/colleges/PublicHealth/research/centers/CAIANH/ internalized images of other persons into the developing self of a child (a lasting 2(2): 32–40. http://www. (Last accessed: November 12, 2016). 18 As the pattern of deviant behavior proves, any substance used in excess or journal/Documents/Volume%202/2(2)_Nagel_Unresolved_Grief_32-40.pdf26 Edward P. Farrell, “The nature of sacerdotal and religious vocation,” byand a verydeprivation special kindof it wouldof projective give to identification.the subject the feeling of being elected. Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Convention (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: June This substance is used in different quantities by lots of people, but with a certain19 control, it can create a state of unpleasant emotions (sadness, melancholy, 27 anxiety, and frustration) and even limits the consciousness. These experiences 24–26,28 Stefan 1957), Pertz 171. (2013), The Guru in Me - Critical Perspectives on Management, are due to the effect of alcohol on the hippocampus - a brain area where the Ibid., 171–191. processes of brain related to memory take place, and also has suffered from the Numen toxic effects of alcohol itself. Alcohol acts on the brain reward system with its (GRIN:29 Verlag), 2–3. euphoric effect (Neuro-Anatomy and Physiology of the “Brain Reward System” in 30 Ibid.,Joel Mlecko 33. “The Guru in Hindu Tradition,” , Volume 29, Fasc. 1 Substance Abuse. Cf http://ibgwww.colorado.edu/cadd/a_drug/essays/essay4. (1982):31 Ibid., 33–61. 34. htm (Last accessed: November 12, 2016). 32 Ibid. 20 Deprivation of sleep cases many and odd side-effects, among which would 33 “Clergy” in Wikipedia, (Last accessed: September 13, 2016). be interesting to mention lower libidos and less interest in sex. It is hence a 34 Ibid. logical explanation why monks use this technique to overcome carnal desire and get into trance, hearing voices and having spiritual experiences in their 35 36 “There is no other, there is no one like the Lord our God” (Gen 41:39; Exo 8:10; Deut 4:35; 1 Sam 2:2, et.al). Symeonbrief sleeping created time. a pillar There so aresmall so manyin diameter cases ofthat people he could – saints only forstand religious on it. “We know that an idol is nothing in the world and that there is no other communities – that used deprivation of sleep to achieve religious ecstasy. St. God save one.” 1 Cor 8:4. “There is no one who does what is right” for “Jesus Religious persons of all cultures are known not to sleep for weeks during prayer Johnanswered 14:6). him ‘I am the way [to God], and the truth [to believe], and the life [to He spent all night on his feet praying, describing the ecstasy Sleepof talking Deprivation to God. live].37 Reza No one Aslan, can No go god to the but Father, God: The except Origins, through Evolution, [believing and Future in] me’” of (RomIslam ,3:12; New for Mind Control. http://www.sleepandhealth.com/sleep-deprivation-mind- controlto achieve (Last trances, accessed: joy andNovember peace. 12,Cf. Alexander2016). Golbin, M.D., 21 Cf. to the Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder. York: Random House, 2005. http://ibgwww.colorado.edu/cadd/ (Last accessed: November 12, 2016). 22 Neuroanatomy and Physiology of the “Brain Reward System” in Substance Abuse. http://ibgwww.colorado.edu/cadd/a_drug/essays/essay4.htm (Last accessed: November 12, 2016). Mercea: The Concept of Sect in the Interwar Period

193 to the advanced societies of the European Union.”1 The study of DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435139 history, as witness of the past, must be correlated also with the evolution of language, culture and political thinking, and not only

to the history of the cultural-linguistic minorities and majorities, itwith is essentialthe account to ofovercome events and the facts parallel or statistic languages. data.2 When The language it comes has changed in the course of the years and some of the terms have The Concept of Sect in the Interwar Period

Lucian Ionel Mercea, PhD (cand.) acquired new valences; at present, they can no longer define the Academia Rom , Institutul de Istorie „Nicolae Iorga”, Bucharest, Romania analyzesame things the wayas a centuryin which ago. the Given concept all these, of “sect” we haswill beenbegin used by looking in the [email protected] at the sociological and theological meaning of the term; then we will ână we shall see what relevancy still holds today the usage of this term. ABSTRACT: Due to the mechanisms of socialization, urbanization state church language, in legislation and the news media; and, finally, and globalization, the society resembles increasingly the structure of an intimate ecosystem. Therefore, when one approaches various 1) Sect: Sociological and Theological Perspectives subjects or, even more importantly, when one enunciates various

at global level. As this paper analyses the use of the concept of Etymologically, the term comes from the Latin sequi, meaning also “sect”concepts during one mustthe interwar take into period, account the their author impact notes and how significance the term “to follow a model, a person, an idea, a party etc.”3 The second had different connotations on each side of the Atlantic Ocean. On etymology—erroneous, but more popular—comes from the Latin term secare, meaning “breaking up, segregation from the church.” that emerged from the segregation of a group of believers from the the Western side, the term “sect” had designated a state of affairs From a theological point of view, beyond the etymological meaning as well as in academic settings. In Europe, however, the term “sect” of the term, the “sect” results from the segregation from a “mother acquiredmother–community strong pejorative of faith, meaning, and it is found as the used term both was as used colloquialism with the church” or a larger community, separation triggered by a divergent intent to marginalize and stigmatize those labeled as such. understanding of the religious truth or a religious practice, different interpretation of the Scriptures etc. In the view of the mother- KEY WORDS: sect, State, Church, Neo–Protestant, interwar community, it means a return to or a progress toward a Introduction bettercommunity, or purer this faith.schism Thus, constitutes the “sect” an involvesapostasy; theological in the view and/or of the religious practice differences and schism or only schism, for which n analysis of the concept of “sect” in the interwar Romanian reason it will always stand in opposition with the mother-community A with which it broke. Still, despite this opposition, the sect’s antithesis dimension in the discussions regarding the history of the neo- remains intimately connected with the mother-church’s thesis, be protestanthistoriography confessions. can prove The undertakingsignificant as is it usefulintroduces within a new the that Orthodox, Roman-catholic or Protestant. From a sociologically conceptual history, as “the conceptual history seeks the renewal of perspectives on a historical entity by assuming an alternative cultural paradigm, that is, by adopting political languages similar point of view, the “sect”, as form of religious organization, is defined, beginning with Max Weber and Ernst Troeltsch, in relation to and by comparison with the mother-church. While the latter is a religious 192 194 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Mercea: The Concept of Sect in the Interwar Period

195 organization well-integrated in society, large-sized, impersonal and constitutions, by stipulating that a cult is recognized as long as bureaucratized, with the majority of its members being born in it, the its ideas do not contradict “the public order and the morals and sect is a voluntary association that does not claim authority on the manners,”7 a concept with a broad sense that usually included those religious life and the conduit of the non-members and that stands manifestations likely to lead to the destructuralization of the society. in a tense relation with the overall society.4 Nonetheless, when the State was granted a more important In the Romanian , the “sect” concept has not role and the sense of lack of cohesion within the State was more been approached save with a very few exceptions and usually and acute, it can be noticed a permanent and active intervention of the most often with an emphasis on emotional issues, statistical data, state authorities within the cults, leading to the rediscovery in the brief histories of diverse newly appeared confessions or with the modern era, of the political role that religion can play. Especially purpose of upholding the idea of freedom of religion. All of these in Eastern Europe, this phenomenon was very intense. In the East, the case of Russia and the role played by Orthodoxy represents a in which the State and the society relate to them. have played a major role in defining the “sects”, as well as the way of Catholicism in the life of the Habsburg Empire. The most that it has different purports, depending on which side of the Atlantic notorious example; while in the West, we can note the importance you are.A real Thus, difficulty in the Unitedraised States,by the termthe term “sect” is understoodis given by thestrictly fact of the Kulturkampf politics by which it was sought to counteract the Roman-Catholicinteresting example Church remains and tothe increase Bismarckian the role Germany, of the promoterLutheran Troeltsch. But, in the European colloquial language, “sect” has turn intoas a asociological value judgment. concept, Being as itused was by used the byChristian Max Weber churches and Ernstin an cuius region, eius apologetic and polemical way, to describe the heretical groups that religioChurch principle, in the life valorized of the State in the and modern the German sense of society. the raison There d’État was.8 a legacy of German Protestant traditions, of the last century, a negative and derogatory connotation, thus losing its originalsegregate meaning. from the In official the colloquial Christianity, language, the term the negative has acquired meaning in the of to Troeltsch,In this cultural within environment,the Christian thereligion, modern two definition utterly opposedof “sect” the term prevails, while the sociological meaning is totally ignored. formswas penned of organization by the German existed: sociologist the Church Ernst and Troeltsch. the State. According As Bryan Across the centuries, religion has played an essential role in the traditional churches as they looked in the national states of his liberalism in the modern times made this role appear obsolete, with Wilson underscores, “Troeltsch had in mind as a church model, religiondefining beingthe identity a matter of aof society personal and choice, its coagulation. indifferent The to victorythe State, of Although Most often, thistime, pattern and especially was built the on ‘German the premise Evangelical that the Church’, “perfect” building9 model the of this remained only a desideratum because, in reality, the5 State was specificity of each as a series of dichotomous variables.” neveras guaranteed indifferent by to the religious 1923 Constitution,matters, given Article the importance 22. held by thought to extend it also for the Catholic Church. From the Roman- religion in the lives of its citizens. Also, the State couldn’t afford to church is that of the German national Protestant Church, Troeltsch be indifferent to the social power yielded by religion, which was far from being weaken. It is important to note how “different religious precisioncatholic side a series objections of “sects” were characteristics, raised, especially useful by toWerner be mentioned Stark. cults were controlled in the name of the ‘police’ role that the State here: In the works of Troeltsch’s disciples, we find defined with more must assume, as harmonizer of the social environment and the public 1. The exclusivist character—by this it was understood the morality.”6 that the State ensures for itself in the existence of most European 2. The claim of monopoly on the religious truth, in its totality. This way, it becomes justified that room for maneuver unacceptability of a double religious affiliation. 196 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Mercea: The Concept of Sect in the Interwar Period

197 3. and the often aggressive proselytism aimed, at least in the initial anti-sacerdotal character. phase, against the group from which it segregated. Sometimes, the 4. The tendency to take on a secular profile due to its overall “sect” becomes the adversary of the State by the segregation and social body, on religious criteria, with the exception of the fragmentation it initiates, by its detachment toward the State’s foundersThe rejection or the of leaders,any type and of classificationthat only in certain or division cases. of the commandments, and such acts could only displease an increasingly The voluntary character—each new “sect member” adheres authoritarian State.13 freely and willingly to the respective religious group, often 5. comprising the new religious groups that do not stand yet in harmony to be accepted. with theIn conclusion, rest of society the “sect” and the defines State a (for religious some, and this social intermediary category 6. Theafter high having moral been standards submitted maintained to verifications within (tests) the group. in order state could last for centuries). Frequently, in order to acquire a legal 7. The complete loyalty imposed to the adherent by the “sect”, status, these sects will have to go through a legislative “purgatory” with membership becoming the most important identity set up by the State, with the purpose of convincing the State that they element, at the expense of the national loyalty, for instance. don’t pose any threat to it, and the “sects” will endeavor to assure the 8. The character of dissenting group—whereas in the Middle State by various manifestations that they are loyal to the established Ages and at the beginning of the modern era, the protest order. Nonetheless, there will be cases in which the “sects” will refuse was aimed at the Church, its teachings and its priests, as to adapt or the State will do everything to place in the “sect” category, we approach the present times, the protest turns against various cults that are incommodious to its authority.

most often a purpose, an objective surpassing the common morality,the increasingly often imposed secularized by the society, State, thebut “sect”manifested defining in 2) The Concept of “sect” as Used by the Ministry of Cults and gestures, attitudes that could contradict what was promoted Arts in the Interwar Period and During the Antonescu Regime by the State.10

It can be noted that although an objective analysis of the sectarian 14 signed The official recognition of the Adventist and Baptist confessions state, a strong deprecatory shade that will evolve with time, charging came with the Ministerial Decision no. 32950/June 1921, thisphenomenon idea of “sect” is attempted, with negative there connotations. is in these11 definitions, According into aa recentlatent Adventistby the Minister Cult is Octavianfree.” For theseGoga cultsand comprising to be free, the three second points. point The of thefirst decision point specified stipulated that that “the “the exercise propaganda of the will Baptist avoid Cult denigrating and the in a state of permanent tension with the entire society, impervious the existent churches and the ecclesiastical personnel.” Afterwards, definition by Peter Berger, “a sect is a religious small group, existing these two neo-protestant confessions will be recognized through solidarity.”12 to its Thus,influence, the “sect” and demanding is the ferment from of aits crisis, members of a rupture total fidelity within and the confession was recognized through the ministerial decision no. society, if not through an attack against the “morals and manners”, repeated ministerial decisions. In 1933, the Plymouth Brethren at least by separating itself from the rest of the community and by questioning the existent social institutions. Also, the “sect” is the interwar114119/August period, 21, there 1933. can be noted the avoidance of using the enemy of the institutionalized or State-subservient religions (after “sect”In terminology the official for acts both issued the recognized by the Ministry and the illegalof Cults cults. in Thethe the Constantine model) by virtue of the new teachings it propagates

ministerial decision no. 5735/January 29, 1925, Article 1, reads as 198 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Mercea: The Concept of Sect in the Interwar Period

199 follows: “There are utterly forbidden the following associations Antonescu, as we can see in the decree by which Antonescu took of religious character (religious sects): (1) The Nazarenes (the that had been recognized by the State, in the interwar period. The away the official status of all neo-protestant religious associations penitents); the International Association of the Bible Students (the associations (sects), de iure and de facto, are and remain abolished.”18 theyMillenists); propagate (3) the contravene Reformed to Adventists; the State’s (4) Laws the andReapers; institutions (5) the Insecond the report article presentedof this decree by the specified Minister that of “theNational existent Culture religious and andPentecostals; by virtue (6)of their The Inochentists, practices they due go to against the fact the that public the doctrines order.” Cults to Marshal Antonescu and which form the basis for the decree Article 2 stated that “The Baptist and the Seventh-day Adventist15 associations continue to enjoy the rights and freedoms granted by idea of “sect” is used profusely in connection with the up-till-then the Constitution to associations, in general.” recognizedfrom December religious 28, 1942, associations, we can see as wella change as with in language, those religious as the It can be noted the tendency of the Ministry of Cults to avoid the associations not yet recognized. The idea of “sect” will be profusely usage of the term “sect”, this term being used only within brackets used during the Antonescu period, in reference to the previously and for explicatory purposes for the general public—as in the case recognized Neo-protestant cults. of the designations appearing next to some religious associations. 19 In all ministerial decisions issued in the interwar period, the State avoided to use the term “sect” with reference to some cults or 3) The Concept of “Sect” in the Orthodox Discourse religious associations already recognized. Nonetheless, we can discern a duplicitous character when it comes to secret circular 20 Bishop of Arad, was an emblematic personality orders sent to prefects or constabularies, in which the term “sect” is used for some confessions already recognized. Grigore Comşa, The term “sect” doesn’t appear at all in the text of the Ministerial given the offices he had occupied in the Ministry of Cults and Arts, Bucharest),after the Great and Union his “anti-sectarian” (Secretary, Vice-director, writings. By thenreading General his works, Vice- article of this decision stated that “it is utterly forbidden the activity onedirector can discernbetween his 1920 preference and 1925 for at thethe termMinistry “sect” of Cultsover andthe phraseArts in ofDecision the following no. 114119/1933, religious associations: issued by theThe Ministry International of Cults. Association The first “religious association” that the Ministry of Cults and Arts was using

some of the books he published and in which he used profusely of the Bible Students, the Millenists, the Jehovah’s Witnesses (or the thefor theterm recognized “sect” in connection neo-protestant with some confessions. State-recognized We mention religious here andWitnesses Reapers, of God—Jehovah), due to the fact thatthe Pentecostals, their doctrines the contravene Apostolic Church to the associations and confessions: Călăuza cunoașterii și combaterii State’sof God, Lawsthe Nazarenes, and institutions, the Inochentists, and by virtue the Adventists—Reformed of their practices they sectelor,21 Pentru neam și lege,22 Baptismul din punct de vedere istoric, go against the public order and morality.”16 The second article național și religios,23 Cenușa de pe capul baptiștilor,24 Combaterea announced the recognition of a new religious confession, along with catehismului baptiștilor,25 Lupta baptiștilor împotriva preoțimii the Adventist and Baptist confessions: “The rights and freedoms române,26 Credința și botezul – lămuriri pentru baptiști.27 From a granted by the Constitution to associations, in general, will be study of these apologetic and pastoral books and brochures, it can enjoyed by the religious associations of the Seventh-day Adventists, be noticed the preference for using the term “sect” in reference to the Baptists and the Plymouth Brethren.”17 The idea of “sect” begins to be overtly used by the Ministry of had been working for a considerate time in the Ministry that had the National Culture and Cults, during the dictatorship of Marshal recognizedthe recognized those neo-protestant cults and granted confessions, them a although new designation. Grigore Comşa Thus, 200 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Mercea: The Concept of Sect in the Interwar Period 201

states that “the three organizations were not religious sects34 either language and the doctrinal, apologetic and ecclesiastical language. doctrinally, or from the perspective of the Romanian legislation we can affirm there was a difference between28 the official, academic Yet, after 35 confessionsIn his work recognized “Confesiuni through şi secte” repeated (1929), ministerial Bishop Grigorie decisions Leu of(the systematic Law of the politics Cults, from to limit 1929, the the freedom subsequent of faith, laws).” intended to Botoşăneanu includes in the “sect” category, the Such Neo-protestant examples are intimidateSeptember the 1940, believers the three and denominations make them to relinquish had become their the religion target numerous in that period, and only in extremely29 rare occasions, and through the Law of the Cults from 1928. took place an assimilation of the Baptist, Seventh-day Adventists confession using the designation conferred to them by the Romanian and Plymouthjoin the Orthodox Brethren Church. with the Gradually, religious at “sects.” administrative36 level, it State.the Orthodox This continuing Church useofficials of the did “sect” refer term to theregardless Neo-protestant the new designation gained by the recognized Neo-protestant confessions documents created by these confessions and addressed to the State, demonstrated the pejorative and negative character of this term, in whichThe theyresearches would have done assumed in the State the “sect” Archive designation. didn’t find Nor any in used with predilection by the Orthodox Church with reference to 37, these confessions. have any documents been found to prove that these confessions Deacon P. I. David himself noted that “the terms ‘sect’ and ‘cult’ werethe Neo-protestant designating themselves archives dating as “sects”. from this This period fact (1918–1944) indicates that are quite scornful and seem to imply a rather negative judgment.30 Therefore, he suggests that “more neutral terms could be used as bearing a negative connotation that was not putting them in a instead, such as new religious movements, new religious groups.”31 favorablein the period light of within 1918–1944, the society. these Consequently, confessions they regarded sought the to avoidterm Not in the least, the problem becomes more sensitive when it and get rid of this label. comes to distinguish between these sects of Christian origin and the churches, ecclesiastic communities or legitimate movements Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion makes very clear his position within the churches. This last distinction is very important. “Heresy” with regardMoreover, to the in broad the Annual application Report of thefrom concept 1997, ofthe “religion” UN Special and and “sect” are two words by which, in the course of its history, the the necessity of an equal treatment for all religions, including the Church has designated those who broke up with the right faith.32 Jean so-called “sects” or “cults”. stuck by the society and the official church to the minority religious character of labeling certain faith communities as “sects”: groups,Francois against Wayer their noted: will. “The Having sect ais clearly the other. pejorative Nobody connotation, likes this label the In the first place, the Rapporteur noted the inadequate designation of ‘sect’ has always been a means to exclude some faiths The tern “sect” seems to have a pejorative connotation. A sect is from the respectable religious paths category, as sect reminds of considered to be different from a religion, and thus not entitled doctrinal absurdity, of fanaticism, of interdictions, of sectarianism.”33 to the same protection. This kind of approach is indicative of a propensity to lump things together, to discriminate and to exclude, which is hard to justify and harder still to excuse, so injurious is it to religious freedom.38 4) Neo-Protestant Confessions and Their Use of the Concept of “Sect” The Rapporteur concluded: “All in all, the distinction between a religion and a sect is too contrived to be acceptable. A sect that goes beyond simple belief and appeals to a divinity or, at the very least, confessions during the interwar period, the historian Viorel Achim With reference to the Baptist, Adventist and Plymouth Brethren 202 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Mercea: The Concept of Sect in the Interwar Period 203 to the supernatural, the transcendent, the absolute, or the sacred, enters into the religious sphere and should enjoy the protection will evolve with time, charging this idea of “sect” with negative afforded to religions.” connotations.these definitions, This in can a latent be seen state, in the a strong language deprecatory used in the shade interwar that Hence, we can note in the present times a distancing and era by the Orthodox Church, who conferred the designation of “sect” dissociation from the term and concept of “sect” precisely because to the Adventist and Baptist confessions, although they had been of its negative connotation that it has received and with which it recognized by the State as religious associations, with the exception has been used over the time. Therefore, we are assisting at the of the Antonescu dictatorship, when they were outlawed. transformation of a term, made possible by its evolution in the Last but not least, currently, it can be noted a distancing from , which itself has changed over the years, with language, and an attempt to avoid the use of this term, as the State, things as a century before. andthis termmore both recently, in the the State church, official too, papers become and theaware traditional that we churches live in a some words acquiring new valences and ceasing to define the same world with democratic values and freedom of speech and faith.

Conclusions NOTES 1 Victor Neumann, Este utilă rescrierea istoriei României? Evoluția conceptelor social–politice și alternativele interpretative în Istoria României prin Concepte First, the “sect”, as form of religious organization, is defined by organizationappealing to well-integratedMax Weber and in Ernst society, Troeltsch large-sized, in relation impersonal to and and by 2 (București:3 Polirom, Dicționar2010), 29–30. latin–român bureaucratized,comparison with with the the mother-church. majority of its While members the beinglatter bornis a religious in it, the 4 Ibid., 26–27. Encyclopedia of Religion sect is a voluntary association that does not claim authority on the and GheorgheSociety Guțu, (București: Humanitas, 2012), 456. religious life and the conduit of the non-members and that stands MonitorulWilliam H. Oficial Swatos Jr., ed. „Church–Sect Theory” in , (New York: Altamira Press, 1998), 90. in a tense relation with the overall society. 56 nr. 282/29 martieAnalele 1923. Universității ‘Dunărea de Jos’ Galați, Second, the term “sect” has different purports, depending on George Enache, “Problema sectelor în România. Din a doua jumătate a which side of the Atlantic you are. Thus, in the United States, the secolului7 Monitorul al XIX–lea Oficial până în 1948” term is understood strictly as a sociological concept, as it was used Seria8 Enache, 19, Istorie, 106. vol. VI (2007): 106. Religia nr. 282/29 din perspectivă martie 1923. sociologică language, “sect” has turn into a value judgment. Being used by the 107.9 Bryan Wilson, (București, 2000), 106– Christianby Max Weber churches and Ernstin an apologeticTroeltsch. But,and inpolemical the European way, to colloquial describe 10 11 Enache, 107. 12 ApudIbid., 108–110. Sectele. Nonconformisme creștine și noi religii the term has acquired in the last century, a negative and derogatory connotation,the heretical groupsthus losing that segregateits original from meaning. the official In the Christianity, colloquial 13 Enache, Jean–Francois 108. Mayer, language, the negative meaning of the term prevails, while the (București,14 1998), 6. Pagini din Istoria Bisericii Adventiste de Ziua a Șaptea din România 1921–1936, sociological meaning is totally ignored. The negative highest point Decizia Ministerială nr. 32 950/iunie 1921, as quoted by Dumitru Popa, was reached during the totalitarian regimes. Monitorul Oficial Curierul misionar Third, it can be incrementally noted that although an objective vol.15 II (Bucuresti: Editura Viață și Sănătate, 2013), 48. analysis of the sectarian phenomenon is attempted, there is in nr. 31 din 10 februarie 1925. See also nr. 3 (1925): 34–35; and A.N.D.J. Arad, fond Prefectura Județului Arad, Dosar nr. 6/1924, f.16–17. 204 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Mercea: The Concept of Sect in the Interwar Period

205 16 Ibid., 41.

17 Ibid. 2930 P.I. David, Călăuză Creştină. Sectologie. Pentru cunoaşterea şi apărarea dreptei 18 MonitorulANIC, fond Oficial Ministerul Cultelor și Artelor, Direcția de Studii, dosar 1/1933, f.3. credinţei în faţa prozelitismului sectant

19 , Partea I, nr. 305, 30 decembrie (1942): 11231–11232. 31 Ibid. (Curtea de Argeş: Editura Episcopiei ArchivaSee Moldaviae Viorel Achim, ”Situaţia sectelor religioase în Provincia Bucovina. Un Argeşului,32 “In theological 1994), 11. language, ‘heresy’ designates both the erroneous teaching studiu20 According al Inspectoratului to the Dictionary Regional of de the Poliţie Romanian Cernăuţi Theologians din septembrie 1943,” in that caused the breaking up with church of a group of believers, and the group , vol. VI (2014): 351–427. as such, while ‘sect’ designates only the group in itself. In Romanian, especially , Grigore Comşa in the contemporary language, the term ‘heresy’ is used to designate the (or Gheorghe Comşa) was born on May 13, 1889, in Comana de Sus, Făgăraş wrong teaching upheld and disseminated by a sect.” Cf. editor Biserica şi sectele (Braşov County), died on May 25, 1935, Arad. He attended the Lyceum in alsoFăgăraş his Doctor’s (1900–1908), degree. the In parallel, Theological he studied Institute theology in Sibiu at the (1908–1911), Catholic College the 33 Sectele, translated by Ruxana Pitea (Bucuresti: Editura School of Law, University of Budapest (1911–1915), from which he received (Bucuresti: Asociaţia Sf. Grigorie Palama, 1992), 18.

34 Jean–Francois Wayer, of Theology in Budapest; afterwardsTelegraful he received Român his MA degree (1921), then recognizedEnciclopedică, by 1998),the Romanian 5. state, that is the Baptist, the Adventist and the the Doctor’s degree (1925) at the College of Theology in Bucharest. He serves PlymouthHere Brethrens he was referringconfession. to the Neo–protestant confessions officially as deacon in Sibiu (1915), editor at (1918), sub-director and general sub-director at the Ministry of Cults and Arts in Bucharest (1920–1925), 35 Archiva at the same time–deacon at Amza Church, deputy in the first Parliament of MoldaviaeViorel Achim, “Situaţia ‘sectelor religioase’ în Provincia Bucovina. Un studiu the Unified Romania (1920). On May 3, 1925, he was elected Bishop of Arad, al 36Inspectoratului Ibidem Regional de Poliţie Cernăuţi din septembrie 1943 în tonsured at Sinaia, receiving his monastic name of Grigorie, ordained as bishop 37 , vol. VI (2014): 351. ofon theJune Journalists 14, installed in Banat,on July member12, 1925. of He the was Astra honorary Central member Committee. of the Esteemed Romania and Plymouth, p. 351–352.Brethren confessions. oratoryAcademy and (1934), missionary of the bishop,Society he of wasthe Romaniana fervent defender Writers ofand the of Orthodox the Syndicate faith 38 I have made researches in the archives of the Seventh–day Adventist, Baptist (Last accessed May 2 2016). (The Library of the Orthodox priest, The Library of the Orthodox believer). He https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G97/100/15/PDF/ against the religious proselytism; he founded a number of theological collections G9710015.pdf?OpenElement Bulletin “The Church and the School” and the whole church life in the diocese. coordinated the activity of the Theological Academy in Arad, of the Official 21 Călăuza cunoașterii și combaterii sectelor, Bucuresti: He published over 75 works (sermons, anti-sectarian brochures etc.) 22 Grigore Comșa,Pentru neam și lege Tipografia Bisericească, Cernica, 1926. 23 Grigore Comșa, Baptismul din punct, București: de vedere Editura istoric, Librăriei național Diecezane, și religios, 1923. 24 Grigore Comșa, Cenușa de pe capul baptiștilor Arad: Tiparul Tipografiei Diecezane, 1927. Grigore Comșa, Combaterea catehismului baptiștilor, Arad: Tiparul, Arad: Tipografiei Tiparul Diecezane,25 1931. 26 Grigore Comșa,Lupta baptiștilor împotriva preoțimii române, Arad: Tiparul Tipografiei Diecezane, 1926. 27 Grigore Comșa, Credința și botezul – lămuriri pentru baptiști, Arad: Tiparul Tipografiei Diecezane, 1925. 28 Grigore Comșa, Confesiuni și secte. Studiu istoric-misionar, Tipografiei Diecezane, 1926. Grigorie Leu Botoșăneanu, București: Tiparul Cărților Bisericești, 1929. Manolache: Orthodox Perspectives on Globalization 207

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435141 The Foundations of the New Inter-Faith Dialogue

n the environment of the global interconnections within post- Imodernity, which seems to overcome the gaps between cultures and spiritual faiths, it incurred a true shrinkage of space and time (David Harvey) within the global village (Marshall McLuhan) Orthodox Perspectives on Globalization: which the society seems to have grown into2. Submitted to analyze The Imperative of Interfaith Dialogue

Stelian Manolache, PhD orfrom anthropological a multitude of(J. perspectives,Friedman), globalization be it political will (A. incur Mc. several Grew, major1992), mutations,sociological in (S. the Lash, religion J. Urry, and M. religious Castells), faith cultural as well, (S. Hall)from [email protected] the point of view of both communities themselves and individual Faculty of Orthodox Theology, University of Ovidius, Constanța, Romania faith, interconnected with the involution of the traditional religiosity or the dilution and the relativization of the faith itself. In other ABSTRACT: This paper represents an Orthodox Christian perspective on globalization and also claims that interfaith dialogue is a words, we are confronted with an obvious reality, marked by a paradoxical religiosity—on the one hand, more and more strongly our time, requires a rising to the opportunity offered by the ever individual and growingly diffuse along with the proliferation of the largermissionary and increasinglyimperative. Globalization,dense network the of interconnectionsfundamental trait and of gnosiological and soteriological relativism and, on the other hand, interdependences of the social life—a new view of the world, of man, growingly and publicized, resulting from its transformation of life and faith. In other words, between globalization—perceived public

manifest subjectivity of the religious beliefs and practices (by global society circulates. Consequently, the classical thesis about the as a socially determined substrate for post–modernity—and the coexistenceinto a subject of within a dialogue the huge and inter-religiousflow of data which relations our contemporary as well as the relationship will be generated, which may prove stimulating for the major institutionalized religions, will be updated along with the new means of a spiritual superstructure), an inseparable two–way interaction of ideas, religious beliefs and practices that, inevitably, factor represented by globalization, into a new imperative and with a will integrate into the multitude of connections feeding the ever more open character of the society. This paper attempts to answer new understanding of the present religious time. The contemporary several general questions on the relationship between globalization and dialogue. Therefore, under the circumstances, what particular the global society and its dominant ideology adaptinginter-faith to dialogue a new reality is—in whichother words—specificallytends to subject everything connected to itsto dialogue among the great religions of the world? In other words, why own momentum toward relativism, even though,—postmodernism; unlike the past it is doestrait ofglobalization—which globalization may come reduces to (re)define the contemporary and (re)calibrate man to the 1—make a dialogue modernity, will avoid exposing the traditional religions and their inevitable and socially necessary? And why such dialogue meets the related institutions to disapproval. A dialogue in which, as shown temporal flow of production and consumption growing aware of the existence of others . . . can contemplate one another3in the context of religious practice Christiansignificant Church challenges brought about by the global interconnection? by W. T. Anderson, beliefs KEY WORDS: globalization, inter–faith dialogue, post–modernity, the cultural emancipating themselves in such a way that the religious isflowing a simple inexorably element oftowards the latter autonomy,.4 the political, the social and

206 208 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Manolache: Orthodox Perspectives on Globalization

209 In such circumstances, the contemporary world—divided among ethnicities, cultures and religions, will be called into countries and which, in many cases, provide living standards hitherto globalism as though, only by means of the post-industrial society unimaginable.and less qualified Therefore, manpower-consuming an objective determinism technologies is manifest to otherin the development and generalization of the course towards globalization, production and consumption becoming polycentric human activities originaland the technologicalcondition of space and scientific for manifestation revolution—a of the world human devoid nature, of -coagulated into tentacular, transnational networks—which are bearing,God—would however, aspire the to indestructible regaining its original seal of the unity divine and imagerestoring within the man. A global world which, coveting its own autonomy, could only relate to the immanent limits prescribed by the institutionalization guided by the unique and defining resort of pragmatism and of modernity, taking on and fetishizing the political, economic, social revolution,efficiency, ultimatelyglobalization aiming has been, at a financialin a sense, profit. inevitable, Thus, a being step in a a modern global world theproduct evolution of the of post-industrial mankind on a historicalsociety and scale. the Atscientific-technical the same time, it axiological references and will design / build them, subordinating is irreversible,7 as long as the basic mode of production can not be toand these cultural the values;appropriate elements of its contents. that will (re)define its own dismantled without the risk of a global as well as a social collapse. Under these circumstances, the space-time5 frame of each will demand from the religions, and necessarily so, to rediscover and technically-productive—globalizationB) Being established on a foundation is andproduced having tofinalities be lacking that re-empowerreligious faith their grows universal to encompass vocation the in whole order world;to provide a global an answer world spiritualare both andaiming religious at a lucrative meanings finality—economical, of the same magnitude. financial In fact,and to man’s inner longing for religiosity and communion with the Divine. the religious dimension can be no other than what post-modernity In the globalization context, religions assimilate their condition can produce—and whose vehicle it is. Therefore, not surprisingly, of social actors, thus being inevitably subjected / exposed to the globalization lacks a vertical dimension, dwelling the limits of a horizontal manifestation,8 less prone to provide theologically the physical distances by means of the cyberspace, is borne out by coherent and valid answers to the basic human quest—ever the theinteractions reality of witha global other culture similar fueled actors; by an moreover, extreme stimulation the shrinkage of the of same, nowadays as well as in the past or future. And even if it were exchanges occurring among cultural and spiritual values, because to do that—a consequence of the postmodern temptation for a every culture is tentative; it is always open to receiving, assimilating . . reconsideration of the religious thought and practice—it would . and, in turn, eager to provide something worthy6 for other cultures, conceive, formulate and advance solutions with too meagre a chance so that the faiths are in an unprecedented position of losing more to face the commands of the theological coherence and sustainability. and more of their traditional dimensions, especially the ethnic and In these circumstances, the referential values of the recent man (HR Patapievici) are subjected to a radical transformation, Under such circumstances, civilizationalA) the actualones, which course had for been globalization previously defining may be each regarded/ of them. interpreted as a politically and geopolitically, economically and newgenerated form byof hedonism,human society empowered itself; for, by the utilitarianism obsession for (Benjamin efficiency socially determined result of the mutations occurring—along the Barber),and profitability consumerism could andnot individualism.be converted into In theanything same wayelse thanas the a transition to post-industrial era—in the production and consumption of the material, cultural and spiritual assets: an age where science recent man is and technology are prevailing, where production management limitingobsessive his lust own for quest pragmatic favouring efficiency—immediately his aim, immediately convertiblecompatible and technical intelligentsia are the leading force, exporting energy withinto profit—dominateswhat the surrounding the globalglobalizing social abundance action, the allows him to 210 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Manolache: Orthodox Perspectives on Globalization 211

2 the contemporary man is medially positioned between the to compress his vertical dimension and to cancel his openness todiscover: metaphysics, hedonism. getting Man willto cease thus thenbeing tend a real to flatten anthropos his existence, as long as his skyward gaze becomes more indifferent and estranged. repudiatingsky—which hishe lostreject identity—ethnic, because he had cultural, lost eschatological religious. reflex and hope,In fact, and what earth—from we have merely which indicated he finds abovehimself are estranged the15 terms byof it stresses—a solvent and a mixer—on a man who, though living the secularization expression, which excludes the Christian Church, inThe a destructurationworld more transparent force of globalization than ever, is, proves paradoxically, to be so inhuge; the the global society striving to eliminate religion from the social life, position of being alone, constrained to a condition of absolute a consequence of the artificial separation between the public and solitude by a society which, as the sociologist Thomas Luckmann private sectors, so that man forgets his spiritual assets.16 But it is not the secularization itself the cause of the Christian Church being motivation/individualistic work over, weakening ever more the excluded from the socially recognized assets ​​of the contemporary frailwas sayingconnection back in that the was1960s, making has primed the individual the force ofhuman the individual to exist post-modernity which overlaps and takes control over as a community being. Enslaved by what Father professor John its spiritual dimension. However, globalism/universality are not the9 perverse triad field, but and consumption/performance/communication,10 the human livingI. Ică jr.in calledthe global world is already consisting in a major in crisis production, of identity, profit his stranger to the Christian Church; on the contrary, they are—in a reflectioncertain sense—its of Trinitarian constitutive; communion for, the which Church emphasizes Fathers, the especially identity St. of converted into consumption—a fact that is hereby proven able eachAthanasius nation theand Great, culture’s saw particular the cosmic but dimension also the loving of the binding Church all as of a toexistence establish being a culture unilaterally—a global laid under culture the devoid spectrum of spiritualof the efficiency fabric, them together.17 From this perspective, froma biblical perspective, with a purely utilitarian trait and unilaterally oriented towards one may even speak of the existence of a history of globalization, such material values.11 Respectively, the global world’s human abdicates, as Noah’s Ark or its opposite, the gigantic utopian project of the tower of Babel, a testimonial for the hubris that had gripped mankind, but from his authentic vocation, replacing his life—preamble of a also the divine sanction that was drawn thereupon. In fact, theology singularwillingly eschatologicaland in exchange destiny for temporary in this universe—withand questionable a benefits,specious is the subject which, eschatologically, does produce the perfect form living founded on the convenient mediocrity of consumption, which of globalization, i.e. the heavenly Jerusalem, where the elect will be substitutes the true human identity by refusing the existential depth.12 reflected in harmony under the rule Lamb.18 Eventually, the global Therefore, outlined is here the image of a man absolutizing one’s constitution dwells inscribed in the inner core of creation, not in actual condition, because modernity starts from the actual state of itself antagonistic to the divine economy from the point 19of view man, defining him precisely by placing man in such a state, seen as unsurpassable,13 suppressing man’s inward call to transcend one’s the fall and the eschaton is the element altering the globalism as own humanity. of the prescribed social coagulation; in fact, the history between C) In these circumstances, position of the Christian Church and meanings foreign to its genuine vocation. In other words, the within the global society will be determined by the following globalizationa origin and finalthat goalwe live of humanity,and receive rendering as a universal it with model dimensions for the sentences with a decisive role: marginalization of the Church and faith, can only be a deformed, dark shadow a unit of genuine humanity, which will rediscover the their origin and cause which is deemed to be purely immanent, fundamental meanings at the Eschaton. 1 post–modernity decreed the equality of all religions,14 while rational and not transcendent, divinely determined; 212 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Manolache: Orthodox Perspectives on Globalization 213

Postmodernism and Globalization: An Orthodox Christian View how, and therefore failing in his attempt. Man will proceed to search forconsciousness the transcendent of and landmark, is eager to valuing explore it God,as a source but without for his knowing passage If, from the formal point of view, globalization seems to be fully through the world, or will (re)lay the Divine at the origin of his moral- compatible with the Christian idea, its contents reveals its purely ethical standards. He will achieve that, however, solely by means and human origin, for the contemporary man alone—and without any methods available to his nature, to his limits—to be more precise— recourse to theology and faith—has discovered that transcendence and fatally failing, because such a quest is no longer communely of the ethnic, linguistic, cultural and spiritual borders, simply oriented on the vertical axis of transcendence-immanence or temporal facilitates his individualistic and mercantile, dominating ends. Thus, past-future, but on the individualistic and purely immanent horizontal paying the price of tearing off his true vocation, man has built a world axis of sense-nonsense, life-death, health-sickness, ego–non-ego, just with himself and for himself, the self/ego becoming the only imaginary-real23. This failed attempt will reveal, once again, the landmark, the only goal and the only means, for ancient man was in a dialogue with the Cosmos; the Medieval man was in a dialogue with God; whereas, modern man is in a dialogue to himself.20 In these relentlesslyconsequences towards of the human his Creator, Fall; although the synergistic there is something content of lying the authenticat his very theophanies core—indestructible will limit andman’s significant—that ability to retrieve pushes his truehim religion. Therefore, despite its somewhat laudable trait, the human statecircumstances, of affairs, Fatheri.e.21 John I. Ică jr. noted that, under the pressure of post-modernity,1 the assumption religiosity oftends political to reflect and two national/nationalist completely different the sole criterion of Truth: The Church. meanings and identity, so that the essential purpose of religion is striving toward God is imperative required to be fully connected to duplicated by subjective factors which can be easily instrumented religiosity—a position made possible as long as positivism and scientismB) Going serve beyond for answers modernity, to the need with for its believing hostility, such to religion an intrinsic and 2 the dissolution of faith into a sentimentalist and Pietist need for man - in fact, even constitutive to him—the recent man, as approach,political and easily economically; manipulable, and easily failing into an individualistic- if into a curvature of the historical space (J. Baudrillard), seems to egocentric vision—susceptible to sooner place the faithful on the suddenly rediscover his past, and moreover, man is reconsidering it24—because, unlike the completely unpredictable future—the A) In fact, the spiritual goal of postmodernism seems to be rebuildingtrajectory of the the religious, individual the pursuit re-theoretization of happiness of andthe religion,fulfillment. so to warp, the postmodern man is merely asserting his natively-perennial speak. And the temptation for this kind of enterprise is proving to dimensionpast anchors of [his man own to a- emphasisminimum added] of certainty. religiosity Going into this time be a major one, as long as Jurgen Habermas talks about the need of so that, obviously, the globalization age and the isolation of the returning to the sacred, to religious, while Martin Riesebrodt speaks religious from the social by means of secularization, (G. does Schmitchen); not stand, of the return of the religion during the globalization age,22 leading by far, for the end of religion. to a veritable resurrection of religiosity. However, the reality and Moreover, because even25 dead, God would still remain the one consistency of such quests—fueled by the too easily forgotten detail uncontrollable reference for the world,26 and in these terms, we which, in the words of Nikolai Berdyaev, man is a natural being, but may also speak about the chance of religion—for reinsertion into with a supernatural vocation—is altered and even compromised the social [emphasis added], into postmodernism and globalization, when it is placed outside the divine revelation. The recent man because the present tends to deepen the new—meaningful and does not hesitate to seek his religious ideal that he has regained precious—metaphysical and religious dimensions with whom we 214 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Manolache: Orthodox Perspectives on Globalization

215 do coexist in spirit, although that is a system of faith provided for public consumption.27 The critical term in this equation is world, by means of and exclusively sustained by the supernatural “consumption”, actually the idea—fundamental to the reality of would not find a normal way, the searchby for the the Holy God Scripture beyond andthe postmodern spirituality—of subordination of the religious to the the Holy Tradition, is incurring a confusion on man, who shall not be market requirements, enshrined in a world where the optimal sale revelation as it is reflected in the Church 32 to of goods and services has become decisive. Thus, post-modernity constantly seek answers and certitude—anchors among the mixed able to find peace, and shall live in a restless and troubled state, of traditional religions, but to a universe of individual religiosity, 2 the extreme relativization of the religious truth: no religious diffuse,opens to relativistic, the religious anonymous thought and and practice; syncretistic, yet, not ecclesiastically to the world communityvalue state incurredcan continue by the to contemporaryclaim - other than world; in a purely subjective un un-commissioned,28 in which the inclusivist language no longer manner—to hold the absolute truth 33 In fact, the postmodern world, distinguishes between truth and error. marked by the gnosiological failure of positivism on the fundamental 29 philosophical interrogations—world,; its origin and cause, life, man and his destiny, etc.—tends to reject the idea of certainty,​​ single The Current Condition of Interfaith Dialogue truth, preferring a polycentric world mentioned by Andrei Kuraev, a pluralistic world that makes it possible for one to exclude God from Bringing together cultures and civilizations that were barely—if the Universe “in a” fatalistic vision . . . [about the Universe], with a God devoid of power 34 but a polycentric world creates a risk of slipping social context of communication and interaction among the world toward a radical pluralism, absolutely relative, and whoever would religions,at all—interacting, that is, an globalization inter-religious does dialogue. also produce This situation a very specific- fueled accept such a pluralism,; would be forced to declare that there is no by many factors, from the generalization of global electronic common basis for assessing the same truth35 so that a postmodernist communication to - for instance, economic immigration and waves spirit deepens into the relativist drama and legitimizing relativity . of refugees - is overlapping what is proper to the postmodern . . in relativizing everything, postmodernism is prone to legitimize thinking: namely, a primacy of diversity at the expense of unity, a anything, even what is unacceptable 36 heterogeneity of the discourse, a diversity of life [and] worldviews.30 3 the significant erosion of the doctrinarily-structured religions; In other words, globalization carries along, inseparably, the idea of​​ the relativization of the truths of ;faith outlines a new religious pluralism (i.e. religious pluralism, in respect with our topic), even horizon, an agnostic belief, ontological and not biblical and dogmatic- more so as—given the value stressed on the virtually universally ecclesial, of an individual religiosity - believing without belonging, accepted freedom of conscience—the pair made by the religious lacking any confessional allegiance 37 freedom and religious pluralism can not be infringed without the 4 the resurrection of spirituality in typical postmodern forms that risk of utmost negative social implications.31 make man, once again, to recognize; different forms of pluralism 38 on In these circumstances, we can systematize the spiritual- the other hand, the return of the religious and (re)enchantment of religious circumstances of the contemporary inter-faith dialogue the world ; as follows: a new religiosity, imprisoned within the walls of immanence, created 1 the transformation of the existence into a source of insolvent by man according leads to theto his redefinition own desires, of faith pleasures, and religious interests practice, and soas experience of the tragic: the modern and postmodern human tragedy very heterogeneous that it opens the path of “the dissolution39 of due to the fact that he is forever longing for God, the search for Christ the universal perspective” of the religious faith40. The fact that a this inner tendency, doomed to remain unanswered as long as it globalized world—spiritually structured along the lines of post- ; 216 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Manolache: Orthodox Perspectives on Globalization 217 modernity—is seeking its religious roots, is in itself a desirable fact. 3 the acceptance by the Church to take part in the competitive But mostly directing these searches for the sensitive ego, lacking market of the coexisting confessions existential depth and eschatological openness—because “today” fact, given the competitive environment in which the denominations has become the mantra of the human existence; because today the suggest for consumption extremely ;diverse Peter L. anthropological Berger believes models that, in, achievement of all promises is being sought for41—doesexpose, if soteriological solutions and moral-ethical values, the Church should need be, man’s inability of emerging, by himself, from immanence. accept a third solution, namely, to comply with the rules of the market Being egotistically bound for oneself, for personal success, comfort economy, a view that he has advanced as the only valid, to the Synod and success, the recent man grows even further atrophied into his fallen condition, altering it even more so by rejecting the Truth of the Church, for the simple fact that man [can] no longer believe in a areof the placed Evangelical and are Church operating, in Germany in which, (1993). “The Church Peter L. has Berger become made a universal truth, taking a programmatic option favoring relativism, specializedclear the eminently agency . secular. . limited context to managing in which individual the Western salvation,” Churches44 a in the most radical expression of this philosophy.42 religious social entity among other similar entities, subjected (and exposed) to the criteria of a competitive market, in which the ratio between “the demand for spirituality” and “the market supply” is Orthodox Christianity and the World of Religious Pluralism decisive and where “no normative is accepted as absolute.” Prior to 45 In a world where religions and beliefs are claiming, each of them, not who spoke of “a market of religions” i.e. the psycho-market, driven only legitimacy, equal forces—if not soteriological exclusivity—and bybeing “small theorized companies by Peter of salvation,” L. Berger advancing or, for example, “soteriological by J. P. William— supply” an overall gnosiological sustainability, while any mutual disregard in competitional terms46—this trend has been conceptualized and gradually cease to be a politically and socially acceptable solution in a global society, the Christian church is in a position to seek for the religious organization—a kind of corporate body, capable to coalesce andpracticed multiply by thelocal Western communities post-Protestantism, of believers, sometimes as a multinational morally Ludwig Berger as follows:43 rigorist but with little inclination toward the teachings of the faith best line1 adapting of conduct; to pluralism the possible options were expressed by Peter accommodation of the Church—from the point of view of the coagulated nodal centers within a tentacular network, obey the rules professed faith, religion and ethics—to; this solution the confessionalimplies a continuous diversity ofitself; the globalsuch organizations, market, are able operating to obtain in andthe redistributeform of a multitude resources, of of the environment. This attitude is obviously unacceptable as long instituting the new religious movements so characteristic for the as it will certainly lead to loss of identity, in the sense that pluralism, postmodern global society. Obviously, from the point of view of which is in constant change, will force the Church to continuously Orthodoxy, a market solution of the kind is not and cannot be a adjust and readjust 2 rejecting the multi-confessional reality it, the Church “is still the crown of society”47 while, it is impossible regarded as unacceptable; because that would imply isolation of [solution;for the Church it continues - TN] to to descend believe towardsthat, as Jurgen the criteria Moltmann for validation has put the Christian Church, ghettoization, giving up the; this universal position vocation, is also by the secular world, since, as the mysterious body of Jesus Christ becoming a homogeneous closed system, claiming to be the depository of the Redeemer, simply cannot obey them. Then again, Orthodoxy can the absolute truth. Furthermore, according to the theologian J.B. Metz not enter a soteriological competition against other religions, in a , any lack of openness towards modernity purely human of race for gaining new adherents, mainly because and pluralism could lead to a possible fundamentalist approach salvation is a divine act par excellence, whereas the institution of or the sociologist G. Schmied ; 218 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Manolache: Orthodox Perspectives on Globalization

219 conversion by secular advertising is totally foreign [to the Orthodox who rediscovered in Dao De Jing—the Church - TN]. Orthodoxy believes that “the human factor, with his classic Taoist writing—the 54sign of the revelation of Yahweh within theof Paul space Carus of (1852–1919)Chinese culture and civilization, the Edinburgh The Missionary55 Message striving, cannot be all it takes48 to The convert purpose people, of the . . Orthodox. but it takes mission God’s in Relation to Non-Christian Religions or the Conference The Christian work”, because, in general, “man can do nothing alone, without God’s LifeConference and Message (1910) in the with Relation their Commission to Non-Christian Systems of Jerusalem help “(I because Corinthians it assumes 3: 5–9). that “the most important thing, even in which“aims49 ratherconcerns to bring that mission,God to the is peoplethe intensity than to of bring the ecclesial the people life to “, towards other religions.” beingGod,” mainly interested in “its own life, especially sacramental.” World(1928), Council the latter of Churches criticizing56 has “the stimulated exclusive the attitude inter-faith of Christians dialogue, In these circumstances, acknowledging the surrounding50 for whose needs it developed After the 1948 Guidelines and especially on Dialogue after 1968, the confessional diversity and regarding pluralism as an open reality, which sets the guidelines of communication and relationship with which leaves “ mutual openness, trust and responsibility”, excluding (1979), the danger of radicalism, Orthodoxy will be able to comply to the following coordinated action,51 suggested by Father Ioan I . I r. dialoguethe non-Christian in order religions; to eliminate this wasthe dangerafter, un of Nairobi syncretism.” (1975), Finally, “it was a) by regaining “the inner spiritual forces” and overcoming 52the wenecessary quote theto define message the “ nature,A Common scope Word and Us limits and ofYou the” (2007) inter-faith of a ambiguity generated by a search for external support, “most căof timesj total of 138 Muslim scholars who pointed out that “the necessity

b) by assuming “the condition of a minority and a spiritually, between Christianity and Islam.” In respect with the inter-faith morally,in a humiliating socially servitude;” and culturally active Diaspora”—in a radically of love for God and for the neighbor57 stands for the connection secularized world—by regaining the “the spirit of the witnessing Christian and of the apologists of the pre-Constantinian age,” in ofdialogue religions itself, and we religious believe beliefs—whichthat the first problem may hardly that arisesforesee is the order to “become the soul of the body of the world” and to “enliven existencevery possibility of convergent for that; elements—couldin other words, in the the idea context of ​​a ofdialogue a variety in itself prove theologically sustainable, within the aforementioned the humanity flesh with the life of God.” The Possibility of Interfaith Dialogue Christianinstitutionalized thinking: forms? We do believe that the necessarily favorable responsea) a multitude is favoured of forms by the of religiosityfollowing stemsfeatures, from specific the alienation to the wishes all men to be of nature and the human condition incurred after the fall—their state saved and to come to the true knowledge” (I Timothy 2:4) and Jean Delumeau’sStarting from observation the fact that that it“different is God whoreligions “ exalt, each in their language, wisdom and compassion, sincerity and humility, precious view,being religions able to compromise are merely the the expression, bond of communion more or less with successful, God, which of common assets ​​that nobody may want to see disappearing,” the ensure the frameworks for man’s genuine worship; from this point of 53 institutionalization and permanence. In relation to the current containman’s attempt—again more or less Truth, more according or less assisted to “the by dose” God—to of the be includedrestored inter-faith dialogue is emerging as having sufficient ground for supernaturalto the heavenly revelation, communion and with will the gnosiologically Creator; implicitly, and religionsdoctrinarily will fructify these so that, “no matter how degraded as a religion, it will theconfiguration World’s Parliament of the inter-faith of Religions dialogue, there is a lot of history. Among these, it stands out the establishment in Chicago (1893) of , Chicago, 1893 at the initiative 220 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Manolache: Orthodox Perspectives on Globalization 221 still stay human” i.e. within the sphere of the legitimately and 58 Christ Himself: “TheWord was the true Light that enlightens every b) the non-Christian religions comprise a glimpse of Truth mana universal that cometh work aimedinto the at world transfigurating all creation, like that of eitherspecifically as an human “echo of aspiration the primordial toward revelation, God; or as a result of the Spermatikos Logos’ action, followed by the arrival of the perfect Logos says, the Holy Spirit “can only be regarded” John 1:9; as atherefore, property monopolized“all men are —such glimpses determining at least a minimum of byopen, the in Judeo-Christian a way, to the work tradition”—thence, of God’s Spirit” so the that, need as S. for J. Samartha a “more 59 63 οτασλογοσ”c) the ontological unity of the human race (“And He made every therefore of the possibility and necessity of an inter-faith dialogue. nationcompatibility; of men from one blood, so they may dwell on all the face of the sensitive recognition of the comprehensive work of the Holy Spirit;” earth.” Acts 17:26), complemented by the structural unity of mind, aspiration and destiny of the whole mankind,60 makes man prone to The Christian Church in Dialogue he is consubstantial and whom he receives under the spectrum of In respect with the non-Christian religions, the Church recognizes othernessfinding his only peers as within a consequence and through of the dialogue, ontological with disturbancewhom, in fact, of contemporary world great ideals,”64 as recommended by The World perspective of the mysterious recuperation of the unity of humanity themConference as partners, for Cooperation working and together Development for the “fulfillment of the withinhis nature, Christ, as afor result the Savior of the “retrievessin; in this us respect, from our one own may isolation glimpse and the that they produce “a profound piety and obedience to a merciful 61 (Beirut, 1968), given d) taking human body, Christ assumed—in order to deify interconnection of all things, the transitory nature of all existence it—theputs us veryin an human intimate nature relationship as such (savewith all the our sin), peers;” thus overcoming, [and]God, nearsuffering to the as believer,”part of life,” accepting prophesizing “the “man’sconsciousness ability to of avoid the being subjected by the material goods “and acting according to the Christ, mankind—so heterogeneous nowadays—has the revelation within His own hypostasis, anyone ethnic is neither or religious Jew nor difference;Greek; one inis as the report of The Conference on faith, science and the future neither a slave nor free; one is no longer man or woman; for you are creed of “the principle of inflict the least damage of all creation,” allof theone primordialin JesusChrist unity; “(Galatians for “ 65 restores the human condition, correcting the tendency towards world,(Cambridge, the Church 1979). is fully aware that each of them may claim and fragmentation into separate hypostases—leaving 3, 28); the incarnation no traceof the of Word the sustain,When apologetically in a dialogue and missionarily,with the other their great own faith,religions regarded of the as redemptional, their own theological, gnosiological, anthropological entered Himself in relation to the people of all faiths and all times, and soteriological teachings. Therefore, the fundamental purpose perceptible common origin—because62 God, through Christ, “has of the inter-faith dialogue is to detect and quantify the common religious values, as well as moral and ethical, for the involved formulatedfeaturing the by Gospel the Indianof salvation;” Christian theologian Stanley-Jedida parties, building on the assumption that “every Christian should be e) finally, we also note the argument in favor of a dialogue . . . aware of his human solidarity with all peers, regardless of their dialogue, which emphasized the role of the immediacy of the Holy manifest faith or lack of faith.” This way, Christians will engage with SpiritSamartha in fostering (1920–2001), communication a remarkable between militant religions, for relying inter-faith on the a “sincere enthusiasm to listen to the part we want to communicate direct promise expressed by the Savior: “and when He comes, the Spirit of Truth, He will guide you into all truth ...” John 16:13—within the Spirit”66—for, “The wind blows where it wills, and you hear his with; . . . and in this situation, the dialogue is the result of work of 222 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Manolache: Orthodox Perspectives on Globalization 223 voice, but canst not tell whence it cometh, and whither it goes. So is institutional framework of the dialogue—which can be carried out everyone who is born of the Spirit” (John 3:8). The dialogue with the without a missionary-kind temptation for deviating approaches, non-Christians expresses the Church’s awareness about the unity because “no other realization of the human condition of our time has the potential for conciliation which Christianity produces”72—the Church reasserts love and understanding toward the non-Christian shareof humanity our common beyond humanity, its infinite dignity fragmentation, and we express stemming our commonfrom the concerndisobedience for this of humanity.”the original67 sin;Being by a means Christian of the means dialogue, discovering “... we the others, and therefore those of another faith, in the light of our brethren precisely because the beliefIsaiah in the 6 3) One and God,whose “a KingdomGod and faith in Christ the Savior of the world, who calls to regaining our comprisesFather of all, the Who whole is above world: all “hisand throughkingdom all, doth and reigns in all,” over Ephesians all”— 4:6, and whose glory fills the earth ( original unity and enjoying its eschatological fulfillment, because thePsalm other 102:19 side, and despite “the theearth fact is thatthe Lord’s they would and the not fullness know tothereof; name mystery“God was of in His Christ, will” reconcilingis “all be again the united world into Christ, Himself things . . . and in sowingheaven world and all who live in it”—Psalm 23:1—a God whom those on us with the word of reconciliation” (2 Corinthians 5:19), and “the in times past, suffered all nations to go their own ways, Though He Compared to the non-Christians, he who believes in Christ will HimselfHim as such, has not they left do un-confessed, sense Him with making their entireyou well, being: giving “And you Whom, rains alwaysand those open on intoearth a -“ pallersonal in Him,” and Ephesians humble” 1:9–10. communication,68 fully aware that “in every nation, he who fears Him and does righteousness from Concurrently,heaven and fruitful the Christian seasons, Church filling entersyour hearts into a withdialogue food with and have not the law, by nature do the law, these, not having the law, are thegladness”—Acts non-Christians, 14:16–17. strengthened by the call addressed to the world theiris acceptable own law, to which Him,” Actsshowing 10:35 the and deed then, of “Whenthe law the written Gentiles in their who in the name of Christ—“Behold the judgment for all the earth is the hearts, by testimony of their conscience and judgments, accusing or for God so much A humble dialogue humble, with love, for the love for Christ lovedhand stretchedthe world out that over He all gave nations!”—Isaiah His begotten Son14:26, so notthat forgetting whoever hasdefending saved the them” world, Romans the appropriating 2:14–15. and recognizing what is truly believeththat it is treasuring in Him should the overwhelming not perish but love have of everlasting God: life—John valuable and soul-uplifting in the non-Christian religions , should 3:16. In this way, the Church will recognize, in the multitude of not lead, however, to a dilution of Christocentrism, to an abdication69 from the force lines and the dogmatic references of the doctrinal expression of the awareness of the divine mystery” —as it has been Christianity, the danger of relativism and syncretism70 being ever expressedthe contemporary at the Conference religions “aof giftthe Catholicof God” andBishops as many forms “of present. Relevant for such a danger is the situation that occurred at the same time, a further call for compliance to Christomorphism, at the seventh General Assembly of the World Council of Churches which is the truly fundamental and unique truth [of the in Church 1989—and, - TN].

Seoul—in a study on the acculturation of Christianity in Asia and (Canberra, 1991), when Chung Hyun Kyung, from the University of Conclusions biblical characters (Agar, Uriah or the children killed by Herod), and alsoAfrica—identified with the spirits the of the Holy victims Spirit of with Hiroshima, the personal Nagasaki, spirit Chernobyl, of some As Nicholas Achimescu has emphasized, the inter-faith dialogue the victims of the Crusades or those of Tiananmen Square and, occurring between the world religions is a human response of the 71 Staying within the exclusively whole mankind, starting from the archetypal dialogue in which finally, the traditional Korean spirits. 224 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Manolache: Orthodox Perspectives on Globalization

225 11 as man. From this point of view, consistent with the Trinitarian 12 Into Popescu,Christ,” in “Orthodoxy The Church and in the Globalization,” Globalization 87. Age, 444. Christocentrism,God Himself enters and the thus world to with the theecclesiocentrism embodiment of of Jesus our Christfaith, 13 AncaAdrian Manolescu, Lemeni, “Globalization: The Style of A theDiversion Religion from in the the Unification Late Modernity of the World we understand that, being in a dialogue with our non-Christians Publishing House Polirom 2011), 63. brethren, we will be in the natural logic of a radical ontological 14 Nicolae Achimescu, Religion, Modernity and Post-Modernity (Iaşi: change brought about in our nature by Christ. Thus, such a dialogue could be seen as “a joint effort to advance towards Truth,”73 as an (Bucureşti: Publishing1516 Popescu, House The RootlessTrinitas, Man 2013),, 482. 491. attempt “to achieve a true communion . . . through forgiveness, 17 Ică, Jr., 690. reconciliation and a new creation” from all faiths and active religious 18 the home with several ApocalyptcalPopescu, Age?,”“Orthodoxy in The and Church Globalization,” in the Globalization 90. Age dwellings and which is the contemporary world. , “Church, Globalization and Posthistory: Anti-Babel or An , 235–236. ideas, within that which W. Walsh called 1920 Nicolae Balca, The Crisis of Culture, in Telegraful român Dumitru Popescu, “Orthodoxy and Globalization,” 16. dialogue, the Christian Church can do nothing else but what our 21 22 , nr. 42 (1936): 58.

Extrapolating, in fact, in the specific matter of the inter-faith 23 Ică, Jr., 695. resurrection, opened a way to salvation for every individual, so that, 24 Achimescu, 236; 300–301. amongMaster thoseJesus Christof other did, faiths, the oneour Who,goal will by meansbe to follow of His Christ, sacrifice whose and Ică, Jr., 695. Ibid., 694. work “aimed at all humanity, Christian and non-Christian.”74 2526 H. R. Patapievici, The Recent Man 27 Achimescu, 179.Culture globale et identite culturelle 28 (Bucureşti: Publishing House Humanitas), 87. Marin Aiftincă,Symposium: Modernism, Post-Modernism (Bucureşti, and Religion 2001),, edited 9. Valer Bel, “The Witnessing Community in the Environment of A Secular and NOTES Global World,” in 1 The Church in by29 Vasile Nechita (Constanţa: 2005), 34. Mission. The Romanian Patriarchy in Anniversary Gheorghe Petraru, “Modernist and Postmodern Conceptual Paradigms and Ioan I. Ică Jr., Globalization - Mutations and Challenges, in 30 Achimescu, 312. Their31 Impact on Theology and the Mission of the Church,” in Nechita, 55. 2 John Tomlinson, Globalization and Culture (Bucureşti: EIBMBOR, 2006), 692. 32 The Mistery of Man and His Tragedy in the Postmodern Age, in Ibid., 511. 3 Dumitru Popescu, Orthodoxy and Globalization. ,Global transl. Culture Cristina and Particular Gyurcsik 33 Achimescu,Vasile Citirigă, 401. (Timişoara:, in Amarcord Publishing House, 2002), 11. (Alba Iulia: Reîntregirea Cultures The Church in the Globalization Age Nechita, 239. Publishing House, 2003), 12. 34 Postmodernism: A Major Challenge For The Mission of the Christian Church, in Nechita, 124. 4 Olivier Clement, “Christianity, Secularization and the Europe,” in Ioan I. Gheorghe Istodor, The Social Thought of the Church. Foundation, 3536 Emil Stan, “ and the Post-Modernism,” in Viaţa Românească, nr. Documents, Analyses, Perspectives Achimescu, 521–522. Ică, Tomlinson, Jr., Germano 2002, Marani, 73. eds., 37 56 (Sibiu: Deisis Press, 2002), 509.The Church in the 11–1238 Istodor, (1998): 116. 170–174. , 213. Globalization Age Petraru, 56. 7 Marin Aiftincă, “Global Culture and Cultural Identity,” in 3940 Ion Popescu, The Phenomenon of Personalization in Post-Modernism, in 8 Dumitru Popescu, The Rootless Man Petraru, 53. 2001),Popescu, 86. 2003, 92–93. Orthodoxy, Post-Communism (Bucureşti: and Publishing Neoliberalism House Nemira, 41 Modernity,”Nechita, 251. in Verso 9 Horaţiu Trif, “Tradition and Eschaton: A Short Anamnesis On The End of Cătălin Raiu, (Bucureşti, 10 , nr. 2–3 109–110 (2014): 8. Publishing House Curtea Veche, 2012), 15–16. Ică Jr., 2006, 693. 226 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES

42 and the ‘Imagined’ Christianity,” in Nechita, 262. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435145 43 Adrian Niculcea, “The Romanian Intellectual between ‘The Death of God’

44 Achimescu, 346–347.

4546 Achimescu,Ică, Jr., 698. 207. 47 Petraru, 59. 48 Constantin Coman, quoted art. Ibid., 155. Law as a Drive for Social Development 49 Ibid., 331. , in Nechita, 335–336. 50 Ibid., 336–337. in Philippe Malaurie’s Thinking 51

52 Achimescu, 20.512. Ică, Jr., 698. Ligia–Roxana Rotaru 53 The Importance and the Actuality of the Inter-Faith Dialogue Independent Scholar, Romania For54 the Contemporary World: History, Perspectives, Solutions (Craiova: Publishing Adrian Boldişor, The Modern Anti-Trinitarism—Theological Presumptions and [email protected] ConceptualHouse55 Mitropolia Structures Olteniei, 2015), 17. Dan Ţăreanu, development of a society, in Philippe Malaurie’s thinking. In this (Sibiu: Publishing House Andreiana, 2015), 157–158. 56 ABSTRACT:endeavour, this The paper paper offers defines a historical the concept sketch of law of personalities and its role in who, the Boldişor, 18–20, 22–26, 51. 57 through their ideas on legal science, have contributed—to a lesser or Ibid., 70–71, 133. 58 a greater extent—to the harmonious development and the progress Achimescu, 53. 5960 C. Sârbu, “The Main Position of the Orthodox toward Other Religions, in of society. OrtodoxiaIbid., 59–60. 61 62 , XXI nr. 5 (1969): 511. KEY WORDS: law, ethics, principles, progress, heroes 63 Achimescu, 19. 64 Ibid., 47.15–16. Ibid., 38.30–31. Sit, people interconnected through social, economic and legal 6566 relationships.ociety can beDue defined to the by importance the multitude of law of sciencepeople whoin society make 67 Ibid., 27. through the legal norms it imposes upon people’s conduct, it cannot 68 Ibid.Ibid., 20–21. be separated from the evolution of society. Law is an aggregate of principles, concepts and legal norms that Concerning69 The Non-Christian Religions,” Ortodoxia 70 Emilian Vasilescu, Vasilescu, “The “Preoccupations Religious Syncretism Within In theOur Times,” Romanian Studii Orthodoxy Teologice embody the fundamental conditions and moral ideals of a society nr. 1 (1971): 40. 71 The Abrahamic Religions in the Post- illicit behaviours and to encourage people to a high legal and moral Modernistnr. XIX nr. Context3–4 (1967): 150. conduct.and which The serves second a purposedouble purpose. is punitive, The as firstlaw triesone tois restoreto prevent the 72 AndreiBoldişor, Marga, 158. See also Vasile Nechita, , in Modernity, Religion, Culture The Church in the Globalization original legal order through sanctions. Age (Iaşi: Publishing House Vasiliana, 1998, 2010), 240. 73 Nicolae Achimescu, Religions in a Dialogue As the worldwide society is composed of a multitude of nations, , 30–31. 74 (Bucureşti: Trinitas Publishing there was a need to build a mechanism that would regulate the House, 2006), 15–18.; relationshipcultures and beliefsbetween that these we coulddifferent define states. in one This word has as led diversity, to the Ibid., 19. 227 228 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Rotaru: Law as a Drive for Social Development in Philippe Malaurie’s Thinking

229 regulation of international law that was established in “the process the host of heaven, which I have not commanded, and it is told you, of collaboration and struggle between the states of the international and you hear of it, then you shall inquire diligently. And if it is indeed community.”1 true and certain that such an abomination has been committed in Israel, then you shall bring out to your gates that man or woman could arise due to existing domestic laws from different countries. who has committed that wicked thing, and shall stone to death that This needInternational has made law its aimspresence to settle felt andmore resolve and more those acute conflicts with that the 3 increasing trade agreements between states, as well as with the Talionis (the law of retaliation) “Your eye shall not pity: life shall increasing relations in areas like tourism, culture, sciences, etc. beman for or life, woman eye for with eye, stones”tooth for (Deut. tooth, 17:2–5). hand for Onehand, also foot finds for foot” Lex 4 international institutions have been created to ensure compliance with theWith legal the normsever-growing and respect development for the rights of society, of states specialized and their who,(Deut. through 19:21). their ideas and work, have tried to impress unto the citizens. These institutions include the International Court of Justice, Going further, we come to the three great Greek philosophers the International Criminal Court, the European Court of Justice and be felt over the centuries. Plato, in particular, along with Socrates the European Court of Human Rights. andWestern Aristotle, world devotes a moral much and intellectual of his work basis to the whose endeavour presence of wouldtrying As we mentioned in the beginning, society is made up of people, and the progress in various areas over the centuries, is also due to these degrading vices had appeared in society because his Sophist them. Some of them have made impressive contributions in the opponentsto fight against had moral, argued social that andeverything political was decadence. relative, He that thought there thatwas evolution of law ever since it was not yet formed as an independent no absolute justice or absolute good, and that each individual should legal science. only relate to himself. At the beginning of our society there were talks about a so- Another name that has left its mark on the development of called “natural law.” It consisted in a set of rules of conduct for society was that of Cicero. It is said that he was the greatest lawyer various situations, but it was not written, but it was transmitted of his time. He was the embodiment of courage, assuming the work he wanted to do even by risking his own life. In the end he was ones to regulate these principles was Moses. History speaks of him assassinated, but for us he stayed as an example of “lawyer, humanist asby “oneword of of the mouth greatest through heroes successive of mankind, generations. the founder One of of a religion,the first and martyr for freedom.” father of a nation, legislator, moralist, liberator, conqueror.”2 A true illustrious of 5law and, in the same time, someone who consisting of the Ten Commandments given on Mount Sinai. Thus, Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, he wished for legal order Through Moses, God gave for the first time the written law andhas unityinfluenced over the society land heto wasthis leading.day is Justinian. He wished In for his the capacity law to beas all law systems. written and accessible to everyone, both to the ordinary and to the the MoralSince Law the ofpeople God has of Israel always were, been at considered the time, a the fairly legal intolerant basis of rich. This is how he began his vast work that includes: the Digesta, and aggressive people, some laws are intransigent. As an example, the Institutiones, the Codex, the Novellae, and the Corpus. He managed to establish only for a short time the legal unity he wished for, but his imprint transcended over the centuries, so that he accomplished awe man find or the a womandeath sentence who has for been apostasy: wicked ”If in therethe sight is found of the among Lord what he himself declared at the end of his vast and impressive work: you, within any of your gates which the Lord your God gives you, “For a few pennies, the poor and the rich can now buy the laws and other gods and worshiped them, either the sun or moon or any of obtain at a low price the quintessence of wisdom.”6 your God, in transgressing His covenant, who has gone and served 230 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Rotaru: Law as a Drive for Social Development in Philippe Malaurie’s Thinking 231

Blaise Pascal proves us that society cannot progress if it only witty as you are in trying to turn us into brutes: to read your book relies on one area. His connection with law is a secondary one, as he was interested in religion, philosophy and, his main interest, the peaceful savage in the retreat I have chosen—close to your country.” human being as a whole. Pascal’s complex interest only proves that, Rousseau,makes one a long man to full go of on energy, all fours. replies: . . . I must “I dislike confine you. myself You have to beingcaused a without respecting the norms, man’s life and destiny cannot follow me offenses to which I was especially sensitive—I, your disciple and their natural course. Through his work, Pascal tried to capture the admirer. . . . Finally, I hate you for what you wanted this, but hating you, I realize that I could love you, if you so wish.” From the above, we can easily come to the9 idea that social fine difference between man’s grandness and man’s nothingness, progress lies in people and the ideas they bring. Even though and to show that without God’s laws there was no law and justice. norms and values of a scholar do not always match the thinking earthworm,“What sort of repository freak then of is truth, man! sink How of novel, doubt how and monstrous, error, glory howand and understanding of another, over time, these principles and chaotic, how paradoxical, how prodigious! Judge of all things, feeble controversies have left their mark in the development of the society. Thus, society has been able to test theories and principles and to refuse of the universe! Know then, proud man, what a paradox you keep only those norms and discoveries it found useful. are to yourself. Be humble impotent reason! Be silent, feeble nature!7 LearnFrance that man gave infinitely one of her transcends most famous man, writers hear from and yourphilosopher master ofyour the true Lumi condition,ères, Voltaire. which Voltaire is unknown came to from you. Listena family to God.”connected periodWe was have marked reached by the apogeepersonality of the of Agea celibate of Enlightenment, philosopher, with law, his father being a notary. He thus had solid knowledge Immanuelwhere the Kant,concept who of livednatural a quietlaw would and accurate slowly find life, itswithout end. This too

watches according to his regular daily walks. His writings are also statement,in law although he remained he never faithful finished to law, his andlaw hestudies fought because, for a common as he many daily events. It is said that those around him used to fix their lawaffirmed, all over school France filled because, his mind he with used a lotto say:of nothingness. “A man who Despite takes thehis we owe him for his profound leaning on the topics of law and morals post-chaise, in France, changes laws more often than he changes andrigid, the formal, link between devoid ofthe charm tow, as and well difficult as for the to understand.principle of autonomy However, horses.”8This great thinker left his mark mainly on criminal law, which he tried to reform on the occasion of the Calas business. as they can always be interpreted in various ways, we shall quote His work does not present Jean-Jacques Rousseau as a man of useof the a quotewill. As help his uswritings notice are the difficult way he tosaw present this link in commonbetween words,equity and morality: “Suppose that a domestic servant is paid his wages French constitutional law. However, he was convinced that the civil at the end of a year in money that has depreciated in the interval, societycontrasts, of havinghis time, a decisive through influence the laws init thewas French passing, Revolution was destroying and on so that he cannot buy with it what he could have bought with it the State of Nature established by divinity. He strongly advocated when the concluded the contract. The servant cannot appeal to his that the right to property should not belong to each individual, but right to be compensated when he gets the same amount of money it should be a common right, a so-called “savage good” belonging but it is of unequal value. He can appeal only on grounds of equity to all. Voltaire, in turn, vehemently contradicted this concept of no (a mute divinity that cannot be heard). . . . The motto (dictum) of individual goods or properties, and at some point they even had an equity is, «the strictest right is the greatest wrong» (summum ius, exchange on the subject. Voltaire wrote the following as soon as he summa iniuria). But this ill cannot be remedied by way of what is received Rousseau’s book on the topic: “I have received, sir, your this claim belongs only to the court conscience (forum poli: forum laid down as right, even though it concerns a claim to a right; for new book against the human species; . . . no one has ever been so 232 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Rotaru: Law as a Drive for Social Development in Philippe Malaurie’s Thinking 233

= court, polus = sky, polar star), whereas every question of what is NOTES laid down as right must be brought before civil right (forum soli; 1 Teoria Generală a Dreptului solum = earth).”10 2 PhilippeGheorghe Malaurie, Bobos, Antologia Gindirii Juridice (Bucure (Cluj–Napoca:ti: Editura Editura Humanitas, Dacia, Thanks to Kant’s theory and to other philosophers and jurists, 1994), 175. we have now the theory of imprevision, which allows changes in 3 The Holly Bible, New King James Version. ș the contract terms or its adaptation so that it corresponds to the 1997),4 Ibid. 13. reality of the moment when it is performed. Are taken into account those situations when, due to major unforeseen circumstances or 56 Ibid., 47. 7 Ibid.,Malaurie, 107. 39. irreparable changes, the one who signed the contract would suffer 8 Ibid., 127. unjust damages. It is thus desirable to eliminate the effects of Ibid., 140. inequality between the contracting parties. 910 Ibid., 166. The last well-known name we shall submit to a brief analysis 11 on his contribution to law is Honoré de Balzac, who in his works Ibid., 207–220. insister more on private law, the law dealing with relationships between people, governing the institution of marriage, relations for society so that its people could develop in peace, freedom and harmony,between neighbours,freedom that etc. exists We forcould each say individual that this asis longa guiding as it does line not limit the freedom of another. Thus a topic that particularly draws Balzac’s attention is that of marriage. He addresses the topic in many of his works, but especially in A Marriage Contract. He argues that the marriage institution is fundamental to society, but blames bourgeois marriages. He says that laws are not to blame for the existing abuse of power of the men in the institution of marriage and for women being invited to commit adultery. The ones to be blamed are the morals. So, he concludes, the morals of a society are the ones who should change, not its laws.11 In conclusion, we could say that social progress is indissolubly outstanding personalities of the world over the ages, personalities wholinked left to their its people. mark through We have their presented work and briefly their reformistsome ideas ideas of these ideas have nurtured our society and made it develop culturally, sociallyand principles. and morally. Sometimes conflicting, sometimes convergent, all Nechita: Gender Differences in the Health Status of Elderly People

235 Nowadays, the aging of the population and the gender are DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435147 prominent aspects of the international forums and important areas of the social demographical preoccupations. McMullin stated that there is “a remarkable absence of theoretical preoccupations concerning the relation between gender and aging.” (McMullin

economical and social vulnerability. Many of these researches have Gender Differences in the Health Status 1995) The interest for the gender often focuses on the elder people’s of Elderly People focused on studying women (Gibson 1996). It3 is generally considered that women are more vulnerable in comparison to men (Afzal 1996; Marius Nechita Friedman and his collaborators (Friedman 2003) have HelpAge International 2000; Metha 1997).hypotheses concerning the Centrul Universitar Nord, Baia Mare, Romania existence of a greater vulnerability of the third age women: Universitatea Tehnică din Cluj-Napoca, Romania identified in the specialty literature two [email protected] • the perspective over the life course, highlighting the gender Seminarul Teologic Ortodox „Sfântul Iosif Mărturisitorul”, Baia Mare differences in early and late life periods (Hatch 2000) This ABSTRACT: Even though there are particularities within every age women relates especially to the differences regarding group which can be applied to the entire population, the seniours hypothesis affirms that the relative disadvantage of older constitute the population’s most heterogeneous segment and their the economical and nursing role that they have had functioning differs more from one person to another in comparison over their entire life and the rewards they received for with the case of other age groups, due to the different aging rhythm, having accomplished them the gender differences by reporting to the disadvantages and socio-cultural context that the person lives in, and the events of the previous status constitutes(Hoyman, as well 1999). a limit Explaining of this experiencedgenetic heritage, in one’s psycho–spiritual life.1 The existing profile, studies life point experience, out that there familial is a approach. The advantages offered by the previous status great variability and individuality in what concerns the experiencing are being ignored. of the aging process and, implicitly, regarding the experiencing of the • the double juggling hypothesis In this perspective, the accent various needs and their satisfaction. Therefore, this paper attempts is put on the negative effects of occupying two stigmatizing to focus on the elderly and explore the health care status based on status: being a woman and being an elderly one.4 gender.

social assistance, religion, society KEY WORDS: community development, old age, family, community, Gender differences concerning the third age people’s mental state of health ne of the agents that have a major contribution in determining Othe difference in experiencing the aging process is represented The changes of mental health are the result of the effects induced by the age, having at their basis internal factors, such as heredity third age people’s life, experiences and satisfactions. It is safe to say and hormonal changes, and external factors, such as retirement, by the gender. The gender seems to have a significant effect experience on the the decrease of the biological potential, associated pathology, the for women and men.2 that, generally, the third age–class is a different kind of 234 236 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Nechita: Gender Differences in the Health Status of Elderly People 237 decrease of the number of family members and the death of some symptoms are strongly related to a grown risk of functional disability, relatives or friends of close ages. The specialty literature is dominated by the existence of three mental disorders at the third age people: depression, delirium and weak social support, an intensification of the use of care services dementia. The evaluation of these disorders is performed through and a negative state of well-being (Bruce et al.1994; Henderson er interviews, self description and description of the people within the al. 1997;Nguyen Pennix and et Zonderman al. 1998;9 Han (2006) 2002; highlighted cited. Katsumata, the fact Arai, that Ishida, there elderly person’s proximity, psycho-physiological methods and direct isTomimori some degree et al. of 2005). stability of the depressive symptoms in the case of observations and evaluations of the performances. people aged under 70. Even though the state of depression and the 5 interpersonal issues remained stable, in the case of people aged over 70, there was an increase of somatic symptoms and a lack of well- Gender differences concerning depression being. No gender differences were noticed in the presented study.10 and depressive symptoms of old people depression prevalence is equal within both sexes and the The depressive symptoms may occur as a response to the loss depression’sSilverstein somatic and hissubtype collaborators is more prevalent(1999) stated in the that case the of of a beloved person or of the feeling of control over his own life, women. Some studies offered empirical support for Silverstein’s as secondary effects of the existence of some chronic diseases or of the prescribed medication for other diseases and disorders. hypotheses (Nolan & Wilson 1994, Kornstein et al. 2000, Frank et chronic diseases and/or disabilities tend to experience even more andal. 1998; atypical Young depression et al. 1990). are more prevalent in women case in depressiveSchnittker (2005)symptoms outlined in comparison that those to peoplethose people who develop who develop early Generally, the studies revealed that the symptoms of major later chronic diseases and/or disabilities.6 comparison to men (Weissman & Klerman 1977; Vasquez-Barquero conviction that aging is related to high levels of depression (Charles, et al. 1992; Dewey et al. 1993; Kessler & al. 1993; Weissman et Some of the studies7 The on third epidemiological age–class depression researches doubted reveal that the Theal. 1993; researchers Stechtman brought et al. up 1997; for discussion Zunzungui various et al. biological1998; Prince and acute depression incidence is lower for the third age population in psychosocialet al. 1999; Zunzunegui, reasons concerning Minicuci, the Blumstein, existing Noalegender et differences al. 2007.) comparisonReynolds & Gatz to young 2001). adults. Even though there is a great variability 11 in experiencing the depresive symptoms, variability that can be As for the elderly population, Forsell and his collaborators, caused by the differences in gender and ethnicity too, in general, analyzing(Piccinelli the& Wilkinson, depressive 2000). symptoms distribution, ascertained that a decrease of depression once with the aging process is observed. women manifested more depressive symptoms related to the Some meta-analyses of the epidemilogical studies concluded disposition, while elderly men had more depressive symptoms that the prevalence of slight or subclinical depression it is much related to the motivation. more spread among the third age-class in comparison to major Kockel and Heun (2002) examined the gender differences depression and the depression prevalence tends to decrease at concerning the experiencing the depressive symptoms in the third advanced age.8 Ruegg and his collaborators concluded that the age people case. The data obtained from the 236 elderly participants depressive symptoms of elderly people can often be obscured by somatic accuses and physical symptoms, which leads to them being from the general population revealed that women from the genereal populationdiagnosed with manifested depression more before depressive the age of symptoms 50 and 357 as participants compared overlooked, misdiagnosed and treated superficially. The depressive 238 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Nechita: Gender Differences in the Health Status of Elderly People

239 to men, especially appetite and joyfulness disorders. The gender cognitive diseases, functional disease, the lack or loss of close social differences concerning the number of depressive symptoms from the contacts and the historic of a depression.14 general population were fully explained by the gender differences concerning the psycho-social variables, such as the familial status. differences concerning the contribution of some risk factors to the depression’sKatsumata and appearance his collaborators at the third (2005) age examined population, the usinggender a differences concerning the number of depressive symptoms. As for the elderly people, there was no identification of gender were the demographic features, health status and disability, stress andsample the ofsocial 665 networks. elderly Japanese The depressive people. Thesymptoms evaluated were risk evaluated factors couldWomen not be fully and explained men diagnosed by psycho-social with major factors. depressive The depressive disorder elderlypresented women a distinct manifested profile more of the appetite depressive related symptoms disorders, which while elderly depressive men reported they were more agitated. The indicateusing 30 the items fact from that thethe Geriatricstress risk Depression factor contributed Scale (Brink the etmost al. explanations invoked by the study’s authors for these results to1982; the Yesavageexplanation et al. of 1983; the depressive Niino et al. symptoms 1991). This variance study’s atresults men outline the possibility for women to present a different subtype of and the health status and disability were the best in explaining the depression or to have differences of perception and expression of depressive symptoms variance at elderly women (see Appendix 2). the depressive symptoms.12 Sicotte and his collaborators (2008) revealed that close social15 Major depression at the third age-class appears under some relationships are associated with a lower prevalence of depressive partially different symptoms in the case of men and women. symptoms, independently of the stressors’ presence. Those women These results suggest that the gender differences concerning who were or are married, live in extended families and develope the experiencing of major depression symptoms at the elderly close social relationships with relatives and children manifest a lower prevalence of depressive symptoms. Men manifested less perception and expression. depressive symptoms if they were married and didn’t live alone.16 populationPreventing reflect and gender reducing differences depressive in the depressive symptoms symptoms have an Special attention should also be given to the way in which important role in maintaining a high level of life quality for the . elderly population. Identifying the depression’s risk factors is Some studies highlighted the fact that elderly women receive less useful both for planning some adequate prevention strategies and medicalelderly people’s intervention gender in theinfluences case of majorthe management disorders, as of compared depression to for improving the knowledge base concerning the treatment of men (Ethical and Legal Affairs Council, American Medical Association depressive symptoms in the community that elderly people are part symptoms at elderly people we can include the physical disability, 1991, Ayanian & 17Epstein 1991; Ramani, Byrne-Logan, Freund, Ash, of. Among the risk factors significantly associated to the depressive Yu & MoskowitzFrayne and 2000;his collaborators McMahon, (2004) Wolfe, Huang,examined Tedeschi, the way Manning in which life stressing events and the presence of chronic diseases (Beekman & Edlund 1999). the deficit of social support and13 isolation, the appearance of some of depression performed by the doctors who are taking care of them. Djernes (2006), while making a review of the relevant Thethe gender results of of the the elderly study populationthey have made influences with thethe helpthe management of a stratified publicationset al., 1995, Prince and of et those al., 1997). from MEDLINE and Psychinfo data base, random sample of 243 doctors revealed the fact that the patient’s gender ascertained that the main predictors of the depressive disorders and of the depressive symptoms are: feminine gender, somatic diseases, depression made by the doctors both for the young elderly people does not influence the recommendations for the management18 of

(ages 67–79) and for the old elderly people (aged over 79). 240 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Nechita: Gender Differences in the Health Status of Elderly People 241

Analyzing numerous articles that have been published over the Gender differences in the anxiety of older people of these, trying to provide some conclusive results concerning gender Fuentes and Cox (2000) examined the gender differences regarding differencescourse of 25 related years, Tolin to genus and Foa and achieved posttraumatic an ample stress quantitive disorder. review The

potentially traumatic events and the posttraumatic stress disorder asanxiety compared within to a sample men (see of 132 Appendix elderly participants,3). Using a sample39 women of 636and indicatedmeta-analyses that the concerning women participants the gender manifestspecific risk a higher of experiencing probability 45 men. Women obtained a higher score on anxiety as a feature to match the DSM criteria for posttraumatic disorder as compared to male participants, even though the former experience less manifest,elderly participants chronic anxiety. aged 56 to 103, Reybolds and his collaborators traumatic events. The two authors outlined that the gender explains (2003) identified significant19 gender differences under the aspect of just partially the differences between the two sexes in the risk for experiencing the traumatic events and the generated stress.22 Gender differences in the older people’s posttraumatic stress dynamic Gender differences in older people’s alcohol consuming Numerous epidemiological studies revealed that the posttraumatic stress (PTSD) tends to become more prevalent among women as The excessive alcohol consumption contributes to increasing the

2002), coronary diseases, cardiac arrhythmias and the risk of other causescompared that to determine men (Breslau a different & Davis, experiencing 1992; Kessler, of Sonnega, this disorder Bromet, by risk for the type II diabetes (Wannamethee, Shaper, Perry & Alberti womenHughes and& Nelson men. The1995). incriminated Other studies causes focused were: on identifying the diseases’ appearance, too(Bartholow, Sher & Krull 2003). • women tend to experience more traumatic events NumerousSchonfeld studies and Dupreeevidenced (1994) the evidenced apparition that of aboutabusive 60 %alcohol of the • women tend to experience different types of traumatic consumptionUSA’s 35 millions in elderlythe late people adult consumeage-class. alcohol Most atof least the occasionally.researchers events (more severe or pathogen events, perhaps) estimate that 10 % of the elderly people have had episodes of abusive The studies that have been made starting from these hypotheses did not always provide empirical support for the existence of gender thealcohol elderly consumption population could (Mirand be dangerous & Welte due 1996; to the Hays, physical Greendale, changes differences in experiencing posttraumatic stress.20 On the contrary, thatDamesyn concern & Reuben the way 1999). in which The alcohol abusive is alcohol distributed consumption and processed. within other studies highlighted the fact that men tend to experience more The risk of adverse interactions presented by the medication-alcohol traumatic events as compared to women.21 The gender studies’ interactions increases due to the increased number of medication inconclusive results can be also attributed to some methodological that elderly people take. The alcohol could cause additional problems problems, such as: such as falls, accidents, too.23 • the use of convenience samples • the use of different assessment tools for posttraumatic stress (semi-structured interviews, questionnaires, for Wiscott, Kopera–Frye and Begovic (2002) evaluated the example) differences between alcohol consuming young–elderly people and old–elderly people. The results revealed that the old–elderly people are 15.7 times less predisposed to abusive alcohol consumption as 242 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Nechita: Gender Differences in the Health Status of Elderly People 243

and women on physical and psychiatric morbidity, the frequency of times less predisposed to abusive alcohol consumption, in general. contacts with the generalist doctor, isolation and lonely living. Duecompared to the differencesto the young-elderly concerning people. the composition Elderly women of the were body 19.7 and metabolism of the alcohol, elderly women who abusively consume the elderly people towards suicide, being especially interested in alcohol have an increased risk of confronting various negative genderParker, and race Cantrell differences and Demi concerning (1997) this examined subject. The the participants attitude of aspects such as depression.24 manifested a moderate level of empathy for the suicidal behavior and a low level of agreement for the suicidal actions. There were no gender or race differences concerning the empathy for the suicide Gender differences in the third age people’s suicide

The risk factors that contribute to the elderly people suicide include aboutpeople suicide. or for 27the suicidal acts. There were no identifications of the aging process, male gender, physical diseases, social isolation significant interaction effects between race and gender on attitudes

Gender differences in taking decision related to health (Parker, Cantrell & Demi 1997), widower status and psychiatric disorder (Barraclough 1971; Lindesay 1991; Cattell & Jolley 1995; FromBaldwin these 1997; factors, Harwood the age & Jacoby and the 2000; gender cited. are Salib the most & Green associated 2003), substances abuse, especially alcohol (Bird & Hutchinson 2003). informationThe efficiency about of deciding decisional process alternatives declines and once tend withto rely the on agingwhat women and elderly people have an increased suicidal rate compared theyprocess. already Usually, know. third This age domain people performancesdon’t try to find become out too weaker many to suicide.younger Generally, people. men appeal more often to suicide compared to and weaker, compared to the young people ones, in those situation 25 when elderly people are requested to be creative or inventive in suicidal behavior, elderly men having an increased suicidal rate their decisions, in lesser known areas for them.28 Due to some The studies confirmed gender differences concerning the problems like the poor medical practice and the lack of emphasis the importance of the patient’s autonomy, we are witnessing a dramatic Jacobycompared 2000). to elderly In male women gender (Breed people’ and case, Huffine the suicidal 1972; risk Cattell increases 1988; change of how treatment decisions are taking place in current Conwell et al. 1991; Cattell and Jolly 1995; Quan 1999; Harwood & patient-oriented and the patients are more involved in the selection especially after their wives or life partners’ death. (Bock and Webber ofmedical treatment, contexts especially (Pierce in1996). areas Currently, where there medical are severaltreatment treatment is more and1972; Duberstein Cattell and (2001) Jolley 1995;outlined Li 1995;that another Harwood elderly and Jacob men 2000),group presentingsocial isolation an increased being a risk suicidal factor level(Bock is and of the Webber ones who1972). don’t Conwell have Meyer, Talbot and Ranalli (2007) conducted two studies that29 active contacts with the staff providing healthcare services.26 examinedoptions such if elderly as breast people or prostate take faster cancer decisions (Davison in & comparison Degner 1997). with young people about treatments for breast and prostate cancer. The results showed that the elderly take immediate decisions compared the suicidalSalib and act Green and contacting (2003) came the withcare servicesa review beforethat examines suicide. thirdData to young people. This research is important not only because it revealedage people’s that gender male genderdifferences people concerning had less specific knowledge social concerning aspects of demonstrates the effects of age regardless of domain consistency, psychiatric services and they reported less suicidal attempts compared gender, ethnic group, education, but also because it investigates a to female gender people. There were no differences between men model that tries to explain the effects of age on decision making. Data 244 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Nechita: Gender Differences in the Health Status of Elderly People

245 indicate that when making decisions about medical treatments that particularities. The possible explanations for the decreasing speed they should follow, elderly people rely on their treatment knowledge, of informational processing are represented by the fact that at every interest and involvement and cognitive resources. These reasons level of informational processing more information is lost compared relate to different ways of processing information about treatment to young people’s situation.31 and preferences for immediate or delayed decisions. People who had Many researchers have shown that this cognitive decline is a rich store of knowledge about immediate treatment have taken immediate decisions. Instead, people who possessed more cognitive 32 resources and showed a greater interest in the types of treatment not uniform, since the changing patterns present a great intra– and took late decisions. In the presented study no gender differences inter–variability. were found among elderly people in terms of speed of decisions Gender differences in the attentive functioning about medical treatments they could opt for.30

Gender differences in the medicines costs The attentive deficit and the mental slowing have a major role in the age related decline of several cognitive abilities (Albert 1988; The consequences of diseases of third age people are the emergence Craick & Byrd 1982) and they have been associated with Alzheimer’s of additional medicines costs and longer or shorter hospitalization, ofdementia, voluntary even attention, in its average but not forms for the (Nestor, involuntary Parasuraman, one, too. Haxby33 & food deprivation, reduced mobility and in more severe cases, even Grady 1991). Studies in this area highlighted a decrease in efficiency the loss of autonomy in some degree, problems exacerbated by the lack or reduction of medicines’ accessibility and healthcare AlthoughIn the third some age–class, studies a havedecline found of attention’s that normal focusing aging doescapacity not is observed (Filley & Cullum 1994). people. Some researches have shown that women tend to spend found out that third age people showed reduced attentive skills muchassistance. more Money money for for medicines medicines is a compared financial burden with men for the (Blustein elderly andcause a lowerchanges speed in attention,of execution Mazaus once with and aging.his collaborators Female gender (1995) and low education level were related with a weaker functioning of the explained by several factors, including the gender differences on attentive processes and operating performance.34 2000; Gibson & Foley 2000; Mojtabai & Olfson 2003). This can be Elderly women require more often receipts prescription use, receipts coverage and financial income. Gender differences in the loneliness and isolation of elderly people (Mojtabai & Olfson 2003; Moon & Herd 2002; Poisal & Murray 2001). Many women do not have financial coverage for receipts, having a The third age period is often seen as a time of loneliness. The relatively low income (Sambamoorthi, Shea & Crystal 2003). 35 Gender differences in the informational functioning of the interpersonal relations that occurred from changing the current elderly people socialloneliness relationship was defined or asfrom the changing subjective needs complaint and desiresagainst thefor decrease with age and depend on the processing level and task’s personalrelationships desires (Peplau or when & Perlman social rewards1982). The lower. loneliness36 occurs when In terms of speed and efficiency of information processing, they relationships do not satisfy social needs, when they fail to fulfill 246 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Nechita: Gender Differences in the Health Status of Elderly People 247

The researches have shown that loneliness is more frequent women, participants from both categories having the age between as people get closer and closer to the moment of death (Penninx 37 The loneliness is closely linked with isolation, low loneliness in this study were: emotional distress, inadequence and social61 and alienation, 94 years. growth The five and qualitativebreakthrough, aspects social isolationof the evaluated and self- et al. 1997). education level, low income, death of somebody significant and live the loneliness differently than men. The female people’ scores include:unemployment low self-esteem, (Fischer ­ness, Philips feelings1982), celibacyof alienation, (Weiss locus 1975, of alienation. The results confirmed the hypothesis that elderly women external1976). The control personality’s and the conviction variables that associated the world with is not loneliness a rightful This indicates that women are more likely to perceive the positive aspectswere significantly of loneliness. higher For thein the other scale aspects of growth of loneliness and breakthrough. no gender place (Jones, Freeman & Goswick, 1981), inhibited sociability in order to determine whether marital status affects living the (Horowitz & French 1979), boredom, anxiety and unhappiness loneliness,differences indicatedhave been that identified. married The elderly comparisons men obtained performed lower (Perlman, Gerson & Spinner 1978), suicide (Jacob 1971; Wenz 1977), scores on interpersonal isolation scale compared with unmarried physical illness (Lynch 1976), depression (Bragg 1979; Schultz & elderly men.40 Moore 1984), low assuming of the social risk and low motivation interpersonalaffiliation (Russel, dimensions Peplau &of Cutronaloneliness 1980; indicated Schultz that & Mooresingle people 1984) differences in terms of personality correlated with loneliness in evaluatedand self–criticism themselves (Loucks and evaluated 1980). the The others studies negatively concerning and expect the differentSchmitt social and relationships: Kurdek (1985) familial, examined friendship, the romantic/sexual, age and gender and in larger groups. Compared with young women, the third age people showed a higher level of satisfaction for their relationships asothers being to unfriendly, negatively unacceptedevaluate them, by the too others (Jones and et al.unattractive 1981). Alone for with family members and those belonging to the larger groups they people tend to evaluate themselves as having a high self–awareness, attributions, particularly in interpersonal situations (Anderson with their relations of friendship.41 the opposite sex (Jones et al. 1981), they make38 internal negative are part of. Instead, the elderly people said they were less satisfied are1983; associated Anderson, with Horowitz a poor physical & French health, 1983). depressions and diseases that areWenger devastating and Burholt for the (2004) elderly found people that (Rokach, isolation Matalon, and loneliness Rokach NOTES 1 Maria E. Sorescu, Third age people social assistance. Craiova: Craiova’s

& Safarov 2007). In general, the loneliness is related to isolation, 2 skills. However, these relationships are moderated by age and gender SocialUniversity Behavior Publishing and Personality House, 2005. negative disposition, inadequate assignments and deficient social 3 A. Rokach & F. Neto, (2005). “Age, culture and the antecedents of loneliness,” for elderly in Vietnam,” Research 33/5 on Aging (2005): 477–494. (Schmitt & Kurdek 1985). The elderly people often face a variety 4 J. Friedman, J. Knodel, B. T. Cuong, & T. S. Anh, “Gender dimensions of support of eating disorders (Roy, 1986), friends or life partner’s death, differences,” Journal of Aging and Health 25 (2003): 587–629. A.N. Muntean, L. Chappell, The “Health Psychology and of helping human networksdevelopment among the elderly. Gender people(Rabasca, live 1999)their life, and they various evaluate degrees and confront of social the isolation demands (Delisle of life. House,5 2006. 1 (1989): 102–120. 39 1988).Rokach, These circumstances,Matalon, Rokach these and life Safarova events affect(2007) the conducted way elderly a 6 J. Schnittker, “Chronic illness and depressive symptoms, Iaşi: Polirom in late life,”Publishing Social research that explored the qualitative aspects of loneliness of the Science & Medicine

60 (2005): 13–23. third age people. The data were obtained from 89 men and 239 248 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Nechita: Gender Differences in the Health Status of Elderly People

249 7 21 in positive and negative affect over 23 years,” Journal of Personality and Social PsychologyS. T. Charles, C. A. Reynolds, & M. Gatz, “Age–related differences and change AreaN. Survey Breslau, of Trauma,”R. C. Kessler, Archives H. D. ofChilcoat, General L. Psychiatry R. Schultz, G. C. Davis, P. Andreski, 8 H. T. Nguyen, A. B. Zonderman, “Relationship between age and aspects “Trauma22 D. F. andTolin, posttraumatic E. B. Foa, “Sex stress differences disorder inin traumathe community: and posttraumatic The 1996 Detroit stress of depression: 80 (2001): Consistency 136–151. and reliability across two longitudinal studies,” , 55Psychological (1998): 626–632. Trauma, Psychology and Aging Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy disorder:23 A quantitative review of 25 years of research,” Reviews in differences9 in the contribution 21.1 (2006): of risk119–126. factors to depressive symptoms among Clinical Gerontology (2008): 37–85. the elderlyK. Katsumata, people A.dwelling Arai, M.in a Tomimori, community, K. Denda,Japan,” International H. Tamashiro, Journal “Gender of 24 L. Schonfeld, L. W. Dupree, “Alcohol abuse among older adults,” Geriatric Psychiatry (1994): 217–225. Psychology of Addictive 10 10 H. T. Nguyen, A. B. Zonderman, “Relationship between age and aspects BehaviorsR. Wiscott, K. Kopera–Frye, A. Begovic, “Binge drinking in later life: of depression: Consistency 20 (2005): and 1084–1089. reliability across two longitudinal studies,” Comparing young–old and old–old social drinkers,”

Psychology and Aging 25 16.3 (2002): 252–255. 11 C. Pritchard,International L. Hansen, Journal of“Comparison Geriatric Psychiatry of suicide in people aged 65–74 and 21.1 (2006): 119–126. International Journal of Geriatric 75+26 by ender in England and Wales and the major Western countries 1979– PsychiatryM. Kockler, R. Heun, “Gender differences of depressive symptoms in 1999,” 20 (2005):International 17–25. Journal of depressed12 and non–depressed elderly people,” GeriatricE. Salib, Psychiatry L. Green, “Gender in elderly suicide: analysis of coroners inquests 17 (2002): 65–72. International Journal of Geriatric of 27200 L. D.cases Parker, of elderly C. Cantrell, suicide A. inS. CheshireDemi, “Older 1989–2001,” adults’ attitudes toward suicide: PsychiatryM. Kockler, R. Heun, “Gender differences of depressive symptoms in Are There race and gender18 (2003): differences?” 1082–1087. Death Studies depressed13 and non–depressed elderly people,” 28 A. Muntean, Psychology of Human Development differences 17 in (2002):the contribution 65–72. of risk factors to depressive symptoms among House, 2006. 21 (1997): 289–298. the elderlyK. Katsumata, people A.dwelling Arai, M.in a Tomimori, community, K. Denda,Japan,” International H. Tamashiro, Journal “Gender of , Iaşi: Polirom Publising Geriatric Psychiatry treatment29 decisions about cancer than younger adults,” Psychology and Aging 14 J. K. Djernes, “Prevalence and predictors of depression in populations of B. J. F. Meyer, A. P. Talbot, C. Ranalli, “Why older adults make more immediate elderly: a review,” Acta, 20 Psychiatr. (2005): 1084–1089. Scand 30 treatment22.3 (2007): decisions 505–524. about cancer than younger adults,” Psychology and Aging differences15 in the contribution of risk .factors 113 (2006): to depressive 372–387. symptoms among B. J. F. Meyer, A. P. Talbot, C. Ranalli, “Why older adults make more immediate the elderlyK. Katsumata, people dwelling A. Arai, M.in a Tomimori, acommunity, K. Denda,Japan,” International H. Tamashiro, Journal “Gender of 31 A. Muntean, Psychology of Human Development Geriatric Psychiatry 22.3 (2007): 505–524. 16 32 (Iaşi: Polirom Publising and depressive symptoms, 20 (2005): among 1084–1089. elderly women and men in Havana, Cuba,” psychology:House, 2006), On 425. the dynamics between growth and decline,” Developmental AgingM. & Sicotte, Mental B.Health E. Alvarado, E.–M. León, M.–V. Zunzunegui, “Social networks Psychology32 P. B. Baltes, “Theoretical propositions of life–span developmental 17 S. M. Frayne, K. M. Skinner, H. Lin, A. S. Ash, K. M. Freund, “Effects of patient 33 , 12.2 (2008): 193–201. Journal of Womens’s Health, 13.8 Social Assistance 23.5 (1987): Treaty, 611–626. 34 33 V. Bucur, A. Macivan, “Third age people problems,” in G. Neamţu (ed.) gender18 Idem, on 62.late–life depression management,” Iaşi: Polirom Publishing House, 2003. (2004):P.A Lowe,919–925. C. R. Reynolds, “Do relationships exist between age, gender, and performanceJ. M. Mazaus, in elderly J. F. Dartigues, commmunity L. Letenneur, residents: D. Darriet,Effects L.of Wiart,age, gender, M. Gagnon, and

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“Traumas 3.4 and (2005): posttraumatic 239–259. stress disorder in a community population of older in71–81. 35the Tampere longitudinal study on aging,” Canadian Journal on Aging 23.2 adolescents,”R. M. Giaconia, Journal H. ofZ. theReinherz, American A. B. Academy Silverman, of ChildB. Pakiz, & Adolescent A. K. Frost, Psychiatry E. Cohen, M. Jylha, “Old age and loneliness: Cross–sectional and longitudinal analyses 36 A. Rokach, F. Neto, “Age, culture, and the antecedents of loneliness,” Social Behavior(2004): 157–168. and Personality 34 (1995): 1369–1380. 33.5 (2005): 477–494. 250 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES

37 A. Rokach, R. Matalon, B. Rokach, A. Safarov, “The effects of gender and marital status on loneliness of the aged,” Social Behavior and Personality DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435149

38 A. Rokach, F. Neto, “Age, culture, and the antecedents of loneliness,” Social 35.2 Behavior(2007): 243–254. and Personality

3940 A. Rokach, R. Matalon, 33.5 B. (2005): Rokach, 477–494. A. Safarov, “The effects of gender and maritalIdem, status 105. on loneliness of the aged,” Social Behavior and Personality, Relative Type Extra–Ecclesiastic Activities and 41 J. P. Schmitt, L. A. Kurdek, “Age and gender differences in and personality 35.2 correlates(2007): 243–254. of loneliness in different relationships,” Journal of Personality Their Contribution to the Consolidation of Assessment Relations between the Members of a Church 49.5 (1985): 487–496. Remus Soare, DMin Independent Scholar, Spain [email protected]

ABSTRACT: strategies based on friendship to improve consolidation,” from a DMin. thesisThis titled, article “Development is part of a chapter and application titled “Extra–ecclesiastical of a friendship

Calatrava Adventist Church,”—an unpublished manuscript written inprogram Spanish for and the defended consolidation at Andrews of the University, members USA, of inthe July Madrid– 2016)

under the original title, “Desarrollo y aplicación de un programa de amistad para la consolidación de los miembros de la Iglesia whichAdventista help strengthening de Madrid–Calatrava.” a church. Sports, This trips,article organized highlights games, the andsignificant birthday potential anniversaries of four were types the of core extra–ecclesiastical activities analyzed, activities which

relationships between the participants. Due to the unlimited structuraldemonstrated legitimacy a strong and capacity addressability to develop of these high level activities inter–personal in relation to the human being, the author suggests that these activities can be incorporated as a common part of the life of any group which will help its cohesiveness and consolidation.

anniversary, strategies, activities, church KEY WORDS: consolidation, games, play, trips, sports, birthday

church needs activities through which to express the closeness A between its members. They lead to progress in relational ambitus and consolidation. Churches generally have internal

251 252 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Soare: Relative Type Extra–Ecclesiastic Activities

253 structures and strategies that develop members’ assertiveness about These two aspects are legitimate in the structure of the human the congregational environment and the feeling of belonging. This being as fundamental needs. In order to strengthen the church, a sports, trips and birthdays, through which a church can advance he proposes. towardsarticle proposes consolidation. four types Although of extra–ecclesiastical the article’s conclusions activities: are based play, pastor must find possibilities to agglutinate them in the activities on the results of implementing these activities within a church role they play in strengthening a church: games, sports, excursions, program, they do not have transferability limits. The four activities and birthdays.Here are four types of extra–ecclesiastical activities and the are instruments of general interest that apply to the consolidation of any group of people, the faculties of playing, traveling, practicing sport and celebrating being essential parts of all individuals, not of Games the particular contexts. In pastoral ministry, ecclesiastical and evangelism activity M. J. Hess (2012) highlights the clear link between play and church must undoubtedly be accompanied by a pastoral consolidation building. The author cites Rendel’s opinion that “some churches die of members. Consolidation is not only aimed at preserving the because of terminal seriousness,” (Hess 2012, 1) Hess himself sees results, but edifying the believers within the congregation. Trying the churches walking in the “valley of the shadow of death” because to solve this problem only in the ecclesiastic environment proves to “the idea of holiness was often associated with an implacable and pastors generally use classical methods: visits, telephone, and is a need for a paradigm shift in the church. deaconry.be insufficient. This type To fulfill of ministry the desideratum has the disadvantage of church that consolidation, it limits the soberJoviality God.” As isa solution,an ingredient Hess considers that can bethat, applied on this in subject, all areas there of pastor to the faces that the person prefers to expose him to, without getting to know it in depth. Today, people have high expectations, a evangelism, committee meetings, or worship. Its potential is limited dynamic spirit, and are particularly involved in active projects with onlypastoral by the ministry, limits of includingpersonal imagination. leadership, conflict management, unpredictable ends. For this reason, pastoral attention must be much Showing the role of joviality does not mean presenting a consist in discovering and potentiating the gifts of others. A trip with singular activity, an episode or a strategy. It is rather a mix of happy amore group diversified of young andpeople, effective. over four There days, are offersalternative huge opportunitiesactivities that experiences,seminar about a roadhumor that into leads the the church. church The to consolidation.game is not a specificA jovial for knowledge. Relationships that develop on that occasion may be more intense than those generated within two years of activity united. inside the church recreation has present and future benefits, maintaining the group The practice of recreational activities is not the synonym churches pay a great tribute to puritan ethics on work. This has of entertainment. Recreation does not mean experimenting with generatedMoltmann a false (1972) notion considersof the playing that spirit, North considering American Protestant it a waste innocent pleasures in your spare time, feelings of cheap holiness of time or madness. Instead, the work had come to be considered or convenience on devotional tones. True recreation prepares the almost a sacred ritual. The theme of the game has been studied by philosophers, scholars and used and evaluated by educators or therapists over States,person’s religious soul to campsre-create; have it reached includes an the institutional body and the status, spirit. because the centuries. It has been and continues to be an important area of they successfullyKetchell (2005), satisfy quoting two relevant Moore, needs:argues godlinessthat in the and United play.

concern and research. Huizinga (2015) wrote at the beginning of 254 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Soare: Relative Type Extra–Ecclesiastic Activities

255 where they feel incompetent or ridiculous. That is why it is quite but also as Homo ludens. Although he wrote in a historical period thatthe 1940s wasn’t that very the generous human beingwith the is not playful defined spirit only (around as Homo the sapiens Second precisedifficult exercises for adults that to play.stimulate a greater openness of people in their historian of philosophy, play is an essential part of every person, relationshipGames withhave othersdifferent to breakpurposes. down Some communication of them consist barriers. of regardlessWorld War), of thisthe degree author of sees acceptance the human of this being aspect as a from player. the Forperson. this Other games seek to awaken people’s sense of solidarity. Others Koppel (2008) invites religious leaders to discover the vitality aim for a more effective collaboration that removes indifference of faith in live, creative and playful experiences. He considers the or the desire for domination on the part of some. There are also game a materialized theology, the key element of pastoral ministry. games that lead participants to personal introspection to discover their own abilities, inclinations or limits. At each play, participants a teacher, he developed a broad theology around this subject. can be invited to share ideas, tastes and passions, and join in prayer In hisHess view, explores the field theof play subject is a suitablein greater metaphor depth and for ministry.claims that As groups or initiatives. the church must assume a theology of the game. In his thesis (Hess Playing is not something people simply want, it’s something they have to decide. In order to be able to decide to play, a more adds2012, that 57) theHess playing presents time Rahner’s on this theologicalearth is the visiongeneral (Rahner rehearsal 1967) for this way, the game can become part of our being. heavenlybuilt on Plato’s dance concept:that will “Toinvolve play the is tofreedom return andto God.” joy of The the author heart. prominent identification is needed with the happy side of life. In

The Trips For Plato, creating the world was God’s last playtime. For Rahner is(1967), also inferred eternity that in the we heavensare players. will be the last recreation room. If The human being sometimes needs to escape from everyday routine God isOn a persona theological who is foundationplaying and likewe arethis, created Azevedo in His (2010) image, has it to rest and restore its abilities. This is especially true when the developed a project to consolidate the church committee. As existential context is a modern one, with an excess of urban and a conclusion, he noticed that games reduce stress and anxiety, cause people to relate to a much closer relationship and feel more relational growth. comfortable with each other. People who play together have more technological influences. An idyllic journey facilitates spiritual and easily accepted the different opinions of others. In spite of the above, constituting a church environment in considerKetchell that (2005),there is ina closethe preface connection to his betweendoctoral thesis,excursions presents and which people can play and pray together is a challenging objective. the conclusions of three authors (Abbas, Grafanaki and Karlis) who There are mentalities for which, what is funny, amusing cannot be holy. It is inconceivable that a holy thing can generate joy and communion with God and others. These authors indicate three laughter. transcendent effects that a trip can have. The first is communion Koppel considered that “playing is not easy for adults” (Koppel Thewith third God isand connecting the facilitation with the of groupspiritual to getgrowth. the sense The ofsecond belonging is to indiscover the context the meaning of this strongly of life as fragmented an opportunity social forlife. self–discovery. Trips usually attract people who enjoy traveling and who like2008, to 5).have The control. game invitation A game has must its rules, receive its an unknowns acceptance and response attracts are characterized by a recreational ethos. In order to involve afrom certain different degree people. of risk. But Sometimes the situation it puts is not participants easy. Generally, in situations adults less passionate travelers or less economic possibilities and / or 256 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Soare: Relative Type Extra–Ecclesiastic Activities

257 reluctant to long distance travel, different types of excursions can pleasant environment. Irregular actions can be penalized with cards be envisaged: weekend excursions for groups of up to 40 people or containing pleasant tasks that the litigants need to do during the

from the church’s children school, to offer deaconesses books or tripsone–day can increaseothers for the various relational groups climate or for among the whole the participants church. and otherfollowing gifts, week to buy (e.g. gifts to forbuy children flower bouquets...) for the instructresses can contributeWell-organized, to the combiningdevelopment planned of their and friendship. improvised activities, be determined on the spot and must be constantly changed to give each memberWithin these the opportunity activities, theto relate composition to as many of people the groups as possible must The Sport and to ensure that activities do not degenerate into prolonged competition between different groups. an universal language and church members are also very connected toWe it. live There in a are culture churches saturated that organize with sports. sportive It has activities been converted as a strategy into Anniversary of birthdays to make themselves known to others. People, by their structure, are created to share with other people theological foundation on which to base a department of sports in Rodger (1993) considers that there is a rather strong human being as Homo festivus. A desirable and pleasant activity for peopletheir stories, is to meet dreams, for the or celebration anniversaries. of the Cox birthday. (1969) The describes anniversary the redeeming,the church. relational,Wyman (2010) creative, is of liberating the opinion and that gracious. among the many of the birthday surpasses in all emotional intensity all other common qualitiesAlthough God possesses, he particularly a few belongstudied to sport the sporting in relation environment: to church holidays. There is no more important date for a person, no stronger memory, such as the birthday. In the questionnaire Meaning of the Community, published in the book “Measure of the Religiosity” by bridgesgrowth, Wymanbetween (2010) the participants. offers three observationsThe second looks on the at role sport of sport as a toolin human for restoring relations. old, The damaged first states relationships. that sport buildsThe third new argues relational that themselves to be part of the same family” its mentioned between sport strengthens existing relationships between people. brackets:Hill and Hood ‘(e.g. visits(1999, to p. sick 483), people, under anniversaries the item “Members of birthdays, consider etc.)’. The idea of associating sport with the Christian message is not Setting the birthday on the same level as visiting the sick is to give new. On some occasions, the apostle Paul uses images of athletics to it a great spiritual value. On the occasion of a birthday anniversary, people relate physically, mentally and spiritually in a positive way. These meetings communicate the message more clearly to his audience (Galatians offer moments of joy that far outweigh those inserted into the daily images,5: 7; 1 Corinthians for example, 9: 24–27;without 2 makingTimothy an 4: 7–8).apology This for does the notwar. mean The routine. There is an inborn tendency of the human being to regain spiritthat Biblical of competition thinking promotes is not suited competitive to Christian sport; conduct Paul also (see uses Phil war 2: the joy of living. For the church, it is essential to promote these types 3). This must not be overlooked when we want to organize sporting of meetings if it wants to strengthen the ties between its members. activities in the church. Remembering the other and congratulating him, helps you survive Sports competitions, such as football games, can be designed both as a person and as a religious or cultural entity. in a way that is enjoyable. A census and some friendly and conciliatory sanctions change the dynamics of confrontation in a 258 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES

Conclusion DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435151 In the pastoral process, churches must seek to include different interpersonal relationships. The failure to adequately integrate peoplestrategies, into communitystructures lifeand is extra–church not always due activities to personal to problems develop climate. The opportunity to open up and express themselves in a Redefining the Idea of Society recreational,of relationship playful but because environment they do can not be find a valuable the favorable resource social for by its Holistic Development place among church concerns, as a result, members strengthen Iacob Coman, PhD promoting their integration. When consolidation occupies a central “Dimitrie Cantemir” tasks, more readily accept differences and disagreements among [email protected] themselves,their sense ofimprove belonging their to interpersonalit, are more creative relationships in fulfilling and their University, Târgu Mureș, Romania ABSTRACT: The concern about the uniformity of the population of the earth, in terms of human and fundamental rights, has become a relationship with God. constant concern over the past decades for the majority of politicians, BIBLIOGRAPHY particularly those from the developed countries. This reality, also Azevedo, D. H. (2010). Teaching a church board how to play: How learning to play can strengthen a church board (Order No. 3410236). appeals. This phenomenon was taken over by Literature, Philosophy, http:// known as globalization, has benefited from both sympathy and different aspects of what would happen in the future. Therefore, ProQuest DissertationsThe feast of fools: & Theses A theological Global. (366588589). essay on festivity and thisSociology, paper Theology,attempts etc.,to capture and each the field phenomenon has specifically of globalization proposed search.proquest.com/docview/366588589?accountid=8313fantasy from the point of view of the holistic development of the society. Cox,Hess, H.M. (1969).J. (2012). Holy fun: A path to church consolidation (Order No. The approach is critical to provoke thinking on this issue and less . Nueva York: Harper & Row. is that it is surprising that the approach to holistically develop the 3508411). ProQuestHomo ludens Dissertations. Madrid: & Alianza Theses Editorial. Global. (1019057307). societyconcluding is actually with normative one that consequences. changes or intends What thisto replace study addsit. The to Ketchell,http://search.proquest.com/docview/1019057307?accountid=8313 A. K. (2004). Holy hills: Religion and recreation in Branson, argumentation system for this thesis is based on the evolution of Huizinga,Missouri. J. (2015). http://search.proquest.com/ (Order No. 3164443). ProQuest Dissertations & Theses some systems and the way they are used. We are talking about the Koppel,Global. M. S. (305171875). (2008). Open Recuperado hearted ministry: de Play as key to pastoral theological, financial, political, psychological and social assistance docview/305171875?accountid=8313leadership. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. system. We propose this perspective as a dialogue and as a way of The theology of play. Nueva York: Harper and Row. politicaldirecting assistance, scientific thinking psychological to areas, assistance, considered, theological solved. assistance, Man at play. Nueva York: Herder and Herder. KEY WORDS: society, church, holistic development, virtualization, Moltmann, J. (1972).A theology of sports ministry. Campbell, CA: Church Rahner,Sports H. (1967). International. financial assistance, mass–media assistance, social assistance Rodger, O. (1993). The contribution of sports ministry to growth in church membership Wyman, C. (2010). http:// (Order No. 3407458). Available on ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (305231979). Recuperado de search.proquest.com/docview/305231979?accountid=8313 259 260 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Coman: Redefining the Idea of Society by its Holistic Development 261

Those who see the Earth as a whole give us very little real Introduction information about the changes we all share. The great international

he complex and holistic development of our century society must councils, during which common truths should be formulated, that Tnot escape the exigencies and rigor of independent judgments. shouldconferences be raised of the to world norms “should for the be existence defined as of a humanity.” kind of cultural3 The Personal demand means not to say what we say and not to say what probability or the idea of should, existing in this statement have everyone else is saying, but here the researcher says what he wants. already turned into a reality. The international formulates common The multiplication of such voices can help and correct the global truths that it enthusiasm, that is heading towards “something” about which, punctually, is very little spoken. The tendency of contemporary raises to norms for the existence of humanity. We talk about the well–being of the virtual society, while the real private or collective being retreats and is replaced. The well–being that compels societyIn is the not present the development, research, but we its try definition to provide and self–definition.a perspective thatus is adaptsreplaced itself by tothe human well–being nature, that but we that create something and adapt. to which “The subordinatedContemporary to society the honesty does not of what develop, is the it isholistic replaced! development of thewell–being Creator inobliges the Judeo–Christian the human nature.” theistic4 The ethics society is notof our something century the society and what would, in fact, imply such a development. The proposes a relative good that does not compel anyone and which, history of this century is not about the development of the society, but about its change. “Because the Creator of all made the conjugal we will not be ourselves, but we will be others. community the beginning and foundation of human society,” the underThe the present dream ofstudy freedom, aims constrainsto review theus allproblems to change mentioned us; soon family has become “the basic and vital cell of society.”1 Although through the perspective of the most important contemporary the declaration “the family is the basic and vital cell of society” has realities through which society develops its change. This change has boy,remained, girl, etc. its makescontent this is long statement overdue. even Redefining ridiculous. intra–family The longevity and option,redefined only the binding. past and Thus, used we it aswill a addresspretext for the the holistic need development to transform inter–family relationships, redefining the notion of father, mother, ofthe the contemporary society through society; the means transformation by which it in operates: which there virtue is and no another century, we are other people or, at least, we want to be other virtualization of money, virtue and virtualization of social protection, of undivorced families is not just exotic but disturbing. We are in virtue and virtualization of psychological assistance, virtue and On the contrary, its dissolution from human causes constitutes a virtualization of the church, virtue and virtualization of politics. gravepeople. violation Reviews of like: His will,“Keeping which marriage often leads together to personal is the or will collective of God. tragedy,”2 no longer represent anything normative. In the most positive situation, it can be an evocation of a classic idealism or the (A) Virtue and Virtualization of Money point of view of some that hinders social progress. in the Holistic Development of the Society Old existential situations have “emigrated” from person towards the communeautaire person, then towards the state person, In the postmodern society to have involves necessarily to be and the economic person, the sociological person to be happy. Nobody any longer doubts this change, made through virtual person. This more or less assisted and imposed migration has existential common sense and replaced with and, finally, towards the conventional “common sense.” In Antiquity to be and to be happy about the personal nature of society in the trend. meantthe redefinition to know how of to speak. The expressed rhetoric, eloquence and come to kill the person’s personal being. We are talking today only 262 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Coman: Redefining the Idea of Society by its Holistic Development 263 the art of grammar ensured the to be and to be happy. This reality the human dimension from the perspective of its affections, the inner has been metamorphosed, notes, reaching5 money, the depths that lead it to life, to goodwill, to the collective joy, and to the only value that allows us to be and to be happy. Their distribution as futureistic projection of it and its descendants. needed in the global development seems to be a great achievement of The virtue of money and virtualization implies two realities humanism and the appreciation of all people, only to avoid knowing that disengage man from being free and transforms him into a modern slave. These two realities are: controlled money and love many, modest or poor people, but invoking their strict needs, the of money. As mentioned above, the state, the banks and some of the the meanings: financial values are not distributed to the needs of very wealthy people turned into a hysteria about controlling the way are for good separated from reality, that is, the extremely rich. This of each penny. This slowly mounts each living creature of this planet allowsfinancial a footballervalues are todistributed receive twenty according million to the euros needs annually of those and who a mother of seven to ten children to receive social support of several thousand euros per year. talkingand configures about a segregation it very strictly of people in terms based of onneeds money, and a aspirations,segregation needs and aspirations that it will no longer be able to change. We are virtue requires virtualization. The virtual currencies, the necessity phenomenon can be called development, yet it contains some things The financial values are the virtue. Keeping closer to this first at the level of information, and then imposed. Although this it. In such a case, people’s hope is not to develop the society but to values.of individual This reality,financial as existence if demanded only throughby people the and bank, appropriated salary and changethat show it. thatTomorrow it is a process we will of exist changing like others, the society or we and will redefining not exist withoutshopping any cards, protest, etc. all clearly imply contributesand impose theto the virtualization holistic perspective of financial of at all. the new society. The antithesis remains the native perception of the situation. Sociologically it would be all about education, but it is not. complex. Their virtualization is a result of the pathological love that the supervisorsWhen it comes have to over love money. of money, The theholistic situation development becomes ofmore the being needs beings and less of anything else when it comes to living society, which also takes into account this approach, does not mean At the level of the being it is the need for affections of the being; the are just the means. “Although they are surrounded by hardships that click, and ordinary people have no money left. In other words, the resistoneself. educational The infrastructure: work, much the worse material today, needs, parents financial must formones, sons etc. futurethat money, society once takes virtualized, our safety require from ourvirtualized hands and security; promises a simple us a higher level of security in its hands. Isn’t this the way to a violent must grow up in a fairness to material goods by adopting a simple modern slavery? There is a difference between wanting to be modest, andwith austere confidence lifestyle, and courage being convinced for the core that values man of has human greater life. value Sons resembling a life of simplicity as a virtue, and imposing a status 6 that slowly removes you from the area of your humanity’s taste in This statement by John Paul II radically undermines a slave robotic area. The Bible writes the following words: “For the virtualizationthrough what heof money is than andthrough virtue. what He returnshe has!” to the words of Jesus love of money is the root of all evil: which while some coveted after, Christ: “Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where moth they have erred from the faith, and pierced themselves through with and rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal: many sorrows.” (1 Timothy 6:10) Probably the holistic development But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor of the society from the money perspective should be cosmetized, rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break through nor steal: For where your treasure is, there will your heart be also.” (Matthew has in his own hands the safety of today and with his own hands is should open our perspective to a person’s well–being, a person who

6:19–21) This perspective is not just about salvation, but it captures 264 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Coman: Redefining the Idea of Society by its Holistic Development

265 planning the safety of tomorrow, a peace that begins to disappear and assurance from the outside is welcome as long as is required from the people. by those concerned, but it is slavery when coming over the people who did not seek it. It is very important to decide whether this is a to be informed, not even correctly, about our commitment, but we development or a change of the society. Only in this case we can be must Misinformationgive up this violent must bechange replaced of society. with silence. “The Wemeeting do not of need the correct about the projection of the future of the society and about dominant economic powers to regulate the economy became global, its development or change. Developing plenarily a society means avoiding human humiliation and dismemberment. If this is ignored, we are talking asbecame a vehicle the offield radical of ideological human freedom, battle oftheir the omnipresence post–communist with era. its about terror, we are talking about the extermination of metaphysical inherentWhile, on norms the one is nowhand, alarmingly technology signaled and economy as a global are dictatorshipunderstood and fought with anarchic anger, in which freedom of destruction presents itself as an essential element of human freedom.”7 Money Church,identity andfaithful the identityto the commandment of love. We kneel of the Christ, being its in founder, front “of hasthe must come out of virtue and virtualization. The holistic development alwayscar”! The been biblical present, side through of social its progress works designedis entirely to different. give the “Theman of the society must leave the money on the method level, the means in need a material support that does not humiliate him and does by which every person ensures, according to what he/she is and not lead him to the state of the assistance, but help him get out of hopes, that he/she will go well. his precarious condition by promoting his personal dignity.”8 The In conclusion, the development of the society remains a virtue, holistic development of the society must not mean changing it

core: person, love, people. “Our love either creates a personality, a andwhile joy its a dayredefinition further, but can by crush changing consciousness this paradigm, and being. the virtualized Material hypostasis,but promoting more it beautiful,in the fundamental more vital three–dimensionalityand more durable than of you its wealthpossessions of each remain of us asbecomes a gift from the sadnessGod through and thewhich burden we move through life and me, or it will be just barren pleasure.” Social protection and which we want tomorrow to no longer exist. social assistance are not supposed to offering9 the human being to institutions that have man and family at their own discretion, but old people, are (B) Virtue and Virtualization of Social Protection rulesserving over man our and homes, family ourif they feelings, ask for the it. We,educational the relations Another means by which we witness the holistic development of the scared of protection, we are terrified at the thought that someone society or its replacement with another society is social protection path of love. “The right and duty of parental education are considered or social assistance. Man is about to become the only creature that stemming from the sangvinist affiliation and the affiliation on the can not sustain itself. The food is provided by others, the clothes and primary, compared to the educative mission of others, and this are offered by others, the house is made by others, the children isessential, because being of the related relationship to the transmission of love that ofexists human between life; as originalparents or sometimes not even that. Social surveys decide whether I, as not be entirely entrusted to others or usurped by others.”10 In other husband,are educated or maybe by others, we, as etc.parents, We havecan support ourselves, our children,with nothing, if we, words,and sons; we ascan being not protect irreplaceable ourselves, and putting inalienable, us in danger because and they we can not love ourselves, hating ourselves. The corporeal lineage and the parental love began to be replaced by civilian duty. This task is very overas children, his being can or support over those our parents, that come and from if they him. find This the opposite,certainty closely monitored by “the protector”11 with an iron whip. No, it is we are robotically separated; there is no feeling, no one has rights 266 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Coman: Redefining the Idea of Society by its Holistic Development 267 not development but the accession to the elimination of the existing if those who think like this are majority or minority, it matters that society and its replacement with another. “The Bible talked about human alienation. It described two other types of alienation, and even more radical than the economic and the political ones. One is preservewe are. We our claim native it to existence. be known! Its virtue is to keep old walls around the humanConsequently, community social and protection, in no case by to its destroy very definition, them through must from each other, from our fellows. Nothing is more dehumanizing Trojan horse. Rethinking this, the hope for the thanthe alienation the breaking from of God, fundamental our Creator, human and relationships. the other is our In alienationfact, when holistic development of the human community becomes real and this happens, we become strangers in a world where we should respondsa post–modern to the aspirations that remain in us above the promises have felt at home, and we are strangers instead of being citizens.”12 of Postmodernism. The holistic development of society through these systems is well received and necessary in order to protect familiarity, family, decency and the ability to remain natively human. (C) Virtue and Virtualization of Psychological Assistance The way we see and perceive social progress affects and deliberately changes the mentality of the new generations. Another pillar of the development of the society, which recovers They begin to have serious skirmishes about their attitude years of absence through an exponential multiplication, is the towards existence and life. These generations refuse the natural psychological assistance. The multiplication of the population, the psychosomatic constitution in favor of some life’s impossibilities called alternative forms. “A mentality against life was born (antilife of the movie houses, the chaos of the music being consumed, the mentality), as is evident from many of today’s problems: let us think, fearproblem of tomorrow’s of inter–human existence, connections, etc. all these the has harmful brought bombardment many into a for example, to a certain panic derived from ecology studies about worrying mental state. The need for mental health, relational health the demographic future of mankind, which sometimes exaggerates and communeautaire health is acute. The holistic development of the danger of demographic growth of humanity to the detriment of the contemporary world can not neglect this reality. For this reason, quality of life.”13 There is an exaggerated fear and “maturity” towards the psychological assistance offer has grown enormously and is considered indispensable. On the other hand, the psychological to be men, to be afraid to be women, to be afraid to found families, assistance, although it is a very subjective branch of science, existential natural. We started to be afraid to be human, to be afraid sometimes even close to occultism (see hypnosis, thoughts reading, force, on behalf of human rights, that the anomalies are preferred, etc.) has come from inertia or intentionally, to have absolute authority, legalizedand this reality and take allows the placethe redefinition of the natural of man, accredited woman, by family time and sometimes being irreversible.14 Through this universalized branch, was forced the entrance into the family, a reality that changes the what we actually are is called homo phobia, and the one who gets meaning: is not the family the one that gives birth to society, but this suchGod. Remaininga nickname in is themarginalized, original existential booed, and space excluded. and accredited by way, the society determines the family. Since the kindergarten, boys The development of the society on social protection, and girls have been assisted in developing in themselves the idea of mistakenly, disables man from responsibility and empowerment. not being what they are. Most parents do not know this phenomenon, nor do they estimate its effects. Psychological expertise can also decide whether a parent can still keep his children or not, or if a notVirtuality currently and virtualizationestimate the good of his orprotection bad of this and change, his well–being but we leadfeel husband can stay with his wife or not. In other words, we have to pseudo–existence, pseudo–valorisation and pseudo–love. We can come to offer psychological assistance a segment that fundamentally it does not respond and does not fit the natural. It does not matter 268 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Coman: Redefining the Idea of Society by its Holistic Development

269 changes the order of creation, the order of existence of the human community is to develop the contemporary society, then certain being, and it irreversibly changes it. issues need to be discussed again. Ultimately, the virtue of psychological assistance must remain man can be absolved of moral obligations. Returning from various under the native authority of parental psychology, psychology that slippagesWhat is is not important done by to graduallyknow and realisedeleting in the this responsibility context is that noby starts with the act of marriage, and complements itself by throbbing at the moment that the wife has become pregnant. And, with the imprisonment, etc.) or, at least it was like this so many decades birth, erupts natively and constituently the quality of psychologist ago.a psychologist, Only those hospitalizedbut by constraint for aggravated methods dementia (reprehension, were exempt fines, of both mother and father. No one has the right or duty to modify from this practice. The deviation from the norms of biblical ethics this divine human climate and for no reason. “The original cell of and accredited by the thousands of years of existence has always human society was represented by the family… As a result of a complex historical development guided by Divine Providence, the complication of social relations led to the emergence of the state.”17 doesbeen notreversible. dwell on The proclaiming scientific the segments moral norm that that submit must theses lead the of As a result, the plenary development of the society must come from responsibleanother nature transmission are not scientific, of life. The but Church intentional. is not the“The author Church of the family, not from the state, through the psychological networks this norm, nor is its judge. By listening to the truth, who is Christ, of constraint and determination of the human psyche. The state is person, the Church interprets the moral norm and proposes it to The society is not disturbed by those who create illusory or concrete allwhose people image of benevolence is reflected inwithout the nature hiding and its dignityradical requirementsof the human formsus, the of families! existence, And the we, society the families, is disturbed are never by the against reason ourselves. of their and the perfection of this law.” By universalizing an authority 15 against our sex or opens the way of sexes that do not exist, against imposition. Normality is defined by normality through itself, not thethat psychosomaticarbitrarily declares constitution, us fit or notinappropriate, only rights whichare offered decides to Paulby opening Evdokimov perspectives noted the under following: syntagms: “The redefinitionfools, the maniacs of freedom, exist, those who want to live otherwise, rights that we recognize, but butredefinition how sad of it family,is to impose redefinition their vision of man, or redefinition to present it of as woman, belonging etc. slowly and surely alienate the human community. “So all those in society dealing with school leadership should never forget genre—must not exceed the limits of their own world.”18 to all mankind! The patterns of psychopathology—important in their being we are born of, then to our being and optionally belongs to absolutelythat the parents inalienable.” have 16been From designated this area, the by family God Himself area starts as the others.In Disapprovalconclusion, ofpsychological parents and assistance being from belongs their authoritative first to the developmentfirst and main of educators the society. of Bytheir exacerbating children and the that so-called their rightlaws ofis role of their own psychology and their own psychic by requiring the rights of man, woman and child, the innocent family, the home the specialist, and then by imposing it, is a serious attack on the dignity of the human being and then on its freedom. Moving from no right. Man became the most vulnerable and most unprotected the area of virtue into the area of virtualization of psychological inof the placefirst bliss, where the he oasis was onceof the the first safest. games and memories, have assistance changes the society, does not develop it. Apparently it should be subject to other criteria also. If the intent of the not be changed with a man of another race or hybrid because there internationalWe conclude community from all is this to replacethat the contemporary idea of social developmentsociety, then iscan no be other a matter race. ofThis success. forces What us to weconclude do not that know by iswhat that we man do canwe everything is correctly done, but if the intention of the international take man out of his being. 270 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Coman: Redefining the Idea of Society by its Holistic Development 271

(D) Virtue and Virtualization of the Church world, the Church is on the side of life, knowing to discover in every humangoodness. life Against the splendor the pessimism of that yes and and selfishness amen that isthat Christ shadow himself. the One of the somewhat dilematic situations of our Europe lies in the Against the no invading and hurting the world, the Church responds fact that it offers a future for holistic development abdicating, in with a strong yes, thus defending humanity and man from all those substance, the phrase “Christian Europe.” It seems, every day, that the who shake and hurt life.” As incisive are men in their liberatinism, global Christian and European Christian population is less interested as docile and sensitive are19 in moments of spiritual research. in its religious dimension, especially when it comes to “civilian life,” At the conceptual level, since the time of the Roman Empire, the spiritual dimension and the “civil” dimension were regarded as an indestructible unit. Moreover, the civil authority participates liveie the as exacerbation he/she wants, of we illicit ask pleasures, ourselves questionsor new perspectives about the meaning, on LGBT militantly in keeping the biblical Christian concept untouched. senserights. and Without purpose infringing of developing in any way the the society right inof everyonethis direction? to choose In this to “The idea of a Christian and universal empire presupposed that equation is included the Church, an institution that in a certain way the Emperor had obligations, both as a guarantor of faith and as a is composed of the same people. The Church, as virtue, is somehow left in our being, but as a rule is excluded. Its virtualization in the good, and that is why he is called a benefactor, and when he does not moral, behavioral, and aspirational space seems to remove it from succeedwitness into doingGod’s themercy good, towards he forgets man… his imperialThe king’s dignity.” vocation20 is to do given a new meaning to the holistic development of contemporary judgments and discussions do not include the church in any way, society, development which is substituted by the rigid idea of What change, has our lives, or at least place it in a shadowy cone. The official areas of life as an annex. Social and individual splitting is so successful that negotiable good, the created good. Most political and social decisions thealthough questioning a large of number life in state of officials or European belong institutions to the church have, for either their is that the Absolute Good has been replaced by the relative good, the in tone or subject, no connection with the quests, the quiet and the This reality produces and maintains a tension at social level, peace that the same people have on Sunday at church. betweenare taken the in Churchrelation and to our the politicalgood, not social with element the Good. and, at individual However, from the hierarchical areas of each Christian Church level, between the secular tendency and the religious dimension in are imposed, at an informative level, quite antithetic attitudes to man. This tension is not cultivated and interested, but it is an intrinsic tension, it is a constitutive tension from the eternal and original but can not be ignored. In the context of our study, the church is very reserved,what is happening even antagonistic, today in social with development.both the political This element is not defining, and the individuals that belong to it. Church hierarchy and militant members manconstitution is rooted of in the Him human Alive… being. Every “Man beating can not of ourexist heart without is an God, act orof of Christianity see the need for the development of the society on faith.”apart 21from God. There is no one who can do it. Through his own life, grounds contrary to what happens in the society and in an opposite and the pleasure of existence from the constitution of creation on the desired The constitutionpost–modern is social–politicalunder implementation. will to move For thisthe rhythmreason, in the doctrines and dogmas of the churches nothing changes. the age level for taking the child out of the family for social education direction.Even In if addition,at the level the of foundation public statements of Christian we teachings can observe is frozen; some has dropped drastically. From seven to ten years in the sixties of last permissiveness, when it comes to formalized formulas of faith, century, to three years today. In this way the child can no longer take nothing changes. “The Church strongly believes that human life, anything from the order of creation, but only from the implemented even weak and suffering, is always a wonderful gift from the God of order. We become the witnesses and promoters of changing the idea 272 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Coman: Redefining the Idea of Society by its Holistic Development 273 of man into something else. For this reason Paul II declared: “The The Church is worried not about the phenomenon, but about Church is called to show again to all, with the strongest and most imposing it on the family’s intimacy: at the relational, educational, clear conviction, its willingness to promote human life in any way sentimental level and in the framing of it in society. “The rights” have and to defend it against any against any wickedness addressed to violently invaded the family and the house, so the family and the its being, at any stage of development.”22 From a Christian point of house are left with no right. This determines John Paul II to declare: view, a danger is estimated, from a secular point of view, a progress “If schools teach ideologies contrary to Christian faith, the family, along with other families, and if possible with family associations, Through virtualisation of the church, a return to the frustration must by all means and wisely help the children not to ward off from ofis estimated,communism and is expected,the finality “ whenin itself the is Church reserved was for forced the future. to restrict the faith. In this case the family needs special help from the spiritual its activity within the places of worship”23 and, with time, their shepherds who must not forget that parents have the inviolable right to entrust their sons to the ecclesial community.”27 people of the church form the society, that is, they express the church elimination. We overlook the fact that this is impossible since the of ideas, ie religious ideas and secular ideas, and declares the area of (E) Virtue and Virtualization of Politics strugglecontinuously of existence, and universaly. we exist This or replace reality goesexistence. beyond The the universality battlefield of the church found in all those who exist in the society is a matter In this historical social concern of holistic development of the society, that relates to the being of Christ and by His extension, to our being. “The Christological character of universality stems from the fact that solving and the political proposals are so important and dictatorial, the church is universal, not in its capacity as a community aiming thatan important they must and be obeyed defining by role justice, has truththe political and life virtue.without The the ways right toof at a certain moral perfection, but as a community that experiences 28 and reveals the unity of all creation to such an extent that this unity People do not have access to this vision, and their manipulation is is a reality in the person of Christ.”24 extremelyappeal. Even easy, if they especially are innocent when the sacrifices, ordinary they person must can be brought.not aspire are not talking about evolutionary theory and creationist theory in a and create good forms, but he is the victim of the imposed good: Dialectic is not of the ideas! We to be able to live and have a vacation elsewhere than at home. The experiment, we create, as in a chemistry lab, physical reactions using Church is moving hard enough to improve this situation. It “can not people.room of Under scientific these communication, circumstances, but it iswe possible are talking to target about our a social own adopt a stable system of relations with the worldly power because existence and what we call development to become change or even the relations are always temporary.” destruction. “The Church is not from this world, just as its Lord Jesus Another issue that arises is that29 the holistic development of is not from this world... Its goal is not only the salvation of men in the society, although it seems an aspiration to all people, is very this world, but the salvation and restoration of the world itself.” partisan. There are more and more political parties that out of more In conclusion, from the perspective of church thinking that is not25 or less known interests deny the dimension of holistic existence intrinsic the dogma, but intrinsic the being,26 holistically, it does not of the society in favor of their orientation, not even in favor of the mean what we do, but what we should do. In this context, the church interests of the people they represent. Through this reality the institution is likely to succumb to the holistic that involves changing political perspective completely dissociates from the perspective of the being, but the being can not cave in because it is against its the human being and the church that is concerned with the whole. “The role of the Church is not to divide by different political options of contemporary holistic development an orientation of destruction? and ideologies, but to work to preserve the unity. Even the notion condition of existence; however, it can be destroyed. Is the orientation 274 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Coman: Redefining the Idea of Society by its Holistic Development

275 of party shows that it is only a part of the whole and not the whole as such, while the role of the Church is concerned not only with the we do not replace but replace ourselves, we do not constrain but part but also with the whole.”30 constrainself-intimation. ourselves, We do we not do lead not intodestroy mistake, but we but destroy we are ourselves.mistaken, Under these conditions, politics as an option of society has The saddest thing in this phenomenon is that it sent its roots into turned into a dictatorial unilateralism of interests. Voting in recent the family. The family has grown like a pot that slowly and surely decades in very small percentages shows that society no longer wants a political system or not of this kind. However, its dictatorial ferocity it and remove it. This phenomenon jeopardizes both the family life can not take into account either the change or the dissolution of andis filled the withlife of the the roots foreign of aplant. foreign plant, roots that slowly exhaust politics. “The totalitarian state tends to absorb the nation, the society, The political virtue and its virtualization will end up in self- the family, the religious communities and even the people.31 see this attitude as a way in which contemporary society can develop will never be. “The society and especially the state must recognize holistically, but as one in which society is bound to be different. We do not thatelimination; the family we is will a society not be thatwhat enjoys we have its beenown and and primordial we are what right we All this reality leads to a phenomenon that we will develop and, therefore, in their relations with the family, are seriously bound in the next chapter: the man of our society is no longer informed to maintain the principle of subsidiarity. Under the force of this or disinformed, but he is instilled another way of thinking and principle, the state can not and must not take from the families the perception with the help of foreign and destructive information duties that families can freely exercise alone or associated, but they to human nature. The existential instinct of being is guided to must favor them positively and maximize the responsible initiative of confusion. “Homo consumans calls on homo sanitas, homo tehnicus, families.”34 The family should not be choked by the roots of politics, homo scientificus, very little on homo religiosus and even less homo but must be the root of politics. This change of optics tolerates christianus.” 32 Solutions are offered in health, technology, and science, alternatives but does not allow removal. while they are required in spirituality, in Jesus Christ. This more or Consequently, the holistic development of the society must less deliberate confusion relativises the joy of existence of the being not be anchored in the political element, but the bulb of human and the ecstasy of prolonging itself in history and time through existence, namely the family, must be found in the political element procreation. “Some wonder if it is good to live or it was better not to in its nativity, and this presence accentuates the aspirations for development that give us the complement of life with even more since they can curse their own lives in a cruel world, whose cruelty happiness. Or, such a phenomenon can not be separated from the canhave not been yet born; be predicted.” they wonder33 if it is allowed to bring others to life, christic dimension of being. The holistic development of the society should have the effect of reducing this feeling, this psychosomatic cry, not its multiplication. (F) Virtue and Virtualization of Mass–Media itself in favor of those who follow it, but this is not in sight either. The being,Virtue without and virtualization knowing and of consenting, politics has is willingcome to to violently sacrifice The exacerbation of the so-called “right to information” has created submit life. Contrar sau complementar acestei laturi a ei, tot ea in postmodern society the most ridiculous situation in the modern history of mankind. The words of a dignitary or of an organic law, the claim of a scientist in his branch or a gunman about his weapons can solvingluptă pentru from thedezvoltarea point of viewholistică of the a societă decisionsții și, of implicit, the society. a vie Ifț ii.it not be the object of reality in the front of the anger of press trusts or isThis not dilemma, instrumental, this Gordian then there node, is ifthe it ispossibility instrumental, of intimation has no more and press rubbish that we consume on a daily basis. The idea of press 276 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Coman: Redefining the Idea of Society by its Holistic Development 277 freedom that is multiplied by many acolytes and seekers of fame and bread can no longer be warned about truth, fairness, respect, dignity, fear of “repression,” the diffuse excitation of the senses, nerves, etc. by any other authority on earth. The reaction of the population imagination,disappears in are, the apparently, paradisiacal linked reveries to a whole of Freudo–. set of deceptions.” The36 and the politics that one might forbid the press from lying or mislead Any solving is followed by some unsolved realities, the latter not or defame and discredit different personalities has become terrifying. representing any interest due to the goal. However, an important factor in the holistic development of The information and formation of the upcoming generation has the society is the media that has an almost decisive contribution. It instrumentalizes the minds and reactions of the individual and exclusion of censorship is the appearance of a violent dictatorship society, it imposes reactions from the political or the religious and onbecome the human dependent being on and everything a barbarous that rape means of human screen. consciousness The so–called it also processes them so that when they come to us they express and his brain. “Television is seen as an ideal tool for shaping the subconscious, because during watching the spectrum of brain forgotten is that not knowing declares a superior existence with waves moves from the high frequency of the beta waves to the alpha relationwhat the to press knowing wishes. wrong What—especially the contemporaneous when this wrong society is imposed has waves, during which a huge amount of information is transmitted as correct. “The vision of the world of a blind is poorer but not and written into memory. This is the best explanation for the special altered.” However, it is preferable to give up intelligence, thinking 35 of individuals.”37 Besides promoting immorality directed extremely from himself and became arrogant with himself. Man does not want influence that television has on modeling the thinking and behavior toand know self–esteem but wants in favor to be of told,any reality the man that does is in trend.not want Man to distanced be told something, but he wants to be told, man does not want to react, but positivebeautiful, and the artistic contemporary reviews, film they industry are awarded has gone in the to a art more of cinema, violent wants to hear reactions, man created a community that forced him etc.level, Victims the horror do not movies. matter. These Ad pollutionfilms are consumed, in any broadcast they receive or movie, very to give up the luxury of thinking. The media make the most of this which in turn are also pollution, has come to express the fact that the human being represents, at the individual level, just as much as These forms of information anesthetize the opinion of contemporarypost–modern “convenience” society and raise and within its success it a different is undeniable. society. It is a impossible, humanitarian calls are made for the abandoned body, in society that has no inherited landmarks, but its landmarks are ahead. acan nursing be removed home, somethingbut dying, toworthwhile get some morefrom it.money. When this becomes to be born. In other words, for those born today parents are going of the corrupted family. The pride of not being what we are is a toThey be waitborn for in “parents,”the future. “grandparents” Their real parents and “great–grandparents”are just a way and a virtualizedVirtue virtue and virtualization and is the only of landmark the media for isthe already future generationsa reflection method for this generation to come into the world, but, authority of the European and American world in particular. In conclusion, through the holistic development envisaged in the parents who belong to the future. The delight in such a calendar current historical, political and social context, it seems that society and ofover existence this generation, has become its education so popular is atand the enforced fingertips that of theit is “true” very complicated to be questioned and impossible to change. How crowded and tough, that the native instinct of the being is no longer holistic this development is? “A sometimes courageous, but often man will be redefined. This is a violent redefinition. This happens so hurried, search today leads to an omnipresence of sexuality. Mass this development approach will produce something desirable and media, advertising, the “revolutionary” pathos, they all broadcast able to perceive it and react. If the existence of God is a myth, then a vulgarized Freudianism, in which the very meaning of death… destructive. If the existence of God is not a myth, then this process will produce something desirable but severely sanctioned by God. 278 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Coman: Redefining the Idea of Society by its Holistic Development

279 BIBLIOGRAPHY Popescu, Dumitru, Omul fără rădăcini (The Man without Roots), Bucharest: Nemira Publishing, 2001. Clement, Oliver, Întrebări asupra omului (Questions on Man) Ratzinger, Joseph, Europa, globalizarea și noua ordine mondială: spre o utopie a ororii? (Europe, Globalization and the New World Order: Evdokimov, Paul, Femeia și mântuirea lumii (Original title: Woman, Alba–Iulia: and the towards a Utopia of Horror?) SalvationEditor Anne of theSigier, World) 1997., Bucharest: Publishing House of Christiana eds. Gândirea socială a Bisericii, Sibiu: Deisis Publishing, 2002. Sinodul Episcopal Jubiliar al Bisericii – in Ortodoxe Ioan I. Ică Ruse jr. – Germano Marani, Evdokimov, Paul, Taina iubirii – sfințenia unirii conjugale în lumina Gândirea tradițieiChristian ortodoxeMedical Association,(Original title: 1995. Le Sacrement de l’amour: Le socială a Bisericii, Sibiu: Deisis Publishing, 2002. – Moscova, 13–16 mystère conjugal à la lumière de la Tradition orthodoxe), Bucharest: august 2000,Noua in Ioan societate I. Ică a jr. lui – Dumnezeu,Germano Marani, Societatea eds. Misionară Publishing House of Christiana Christian Medical Association, Română (The New Society of God, the Romanian Missionary Society), Stott, 1987 John R. W., Efectele televiziunii asupra minți umane – și despre Zizioulas, Ioannis, Ființa eclesială (Original title: L’Être ecclésial), creșterea1994. copiilor în ziua de azi (The Effects of Television on Human Gheorghe,Minds Virgiliu, – and Raising Children Today), Bucharest: Publishing House of the Institute of Psychosocial Research and Bioethics, 2013. Bucharest: Bizantină Publishing, 1996. Henry, Carl, F. H., Etica creștină personală (Personal Christian Ethics), NOTES 1 John Paul II, Exortaţia apostolică FAMILIARIS CONSORTIO, November John Paul II, Enciclica Centesimus annus (The Encyclical Centesimus http://www.ercis.ro/magisteriu/ioanpaul2exo.asp?doc=fc annus)Oradea: Cartea Creștină Publishing, 2004. Gândirea socială a 2 Morala creștină Bisericii, Sibiu: Deisis Publishing, 2002. 22, 1981, , in Ioan I. Ică jr. – Germano Marani, eds. John Paul II, Exortaţia apostolică FAMILIARIS CONSORTIO (The Apostolic 3 Georgios Manzaridis, (Bucharest: Bizantină Publishing, Exhortation FAMILIARIS CONSORTIO) http:// 2006), 323–324. www.ercis.ro/magisteriu/ioanpaul2exo.asp?doc=fc Joseph Ratzinger, Europa, globalizarea și noua ordine mondială: spre o Ioja, Cristinel, Homo economicus – Iisus, November Hristos, sensul 22, 1981, creației și utopie a ororii? (Europe, Globalization and the New World Order: towards a insuficiențele purului biologism (Homo economicus – Jesus Christ, Utopia4 Carl of F. Horror?), H. Henry, Eticain Ioan creștină I. Ică personalăjr., Germano Marani, eds., Gândirea socială a the Meaning of Creation and the Shortcomings of Pure Biology), Bisericii (Sibiu: Deisis Publishing, 2002), 521. Camil Petrescu, Doctrina substanței, (Oradea: vol I Cartea Creștină Publishing, 2004),5 239. Morala creștină (Christian Ethics), Bucharest: , Bucharest: Scientific and Timișoara: Marineasa Publishing, 2010. 6 Pope John Paul II, Ibid. Encyclopaedic7 Publishing House, 1998. Nikos,Manzaridis, A. Matsoukas, Georgios, Teologie dogmatică și simbolică (Dogmatic and 8 Pope John Paul II, Enciclica Centesimus Annus SymbolicBizantină Theology),Publishing, volume2006. II Ratzinger, 521. 2006. Paul Evdokimov, Taina iubirii – sfințenia unirii conjugale, in Ioan I.în Icălumina jr., Germano tradiției Meyendorff, John, Teologia Bizantină ,(Original Bucharest: title: Bizantină Byzantine Publishing, Theology), ortodoxeMarani,9 eds., (Bucharest: Gândirea socialăPublishing a Bisericii House (Sibiu: of DeisisChristiana Publishing, Christian 2002), Medical 175. Bucharest: Publishing House of the Bible and Mission Institute of 10 Pope John Paul II, Exortaţia apostolică. Petrescu, Camil, Doctrina substanței (The Doctrine of the Substance), Association,11 That is the1994), State. 138. The state accomplishes this through social protection volumethe Romanian I Orthodox Church, 1996. institutions etc. and monitoring systems: social welfare networks, psychology offices in most , Bucharest: Scientific and Encyclopaedic Publishing 12 Noua societate a lui Dumnezeu, Societatea Misionară Română, 1987, 63. House, 1998. John R. W. Stott, 280 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES

13 Pope John Paul II, Exortaţia apostolică. 14 The decision whether or not to have a gun permit, driving license, the right DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435153 to be a teacher etc. Pope John Paul II, Exortaţia apostolică. 1516 Ibid. 17

Episcopal Jubilee Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church – Moscow, August 13–16,18 Paul 2000, Evdokimov, in Ioan I.Femeia Ică jr., șiGermano mântuirea Marani, lumii ,eds., Bucharest, Gândirea Publishing socială a House Bisericii of (Sibiu: Deisis Publishing, 2002), 191. The Role of the Holy Spirit Pope John Paul II, Exortaţia apostolică. in Attaining a Holistic Society Christiana1920 John Meyendorff, Christian Medical Teologia Association, Bizantină 1995.(Bucharest: Publishing House of the Sorin Badragan, PhD 21 Oliver Clement, Întrebări asupra omului Baptist Theological Institute, Bucharest, Romania Bible and Mission Institute of the Romanian Orthodox Church, 1996), 285. , Romania , (Alba–Iulia: Editor Anne Sigier, 22 Pope John Paul II, Exortaţia apostolică. [email protected] 1997),23 Dumitru 32. Popescu, Omul fără rădăcini (Bucharest: Nemira Publishing,

24 Ioannis Zizioulas, Ființa eclesială ABSTRACT: 2001), 75. Episcopal Jubilee Synod, 186. concept of “holistic society” needs to engage the classical approaches (Bucharest: Bizantină Publishing, 1996), 179. 2526 The Church is not the inscription, it is life, life found in just as many people to the matter. This Plato paper in antiquity, claims that More the strenuousin the middle task ages, of defining as well the as as Christians. The Church is not the decree, or the synodal decision, but it is the man, the man “extracted” from Christ, and neither of us, not even the non- which help us identify the main characteristics of what could be Christians, can have a different origin. Durkheim and Galbraith in more recent times, offer useful insights 27 Pope John Paul II, Exortaţia apostolică. with a theological exploration of the role the Holy Spirit plays in 28 See Iraq, the former Yugoslavia, Syria, etc. achievingtermed “holistic a holistic society.” society. With thatThe addressed, Spirit creates the paper and sustainswill continue the Nikos A. Matsoukas, Teologie dogmatică și simbolică, volume II (Bucharest: 29 30 Popescu, 76. imprintssociety as His this image is part everywhere of the created it is orderpresent which by producing the Spirit His vivifies, fruit Bizantină Publishing, 2006), 334. 31 Pope John Paul II, Enciclica Centesimus annus, 171. andthen lastlyit connects He bears it to witnessthe very to life Christ of the in Triune order God; to turn the Spiritthe world also 32 Cristinel Ioja, Homo economicus – Iisus Hristos, sensul creației și insuficiențele (including society) towards the Son so that it participates in the purului biologism eternal relationships between the Divine Persons. 33 Pope John Paul II, Exortaţia apostolică. (Timișoara: Marineasa Publishing, 2010), 157. 34 Ibid. society Camil Petrescu, Doctrina substanței, vol. I KEY WORDS: holistic society, Holy Spirit, fullness, community, perfect 35 36 Clement, 88. (Bucharest: Scientific and he theme of this symposium is a challenging one for a number Encyclopaedic37 PublishingEfectele House, televiziunii1998), 250. asupra minți umane – și despre creșterea copiilor în ziua de azi (Bucharest: Publishing House of the Institute of T PsychosocialVirgiliu Gheorghe,Research and Bioethics, 2013), 63. ‘holistic society’ on the all-knowing internet offers surprisingly few of reasons; to mention but a couple, a basic search of the phrase

relateddirect entries; to our more phrase. than This that, absence on a puzzling can befourth noticed place, also lies ina New the Age book, while the first three places are not straightforwardly 281 282 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Badragan: The Role of the Holy Spirit in Attaining a Holistic Society 283 academic literature, the concepts addressed being rather the ‘ideal proposing a model to implement by societies, has failed because it is the concept of a holistic society and then to implement whatever understanding of human nature. society’ or the ‘perfect society’. Another motive is related to defining highlyIn speculative more recent (hence times, the name!) Emile andDurkheim it relies onemphasized a very positive the precedence the individual has over the society which ‘has for its is,presumably if by that difficultwe do not principles mean a and ‘perfect’ measures society are neededand if we to achieveallow the it. Holy SpiritTherefore, to play is Hisa holistic instrumental society possible?role in this We endeavour. will argue that it In his famous work ‘Republic’, Plato presents Socrate outlining tensionsubstratum between the mass the twoof associated and argues individuals.’ that what (Durkheimhe calls ‘the 1953, cult of10); the more individual’ than that, is ultimately the French determined sociologist by therejects society the which alleged is Unsurprisingly, given the times when it was written, the theory created by the individual, who, in the context of the development ofthe a profile perfectly of a established perfect society society which evolves would aroundinhabit athe perfect harmony city. of industrial societies, is not oppressed anymore but freed: “Thus very far from there being the antagonism between the individual hierarchical classes, accept their place and role in the society as and society which is often claimed, moral individualism, the cult of gods’between given. its However,citizens who, the hierarchyalthough belonging is not related to three to value well or defined worth the individual, is in fact the product of society itself. It is society that but to different roles within the society and these were ascribed and instituted it and made of man the god whose servant it is.” (Durkheim cannot be changed: ‘Each individual can practice one pursuit well, he cannot practice many well, and if he tried to do this and dabbled in society which transcends each and all individuals who compose it, many things, he would surely fail to achieve distinction in all of them.” being1953, at29) the Durkheim same time continues the very basisunderlying for morality: the goodness ‘Society ofis the in which a perfect society could be achieved was not implemented then,(Plato and 2004, the 78, chances ll. 394e) for This that rather to happen simplistic have approach diminished to the as way the arisesfield of an an entirely intense new intellectual mental life and which moral lifts life our with minds a wide into range a world of dynamics of a society have got more complicated and the cosmogony ofinfluence. which we From could the have actions not the and faintest reactions idea hadbetween we lived its inindividuals isolation.’ severely challenged. Another well-known attempt to propose a model for a perfect that the society is a good and noble outcome of the interactions society, following the thinking of Plato and echoing other classical of(Durkheim human beings 1953, 29) between We agree themselves, with the eminent but the French issue atsociologist stake is works, but drawing on biblical narratives, was the work ‘Utopia’ in whether there can be a good or rather perfect society within itself, in what regards the quality of the relationships and of the life of the he prescribes in detail all the aspects of the society: starting individuals within itself. withwhich prescriptions Thomas More, for in the 1516, design aimed of theto sketch small outtowns an idealin which society; the population would be organized—including measurements for the his rather different economic perspective combined with social and politicalA helpful insights. analysis In his came The Goodfrom Society:the John the Kenneth Humane Galbraith Agenda with, he agricultureroads: ‘The andstreets so on. are In twenty order tofeet achieve broad; this, there the lie concept gardens of behindmoney shouldall their be houses‘ eliminated, (More, property 1516), shared to addressing by the whole the magistrates, community society’suggests is that possible perfect through society the is participationattainable as oflong the as excluded, the difficult through task and the principles and values of Christian origin adopted without offeringof defining a basic it is accomplished. source of income He reckons to every that single a ‘good, person—either even decent ‘through’ the market (working) or by government help, through societies, especially the English one, the other probable goal, namely maintaining the freedom of the individual and ethnical and racial the faith as such. While this work did indeed criticize the medieval 284 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Badragan: The Role of the Holy Spirit in Attaining a Holistic Society

285 The argument is not very convincing as it does seem utopian and overlooksequality. (John the complexity Kenneth Galbraith of the human 1996, 10–74) network While and humanthe economics nature scholars consider to be the fundamental issues of a holistic society. play a very important role in the dynamics of a society, Galbraith descriptive,So far webut haveit does actually indeed looked confirm at the various main aspectsaspects ofof what makes a society function at its fullest potential, which could termed thewhich improbable raise certain moral challenges goodness for of thepeople well–being and so on. of a community: ‘good’, ‘perfect’ or ‘holistic’. If it were to distinguish between these the self–centerednessIn theology, the concept of human of a beings,perfect societycompetition is related with not others, only the excellence of the network of the society itself, while the latter evolveslabels, especially around the between individual—the the last societytwo, the is first‘holistic’ would inasmuch focus on it stateto the as church communitas or the Kingdom perfecta of God, as one might expect, but also to fully addresses the needs of the individual, that is, it does that in a the state;telos for drawing all its heavilyparts and on canAristotle, enforce Thomas the law. Aquinas (Thomas spoke Aquinas, of the ‘holistic way’—taking into account the relationship with the other Summa Theologiae in the sense that it has capacity to fulfill individuals, with the groups, with the institutions, the economic, triumphant can be regarded as communitas perfecta in itself, church political and spiritual condition. In the end, when a society manages militant is struggling, Ia–IIae, to be q.that. 90) EvenWhile the one social could gospel argue thattheologian church to fully do that, ‘holistic’ equals ‘perfect’. In what follows we aim to explore the role which the Holy unveiling of Kingdom in the present world, admits that communitas perfectaWalter Rauschenbusch, is not fully reachable with before his optimistic the eschaton, understanding but he challenges of the the main aspects of the work of the third divine Person, we will evidenceSpirit plays the in itsmaking fundamental a society partbe holistic; in the takingforming, into preserving consideration and never have a perfect life, yet we must seek it with faith. At best there the development of a holistic society. isthe always people an to approximation strive to actualize to a thatperfect as much social as order. possible: The Kingdom‘We shall

The work of the Holy Spirit towards a holistic society of God is always but coming. But every approximation of it is worth rolewhile.’ played (Rauschenbusch by the internal 1907, regeneration 77) of the individual in order It is not the goal of our paper to present the complex work of the In 1893, Washington Gladden emphasized the instrumental Spirit in its entirety, but to mention the facets which are relevant to the relationship is one of conditionality: ‘the end of Christianity is the society. In a sense, from an economical perspective of the Trinity, twofold,to achieve a perfect the transformation man in a perfect of society.the society; These as purposes a matter are of never fact, everything which happens in the current era of human existence is in the ‘dispensation’ of the Holy Spirit. But the Spirit does that in a separated; they cannot be separated. No man can be redeemed and saved alone; no community can be reformed and elevated save as Fatherparticular, and special the Son way; (the the foretold British goal scholar of glorifying Paul Fiddes them—John points to the16: the individualsA proposal of for which a holistic it is composed society as are such regenerated.’ came from (Gladden Popescu self–effacing of the Spirit in what regards the relationship with the and2004 Stanciu [1893], who 1) coin the phrase ‘ecolonomic society’ which, in the understanding of the authors, requires a new mindset and a not12–15), therefore on the surprising one hand that and the in Spiritwhat regardshas been the associated work the primarily Spirit is new life style as perceptive human beings, led by true wisdom to withdoing the in uswork and within in the thecreated individual world. and (Fiddes corporative 2000, 259–261) Christian Itlife: is an accomplished existence in the context of the wider community

the sanctification of the believers and the constitution and the with all its complex relationships. (Popescu, Stanciu 2015, 68) functioning of the church; Lederle warns not to minimize the ministry 286 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Badragan: The Role of the Holy Spirit in Attaining a Holistic Society 287 of the third divine Person: ‘The Spirit is at work in the world and model to be implemented by the human beings who yet fail to do

to be done by imitating ‘from distance’, but by participation in the should not be degraded to an ornament of piety.’ (Lederle 1988, 338) that thoroughly; at the same time, it must be added that this is not The Spirit creates and sustains life far, this important point is repeatedly made by Fiddes and Pinnock wholife of speak the Triune of our participationGod. Of the theologians in the movements we have between engaged the with Three so ofThe love creation between is ontologically the Three. different It was by but the related power to theof the Trinity; Holy it Spiritcame divine Persons.The Spirit(Fiddes connects 2000; Pinnock the community 1996) to God thatinto existencethe creation precisely came inex the nihilo context and ofit theis by overflowing the same powerrelationships that it Drawing on Irenaeus, Pinnock points that the creation comes to be within the relationship of love between the Father and the Son does not return to nothingness. The Spirit vivifies the whole creation omnipresence(Psalm 104: 29, of 30) the so Spirit any talk who about has a human ‘cosmic life duty must ‘ in start carrying there. the As Pinnock rightly reminded us, the omnipresence of God is actually the through the work of the Holy Spirit; this means that while creation is distinct to God in what regards its nature, it is not outside God, creational and redemptive goals of God (Pinnock 1996, 51, 53) connectsbut inside the Him. Father (Pinnock and the 1996, Son. 58)The It implication can therefore is that be thesaid Spirit that The Spirit generates community everything is in God by being held by the Spirit who eternally the profound ways to experience fullness in all aspects of its life, to In more recent times, there has been a daring step taken by some becan ‘holistic’ make the in societythe truest participate sense. This, in the of course, life of God, requires this being the consent one of theologians in rejecting the classical thesis of the absolute simplicity relationships between the Father and the Son, but the richness, who rightly suggested that this understanding was adopted fullnessof the society are experienced as such; theinasmuch society we is open somewhere ourselves in as the individuals complex in the being of God; one of these courageous scholars was Pinnock philosophy and instead he concluded, based on the revelation, that uncritically by the first generations of theologians from the greek whichand communities has accepted to thethe secularizationbeing of God. uncritically, even more, as if This is especially relevant in the contemporary Western world andwe can the understand role of the GodSpirit as within a plurality the Trinity of Persons offered in an by ontological Augustine human beings with all their networks are treated as being free by supportsunity. (Pinnock the view 1996, Pinnock 32–35) voiced The influential that the Spirit explanation is vinculum of the amoris, nature this is genuine progress in the development of humankind.not be under While Him. the bond of love between the Father and the Son, not as an impersonal On wholenessGod, they are it could all under experience God, for by nothing opening cannot itself to Him. the Holy Trinity By not accepting this, the society resists God, it denies itself the persons,intermediary, actualizing but as thea equally capacity dignified of the human divine beingsPerson. who (Augustine, are created , 15: 17–19). So by His very nature, the Spirit connects The Spirit produces His fruit within the community (society) a vinculum amoris, which means the Spirit creates a community of love—itin the image is not of only God. the He church, does that as Augustine exactly how rightly he is emphasized, in his being, but as any community of beings. In this sense, the divine community is a of the ‘fruit’ the Spirit produces—of the nine values, only one, joy, In a well–known passage, Galatians 5: 22, 23, apostle Paul speaks 288 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Badragan: The Role of the Holy Spirit in Attaining a Holistic Society

289 the eschaton. A society can experience wholeness only by connecting is not directly related to life–together, though it often springs out and works towards drawing it into the sublime eternal divine of theour regeneratedrelationships. individuals, The Spirit, that overflowing is the ones with who love have and accepted being relationships.itself to the life–giving Spirit, who created it, who sustains it theperfect spiritual only asrenewal God can effected be, produces by the HisSpirit, fruit but not everywhere only in the thelife Spirit is. This can, actually must be experienced in the families of the spiritually regenerated, in the church which is constituted and BIBLIOGRAPHY inhabited by the Spirit, but also in any community. Life together in the society would be impossible if the Spirit does not, in often Aquinas, Thomas, Summa Theologica. South Yarra, Australia: Leopold times hidden way, mesh together the fundamental values which are implemented within the complex network of the wider community: Durkheim, Emile, Sociology and Philosophy Classical Library, 2015. Fiddes, Paul S. Participating in God. A Pastoral, London: Doctrine Cohen ofand the West Trinity Ltd., has not abandoned this world but continues to pursue His creative Routledge Revivals, Taylor & Francis Group, 1953. andlove, redemptive peace, goodness, goals with faithfulness it, as we and mentioned so on. This above. is because God Tools and Man. Property and Industry under the ChristianLouisville, Law Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 2000. Lederle,Gladden, H. Washington, I. Treasures Old and New: Interpretations of Spirit–Baptismin The Spirit bears witness to Christ the Charismatic, Eugene, Renewal Oregon: Movement Wipf, Peabody,and Stock Mass.: Publishers, Hendrickson, 2004.

Utopia. http://history-world.org/Utopia_T.pdf and open up itself to accept His rule and experience the plenitude of (Accessed1988. on November 12, 2017) In order to fulfil its destiny, the world needs to turn towards Christ Plato,More, Republic Thomas,, Indianapolis: 1516, Hackett Pub. Co., 2004. world with the imperative to submit itself to the King of all, so that the fellowship with the Triune God. It is the Spirit who confronts the of an econolomic society, www.nos.iem.ro (Accessed on November Popescu12, Constantin2017) and Stanciu Vasile Miltiade, 2015.‘A Holistic vision the Kingdom of God is actualized. The Spirit glorifies Christ (John Christianity and Social Order. New York: The for16: it13–15) rejects and its destiny. works withinAccepting the theworld witness towards of the yielding Spirit willto Him. not Rauschenbusch, Walter, transformWithout this society endeavour, into the the church, society for cannot the two experience although wholeness, overlap in Macmillan Company, 1907. some areas, they are divinely projected to serve different areas of human life. Instead the Kingdom will ‘come’, the will of the Father will be done on earth as it is in heaven, so the Kingdom will be more thoroughly manifested.

Conclusion

A holistic society is, theoretically, a possible project for it does not mean to be a perfect society—this latter state will be achieved in Caraman: The Holistic Perspective of the Lutheran Chorale

291 but also has lasting consequences in classicism, , to the DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435158 creation of 20th

Christianity, Reformation–century composers. KEY WORDS: Lutheran Chorale, Protestant Music, Holistic,

The role of the Lutheran chorale in music

The Holistic Perspective of the he Lutheran Chorale created by Martin Luther and developed Lutheran Chorale as an Integrating Factor T of the Christian Faith Reformation, played a double role by stimulating the musical harmonically by the Wittenberg musicians during the Protestant Cristian Caraman, PhD ‘Timotheus’ Brethren Theological Institute of Bucharest, Romania Martincreativity Luther, and to which encourage wanted the worshipto encourage of God the by the congregation congregation. to Baptist Theological Institute, Bucharest, Romania The spiritual significance of the chorale was established by [email protected] the church music was responsible to bring people to church every Sunday,develop fora personal the purpose relationship of worship. with God. Luther also believed that ABSTRACT: Music is the art which demonstrated that the The most important accomplishment of Luther’s reformation rapprochement of people (in spite of religious differences from a of the sixteenths century was the integration of congregational dogmatic and cultic perspective), is necessary and feasible, as long singing within the worship service of the Lutheran church. “After as the superior idea of faith exists as a vital guiding principle that theology I give music the highest place and highest honor.”1 In order has the purpose of combating the essential evil. Music created a path through which a dialog was started between the main religious to encourage the participation of the believers within the liturgy, orientations—Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant. Humanity had been Martin Luther created the chorale which was very accessible to the congregation, but was able to transmit profound theological truths. Christianity, of any form, had been helping in its efforts to overcome The Lutheran Chorale has a simple melodic line and the text is in suchstruggling struggles. to reach For, aof superior course, levelas music of affirmation builds on ofthe its principle ideals, and of universal harmony, our deeds follow suit. The beginnings of the Protestant music in the Europe of the 14th texts and to make it easier for the people in the congregation, the to the spiritual manifestations necessary for the shaping of the new German. In order to encourage the understanding of theological –16th centuries are related other representatives of the Reformation. Over time, the shedding text was always in German. Luther replaced the traditional liturgical ofreligious values and,and firstroutines of all, had to the established great stature certain of Martin hierarchies, Luther andbut the language, which was Latin, with German. Through the chorale, creation of new musical genera during the Renaissance appears Luther made his wish come true by allowing the German people to useful in building a Protestant music repertoire. The musical core language, full of consonants, needed a particular musical style, in is—and this argument is that the model resists the test of history— contrastexpress their with beliefs Latin, andwhich worship is reach in theirin vowels. native The tongue. liturgical The German music, composed on Latin texts was characterized by long phrases, with its manifold manifesto. It is worth appreciating the details of the free rhythms where the vowels were held for long periods of time. typesthe Lutheran of Choral, chorus, Anthem, which Hymn, will become Cantata more and Passion. and more The defined holistic in perspective of the Lutheran chorus culminates with Bach, which in turn, makes the Lutheran spiritual model more clearly understood, The German Chorale had a more syllabic style with less melisma’s. In

290 292 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Caraman: The Holistic Perspective of the Lutheran Chorale

293 the beginning, during the liturgy, the chorales were unaccompanied create a homogenous symbiotic relationship between text and music. and were sung in a monodic style. From the very beginning the Lutheran Chorale was a combination of Also, in order for the chorales to by sung by untrained voices, music and theological concepts, which were impossible to separate. due to its vocalic text, the melodies where characterized by very few interval jumps. The creation of the Lutheran Churches during the sixteenth century, lead to the need of new liturgical music to serve the The harmonized Chorales Lutheran ideology. The purpose of such new music was to create and transmit the subtle and profound Lutheran theology. The Lutheran The need for harmonized chorales in the Lutheran Church grew composers ten used old melodies in combination with new melodic with time and by the end of the sixteenth century many chorales lines. The Lutheran Chorale developed very rapidly in the sixteenth from the Contrafact period, used well known texts, which were added were already harmonized. The first harmonized chorales appeared century, by using sacred and non–religious music. The early chorales in 1524, and were composed by the Lutheran composer Johann likeWalter. the Johannmajority Walter of the keptRenaissance all the original music. Therhythmical untrained verse believers of the to Gregorian melodies. The official Latin hymns, the religious songs hadcantus a major firms, problem but placed when the hearing cants firms the melody in the intenor the lowervoice, voice,much isof Luther’sthe Meistersinger Chorale All and Ehr’ the und folk Lob German soll Gottes songs. sein A good example of hence the Lucas Osiander, moved the melody to the higher voice. the relation between the Gregorian Chant and the Lutheran Chorale This stylistic change allowed the congregation to learn the chorales Gloria tempore paschali.2 (All Glory, Laud, a lot easier. Most harmonized chorales of the sixteenth century and Praise Be Given), which was based on the Gregorian melodyGott were modal, and in the beginning of the seventeenth century der Vater whon uns bei Lutherans have often adopted3 Most folk Lutherans German Hans Leo Hassler published chorale arrangements which were songs and modified them to religious texts. One such piece is more tonal in their harmonic structure. Other composers, such as text with a spiritual one.(God One the such Father example with is, Us Ich Be). komm aus fremden Michael Praetorius and Johann Balthasar Koenig, contributed with Landenused non–religious her (I come from songs foreign in their lands), liturgy, with by a newreplacing text which the original turned the introduction of instruments. J. S. Bach harmonized more than Vom Himmel kam der Engel 400 Lutheran chorales, with the sole purpose of being used during Schar (From Heaven the Angel Troop Came Near).4 the liturgy. He also incorporated various chorales in his cantatas, the songOn exampleinto the well–knownof such chorale chorale, is O Welt, ich muss dich lassen („O oratorios and passions. J.S. Bach’s use of the chorale in his own compositions was related to his wish to bring the Lutheran theology secular sponge Innsbruck, ich muss dich lassen al lui Heinrich Isaac and ideology to all. (Innsbruck,World, I now I Nowmust Must leave Leave thee”), Thee). which Based is a contrafact on familiar of ideasthe famous of the Bach’s ability to take Lutheran melodies and infuse them with time, most Lutheran text had double meaning,5 which is lost to today’s new concepts by new harmonic structures brought the Chorale to congregations. The fundamental tradition was the inspiration the perfection it was originally imagined to be. Bach’s knowledge for Johann Sebastian Bach’s compositions, where he used the of harmony allowed him to perfect this genre and give more juxtaposition of familiar melodies to religious texts. In spite of this musical meaning to his spiritual beliefs. One such example is the method of music creation of the sixteenth century, a lot of Lutheran harmonization of Ein’ feste Burg ist unser Gott (A Mighty Fortress Is composers used original compositions and texts for their chorales. It 6 where Bach uses close harmonic intervals to create the is important to mention that the texts and melodies for new chorales were usually written by the same person. This method was used to BachOur God), also uses the fermata to indicate the ending of textual phrases. feeling of a fortified wall, which cannot be penetrated, or demolished. 294 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Caraman: The Holistic Perspective of the Lutheran Chorale

295

The chorale style of variations in a vocal polyphonic genre. Stylistic characteristic different. Bach is probably the first composer to incorporate this The motet chorale is a composition „in a polyphonic style, in one or of long notes, repetitions and many high notes. Also, he applies 7 In the beginning, ornamentalof Bach’s motet–chorale discourses and includes instruments short syllables,for each voice. a small number the motet chorale was interpreted a cappella, and later with various instruments,two parts, based or the on aorgan German replaced melody one of aor Chorale.” more voices. One of these chorale is Komm, Heiliger Geist, Herre Gott, no. 108, written Bach’s contribution to the Lutheran Chorale as a cannon by Arnold von Bruck. The choral–motet, developed with a four partial harmonization, initially modeled after the work Bach’s Lutheran faith began in his early childhood and developed during his school years, where the Bible, catechism and the religious hymns were the most important educational tools. His role of church imitations,of Dutch composers smooth cadenzas, of the fifteenth polyphonic and textures, sixteenth canon centuries. techniques, This organist and boy soprano allowed him to become very familiar with model of chorale–motet is characterized by rhythmic and melodic the chorale texts and its melodies. During his school years, Bach learned about the spiritual cantusand equality firmus between in the tenor voices. voice. Johann The Walter other arranged voices, supported some of those the importance of the chorale. He was a frequent attendee of his local chorales in a motet stile before 1524, and his compositions used Lutheran Church, where his father was the music director. Bach Venetian polyphonic elements. In his works, all the voices were learned about the Bible, participated in congregational singing and changedcantus firmus in a mirror in a polyphonictype dialogue. style. This Hans writing Leo style Hassler brought introduced balance learned the Lutheran doctrine. These formative years allowed him to develop a religious base, which he used later in life by writing motetto all voices compositions and essentially to attain eliminated a better balance the cantus amongst firmus the line. voices. Michael He Bach wanted to create church music that was well organized alsoPraetorius made use also of included complex fugal polyphonic and madrigal parts and elements a freer in melodic the choral– line. music for worshiping God. were essential to the Lutheran church service. Even though, the introduction of accompaniment instruments. Up until J.S. Bach whenand for composed, the glory manyof God. melodies He frequently were composed used chorale in a texts,matter which that theHowever, typical the motet most made important use of continuocontribution instruments. to the choral–motet The texts for was all represented the clarity of the biblical message, he also included his works were based on biblical passages. Bach’s ability to infuse his some of his smaller works within larger compositions. He always works with his genius is clearly seen in his polyphonic discourse of the Lutheran Chorales. Fantasia super Ich ruf zu Dir, Herr Jesu Christ his instrumental works, he utilized the chorale, by exploiting the by Samuel Scheidt and Nun Komm, der Heiden Heiland by J. S. Bch manyencouraged ways of the musical congregational and literary singing expression. and the worship of God. In The cantatas8 and the passions that he composed represent during his life. Even though he made use of the traditional form of the sum of his entire artistic experience,9 showing his great talent. theare style,very goodhe infused examples his worksof significant with more chorale–motets contrast and composed very well Also, his melodies could be found inserted in his instrumental works, established biblical texts. One of the most original of all his motets or more frequently in cantatas and oratorios. The purpose of this is, Jesu, meine Freude. like a variation on themes. The melody of the chorale comes back representation, Bach presents the suffering of Christ and wanted to eleven times throughout In this the work, work Bach and usesevery cantus time isfirmus just slightly almost intertwining was to allow the listener to worship God. In this musical

truly express the significance of Christ’s sacrifice. 296 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Caraman: The Holistic Perspective of the Lutheran Chorale

297 One example of such work is Matthäus Passion, which contains voice, while the lower voices don’t mirror, or replicate each other. The a melody in the soprano part, of which text expresses the prayer and lower voices support the main voice and borrow musical material possible that Bach original thought was to have the congregation his musical genius and to bring up the mist important aspects of the painful sound of a multitude of people worshiping God. It is very Lutheranism,from the cantus through firmus. his During compositions. his life, Bach He was was also capable very tosuccessful express way, eve thought the music was very ornamented and complex, the in perfecting genres, other composers brought to light. listenersparticipate, could by singing easily listen during and the appreciate first movement the message of the Passion. of the text.This

Conclusions factDue into Bach’sthe combinations cantatas is fullthe ofuse significance of instruments, of the especially texts and formusic, the variousBach’s listeners harmonies ware used, inspires while to worshipthe soloist and interprets praise God. a biblical,A common or poetic text. It is very important to notice the way Bach combines music, representing different styles and developing amazing artistic the texts with the music, to create profound understanding of the valueThe Lutheran to the Christian chorale musicalflows seamlessly world. The in Lutheran the history music of universal calls for Lutheran doctrine. The organ chorales are elaborated musical works, profound spiritual meditation and deals with the human spiritual which necessitate virtuosic interpretation, but are appropriate for the church service as well. These works represent some of the within the cultural and universal artistic expression. The Lutheran most important works ever composed by Bach. These chorales use chorale,condition. alongside Protestant the music,Cantata in and general, Oratorio, has representits well–defined the pillars place of entire chorales, or parts of chorales, composed for the purpose of protestant music. The holistic perspective of the Lutheran chorale introducing the congregation to a new type of chorale. All of these found its uses in philosophy, culture, history, sociology and last, but not least, in musicology. the virtuosic nature of playing the organ. Some of these works include theworks chorale–motet portray the textual10 form, and chorale–fantasia liturgical significance, and chorale whilefughetta exploiting. The fughetta style uses imitation in the motet style, without BIBLIOGRAPHY – make extensive use of variations and preludes. The variations are in .______. DEXI—Dicționar Explicativ Ilustrat al Limbii Române, athe Partita use of style, the cantusand Bach firmus. was fascinatedAlso, there by are this organ for at chorales the end which of his Chișinău: career. These works are usually used as interludes, between various Blume, Friedrich, Protestant Church Music a History, Friedtich Blume Editura ARC & GUNIVAS, 2007. verses of the chorale. Overture chorale has two versions, short and in collaboration with Ludwig Finscher, Georg Feder, Adam Adrio, – Walter Blankenburg, Torben Schousboe, Robert Stevenson, and long. Some of the techniques used for these Overture–chorales, form, which ornamented the composition. The short overtures are Caraman,Watkins Cristian, Shaw, Genuri Foreword ale Muzicii by Paul Protestante Henry Lang), New York: W. W. foundare putting in the the book melody Orgel in Büchleinthe alto voice,. Long creating overtures a –chorale include cantus Norton & Company, Inc., 1974. melodies, trios, and the ritornello form. In the hymn–chorale Latham, Alison, The Oxford Companion to Music, Editura (edited Universită by Alisonții – Lathman),Naționale de New Muzică York: București, Oxford University 2011. Press, 2002. firmus ) extends for Leupold, Ulrich S., Luther`s Works, vol. 53, Liturgy and Hymns (in Luther’s the(contra entire punctum duration simplex), of the work, we find in one simple single harmonization voice. This is called of four the to uninterruptedfive voices, where form. the11 chorale melody (cantus firmus Works) in 55 volumes, General Editors: Jaroslav Pelikan, vols. 1–30, Cantus firmus is usually found in the soprano and Helmut T. Lehmann, vols. 31–35, Philadelphia: Concordia 298 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Caraman: The Holistic Perspective of the Lutheran Chorale

299 8 Kantate Cantate) is a vocal composition with an instrumental accompaniment, typically in several movements, often involving Lathman,Publishing Alison, HouseThe Oxford and Fortress Companion Press/ to MUSICMuhlenberg, New Press,York: Oxford 1965), a choirCantata (Germ.: : Ital.;Dicționar Fr. Explicativ Ilustrat al Limbii Române, University209. Press, 2002. The Oxford Companion to MUSIC. Ibid, (New 118; York: see Oxford also DEXI- University Press, 2002), 202, 203. Chișinău:Passion Editura (music) ARC In & Christian GUNIVAS, music 2007; aAlison Passion Lathman, is a setting of the Passion of Christ9 . Liturgically most Passions were intended to be performed as part of All Ehr und Lob soll Gottes sein - Hymnary.org, site: https://hymnary.org/ church services in the . As a form, the Passion stands between biblical Websites:text/all_ehr_und_lob_soll_gottes_sein , (Accessed February 2, 2018). • Gott der Vater wohn‘ uns bei - Lutheran Hymnal, site: www.lutheran- speaking countries afterHoly 1600. Week The theological base of the Protestant Passion hymnal.com/german/tlh247g.htm, (Accessed February 2, 2018). wasdeclamatory modeled text after and Theologia Oratorio. Crucis Passion was performed mostly în the German • Vom Himmel kam der Engel Schar – Wikipedia, site: https://de.wikipedia. Latham, The Oxford Companion to Music Dicționar Explicativ org/.../Vom_Himmel_kam_der_Engel_S..., (Accessed February 2, Ilustrat al Limbii Române, 2007. written by Martin Luther. Ibid., 140, 152; 2018). 10 , 933, 934; DEXI - • O Welt, ich muß dich lassen, site: www.mab.jpn.org/musictex/score_lib/ There are multiple forms of the protestant chorale, such as: chorale–cantata, hi_owelt.pdf, access 2. 10. 2018. chorale–concert, chorale–fantasy, chorale–fugue, chorale–ricercar, chorale– • site: https://de.wikipedia.org/ Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott – Wikipedia, monody, chorale–motet, chorale for organ, chorale–prelude,Caraman, Genuri chorale–psalm, ale Muzicii , (Accessed February 2, 2018). Protestante,chorale–variation, 60 chorale–suite, chorale–symphony, chorale–lied, chorale– aria,11 chorale–hymn, trio–chorale, chorale–Mass. wiki/Ein_feste_Burg_ist_unser_Gott –92. Ibid., 93. NOTES 1 Friedrich Blume, Protestant Church Music a History, Friedtich Blume in collaboration with Ludwig Finscher, Georg Feder, Adam Adrio, Walter Blankenburg,2 Ulrich S. Leupold Torben Schousboe,, Luther`s Works, Robert vol. Stevenson, 53, Liturgy and and Watkins Hymns Shaw, (Philadelphia: Foreword by Paul Henry Lang (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1974), 10. Hymnary.org, site: https://hymnary.org/text/all_ehr_und_lob_soll_gottes_sein, (AccessedConcordia February Publishing 2, 2018). House, 1965), 209. All Ehr und Lob soll Gottes sein -

3 Protestant Church Music a History wohn’ uns bei - Lutheran Hymnal, site: www.lutheran-hymnal.com/german/ tlh247g.htmIbid., 208,, (Accessed 269; Blume, February 2, 2018). , 21; Gott der Vater 4 , site: https:// de.wikipedia.org/.../Vom_Himmel_kam_der_Engel_S..., (Accessed February 2, 2018).Blume, 208; Vom Himmel kam der Engel Schar – Wikipedia O Welt, ich muß dich lassen, site: www.mab.jpn.org/musictex/ score_lib/hi_owelt.pdf5 , (Accessed February 2, 2018). 6 Blume, 33; , site: https://de.wikipedia.org/ , (Accessed February 2, 2018). 7 CristianEin feste Caraman, Burg ist unserGenuri Gott ale – Wikipedia Muzicii Protestante wiki/Ein_feste_Burg_ist_unser_Gott (București: Editura Universității Naționale de Muzică, 2011), 79. Communication Ethics 301

Florea & Puiescu: DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435160 “sees in man, in every man, the living image of God himself, image andthat offinds man and for is himself.” called to2 search for a more profound understanding in Christ,In the the third perfect millennium image of God,society God’s we man can discoverersee the special for humans raising of communication, this way of human connection that shows the man as a rational human being. Communication Ethics: The Sacredness of Communication after His image, for an endless resemblance with Him, and the rationalThe ability Church to communicateconfesses that is the a part man of has what been we callcreated to be by ”God’s God Ştefan Florea, PhD image”. First, we must say that act of communication is a profoundly

Faculty of Theology, University of Valahia, Târgovişte, Romania reason, but the term also means communication and relational [email protected] Marian Puiescu, PhD imparting.religious one,3 The the Church Son itselfof God is also Incarnated corpus, where is also communication called Logos, is fundamental. In other words between communication and [email protected] Faculty of Theology, University of Valahia, Târgovişte, Romania communion is a strong and inseparable connection. All Church’s life is the communication of the Trinity in the Holy ABSTRACT: This article represents a religious approach for the Spirit, as the Holy Spirit is imparting the plenitude of the divine life improvement of communication in a new century (and a millennium) when ‘communicating’ is a deep relational and social necessity. as a communicating reality, as a communion of Persons (The Holy Communication is a natural human act—ontologically necessary of Father and Son. God himself acts, in the history of redemption, and practically fundamental—which represents not just the reaction Trinity), where communication is of perfect value. to the immediate necessity, but, a phenomenon meant to impart something of its ontology. The novelty of the ethical aspect—which 4 That the Church wishes to engage—is that it regards holistic integration is why,The communicating man, being mad is also after a human God’s andimage–the divine act.Trinity The wholeis the of communication as a sacred act, which affects deeply social profound need for communication, giving love and sacrifice. communion and cohesion. The paper also engages the challenge of going deeply into some basic ethical principles in order to create communicates and is communicated, consuming our self in the an integrative vision of communication as a relational, social and biblical universe is sacrifice, love and communicating. Everybody sacred act. human act, that represents not just the reaction to the necessity ofsacrifice the immediate, of interpersonal but more imparting. that this aCommunication personal way of is impartinga natural KEY WORDS: ethic, sacrality, communication, communion something from the own ontology.

Introduction something from its being, it lets out of the depths of the soul, a kind of theWhen personal it communicates,special energy, but the sensible, human than being wears is impartinga personal 1 the Church considers sign. The relationship with the neighbor becomes a real “Jacob’s Ccommunication as very important, the main sign of our life, which ladder”, if we don’t see ourselves competing with our neighbor for alled to reveal “the signs of God’s words,”

is the most important gift we received300 from God, that is why she: 302 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Communication Ethics 303 noting, but we stay close to each other, united if we become aware of profound study ofFlorea the common& Puiescu: values of our world. This is what the fact that we are a part of the same mystical body of Jesus Christ. makes communication a means of imparting the treasure of wisdom, 5 personal variety and knowledge of humanity. It was said, not just areopag of our time is the communication The Sacred Shape of Communication world, able to unite the world, making it a global village as they use toby say.chance, that “the first For the human being, communicating is as natural as eating, drinking, The9 relation between communication and communion comes or resting, because the act of communicating is a feature of created out better from the etymology of word “communication” which beings, of course, as the person participates more and more in the means “becoming participant”, “imparting”, “that is transmitting a relational act, communication becomes more profound, offering, in content which unites.”10 fact, a way of getting to knowledge, understanding and love. Communication is exteriorizing through words something of The Church is a community based on communication that leads the human being, an act that has a strong effect on our society and, to communion, is a communicating event. Jesus Christ himself, the this reality is based on words not only . . . the ontological perspective but also from the relational one.11 Communicating means offering something of the human person, means giving a special part of what IncarnatedJesus ChristSon of Godis considered “for us and to our be redemption”,“the perfect communicator,”is called by Saint6 a man is. who,John, “throughthe apostle, incarnation as ‘Logos’ . . that. He becameis ‘reason’, one ‘word’ with those (John who 1:1–14). should This is all about those special created energies of a person, have received his message, expressed by words and by whole life… total communication is giving the whole of yourself under the of the personal alterity. 7 energy full of specific identity and guided by the creational difference From his perspective, the Christian theology considers and cultural enrichment, for commercial activity and political communicationimpulse of love; abut, sacred Jesus act, communication an act that puts istogether for real the spirit human and beinglife.” involvement,Communication but also forby specificdialogue means and intercultural can be effective understanding. for education12 is also a way of expressing the human creativity of expressing the with this neighbor, with the world and with God. Communication The World—Topos of Communication in a personal manner, because the act of communication is full of personalability to energies,show ”God’s full ofimage” that special, in man. ontological Every man and communicates human sign. Communication must be an act of projecting man’s dignity and not an humiliating act, because man’s dignity is a part of the divine image.8 We must specify the fact that the world itself is space, support and In the beginning of a new century and millennium we can means of communication of man with his neighbor and with God. In notice the fact that the act of communication has got new forms afterall His everything creation God was addresses ready to tosupport man, the his world existence. was made Through in order this and because of the human creativity, because of the technology, to wait for man’s arrival; that is why man was created at the end, communication because a special mark of our time. The world with the ability to read, to see and to understand His message. world,The God world talks aboutis rational, Himself, “suggestive through His reason”, works manthat isis endowedwhy the because of the development of this act and of means of it. rational man can understand this rational world, a world that whereCommunication we live received develops a specific identitythe relationships because of between communication, people. we must see as a certain language, the means by which man can This is why communication has to serve the communion, the

understand the message that God sends to him, the world getting 304 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Communication Ethics

Florea & Puiescu: 305 . the possibility to think and speak because He—though about their harms his neighbor, here he can grow or fall spiritually or moral. meaning just as a mystery, as an instrument. “God gave to people . . inter–humanAt the same dialogue. time, nature Because is a in gift this for world,all the people,man does not good for one or 13 or some, and in order to accomplish his mission in this world man reasons and He gave them to them, creating first a plastic covering befor understood, their level. In it isthis the everything divine messenger finds its who meaning.” must be apprehended offers us his gifts as a tie of interpersonal love, as means of achieving by humanity.The world Talking is, in this about sense, world’s a special rationality language, we mustby which specify God that can humanmust act unity, together He communicateswith his neighbors, with and us notthrough by himself. this world. Then, GodThe when we say rationality we understand “the clear manner in which a person communicates to another person, for the accomplishment by its right management and by creation within it. But, what matters, and the development of a communion between them.”14 isworld that offered our gift to to God Him must is well be given received to Him if it by better the human expresses community us the more our world is humanized, but this depends on the direct relation dialogue takes place, the world, He is the space of love. The divine with the level of spirituality of each man and on the profundity of love createdBecause the God world is Trinity out of of nothing Persons, and is Love, the same is the love space shines where in human communion. it and speaks to the man. Being god’s gift to us, love shows itself to Communication, like other human actions and activities, must of this love message is represented by Christ. the world, it is a love word addressed by God to us and the climax ethics.be guided The by Church some rules developed that ensures and went its fidelity deeply to into truth, the correctness, principles formulatedsincerity, social by the utility society, etc., giving in other them words a religious it is guided perspective. by a specific World’s aim, as God’s dialogue with us, is to get an answer. Thus, But, what can the Church and religion bring new here? The usthe by world world’s is also rational our means structure, to communicate and we, the withreaders, God understand and nature novelty of the ethic perspective of the Church talks, on one hand, Hismediates message the “working, answer we as addressmuch as topossible, Him. God in the communicates material creation with about the holistic integration of communication and as a sacred act, in the process of going deeply into social cohesion and communion 15 and, on the other hand, specifying and developing some ethic through which God communicates Himself.” principles and creating an integrating vision of the communication this weGod’s participate, gift, His word in a tocertain us, the way world in theis transformed continuous by process man and of act, as a social, relational and sacral act. worldbecomes creation. a sacrifice16 for gratitude to God, like an Eucharist. Through Through the Holy Spirit, man can practice his role of creator by activating those “alternative virtualities multiple and passive.”17 FirstlyWe we can must ask mentionthe question: that manwhat is the a createdhuman andbeing divine ”good space and Man’s role is also to understand nature’s reason (logoi), as beautiful”of communication and with needs the aim as oforigin becoming and finality, perfect, of but, ethic in regulation? the course means of practicing his free will. By what the man creates, as created of history happened the sin accident, with its entire dark universe which defalcated the human existential itinerary towards many sense holocaust and labirinthical deviations from the beautiful and and creative being, the world is offered to God and becomes the right way of perfection. impregnatessubstance of sacrifice.it with his power, makes it human, keeps the love it Thus, the sin sign and of the existential deviation from reality, Man receives the gift (the world) of God, acts on the world, it can also be discovered in the act of communication. And instead of humanity. But, also by the Holy Spirit, the world is the space of has from God and offers this love to God, a love impregnated with becoming always a means of inter–personal communication it van 306 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Communication Ethics 307 also become a means of spreading not good, beautiful and desirable Florea & Puiescu: things, but also of what is bad, dark and repulsive. alter the human being, his exteriorization and in order not to create As from the man’s heart come out good and bad things, false Wevirtual need and morality parallel in worlds, the communication that can offer actto manin order a new not and to the act of communication can also transmit moral values, or can treacherous slavery. communicate manifestations, acts or bad thoughts. To protect the human being from this negative informational attack, to save the and love are the main values of communication, from ecclesiastic beauty of the divine image in man, the good and the beauty, that vision,Solidarity, that must co–operation, be promoted, peace,sustained harmony, and developed, virtual respectso that exists and must be manifested, in every man, the Church proposes an communication could really be a binder of humanity and could ethic vision on communication. The same thing is taken into account help the spiritual, cultural and social progress. The danger of by the human society, the state, aiming, at least, at the existence of a space in which at least, minimally, we can have a socially right and to the consumption era rules, to materialism, to libertinage, to effective communication. communication, far this times man, is that of submitting this field a topos of darkness, of evil and of disunion. Communication is a key elementaggressiveness of the worldand to of violence, our time making can contribute of this space to the blessed good by of Godour The Ethics of Communication society, bringing relief, offering trust and truth. The common good of our society can be promoted by a strict The human communication must submit to an ethical system that must be aware of the fact that he is transmitting correctly what he has tocommunication transmit, without must distorting, firstly consider transforming, the fidelity reducing towards or extending truth, he values.ensures the correctness of communication and its fidelity to its own the information, so that it doesn’t correspond to the transmitter aim; thatCommunication is, the full manifestation is a sacred and of an humanity, ethic act. respectingBecause man its must own intervention. Taking care of man’s dignity, the communicator must communicate values, that is what enriched and enriches him and pay attention that what he transmits is not immoral, aggressive or is useful to the progress of our society and to the common good, to wound the human rights, in other words communication must that is ”the ensemble of social life conditions that allow groups and heave public and private utility. This doesn’t mean that the private individuals reach perfection in a plenary and easier way.”18 interest is over the public one in the informing act, but we must take Human communication must serve justice, liberty and truth, into account, in every circumstance, the dignity of the human being. contributing to the promotion of man’s dignity and to his personal building up so that this sacred act also becomes a witness of the spiritual, cultural and social grounds of humanity. Communication effectiveness,Communication so that the must mistaken have use as of main communication aim inter–human places it supporting man’s good, is an important help that man has nowadays, inrelation, the immortality the cultural area. edification, man’s own perfection and social only if it is based on truth, built on justice, fed and animated by love The act of communication as a fundamental human act but, and put to practice under the auspices of liberty. also, as means of divine expression is sacred act, this results from That is way supporting the communication 19ethics, the Church the unaffectedness of the phenomenon and from its aim, that is why does nothing but protect the dignity of the human being, in an epoch is an impiety to use this mans, rationally and spiritually, in unjust in which globalization can be advantage, for man’s good, it is used and not proper to human vocation purposes. properly. Ethic rules are went to save the sacredness of communication, to protect the dignity of this human and divine act and, in the end 308 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Communication Ethics

309 damnation of man’sFlorea human & Puiescu: dignity stands on communication’s to save the dignity of man as a being created after God’s image. fundamental, we could say that is in creation’s nature to communicate value.Communication In this way, ethics persons aim have to protect a huge God’sresponsibility, creation butfrom media falsity, is, thatfidelity is why, to the both truth. by creation, In the entire and by universe, purpose, communicationcommunication isins a also,lie, misrepresentation, much more responsible or from because any deficiency it can have which a good can oralter a bad its sacred act. Man’s redemption or perfection is also based on the quality of of communication implies a great responsibility being a real Jacob the communication act and here we can see the great importance leaderinfluence or aupon way an to impressivehumiliate the number human. of people. That is why, the act of this natural, created act. Society proposes a certain ethics, in order to protect the evangelistic ethics, the Christian morals, that has no other purpose dignity of the human being and the quality of the communication than Theman’s Church perfection, proposes, his insalvation, the communication so the Christian ethics ethicsfield, the of communication is nothing but a practice use of the evangelic spirit, represent a doctrinal exteriorization or a practice way of action for of the Christian doctrine. theact andevangelic the Church principles. is promoting some specific ethic principles which The novelty of Church’s vision on communication points to the fact that sees it as a real means of perfection , or redemption that way orChristianity, another, that as humana religion personality. based on Word,The ethic has ofa great communication respect for man has and as a sacred act which deserves all our care and attention isany an word ethic we of transmit connection, to the an others, ethic ofoutside the word, of us, anand instrument qualifies one of and implies not just an immediate responsibility, but especially an saving a minimum of social and communal functionality. There is eshatologic one. no communion without communication, and there is no society without communion, and as man is a political being,20 communion

21 NOTES 1 Christian Mision (Bucharest: ASA, 2001), 36. being, communication fundamentally qualifies him, contributing to 2 ._____. Social Doctrine of the Church, Compedium, vol 2 (Bucharest: EARCB, his placement related to God, the Creator. 2006),Nifon 70. Mihăiţă, 3 Oivier Clement, Conclusion Bartolomeu I, Truth and liberty 4 Vladimir Lossky, Mystical Theology of the Oriental Church (Bucharest: (Deisis: Sibiu, 1997), 61. The informational society, to develop itself in an useful way to Theodor Baconski, Jacob and the Angel man and society, has to respect a certain ethic code, which can Anastasia,56 C. Chinez, 1993), The 144. Sacramentality of Social Communication guarantee a minimum of effectiveness and morality. Communication , Bucharest: Humanitas, 1997. 7 , Communio (Iaşi: et Pprogression Presa Bună, 2008), 15. Trinity of Person and communication is the base and the promoter 8 IrineePontifical of Lyon, Concile Against for of Social the Heresies Communication is for Christianity a sacred act, both thanks to the fact that God is (Vatican:John PaulAAS, II,1971), Fast Development1. has received communion and communication from the very act of 910 D. Iannota, The Communication trough (Paris: Symbol Cerf, and 1985), Image col. (Torino: 382–383. Effata, creation,of communion as a natural and because gift. the man created after God’s image, (Iaşi: Presa bună, 2005), 4. Man is a social being ( ), of communion and 11 F. Cereti, The Communication in Dialogue and Electronic Culture (Torino: zoon politikon Cantalupa,Elledici, 2000), 2004), 27. 15. of interval, mediator between material and spiritual, that is why 12 The Etichs into Internet communicating is for him a natural act, and the salvation or the (Vatican: AAS, 2002), 2. Pontifical Concile for Social Communication, 310 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES

13 M. Bielavski, Father Dumitru Stăniloae. A Philocalic Vision about World DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435162 14 Ibid (Deisis: Sibiu, 1999), 285.

Human15 Being,”., 351 Contacts 16 John Zizioulas, “TheOrthodox Eucharistical Dogmatic Vision Theology of the vol. World 2 (Bucharest: and Contemporary EIBMBOR, 57 (1967): 83. 17 17ohnDumitru Breck, Stăniloae, Sacred Gift of the Life 1997),18 ._____. 359. The Vatican II Concile Christian Morals ._____. The Enciclics (Bucharest: EARCB, (Cluj–Napoca: 2008), 167. Patmos, 2001), 12. 1920 (Bucharest: EARCB, 1999), 26. in Shakespeare’s Tragedies 21 Christos Yannaras, The Liberty of the Ethics (Bucharest: Anastasia, 2002), 12. Breck, 269. Andreea Puiescu

[email protected] “Ion Heliade Rădulescu” College, Târgoviște, Romania

ABSTRACT: plays, a real innovator of English language, a model for his followers and for the EuropeanShakespeare, theatrical the most culture significant then and authornow, is alsoof theatrical a master of symbols and metaphors and a promoter of the values of Christian

morals and ethics; as this paper attempts to demonstrate. KEY WORDS: Shakespeare, Christian morals, religious values Introduction

ometimes hidden, sometimes obvious, the religious values of SShakespeare’s world are based upon the Evangelic ethics, trying, in this way, to depict his world with all its light and all its darkness,

character, with each event and with each page.1 a world where the fight between Good and Evil begins with each always triumphant, even if, apparently, some of his plays have no Shakespeare presents a world in which Good and Light are with the events that happen in his plays. A very important thing for Shakespeare’shappy–ending. playsThe moral is to be doesn’t able to come see behindjust with appearance, the words, butto clear also up the key in which they were written.2 Every step you take in this wood of symbols and metaphors you can discover a new hidden path that take you to another meaning

311 312 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Puiescu: Christian Morals in Shakespeare’s Tragedies 313 and to another moral. You can meet here his characters that hold, together with the author, the narrative thread unfolding it little by we notice that, in all Shakespearean works, Man is governed by little and revealing us a world governed by Providence where Evil, superhumanmiddle of a tempestpowers. 6of conflicts. This thing becomes obvious if Shakespeare’s heroes seem to be defeated by these extraordinary goes on even in readers’ minds who learn that they must do good powers that dominate them, but this is just a part of his initiatory andin spite avoid of evil,its apparent that Evil triumph,destroy people is limited and and destinies. repressed. This pedagogyThis fight game: defeat or human decay emphasizes the fact that every must teach us to run away from all Evil traps. man’s victory on Evil is complete and ultimate only in a certain eschatological manner and only by divine power intervention.

Christian Morals in Shakespeare’s Tragedies “Hamlet: and for mine own poor part, 7 The richness of Christian symbols does not exclude the usage of Look you, I’ll go pray! expression of a scars Christian feeling of the author, but a rich form Another proof of the spirituality that governs Shakespeare’s plays Anglo–Saxon and Celtic symbols and myths. These are not the3 is the fact that “ some characters retire in loneliness and meditation The moral strain, which engulfs Shakespeare’s characters in order to rediscover Heaven’s kindness (Jacques, The Duke from of revealing soul–up–lifting truth and a huge cultural amplitude. “Measure for Measure”, Timon, Pericles), and other retire in temples through purifying suffering. In this way, the darkness that falls down (The mother in “The Comedy of Errors”, Thaisa) or ask for the help of oninvolved people in and disastrous the evil that conflicts feeds itselfand passions, with their ends, suffering, after are getting only some friars ( Silvia, Hero, Romeo and Juliet). In the same way we can ment to stress that triumphal power of the light.4 find in his plays characters that embody spirituals like Cerimon or All the great Shakespearean themes: love, power, wisdom are monarchs in “Much Ado about Nothing”, “Romeo and Juliet”, “Measure for Measure” or ask for the help of some pilgrimages (“All’s Well That the triumph of the spiritual world. Behind this Shakespearean world Ends Well) and of some oracles (“Winter’s Tale”). And, of corse, our just means to make his plays talk about Good’s victory on Evil, about enumeration is not complete. Even some damned characters, like Othello, turn their faces to Heavens when their dying time has come.”8 of human conflicts we can intuit another world which transforms A careful reading of Shakespeare’s works reveals us the fact every conflict, every human tension in echoes of a tremendousHamlet”, “spiritual fight.”, It is a real apocalypse: the”, human Shakespeare plan is refers nothing to butthe Macbeth “A Midsummer Night’s Dream that the sacrifice motif is dominant in his thinking. Not just once, worlda reflection of spirits. of the spiritual one. That is why, in plays like “ that endows humans with holiness and redemption. The tragic the sacrifice of his characters remind us about the suffering motif The role of5 this spiritual world in Shakespeare’s plays is not either formal, or coloring, it is not trying to create a spiral and triumph and to secure a better celestial world. Shakespearean characters sacrifice their lives to destroy 9the Evil’s atmosphere, but, on the contrary, this world is well anchored in “Hamlet: Not a whit, we defy augury: there’s a special providence in the fall of a sparrow. If it be now, ‘tis not to come; if it be not to come, reality emphasizing the tight relation between Man and Cosmos, 10 between the spiritual and material world, better to say, a projection it will be now; if it be not now, yet it will come: the readiness is all:” The justice of some Shakespeare’s characters is the divine justice and mercy, and the lesson that it teaches is that only forgiveness charactersof spiritual areconflicts victims on ofthe human material passions world. thatShakespeare pull them believes in the in the final victory of Good and Light, although, apparently, his 314 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Puiescu: Christian Morals in Shakespeare’s Tragedies

315 can really bring peace, divine mercy, complete reconciliation and In “Romeo and Juliet” the hate between the two families throws harmony. the characters in Hell. As it was said in “Hamlet” we can say here too: “something is rotten” in Verona. The moral values are suffocated by Shakespeare’s world make us dream about a new world, a world of the ardent wish of enrichment, the avidity sin being the main cause peaceThe and sacredreconciliation, that comes a world out of justiceof the and human love. sacrificeShakespeare in of all Evil that falls down on the Veronese society and leads the two uses metaphors and allegories in order to let us discover the world lovers to the tragic end. “The sin, the guilt is too at the level of daily that pulsates behind the text of his works, that is, a spiritual world existence”.14 which emphasis the material one and, that is why, symbol is nothing “Romeo and Juliet else but a bridge that ties the two universes, a way to understand the but is also the tragedy of the transforming and lost soul under the world in which we are living and whose materiality is just a garment ” is not just the tragedy of an unfulfilled love, for the world’s complexity.11 the guise of well intended actions and posing as the defender of the ethicalinfluence principles, of one of theRomeo most revenges vile desire: his the friend’s desire death of revenge. and throws Under in an arbitrary, fatidic, and total manner, but only as a manifestation into chaos his universe. The tumultuous human nature goes out of Evil influences the deeds of the Shakespearean characters not control when Christian ethics is nothing but a means to justify ones sinful acts and desires. Romeo, caught in the net of the tempestuous of a spiritualAaron: Now conflict climbeth in the Tamora material Olympus’ world. top, adolescent love for his beautiful Juliet, trespasses the borders of adoration going astray into insane veneration when he pictures his lover as a saint. Safe out of fortune’s shot; and sits aloft, Advanced above pale envy’s threatening reach. Extreme passions, lost temper, individualism and the moving AsSecure when of the thunder’s golden cracksun salutes or lightning the morn, flash; off the real Christian values are depicted here by Shakespeare in a And, having gilt the ocean with his beams, renaissance desire to build a pedagogy of spirit for those who have

SoGallops Tamora.” the zodiac12 in his glistering coach, for a moment the noisy veronese streets with all their burning And overlooks the highest–peering hills; passionslost God’s we way enter and Friar who becameLawrence’s prisoners cell, the of place their where own ego. reason Leaving and Not just once Shakespeare’s characters succeed in changing Evil’s Christian morals wait quietly for the right time to go outside and put an end to the Evil forces that possess people’s minds and souls. temptations into Good’s triumphs. lovers, to restore order, but he only prevents things from happening a demonized one, are not the demons from another land, When the storm begins the friar tries, by advising the two but,“…behind is the thesetitanic apocalyptical force itself that fights dugs is unceasingly,not just a man, from even the beginning, at the foundation of this divine creation.”13 earlier. We can consider Romeo as the architect of his own tragic passiondestiny; thatthe otherdulls his characters mind and are throws just simple him into builders despair who making work him to Like Dante’s “Divina Commedia”, every Shakespearean play is an thecomplete prisoner his ofcreation. his own God choices here as is inexiled a lesson by Romeo’s that the tempestuousindividualist with the characters, in the forest of myths and symbols, descending On the other hand, Romeo’s exile is his salvation. andinitiatory ascending journey the fromhill of Hell sufferance, to Heaven. trying We to lost solve ourselves, soul’s mysteries together Thereand self–centered he will15 not just Renaissance escape the man death has penalty, to learn: but He he is will nothing meet without God. and searching eagerly for redemption, for peace, for God. God again and that exiled God will set his soul free from Evil, will 316 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Puiescu: Christian Morals in Shakespeare’s Tragedies 317 bring him back to real life. But, this is not Romeo’s option, and he NOTES 1 Dan Amedeo L , Introducere Hamlet. Prince of Denmark his salvation, but for the salvation of all that rotten veronese society ăzărescu la W. SHAKESPEARE, chooses to sacrifice his life for a supreme cause, that is, not just for 2 Ibid. 3 Dan Amedeo(Târgovişte: L Pandora,, Introducere 2006), 23. A Midsummer night’s dream inflicted by Evil. 4 F. Mih , Shakespeareăzărescu şi teatrul iniţiatic,la W. SHAKESPEARE,Studii şi cercetãri tradiţionale Conclusion (Târgovişte: Pandora, 2006), 10. Dan Amedeoăescu L , Introducere Romeo and Juliet (Bucureşti: Rosmarin, 1999), 268. Living in a Christian culture and using a Christian , 5 6 ăzărescu A Midsummerla W.night’s SHAKESPEARE, dream Shakespeare let us enter a world of morals that we can either 2003),(Târgovişte: II, 2. Pandora, 2002), 25. intuit in the subtext of his work, or in the good or evil actions of his 7 Ibid.,William Hamlet. SHAKESPEARE, Prince of Denmark (Târgovişte: Pandora, characters. Even if one may consider his work an eminently literary 8 Mih , I, 5. creation, it is also a (historic) fresco of his time and a mirror of the Ibid. 910 SHAKESPEARE,ăescu, 9. Hamlet. Prince of Denmark, V, 2. 11 Hamlet. Prinţul melancoliei 12 Titus Andronicus II, 1. forgiveness,morals of the revenge, Christian all perfectlypeople of tied his toepoch. the morals We discover of the Christian in these 13 F. Mihăescu, Shakespeare şi teatrul iniţiatic (Bucureşti:, 214. Rosmarin, 1997), 191. Church.Shakespearean plays ideas as: sin, mistake, guilt, destiny, sacrifice, 14 William SHAKESPEARE,Shakespeare şi tragediile iubirii (Târgovişte: Pandora, 2002), F. Mihăescu, Shakespeare’s tragedies show us that, in a world that calls Ibid. 15 F. Mihăescu, (Bucureşti: Rosmarin, 2000), 19. guide people’s lives from inside, nothing can avoid the ruin and the catastropheitself Christian, of thewhen human religiosity self. is something superficial and doesn’t Using this world of tragedies, Shakespeare put our modern society on guard like in an echo that trespasses time’s borders, darkness. Shakespeare’s comedies reveals us the same thing, but not stating that a world without God brings death, loneliness, failure and by using laughter, comedy which was considered by the author still capableby using of directly transforming catastrophic morals images (“Castigat that terrifiesridendo moresthe readers,”). but and inEverywhere the conclusions in Shakespeare’s that he imposes works to we us can readers. see or intuitAnd that God’s is becausepresence; Shakespeare in the images belongs that tohe an creates, era when in thereligion ethics was he prevailing presents although it was little by little changed in a private business. The Shakespearean literary creation reveals its value not just in the images it creates, but also by communicating us a system of moral moral principles, a dehumanized being. values, showing us what man can become without God, without solid Buda: Holistic Development in Society

319 Brian Fay asserted that holism has proven to be an arthritis DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435166 for social science in two ways:

b)a) scienceGenerally, does science not want does to not describe focus thanon individualism, what he is studying, but on especiallyclasses of entities,explaining especially and discovering on similarity; causal forces Holistic Development in Society Belief in social holism can be seen as a product of tradition, having as authors Vico, Rousseau, Herder, but especially Hegel. The general Claudia Buda “” National College, Baia Mare, Romania principle of holism was expressed by Aristotle in Metaphysics, where [email protected] the whole represents the sum of the parts right holistic conception, the integrity of beings can not be reduced to a mere sum of the constituent parts. This completeness it would be due to the action ABSTRACT: Atomists believe that any whole can be divided and of an impenetrable, intangible force. The founder of holism was John analyzed into its component parts, as well as from the perspective of the relationships between its components. On the other hand, Holism and Evolution. the holists say that the whole is in fact much more than a sum of The notion of system is related to the structure (gestalt), its parts. The atomist divides things to know them better, the holist Christean Smuts (1870–1950) through approaches things or systems as an aggregate. Therefore, the purpose considers that psychic phenomena represent structures, integrated of this paper is to understand more the nature and the essence of where the psychological conception W. Kohler, K. Kaffka, K. Lerwin the systems as an aggregate. configurations, structures being primordial, irreducible realities, or KEY WORDS: holism, will, relations, whole, social, part designatespartial processes how to subordinated create a system, to the an whole.abstract Gestalism model that is also expresses called itsstructuralism, functional scheme configurationism, and the principles or form psychology.that underpin The its structure internal Tthe emergence of more alternative systems in education, such cohesion. as Montessorihe holistic hasapproach replaced has passive grown inlearning, the 60–70s, based where on memorizing it leads to with innovative learning and education methods. Montessori has Strauss, who explained the complex social structures through their dual, Thecontractitor structuralist organization. concept As is for used the inrelationship the social between field by theCL materials that children are learning to learn at their own pace. party and the whole, holism has supported the primacy of the whole proposed a specific, appropriate environment that contains useful face. From the epistemological point of view, cultural studies aim at of soul needs for each level of development. Qaker schools or reconciling the two types of knowledge: cultural and objective. From The Waldorf approach is based on the intuitive understanding this point of view, cultural studies are used by comparison as a practices such as meditation, yoga, etc. The holistic term comes means of revealing, by appealing to a holistic vision by observing fromneo–humanist the holistic education meaning of have the whole, adopted and various the medicine concentration is the one and subduing the true nature. that considers the being as whole. Co nduita therapeutic decided certain context. For Aristotle, the first philosophy is in relation to philosophy depending on a variety of issues that define the human being in a in general, what arithmetic is in relation to mathematics. The first 318 philosophy appears as part of the science of being as a finite. This 320 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Buda: Holistic Development in Society 321 relationship between part and whole appears in the Aristotelian (6) Some arguments are false is seen as the second philosophy, namely physics. (7)(5) philosophyConclusion andof reason faith are is science, not contagious different about from the faith world’s classificationPierre Aubenque of contemplative states that sciences, theology where maintains the first with philosophy the other eternity Alexander Baumgarten considers that there are several arguments Heavenlysciences a Aristotle, double relation Aristotle, of after overlap demonstrating and superiority; the uniqueness it is seen asof from the perspective of the creature, some from the creator’s heavena first philosophy, with physical but arguments, different from adds the the second same result philosophy. that he Incould the perspective, but also the relationship between them. (a) Arguments from the perspective of the creature address on Animal Movement, Aristotle reminds that all inorganic bodies get arguments extracted from the first philosophy. In the Treatise are moved by other bodies. the act and potency Some think that potency only exists when it manifests itself (b)the problemthe arguments of the infinitefrom the and creator’s temporal perspective structure, lead but alsoto the of singing. Aristotle states that the act of good is better and more is his own will worthyin act, and than the potency innate innateand gives is acquired us the example through of habit, a man such we canas flute say (c)following The arguments idea: although from God the isperspective unchangeable, of the yet report his creation bring he is healthy, but also the fact that he may be sick, that is why there the world’s cohesion are the opposite: health and illness, rest and movement etc. If we admit that things in the sensitive world are numbers, like harmony of music, then there must be a unity between them. The Singer in Brabant: Types of arguments disputed by Albert the Great, St. Thomas and provided an explanation for the different types of reporting of one (1) Arguments of the Substance—Concerning the Answer to toentire the Aristotelianmultiple. The tradition idea that as well the asworld the Greco–Latin is eternal appears neoplatonism in the the uniqueness of the substantial form texts of Tempier as follows: (2)the QuestionHierarchy What Arrays: is it? The The neoplatonic problem of ontological the first act, hierarchy but also assumes that the intelligent One and Multiple Intermediate— (1) the nature of the species trains the eternity of the individual the cosmological messiah has as intercessor between the world (2) the form’s eternity is correlated with the eternity of matter (3) the world’s eternity is consistent with the immutability of the divine will knowledge,and God the skythere is a different representation, a different (4) The created intellect gives the world eternity intelligible(3) Arguments species of the intelligent—who diversifies our (4) The omnipotent argument of the theme of the divine In Boethius’s Treatise, we meet seven reasons why it is worth asking the question of the eternity of the world: lime—can God do a naval order? (1) It is necessary to save the sentence of philosophy limits Aristotelian paradigm, philosophical principles, where the (2) This sentence does not contradict the Christian one mostIf we importantcompare these principle arguments, is that all we reality obs is becomes rvam the itself first by three its own are (3) He supports the demonstrations, so he has the claims of a act. Singer of Brabant did not apply this principle, considering that relative foundation the unique intellect is a reality that does not become private by its (4) Faith is based on miracles 322 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Buda: Holistic Development in Society 323

from an effort to adapt to the environment and maintain the result: organic link between the individual and the social psychic will.) activity. From these polemics of the unit of intellect, five conclusions (1) Aristotel states that there are a number of explanatory (3)(2) The WillLife inStructure—involves Society—the participation the functioning of man mechanismsin social life, of the intellect, the analogy between the soul and the sky, the actuallyof the will identifying in order to man obtain with a hisgoal; needs. analogysystems; between this category the intellect includes and the the idea whole of ​​the nature pure potency (2) The theme of the receptacol limit of reality, the theme Holists say that the whole is in fact much more than a sum of its parts. The atomist divides things to know them better, the holist (3) The problem of the intelligible sky—the theory of the unit approaches things or systems as an aggregate, and that is why we ofapproached intellect and by Albertthe thesis the ofGreat the world try to understand more their nature in essence. (4) For the aristotel the soul is eternal and individual

BIBLIOGRAPHY The concept(5) philosophy of the invokesphilosophical the theme paradigm of a given designated individuality the group of propositions that provided the arguments of authority that Aristotel, Metaphysics substantiated the disputes: Aubenque, Pierre, The problem of being at Aristotle, Bucharest: , Bucharest: Iri, 1996. (1) Circularity of heaven provides eternity to the world Baumgarten, Alexander, The Principle of Heaven (2) Intelligent Heaven contains all universal species 2002.Universitas, 1999. Philosophy in the Middle Ages, Bucharest:, Cluj–Napoca: Humanitas, Dacia, (3) suflet is the cause of time Gilson, Etienne, Guidelines for Sociological Monographs, Bucharest: (4) suflet and nature know analogous principles 1995. (5) the intellect is indeterminate Gusti, Herseni T.,The intellectuals of the Middle Ages, Bucharest: Meridiane, working, that is, the idea that heaven is a sensible and intelligible Institute of Social Sciences, 1940. realityIn the Platonic–Aristotelian with three fundamental tradition properties: of the 13th century, the sky was SingerLe Goff, inJacques, Brabant, Ecrrits de logique, de morale et de physique, Paris: 1991. (1) Subdued of sensitive things (2) Analogous to the soul Louvain, 1974. (3) Intermediate between the world and the absolute transcendent structure of the will: T. Herseni distinguishes three significant moments of the social

defense,(1) Psychic escape, Will—pushing struggle, defense, individual in fact, will instincts to social are one gained takes place due to sympathy, friendship; (Herseni affirms that Dobrin: Mass Media: An Integral Component of Holistic Social Development

325 highlighting of the three dimensions: the role of media in the society, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435168 the impact of mass media on the human being and its effects on

of a necessary step in order to understand the way in which the human personality. Without claiming perfection, the paper is part The contact between a human being and its environment is possiblehuman personality through the is senses redefined with whichthrough the mass human media. being is endowed, Mass Media: An Integral Component visual, auditory, olfactory, gustative and tactile. Of these, the visual of Holistic Social Development sense is the gate through which, the most images and information enter the human receivers. In this whole process, the mass media Emanuel Dobrin, PhD (cand.) is being imposed as a social intermediation function between the University of Bucharest, Romania human being and the environmental conditions, facilitating the accumulation of information from the environment. The relationship between the mass media and the human [email protected] ABSTRACT: In the contemporary age, mass media—the solitary technical means for the delivery of information to the people— developed not only an exerting mobilizing power, but also impacted Therefore,personality the develops mass media as a cause–effect has an informational dualism, generating role, but also global an the development of human personality. In this day and age, effectconsequences, due to the precise fact that influences through the and transmitted predetermined information attitudes. the dominated by the mass media, the human being is conditioned by the mass media and has become subject to the continuing pressures of the information propagated by it. In this context, invariably, the thinking and the behavior of the human being is being influenced. The role of the mass media in society ishuman being personality exposed to. is being affected (even redefined), as it develops new positive or negative impulses; depending on the information it Social remodeling through mass media has become a phenomenon KEY WORDS: media, information, human personality, technology, which tends toward globalization, in spite of the barriers imposed development, influence by certain states in the East, Asia, or Africa. n the present society, addicted to the information technology, In the attempt to understand, master and judge the surrounding Ithe role of the mass media is more pronounced in almost all world, more and more groups and collectivities depend on the mass areas. Information has become an indispensable source within the media, or implement technological information systems. Thus a stream of messages is being created on the basis of which decisions way of propagating it. But, beyond the mere role of information, througheducational, mass socio–economic media judgments process are being and issued, the mass opinions media arethe being main development are being drawn. and investments are being made and new ways of socio–economic outlined, ideas are born and maybe most importantly, the personality

This continuous flow of messages, observes Coman,1 envelopes The present paper, presents in short, mass media as part of review and critical analysis of the offered versions. almost entirely individuals and society, removing time for reflection, theof the holistic individual social is development. being redefined. This aspect is being explained by will be governed, can provide a positive development of the society The ethical and moral extent, in which this flow of information 324 326 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Dobrin: Mass Media: An Integral Component of Holistic Social Development 327 and implicitly of the human being. The mass media mediates many it differently, but the link between information and opinion is beyond relations between the state and the public and as Coman said, in any doubt a fact in which lies the overwhelming importance of the the modern world, the mass media has become “the fourth power media in forming the orientation of the public opinion. About the in the state,” a sort of gravitational center in relation to which all information, one positive aspect can be highlighted related to the other segments of the society position.2 Thus the mass media becomes a sort of an interface between well formulated, automatically limits for its interpretation appear, the two extremes, the state and the public, offering both parties andquality the of answer information. can only When be thein terms information of “yes” is precise,or “no”. accurateIn this case, and the opportunity of virtual interaction. The mass media has not only the information can be accepted or rejected, without being open become a channel through which information is being transmitted, but also a source of information, through which it generates changes in the attitudes of the public, observes McQuail.3 extremelyto comments. wide, When, and the on interpretationthe contrary, the itself information is made in transmittedthe sense of Thus, from the perspective of forming of public opinion, the closenessis vague, insufficiently to the attitude defined, and the the interests field of ofinterpretation the one who becomesinitiated mass media complex is the main link, and in this social and economic the approach. perimeter this complex becomes increasingly important, the more These are just a few ways through which mass media can since the Tech society proposes new dimensions of development. contribute to a holistic development of a society, without forgetting The issue of mass media, as a source of information, is given by however, that the implications of mass media are not limited to the nature of the information which it propagates. But, also in this those listed. case things are divided between those who hold the information and those receiving the information, the holder of the information becoming a key element in this process of formatting the human The effects of mass media in society structure. The mass media, can provide the capture and broadcasting of In Romania, as in many other countries, mass media is a power, and information, and through this it can arouse a person’s curiosity, it from all mass media means, television has the highest impact. As a can generate new interests, it can help develop training systems, it device, the TV is an invention of the human mind, which in itself is can widen the knowledge horizon in a certain area, it can provide not harmful, but the way in which it is being used, especially in the resources for social integration, it can help develop someone’s taste for art or culture, it can shape an individual in lots of possible ways. The national and cultural factors, as well as the social and On the other hand, all this remodeling conceived in a perverted last 15 years, has turned it into a veritable source of manipulation. way, may represent deception, degradation and compromise. The messages, and the dependency on the social system in which a background problematic is not provided by the positive development particulareconomic individualstratification lives affect is huge. the Sometimes consumption people of the are massconstrained media or the compromise, which the mass media has on a person, but by to choose what they are given, which goes over all the barriers of individual control. possible, to create a new opinion, as stated by Dobrescu.4 The daily experiences, notes Dragan, prove the dependency on the factIn thatgeneral, the hidden opinions purpose change is toaccording influence to a groupthe information as large as mass media messages. individuals or groups hold, and new information triggers a reorder For example, people5 choose a certain way of dressing under process. Of course, each individual or group welcomes information in

the influence of the weather forecast, shop on the basis of an a certain manner, receives it in a specific way, evaluates and interprets advertisement, go to a movie promoted by the television and redefine 328 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Dobrin: Mass Media: An Integral Component of Holistic Social Development

329 pleasures depending on what the television shows as part of the alleged social development. All these aspects highlight a society The impact of the mass media on the adult population and on strongly affected by the messages and information from the mass the children media and at disposal of its ordered compliance. Even more than these personal views, Petcu observes, that One characteristic of mass media is that it can form the character even the political candidates and the political parties are constantly of an individual, often erroneously by the impact it has. If from the psychological standpoint there are few resources to change the with the electorate, so that they would win votes.6 From this fact character of an adult, mass media manages this with a high success resultsconcerned that in the finding one that ways is bythe which owner they of thecan mass communicate media, is virtually also the rate. If we take television as an example, due to the fact that the owner of those who comply with the messages provided by the individual spends an exaggerated amount of time in front of the TV, mass media. his mind may be imprinted by the ideas or opinions transmitted by the program being watched. This does not occur as a result of a mental exceptional social marketing, through the knowledge of the habits, effort done by the individual, but it simply takes place via the neuronal the desiresThe advertising and the needs, agencies, trying observes to create Weiss, ads andhave messages developed that an will bring bigger sales for a particular good.7 To be sure of success, Mass media may be considered responsible for the structuring specialists have created different forums on which they can post ofconnections the activities which and are thebeing daily redefined routine by ofthe human received beings, information. notes information relating to a particular product and which ensures the O’Reagan. The press informs daily or weekly the readers about 9 sale of that product. the aggressions or abuse which occur. Of course, in many cases, the Mass media profoundly affects society and the individual, journalists pursue the sensational aspects, by publishing a series of information meant to satisfy through spicy details the taste of the because it is a constant presence in his life, it has a universality that public. The statistics for Romania are rather alarming. no other institution has. Because of this, the analysis of the way in A study titled, “Measuring the degree of violence present in the which the mass media affect the society, in a deliberate manner, as Romanian audiovisual programs” was conducted during October a result of a planned strategy or in a random way, is still one of the major concerns of researchers. Center for Media Studies and New Communication Technology, and The effects of mass media can be felt in different areas of coordinated13 through Octoberby professor 19 2008 Ioan byDragan, a team the of head researchers of the Center. from Thethe the society: D. McQuail noted that the mass media can operate on project focused on the weight, the duration and the frequency of the individuals, groups, institutions, the entire society, and that it can acts of violence broadcasted on the TV shows of 13 TV channels— affect human personality in the cognitive dimension by changing its TVR1, Antena 1, Antena 3, Acasa, PRO TV, Realitatea TV, Prima TV, world view, in the emotional dimension by modifying or creating B1 TV, OTV, Kanal D, Cartoon Network, Jetix, Minimax—that were feelings or attitudes and the behavioral dimension through changes in the way in which individuals act and by social mobilization advertising and promo transmissions. The types of violence that phenomenon.8 broadcasted during news, entertainment, fictional, reality show, From another perspective, mass media may have a short term the verbal and physical violence, psychological, economic, sexual and socialwere studied violence. included: The main actual conclusions violence, reachedfictional byviolence, this study as well were as Also, the effects of mass media can create the desired or less desired– that while the cartoon channels broadcast on average 20 acts of changes.influence, They or may can need be the a longer result period of a controlled of time to becomeprocess, operational. such as the violence per one hour, mainstream and informative news broadcast press campaigns, or part of other expected or unexpected events. an average of 14 acts of violence. 330 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Dobrin: Mass Media: An Integral Component of Holistic Social Development 331

Ioan Dragan noticed that the perverse effect of these programs, The perception of mass media is different from an individual to although unintentional, may be the apologetic portrayal of crime another due to the professional structure and the educational level, and violence. Another effect was the establishment of a culture of due to the existence and functionality of democratic institutions and violence, which can lead to a certain accommodation with media the level of economic development. The greatest impact of mass violence, and even with the accommodation of social violence in the media can be observed on the children, because they do not have life of the people. Television violence does not only affect through the discernment to select the information and by this way to choose the dose in which it is injected into the viewer, but also through the that what is best for them. manner in which it is understood, choreographed and interpreted.10 The mass media does not have a command power like As a result, the children are exposed daily to some negative the institution of the state have, but its impact on society is examples, from scenes of violence, to ads, to unhealthy products, or overwhelming, it informs by developing the critical spirit, it creates bad characters that come to kidnap them if they are not good. Studies in a rational and ethical manner, mass media and the information 11 willwildly increase held views; the knowledge it launches and trends the and development propels personalities. of the society, Used by show that the exposure to such messages influence the children in children,the first years pulled of life, an whoalarm have signal a tendency on this to subject. imitate Underwhat they the see. title mass media may constitute a destructive factor for the society. “ProtectFor your the firstchild’s time, innocence,” in 2006, Itsy Itsy Bitsy Bitsy launched FM, the anfirst educational radio for offering major benefits. However used in a malicious manner, the campaign, which urged the parents and grandparents to be aware of the messages arriving to their children, because “Children do NOTES what they see.”12 1 Mihai Coman, Mass–media în România post–comunistă very much at the level of the psychological shaft, in order to determine If for adults, observes Weiss, an advertising campaign has to work 2 Mihai Coman, Introducere in sistemul mass–media (Bucuresti: (București: Editura Ed. by intense motivation, to consume or to buy a certain product, for Polirom, 2003), 35. children this advertising campaign will only have to present the 3 Modele ale comunicării pentru studiul childhood universe through happy, fun and exciting messages and comunicăriiPolirom, 1999), de masă8. images, without motivating their desire towards wanting a product.13 Denis McQuail, Sven Windhal, A joyful slogan, a fragment of a song, colorful images, cartoon heroes, 4 (Bucureşti EdituraMass Şcoala–media Naţională şi societatea de Studii Politice şi Administrative, 2001), 35. fun and exciting actions are the means by which an advertisement Editura Comunicare.Ro, 2003), 114. Paul Dobrescu,Paradigme Alina Bârgăoanu, ale comunicării de masă : (Bucureşti: 5 6 MarianIoan Drăgan, Petcu, Sociologia mass-media (Bucureşti Editura Şansa, draws the attention of a child and influences it. 142.1996), 166. Conclusions 7 Efectele publicităţii: (Cluj–Napoca: Comunicarea Editura de piaţă Dacia, de succes: 2002), instrumente, reguli şi exemple 8 Brigitte Weiss, Tom O’Reagan, Australian (Bucureşti: Television CultureEditura IAA, 2007), 34. 9 McQuail, 53. theThrough cultural its channels,and social mass life standards. media can As be a a mean “two–edged” of dominance sword. and As 10 (St. Leonards: Allen & Unwin, a progress factor, its influence is reflected by raising the quality of desenele-animate-sunt-cele-mai-violente-emisiuni.htm1993), 65. , 10 jan. 2018. http://economie.hotnews.ro/stiri-media_publicitate-5351205-studiu-cna- manipulation, it only provides a one–sided approach or it is reducing the public response to the great challenges of the day–to–day reality. 332 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES

11 (Accessed January 20, 2018). DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435170 12 http://www.wall-street.ro/articol/Marketing-PR/22226/Copiii-fac-ce-http://www.buzzle.com/articles/negative-influences-of-media.html vad.html 13 (Accessed February 5, 2018). Weiss, 75.

The Becoming of the Society: Perspectives from Aristotle and J. J. Rousseau

Ioana–Anca Gherasim

[email protected] Technical College “C. D. Nenițescu”, Baia Mare, Romania

ABSTRACT: In the contemporary parlance, in our references to the social life, to our social competences or to our social priorities, it is important to realize that the society as we know it today is the result of many years of interactions, regardless if such interactions were peaceful or violent. The society is still changing and becoming

it. Nevertheless, we are unable to curtail change because social something else every day. We are responsible for that, and we know

andmovement by the Frenchis infinite. philosopher, Therefore, J. J.this Rousseau. paper surveys several basic perspectives offered ,by culture, the ancient law, equality, Greek philosopher natural, social, Aristotle, state, liberty, savage, social structure, civic life. KEY WORDS: society

(1) What Does Society Mean?

he concept of society is a very intense disputed topic in the Tentire world, between scientists or non scientists, between common or specialists, in each domain, in all activity sectors, in a

around the idea that society is an integral piece of each human more or less scientific way. Anyhow, each debate is concentrated

being. Its importance is justified by the opinion that it is the most important part of our life. What is a person without society? What does he/she believe he/she can333 have without it? What is good 334 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES The Becoming of the Society

335 and what is wrong in his life? All these questions can lead us to the between different Gherasim:type of human cohabitation and from human deepest level of understanding the meaning of a society. activity inside the society. From this point of view, the society can be The identity of a person is given by the place, the space, the divided into two categories: the holistic society where the social has culture and the medium that he/she inherited and where he/she the precedence over the individual, and the individualistic society, develops each day. The sum of these types of factors gives birth to where the individual precedes the social. Most of the contemporary the society in a very general meaning. Society is our home, society societies are built like individualistic societies. is our space and our time and everyone’s reason to be. Thirdly, society should be able to have the autonomy to function by its own rules. Here are included the institutions, organizations, concept of culture. Even if in our daily conversations, when we talk the rules and the standards created inside the society. The most about It’sculture, impossible we refer to mostly define to society a higher without level of education,talking about culture the important thing is that it has self control and its autonomy is based is rather the way a group of people are living. This includes the way on the lack of exterior constraints. they dress, the culinary tastes, the customs, the traditions and so on. Nevertheless, society should have a great ability to integrate the new members because the dynamic and the mobility of the own identity which is, after all, the group identity. population is continuously changing and that’s why it’s important Without culture we couldn’t be humans and we couldn’t have our to be prepared for what is new, with new rules and new institutions characteristics that we refer to when we try to determine the if necessary. There are two assumptions referring to the appearance But how can we define society? There are a few main people are social beings and they have a social instinct which leads naturalspecificity habitat of society. that houses the people. It represents the nucleus of themof society. towards The firstthe others,one starts thus from creating the idea the that cooperation through their with nature, those the socialFirst interactions, of all there is the a specific physical delimited or the material space, aspect the territory, of a group. the of their kind. Secondly, we can refer to the ability of keeping an intense and According to the second hypothesis, the people don’t have constant interaction between its members, interaction sustained by a social instinct because, in nature, far away from the social something that all the people have in common, such as similar values. conventions, they have absolute freedom. Anyway, because at some The French sociologist Emilé Durkheim was saying that the most important characteristic of society is the presence of the collective forced to adopt a contract and to let themselves guided by rules. This conscience wastime the they main couldn’t reason manage for which their the life people and theleft conflicts,their natural they way were of life and became members of a society. of members (Durkheim arises stability. 2002). This Stability can chase guarantees away selfishness the continuous and let Anyway, the main idea is that society appears as a result of its presencethe people of be a a collectivehomogeneous behavior group. which With the promotes constant continuous interaction acceptance. Because of this, the number of members is growing very very particular standards and it is continuously concerned about fast and the effect is the emergence of the social structure. conservation.members’ interaction, as a system built on some specific rules, on whichThe are Romanian quite stable sociologists and which Căt characterizeălin Zamfir andthe Lazărsocial Vlăsceanusystem of (2) Aristotle and the civic life adefine society the made social of structure communities, as ”the collectivities, ensemble of classes, the relationships categories and social groups that have their own existence at a time” (Org .Ro) Aristotle is well known by its remarkable expression “the human is a social animal” and this remark seemed to explain in a simple way

(Zamfir, Vlăsceanu 1993). The social structure includes the relations 336 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES The Becoming of the Society 337 the fundamentals of any anthropology. He starts from the idea that money, or he/she Gherasim:should be rich if he deserves it and works for that. It’s almost the same about education. A person, who has the necessary abilities and wants to get an appropriate education, should calling:no person to practicecan live alone,the well isolated, and to farshare away it withfrom the the others. others. We can get it more than another one who is not that gifted with such abilities. live only together, in pairs and communities to fulfill our instinctive The identity of a city1 is given by the persistence of the same for each other lead by a natural instinct to leave behind a descendant, nation not of its walls. The people have a constitution that they The first community is the family. The man and the woman look respect and this is enough to protect them. Besides that, each person of them has to lead and the other one has to be lead. “Those who canan inheritor. foresee with Each their of those mind two should spouses be inhas a specificnatural attributions,way the masters one Each person has its own virtue correlated with his/her activity. and the leaders and those who can realize with their bodies what has a specific virtue which is useful for respecting the constitution. is foreseen, they should be the obedient in a natural way.” (Aristotle citizen is educated in another way. Each of these two people has an ownFor example, virtue but the their leader virtues is educated have nothing in a certain in common. way; the The common leader constitute a colony and more colonies give birth to the city. And this has the virtue to lead well, while the common citizen has the virtue 2001, 35) Also, few families compose the village, more villages to be obedient. Anyway, Aristotle is talking about that person who which existed before the humans and that’s why it is considered like is educated to lead right and who is following the right constitution. ais pole the wayof attraction society is for formed. all the Thepeople. society The issociety a beneficial is the salvation institution of He makes the difference between the right constitutions and the the human race. deviant constitutions. Those who are right are the monarchy, the According to Aristotle, each society should be characterized aristocracy and the constitutional system. The deviant constitutions by unity, but we are not talking about the Socratic unity where would be the tyranny, democracy and the oligarchy. Other important questions are: who should be the leader for the proportional unity. This new concept refers especially to the the good of the city? Should it be a rich person or a poor one? Should differenceseverybody isbetween equal withpeople his/her and, most fellows. of all We it refers are talking to the ethnicabout it be one leader or should there be many of them? The error that differences. In his opinion, the number of different ethnic people appears in those questions, says Aristotle, is the fact that the power should be the same. is given to humans. The human beings are weak and are tempted to Another topic that refers to society is the idea of using control the others and not to lead them. That is why the power should collectively all the things, including women and children. He be in the hands of the law. Before making a law, the legislator should disagrees with the idea of common usage of the goods. If something search some things: the constitution that is valid in an absolute way, belongs to someone, then it doesn’t belong to anyone because no the best constitution of those who exist, the existent constitution, one takes the responsibility of the personal property over that thing the constitution that is applicable to a certain society, the differences and in this case no one would take care of it. between constitutions. If he takes into account these aspects, he can Besides that, a society which doesn’t have a private property is formulate right and useful laws for all the citizens. an unhappy one. The people want to feel that they have something Aristotle thinks that the most important thing in any of their own, something that they can count, change, sell or give as constitution or in any city is the mediation2 which is the middle way inheritance. In this case we have to talk about equality. But this between extremes. And this idea is available also in what concerns new concept of equality is not an abstract one or a theoretical one. the goods or the spiritual things. “And the happy life, even if it is Aristotle considered that the equality should be made in fortune made of joys or virtues or both, is due to those who have a good and in education. Each person should have the right to have enough balance between excess of character and intelligence, but who keeps 338 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES The Becoming of the Society

339 a measure over the exterior goods, rather than to those who have Because of this, theGherasim: humans evolved that much and became how we those goods but they lack the others.” (Aristotle 2001, 373) In conclusion, Aristotle sees the society like a very strict the changing that appeared in his structure, the progresses that he organization of the people where each member knows what is his/ know them today. “What else could deprave him that much if not her duty is and which are his/her virtues. So, each person uses his/ the society as much as we like—it won’t be less true that it pushes her own virtue and is doing what he/she knows best and this is thehad people made and to hate the knowledgeeach other whenthat he they had have acquired? common We interests, can admire to the reason why everything is going well. They are organized like a offer apparent favors to each other, but in fact to cause each other holistic community whose main principle is keeping the middle way in everything and this seems to bring them happiness. This description of social human reveals the idea that the savageall the bad didn’t that have we virtues can imagine.” or vices. (Rousseau He had only 2001, love 98) and care for his own person, while the social human has love of self which is equal to (3) J. J.Rousseau and the Natural Status those types of love like that: “The humans wouldn’t be anything else If Aristotle is talking about society comparing it with a life boat for butselfishness. some monsters And Rousseau if nature continues wouldn’t the ideagive ofthem differences the compassion between humans, J. J. Rousseau is not that delighted about this. He thinks sustained by reason . . . to want for someone to be unhurt is not the that the society is the result of the evolution process but not in a As I was saying before, the society is the result of human perverting the human soul and making them very unhappy. same thing like to want for him to be happy?” (Rousseau 2001, 49) beneficialHe describes way. According the savage to Rousseau, people, the absolutely society is free responsible and happy, for beginning, the savage was using some gestures but, in time, he living like animals and behaving like it. “I see an animal less powerful startedevolution. to makeThe first some step noises in their and evolutionafter a while is the he language.could say wordsAt the and less agile than the others but anyway better organized than and even sentences. This was a crucial point in human’s evolution. all the animals. I see it quenching its hunger under an oak and its After that, the human realized that he is superior to the other animals and this made him proud and determined him to use his mental abilities, rather than his physical skills. He observed that it is thirst in the first met stream, finding a place to sleep under the tree easier to hunt like that and to get his food this way. After a while he that feedsThe savage it—so imitatesthere you animals’ have its gestures necessities and satisfied.” he learns (Rousseaufrom them realized that it is better to live in common with the others because 2001, 29, 30) they can protect each other and they are stronger like that. This way consider him one of their kind and, more than that, some of them how to hunt, how to fight, how to survive. That’s why the animals body, strong and tough to diseases and accustomed to unfavorable the feeling of marital life and the kindness arose in his soul. With circumstances.are afraid of him He and isn’t don’t afraid fight of anythingwith him. except The savage the childhood, has a robust the whotime, enclosed families had a land more daring and more to say interactions; ‘this is mine’ they and started succeeded to share to old age and the disease. All these are the signs of weakness and he the lands and this way private property appeared. “The first man doesn’t like to be weak. His only concern is his own conservation. This is why he can be untroubled and happy. civilfind enoughsociety wasnaive born. people to believe him, that was the true founder But, even so, his great quality which became his biggest of theSo civil far society.”nothing seems(Rousseau to be 2001, wrong 58) with So society. this is the In fact, way we that could the disadvantage is his ability to improve his self every day. After all, say it is even better than before. But, along with the intellectual this is also the main difference between him and other animals. development of the human, the physical power became weaker and 340 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES The Becoming of the Society 341 weaker each day. Also, because of the new way of living, this new Gherasim: man learned how to cook and how to work the land, to cultivate plants and use them in the kitchen. It didn’t take long until his body Aristotel,BIBLIOGRAPHY Politica, started to feel the weaknesses and also the diseases. He needed to Banu, Ion, Aristotel be cured and to recover. Now he needs the others more than any Barns, Jonathan, Aristotel București: Editura Iri, 2001. , București: Editura Științifică, 1996. other time. He created his dependence of them. , trad. Ioan–Lucian Muntean, București: Editura On the other hand, some of the new people became rich and Baumgarten, Alexander, 7 idei înrâuritoare ale lui Aristotel EdituraHumanitas, Humanitas, 1996. 2012. started to enslave the others. Because life was chaotic and most of Chelcea, Septimiu, Metodologia cercetării sociologice , București: the people couldn’t be able to protect themselves they were forced to make laws. But the law didn’t help them so much because most Dicţionar de sociologie, București: Editura of the legislators made abusive laws thus the tyranny appeared. So Economică, 2007. this is the way that the savage man became a slave for those of his Durkheim,Zamfir, Cătălin, Emile, Lazăr Regulile Vlăsceanu, metodei eds., sociologice , Ia : Editura, Bucureşti: Polirom, own kind. 2002.Editura Babel, 1993. If we compare the savage and the social human, we can say , Sociologie și that the savage is living within his self, peaceful and happy, while Herseni, Traian, Sociologie. Teoria general a vieții sociale the social man lives outside him through the others, working hard Giddens, Anthony , București: Editura All, 2000. , București: and struggling every day, dependant of others’ opinions and beliefs. Ionescu, I.I, Sociologii constructiviste Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică, 1982. This is the result of his progress, that “happy” life he was dreaming Isac, Dumitru, Aristotel Sociologie generală , Iași: Editura Polirom, 1998. of. Sometimes, says Rousseau, I have the impression that reason is Rousseau, J. J., Contractul, București: social Editura Tineretului, 1959. Mihăilescu,2003. I, , Iași: Editura Polirom, 2003. an unnatural one and the man who thinks is a degenerated animal.” Rousseau, J. J., Discurs asupra originii, Filipeștii și fundamentelor de Târg, Prahova: inegalității Editura Antet,dintre (Rousseaua malefic mood: 2001, “I 33) almost dare to say that the thinking condition is oameni According to Rousseau, the natural status was the best one Spencer, Herbert, Individul împotriva statului for the people, the normal way of life for mankind. But, even so, the Incitatus,, București: 2002. Editura Best Publishing, 2001. progress was unavoidable because, as Rousseau is forced to admit, Teorie și metodă în științele culturii , București: Editura the most important characteristic of the human being is his capacity 2001. to improve his self every day. So, as a sad but true conclusion, Weber, Max, , Iași: Editura Polirom, Rousseau seems to end his pleading with these words: “the human was born free but he is always in chains.” (Rousseau 2003, 6) NOTES Even if we refer to the Aristotle’s assumption about society, 1 The original name of the city in Aristotle’s writings is fortress and every or to Rousseau’s pleading for natural life, one thing seems to be time he refers to what we call city today, he means fortress. obvious: society is created by its members’ interaction and evolution, 2 The most appropriate word would be mediaty. by their good and bad decisions, by their truth and by their untruth, by their efforts and errors. The society is the sum of all positive and negative things that the human being can produce. Or, in Terentiu’s words, we could say, “I am a human being and thus nothing human is strange for me.” The Holistic Approach of the Literary Symbol in Dimitrie Anghel’s Poetry 343

to discoverRoșu: things in a more optimistic process, holding back the DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435172 pessimistic view of things. The human being in relation with itself, with the society and the universe, has a unique manner of exhibition recorded in modern cognitive psychology, and sometimes manifested in literature. Jung tried to understand the human psychic in its whole according to its relationships with others. Thus, its concept of collective unconscious The Holistic Approach of the Literary Symbol implied a bond between the individual and humanity as a whole. in Dimitrie Anghel’s Poetry So, the representation of an idea becomes a symbol of a universal acceptance. Cosmina Andreea Roșu, PhD (cand.) Most of the time incursions into diverse areas as ethnography, philosophy, psychoanalysis, linguistics, rhetoric, aesthetics and [email protected] University of Pitești, Romania symbol given that literature seems inextricably linked to the idea of​​ apoetics symbol. are But taken the in problem order to is understand that the literary the connection symbol has literature– not been Metaphysics ABSTRACT:idea that a system’s For the properties first time, cannot Aristotle be determined synthesised, or explained in his individually, theby holisticeach of principle, its parts, in but a specific the system, way, sustaining as a whole, the sufficientlyOriginally, or satisfactorily the symbol yetrepresents theorised the despite sign ofmultidisciplinary an ontological, determines how its parts would act. The holistic approach of literary analogicalcharacter ofor researchesconventional in connection.the field of Furthermore,poetry. the evolution of symbols implies the change of the attitude in order to facilitate the language, the symbolic relations have become increasingly complex. comprehension, and to discover things in a more optimistic process, holding back the pessimistic view of things. The human being in The symbol offers to the sensitivity, sensitive or intelligible realities relation with itself, with the society and the universe, has a unique so that the submitted idea—cannot be accounted for in a different manner of exhibition recorded in modern cognitive psychology, and way—it remains eternally active. Together with the devoted symbols (now conventional) it also unconscious” implied a bond between the individual and humanity sometimes manifested in literature. C. G. Jung’s concept of “collective appears the contingent symbols (according to the name given by a universal acceptance. Henri Morier) created by the writer who gives a symbolic value to the as a whole; the representation of an idea that becomes a symbol of object, being or circumstance. This function of the poetic language is programmatic used by symbolism/the symbolist poets for which KEY WORDS: literature, consciousness, ideas, poem, symbol the poetic symbol becomes a substitute for the absolute truth. Besides the advent of psychoanalysis, symbolic interpretation F of oneiric experiences has been used, the symbol appearing of itsor parts.”the first It sustainstime, Aristotle the idea synthesised that a system’s in his properties Metaphysics cannot the subconsciously. In ’s conception, any symbol is a be determinedholistic principle or explained in a specific individually way: “An entireby each is ofmore its parts, than the but sum the system, as a whole, determines how its parts would act. which could not have in this way a form of direct expression, but The holistic approach implies achieving an emotional goal: the onlyrepresentation ciphered. of a repressed experience, censored by super–ego, change of the attitude in order to facilitate the comprehension and Frequently, we encounter in Dimitrie Anghel’s poetic work numerous symbols, enciphers of inner states, most revolving around

342 344 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES The Holistic Approach of the Literary Symbol in Dimitrie Anghel’s Poetry

345 regenerationRoșu: and the initiation into the mysteries, rarely extinction especially in the targeted volume, “In the garden”/“In gradina.” There by wilting—rose dying.2 the concept of “flower” (although not always mentioned this word), The passionate and steadfast love, safety is symbolised by as the rose, the lily to the common ones and considered by other —a plant that has been ignored by other poets. This also are mentioned here many kinds of flowers, from the “noble” ones symbolizes the solar spell of the Romanian village in the sense of the basil writers insignificant—the marjoram, the goldenseal, the basil— naturetotalling environment, 40 different nameshumanised of flowers by the encountered gardens and by the their process colour of suchfolk belief, as the purification lily, embalming that the has whole to do with space the of holy the garden water of where baptism the synaesthesia.in its system ofHe representations. is a contemplative The person, poet cultivates a dreamer the who artificial brings flowerswith a strong are fighting ancestral and anchor, the only as winner the powerful until now olfactory reigns inflections the basil.3 the theme of travels in poetry, the theme of evasion, bohemian motif many of them and images of the marine landscape. The symbolism in his poetry compete to win or die in battle4 being involved the naive wrath of is combined with romantic notes. flowersThe olfactory and lily is and concerned the jasmine, by thefierce proud competition— verbenas, a broken mallow Starting from the poem that opens the homonymous volume under the seal of the night suddenly it smells of love and death. the symbol of garden has been detached (symbol of its system of The noble, predominantly white symbolises pure 5and correspondence and images) in different meanings: the garden— innocent love, wearing a royal mantle,6 the legendary park, the garden—the temple (The garden is a grape lily sweet—“Melancholy”), the garden—a place of mystery in which the bliss that leads to oblivion under itits is narcotic the flower power—after of glory and also the rainthe flower the lilies of death,wake up likened in the with shade the, shedding sacred chalice, their profane encompassing breeze.7 legends are taken place in the centre of which they are either plant In the same register as by a charm, its power is overwhelming: And sweet spells are included (“flowers”). In the garden, stories and under the sign made by the lily (...) each of them/a leave is shaken in the wind—and the wind has left the garden,8 in this way managing Elseneur,through the Hamlet, flowers Oleander, carefully Hera, chosen, Ofelia)—exotic or nymphs, elements vestals, carrieddeities outand legendaryfrom aboriginal. figures Inas rolledDimitrie down Anghel’s from Olympus poetry the (Elysium garden fields, is a lily once symbolised the light and the masculine principle. miniature world, the cosmos, the heavenly earth and it is populated the freedomThe light of in the Anghel’s other flowers poems underis the and tyranny strong. of Thewinter. mallow The by a wide range of plants. white flowers of lily–of–the–valley next to a The man exercising his power over tamed nature and in the light face and a ghostly white hand dominatedwhite by the light with silver centre of the garden is that returns frequently as a butterfliesflowers are mirrored also white under or the tutelage of jasmine perfume—and this 9 snowflakes,10 canvas perfection bringing togetherthe theflower virtues of the soul, the edenic state as white as the snow.11 literary motif in various forms. The flower embodies the spiritual butbeing also a pure to the white. mists, White the oxymoron:is also represented white mists by feeble, mallow lily–of–the–valley, autumn, shadow, true, field flowers were sleeping piles of defeated White is sleep; not attributed of the white only mist to bandsthe flowers, with sometimesobtained through they die love melted and by harmony. dreaming Theor they flowers are sad are—the divided favourite into their white wings that they were lost the silent night personified—they12 (in a regal of ; The poet does not seem to have any preference for a particular The personified epithet of the poet. with its leaves of wax is remarkable entity,personifications it is also the and manifestation metaphors in of ample divinity. visual It is theimages). source of light, or the one with white diaphanous1 petals falling down, totalling heat and ofsun life is andassociated immortality. with white Although and lightgrieved as ais multi–faceted a good sweet type of flower, but the rose brother, offering the last kiss. It is the life force of the universe, it the inner feelings, love, self–awareness and, at the same time, the 346 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES The Holistic Approach of the Literary Symbol in Dimitrie Anghel’s Poetry 347

Roșu: represents the good and it is metaphorically surprised the golden of the sleep. This is achieved by hovering the darkness of the night nest and the sweet yellow’s glow.13 The ubiquitous symbol, the garden, sweet and full of mysteries.27 Olfactory images are interwoven with comes under the protective sun. the visual ones in the harmony of an ineffable atmosphere. Under the brings into existence the atmosphere of dusk power of the night there are manifested the doubt, the uncertainty creating the image before carrying out the achievement of a miracle, and the yearning for transcendence of the human being with all its it announcesThe twilight the great journey and it introduces the death with the intricacies who does not reveal itself, keeping the mystery. feelings of melancholy and nostalgia, it is a trigger of reveries and In the garden associated with the hermitage, the death nostalgic beauty of the exterior and also the interior, inner decline. triumphs generating a disarming hypothesis: life would have died defeated by melancholy28 like a rosa at Elseneur which passed away provided by the appearance of leaf wax roses and of the carnation the fire of your mouth to revive the that remainsThe only stuck spot ofto colourthe soul seen like in a thedrop poem of blood “In the,14 the Garden” organic is stream of dead waters, but the feeling is desolated because the death interpenetration of an animus with an anima. From the poem’s ispeacefully. everywhere It can and be the defied death with is forever silent. opening volume thus, the unprecedented comparison introduces, In the garden of Luxembourg, ancient29 and precious the ardour and the beauty, symbolism of red rosy played by an appear as a representation of steadiness feelings by petrifying of impressive force in a world enriched by roses. The same colour is the happy moment to be enjoyed: dearest you and me in contraststatues to reproduced indirectly by the appearance of the15 precious stone which the transience of human being that surprises the missing queens a goldenseal like a ruby​16 or rose with astonished in the cold stone by a poor perishable hand.30 its superabundant petals . . . like blood splatter,17 the pale woodbine material of the statues suggests the steadfastness of feelings the is bloodycompared,18 emphasising with the flower— the idea of lust​​ and passion. dismayed poet has been aspiring surprised by the contrast The first of oxymoron: the eternal romance elapsed,/born from a kiss and dead the expressive power of the that meets an overwhelming after ten days. But the intensity of inner feeling makes all the effort frequency:The entire lights chromatic of rainbows first volume are thrown of poems from is concentrated the sky, Sun on to be rated or any other subsequent suffering: who wouldn’t want rainbows20 with its contributionrainbow to the musicality through19 its to live again those moments? The inexorable transience focuses in a remarkable structure: the time was bewildered flowing31 all that notes, the contrast of its composition and the adverse colours warns can be kept is the memory—years and years have passed away. . . .32 aboutsymbolism: the human the seven being colours inherent are dualism. identified The with rainbow the seven animates musical the Eternal in this world are only wreathes of laurel leaves.33 The laurel is materiality of the world and raises awareness. is associated with whom the of soul immortality. sun sent its thoughts on the last kiss. The lack of light suggests a plantThe of immortalitycalm and friendly and emblem atmosphere of glory, is caught, evergreen; most it of is the a symbol times extinction—The sunflowerHow difficult must be the sleep inthe the light dust of hillocks.21 at night when the fairy is accentuated at the highest levels: A sweet So the sleep motif induces the idea of ​​crossing the timelessness and night chased away from a seraglio, by an odalisque34 in suggestive the dissolving of any states of suffering leading to a spiritual inertia. text from its title—“A night charm”/“Farmec de noapte”—where the and now novelty of the metaphor induces the mystery state: shaded flower they fade away,22 the autumn flowers23 fade away, too, grieved flowers in the enchanted night where the beats of the wings let their flight fade away,The death a rose of was flowers fading is frequently: away,24 the marjorams’ life of faded death— away queens, in depths. life would have died defeated by melancholy.26 The sleep also refers25 35 to extinction, the death being the daughter of the night and the sister earthly and celestial elements, but at the same time the means The bird with its flight determines the relationship between 348 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES The Holistic Approach of the Literary Symbol in Dimitrie Anghel’s Poetry

349 by which the soul is escaping from the body, even the instability Roșu: or failure of acquiring certainties—huge birds sleeping with wide optimism and eternal love. wings36 under the pale sky, in the silent night.37 The dove, symbol of refers Rarely, to the thepossibility precious of resurrection, is seen in therebirth; garden: sacrifice the tear and of love,rain, it seemed that the entire garden is given like a diamond lit by a ray43 like the intellectual fertility likened to a to them to be guarded.38 gift from the gods. rain peace,The takes contrast care of night/dark flora: is frequently met—the light with its itself is the origin of life and a way of the potentiating role of oneiric. virtue.The Traditionally water it is the origin of creation, the generator of life the longing for transcendence located in the depths of human purification, a centre of regeneration,the tear (it fertility is a testimony but also wisdom of pain and concealmentThe night places. is the mysteryThe night far isfrom associated the manifestation with black—peer of demonic; of whites and its opposite, it has been sending to a permanent loss and death. We retrieve it in of hope, to the anguish and to the collapse into nothingness, to the intointercession, the pool—eye an uninterrupted water of the flow garden. of the Oleander water of blooms soul, identified near the original chaos that seems to identify human being at one time. It poolas lily–of–the–valley), where the water inrefreshes the rain, for in athe moment; spring, intoit has the been fountain renewing and expects the passivity which is sometimes wanted to be sweetened its mirror in the moon.44 embodies the eternal youth, by reducing, in a unique combination with white (white mists). life, immortality or perpetual rejuvenation, regeneration and Often which comprises the light and sees towards The fountain emphasising the idea of sincere​​ feeling, it is the ability of spiritual perception andthe iteye is associated with gods. There are eyes that cry in purification, learning. the night, the most carried away– eyes by dreams.40 itself Theto the reflection essential is element the Moon of, the the cosmos, seclusion the space eye ofof thehappy universe, souls; 39 encodes the ideals and individualises, being ait gateis the to thefeminine inner world,principle to experience which transforms artistic feeling, reality. rhythmically It identifies also means of transcendence. Associated to sleep it is a technique repeating life—it is the holy Moon, a travelling wheel invoked in of escapingThe dream from routine, a projection of unspoken desires, it is 45 the work of the spirit to a new realm of complete freedom and it The mystery is supported by the presence of the Virgin that requires the privacy of the consciousness, especially in “A Night “The curse of the mother”/“Blestem de mamă.” Charm”/“Farmec de noapte.” such as Ariadne, Hera, Ofelia, Narcissus, Elseneur, to the Vestals or is looming as a disturbing factor that brings has not been revealed. There are mentioned mythological figures inconsistency and triggers uncontrolled energies the song frozen by high windThe . windIt is an icy high wind41 violent and blind that destabilises courtesans related to their symbolism, along with personification the thoughts of the human being. It could also be gentle and regulator of flowers in the whole Dimitrie Anghel’s lyric. sorrowful smell Theof roses olfactory—images is filled charged by thestylistically. presence of jasmine, basil, lily, when spring brings, sometimes its sifts dust of flowers and it relaxes lily–of–the–valleyThe visual is crowned(and form by Lily–of–the–valley), rainbows. rose— theof cosmic atmosphere— balance and moralnevertheless as in “Swap the garden of news”/“Schimb is cheerful.42 The de vești” wind The musical instruments are added to the symbols

Additionally, the changing/the reinstalling of the season brings the drumming in the Parisian context, and the lyre is mentioned in is a manifestation of the divine; it is the spirit or the spiritual influx. thecomplementing garden where the silence sonority reigns of lyrics. and whereWe meet peace the growsbrass bandsfunereally and the hope because the death turns out not to be for good, but it then the silent wind/Like a slumbering hand on the broken string of green prevailing in any flower throughout the garden. It introduces a lyre.46 The silence is disturbed by the noise of fanfares sounding 350 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES The Holistic Approach of the Literary Symbol in Dimitrie Anghel’s Poetry

Roșu: 351 a horrid long noise over plane trees Legenda funigeilor night is announced by a drum–distant that sounded like after battle.47 ; in the desert of the garden the Iosif,Micu, Șt.D., Ooctavian,Literatura română Dimitrie în Anghel, secolul al XX–lea , București: Editura Librăriei UNIVERSALA Alcalay & Co., 1920. in the other one is performed using the omniscient : Near The reflecting of the two worlds (human and vegetable) one . Universul, București: literar Editura, Anul the tired mirrors, a shaky and pale girl/turns flowers in the pots, as Fundației Culturale Române, 2000. mirror pious as a vestal./. . . If it had a mouth to speak, the mirror would say Moșandrei, M , „Dimitrie Anghel, poet al florilor,” 48 Tatomirescu, Pachia I., Dicționar estetico–literar, lingvistic, religios, de many . teoriaXLVII, Nr.comunicației 44, 17 Decembrie 1938. harmony and balance referring to his own childhood, the utopian Pillat, Ion, Opere parallel Thisuniverse. reveals It as symbolises a small universe a replica in which of reality the poet where finds the peace, ego Sasu, A., Dicționarul biografic, Timișoara: al literaturii Editura române Aethicus, 2003. can watch its true essence or may geminate itself. It involves the , București: Editura DU Style, 2003. Streinu, V., Versificația modernă , vol. I, Pitești: Editura Paralela 45, 2006. self–knowledge, wisdom and prudence. Vianu, Tudor, Arta prozatorilor români, București: Editura pentru Literatură, by Samain.The theme of these texts is based on the fairy created by fine 2002.1966. smells of flowers and it represents an echo of the mallarmean symbol Poemul românesc în proză, București: Editura 100+1 Gramar, Zamfirescu, M., , București: Editura Minerva, 1984.

Anghel,BIBLIOGRAPHY Dimitrie, Versuri și proză NOTES Anghel, Dimitrie, Poezii și proză 1 1 Dimitrie Anghel, Poezii și proză , București:Cometa Editura Albatros, 1989. 18. , București: Editura Andreas Print, 2010. 2 . (București: Editura Andreas Print, 2010), 3 Ibid, 11. Boldea,Anghel, Dimitrie,I., De la Șt.modernism Octavian laIosif, postmodernism , București: Editura Librăriei 4 Ibid, 12.25. SOCEC, 1908. Ibid. , Târgu–Mureș: Editura Boldea, I., Teme și variațiuni, Ed. EuroPress, 2012, Digital Edition. 56 Ibid, 7. Bote UniversităMarino, L.,ții „PetruSimbolismul Maior”, românesc2011. 7 Ibid, 12. 8 Curs de poezie (principii, București: de estetică) Editura pentru Ibid, 6. Literatură, 1966. 910 Ibid, 24.25. Călinescu, George, Istoria literaturii române , București: Ed. 11 Ibid, 17. 2003.Universal Dalsi, 1998. 12 Ibid, 21. 13 Ibid, 10. Călinescu, George, Dimitrie Anghel , București: Editura Semne, 14 Ibid, 6. Dorcescu, E., Poetica non–imanenței Ibid, 7. Cioculescu,line, 2008. Șerban, , București: Editura Publicom, 1945. 16 Ibid, 8. , Semănătorul București: Editura on– 15 Evseev, I. Dicționarde simboluri și arhetipuri culturale 17

18 Studii de istoria limbii, Timișoara: române Ibid, 8.25. literareAmarcord, 1994. 1920 Ibid, 14.9. Golopenția–Eretescu, Sanda, M. Mancaș, 21 Ibid. . București: Editura pentru Literatură, 1969. 352 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES

22 Ibid, 8. 23 Ibid, 10. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1435174 24 Ibid, 12. Ibid, 16.

2526 Ibid, 18. 27 Ibid, 11. 28 Ibid, 23. 2930 Ibid, 16.19. Strategies for Holistic Social Development 31 Ibid, 17. 32 Ibid, 14. Grigore Nicu, PhD (cand.) 33 Ibid, 27. Bucharest University, Romania 34 Ibid. [email protected] Ibid, 18.

3536 Ibid, 21. 37 38 Ibid, 16. social development for the contemporary society. A context in Ibid, 19. ABSTRACT:which understanding This paper aimsand todealing emphasize with thesuch significance a complex of subjectholistic 3940 Ibid, 17. requires that there are a number of areas that determine a holistic Ibid, 15. 41 Ibid, 23. social development. These include: how technology is used, the 42 integration of technology in the learning process, which leads to 43 Ibid, 16. the development of students, the promotion of science and culture Ibid, 15. 44 Ibid, 20. as factors generating personal, community and social development. Ibid, 28. These areas lead to developing ways in which people communicate 4546 with each other, both within the narrow school context, for example, 47 Ibid. 17. as well as within the broader context of society, with implications for Ibid, 19. 48 E. Dorcescu, (Poetica non–imanenței the relationship between individuals, their involvement in society line, 2008), 10. and, implicitly, the design of strategies for holistic social development. . Semănătorul București: Editura on–

KEY WORDS: Holistic social development; sustainability; technology; students; science; culture; strategies e are living in a growing society, in a broad process of development and adaptation, which inevitably implies a learning process. Thus, we also look at the holistic development of society by referring to strategies that help us achieve these goals. Therefore, we do not consider it, as some people might think, just Wan educational development, given that it is a learning process, but talking about a holistic development, an integrated one combining also an economic, financial and social one of an individual. We are

several aspects and elements. We have several factors that together lead to specific strategies that need customized approaches. 353 354 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Nicu: Strategies for Holistic Social Development

355 aims to emphasize the importance that the subject, the theme of knowledge, abilities, and values. This term of holistic development holisticStarting social developmentfrom the above–mentioned has for contemporary aspects, society. this Aresearch context isWe understood thus speak as of a an complex integral but and integrated integrated development development in termsof skills, of in which understanding and dealing with such a complex subject requires that there are a number of areas that determine a holistic that the skills and knowledge necessary for sustainable development social development. These include how technology is used, the arethe acquiredperson, the over human the coming being anddecades, the society. so that We people come and to thesociety fact integration of technology in the learning process, which leads to the development of students, the promotion of science and culture In this way, we have an integration, but also an interpenetration as factors generating personal, community and social development. ofas aseveral whole keyco–operate elements towards that lead, this asholistic we have development already mentioned, of society. These areas lead to developing ways in which people to sustainable development in the future as a society, to personal communicate with each other, both within the narrow school development if we refer to individuals or small groups. At country context, for example, as well as within the broader context of society, level, one of the purposes of this development is to ensure prosperity. with implications for the relationship between individuals, their In order for this concept of holistic social development to work, involvement in society and, implicitly, the design of strategies for we must understand the mechanisms that govern it. Thus, we talk holistic social development. Thus, a number of essential aspects are achieved, which play a crucial role in the holistic development of society, starting from whatabout has the happened specific capacities over time thatwith childrenancient cultures naturally and accumulate civilizations. in the basic cell of the society that is the family, continuing through their first years of childhood. We are talking about a similarity to the educational institutions, whether we are talking about the civilizations. At a careful analysis we observe a hierarchy of society gymnasium, high school or university level and reaching the thatSome implies of the a most common, powerful unitary were development, the Egyptian, which Greek also andimplies Roman that community. In all these segments, a crucial role is played by science, in society was also different. Some were learning as disciples, others the aspect of communication that becomes a key element in the werethe members learning of the society meaning have of specificphilosophy, roles others and duties. were philosophers Involvement discussionculture and of the holistic development social development of communication. strategies. We come back to The mentioned aspects are highlighted in the everyday life of Romania through those Roma communities living on the poverty thewho concept were passing of democracy, on the aknowledge word that isthey made had up gained. of a demo What that is line who do not have access to social protection systems, specialized refersinteresting to the in people this context and kratos is the that model refers of to Greecepower. Bywhere joining we thesehave medical assistance or the possibility to follow a classical educational two words, the meaning of democracy refers to the leadership of system. the people, to direct leadership directly exercised by the people It follows that a holistic development strategy of society must in this case, a direct democracy because the people exercise their also take into account such situations, and such communities. As a will directly. A similarity from this point of view is also found in the Church as an institution that can be compared to a certain extent their social holistic development. It is necessary to design programs thatconsequence, aim at reducing their socio–economic social gaps and situation a holistic constitutes development a barrier at the to at different levels of knowledge, working together for development community level. andwith achieving a society. a We common have people good. with different capacities and gifts, The concept of holistic development is a relatively new one, which is why it is necessary to present some information about it. person, we mean integrating the environment and the emotional, When we refer to holistic concept as integrating the whole 356 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Nicu: Strategies for Holistic Social Development

357 psychological, physiological, ethical and familial aspect. The b history, which has happened over a longer time frame. But not only aboutut also a relativismmoral. We of draw moral attention ideas, of to truths the fact in athat certain today sphere it tends of that,above–mentioned but when we aspectstalk about refer this to bothconcept contemporary of holistic development and person’s knowledge.more and more Falseness to a society is noticed without in the genuine fact that values. although We stupidityare talking is with application to the social development of a human being, we proclaimed emphatically, it tends to suppress only the fundamental are considering its development in an integral person, one that truth revealed by the Bible. Although some people assert that the integrates in its evolution capacities from a multitude of domains, truth is universal, it does not take account of the same measure in of which we enunciate:

the field of exact sciences. We are rhetorically asking why they are fighting only for a new man without self–conscience and faith in (1) temperament, personality and self–views; justGod, asand education do not apply has. the Thus, same in measure order for in today’s other areas young of existence.people to (2) cognition; becomeBelief tomorrow’s in God should trained have itspeople role in capable holistic socialof supporting development the (3) emotions; holistic development of society, they need to invest in education. The (4) volition; same thing is also required for society, to support education in the (5) physical; conditions in which during the youth, people accumulate not only (6) social/interpersonal; (8) citizenship. information, but also skills. To be able to thrive as adults, children (7) moral character; and and young people need a good environment to provide them with These are all areas of great importance for a unitary, holistic the appropriate learning experiences. that we are talking about a combination of areas from different development of a person in society. What is really interesting is spheres, namely from moral, religious, even physical, mental and be to identifyWe have those several capacities models that that can show be developed, us the steps some towardsof which achieving the holistic social development process. A first step would development that starts from the temperament, personality and step aims at conducting a inquiry on the research available to thesocial opinions development of man, suchgoes asthrough citizenship. the emotional We have and a progressivemoral part, continuecan be directed examining through the contexts a guided in learning which people process. as individuals The follow–up will reaching the unitary development from a physical point of view, as use their capabilities. well as the integration of the person thus formed into the society as a citizen. Citizenship is the element that shows man’s dependence on have a holistic development of youth, one that, although it also society, interaction between the human sphere and the social sphere. contemplatesWe have contemporarya holistic development aspects, nevertheless of society, and does within not depart it we Evolution, the development of the human person does not happen at once, but it is a learning process that begins in childhood, but creating over the existing one that allows young people to continues in adolescence and reaches maturity with the man who from classical values. We do not want to create a new framework, better understands society, those around him. The success of this development that must be matched with values. If youth prosper only development requires a personalized and customized educational fromacquire the new material knowledge, point of to view, thrive. it is We only have through an object, the accumulation a long–term program for each individual situation. Although maturity does not of perennial values and does not thrive spiritually by acquiring ask what society does for you, but what you do for it, however, for eternal values. That is why it is important in this article to move from a person to provide what is best, the society must have previously assumptions to objectives. Through objectives in connection with invested in its development from an educational point of view, the holistic development of youth, we have in mind both the human 358 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Nicu: Strategies for Holistic Social Development

359 by which this goal can be achieved is the accumulation of knowledge considering a physical, psychological, but also a spiritual component. Thusand the we refersocial to component. the physical Withinintegrity the of younghuman people, component to the fact we thatare progressive learning through experience, learning from successes they are whole people recognized as such by the people around them. andthrough failures. education. In this process, We have people, a process especially that youngtakes intopeople, account must Moreover, we consider here not only a physical development, but also be supported and encouraged, they must be excited about what they an educational one, as they acquire certain values through education. are doing, have positive thinking and trust that they will be able to Education that correlates with the spiritual principles extracted complete what they have started, what they intended to do. from the Bible leads to ethical behavior and the person also shows issues, it is necessary that the holistic development approaches of (2) Restorative and Rehabilitative psychological integrity. Taking into account the above–mentioned holistic development strategy for both young people and society. The restoration and rehabilitation of a person implies an active youth should have a specific form. That is why we need to have a involvement, but also a great deal of tactfulness in the successful

Holistic Development Strategies theyaccomplishment have been punished. of this objective. Once the punishmentWe are talking has about been reached,people who the Holistic social development needs a strategy because we have personshave been in inquestion conflict must with bestate reintegrated laws, have intoviolated society, them, and and moreover for this principles to be respected, services to be implemented and these they must acquire the correct values. The fact that they paid for cover various areas such as education, which we have already their mistake does not mean they are rehabilitated. The stigma of mentioned, personal development, therapeutic intervention, condemnation, the suspicion and the need for them to prove that cultural aspects highlighted by different activities which can be they have understood their mistake, have taken the consequences it is important in the strategy of holistic development of a society, and want to be part of the society by accepting its rules remain. asrelated is sport to entrepreneurialand reintegration development. into society. ReasonsAlthough for it isreintegration a new field, of a person into society can be multiple, but the process itself is that these people are integrated they are no longer marginalized Involvement can also be beneficial for society by the fact quite important. Another aspect that we bring to the fore when or no longer withdraw from society, from the attributions and speaking of holistic development is the spiritual one. There can’t responsibilities of a citizen to get involved again in illegal things. be a complex development without an anchoring of faith in the values stated in the Book of Books. Therefore, a number of services people. The Church can and must also get involved. A truly new man, a need to be developed to achieve the proposed objectives. changedThere are person several is just ONGs the involvedone transformed in this sphereby the Christian to support message. these That’s why some Christians are putting into practice, sometimes even at the risk of their lives, the command to love their neighbor. (1) Developmental in Nature

Developmental in nature refers to a normal development of a person (3) Effective Communication from a physical, emotional and spiritual point of view. People should be helped to broaden their knowledge horizons, develop and grow Communication is an area that is increasingly important in by acquiring knowledge and developing skills. One of the procedures contemporary society. Man has this important feature received 360 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Nicu: Strategies for Holistic Social Development 361 from the divinity to communicate. He communicates in the family, by case basis. It is something similar to what is being attempted at school, at work, in society. That is why it is important for him to learn to communicate and at the same time to relate. education, but here we are referring to the child as an individual, as People have communicated in various ways since ancient atoday member in the of society,pre–university we are considering education system, a person a whostudent–centered needs a social times and we remain astonished today by the richness of the forms of communication. It is imperative that a person knows how to can take into account several stages, several areas to choose from. communicate their feelings, thoughts, opinions and at the same Startingorientation. from We the are main talking purpose about a of multidisciplinary ensuring a complex, approach unitary, that time be able to support them regardless of gender, ethnicity, race holistic development of the individual and society, we will develop or level of education. It is worth mentioning that what we have programs to support those who need it. outlined above are criteria and issues that often remain at the stage of desideratum because it is clear that, unless a person is for the counselor, but moreover, an interdisciplinary approach can natively equipped with very good communication ability, the level of be providedWe will seekby offering to identify spiritual the opportunities help, choosing that the are educational,appropriate education has a very important role in the communication process. professional, and if necessary even psychological support. is, only one person transmits information but is a complex system of these transformations and transitions from one system to another, involvingOn the other two hand, or more communication people, one of is which not a one–sidedis a transmitter process, and that the We live today in a constantly changing world and the rapidity other or at least one of them is a receiver. Effective communication and ethical value can bully the individual, and the ultimate goal of also involves the transmission of a clear message, which requires ensuringfrom a set holistic of values development, to another asset a ofwhole values of orsociety, even mustnon–moral be to understanding of the message and ensuring that it is transmitted provide support. and received by the person or institution to which it is intended without suffering disturbance. educational levels is recommended with the ultimate goal of meeting At the individual level, education is also considered, because the individual,That is why the a specializedcitizen and and the specific person approach by offering to programs,school or it has the role of helping to form a way of understanding and professional orientation programs. analyzing information. It can happen that someone is communicating People need to be offered alternatives, which also provide something and the receiver does not understand the message or them with a higher degree of security. It is also a real help in holistic development as an individual and in the holistic development of society. That’s why people need to be integrated into society at the beingdecode important. it properly. When talking about communication, we mean micro or macro level, but also encouraged to express themselves. both verbal and non–verbal communication, each of these two ways They have to become a group, without losing the individuality of any of those who organize themselves like this. (4) Multi–Disciplinary Approch to Programs The focus of holistic development is on integration, interconnection, collaboration and not on marginalization, on offering viable and sustainable programs. applicability, we move to the multidisciplinary approach of programs. Another element to be remembered is the cultural one. Culture ThisFrom type effective of approach, communication, like the other a field ones that we has have a primarily referred topersonal proves in turn is an element, but also a factor contributing to the objectives. its importance when it comes to the holistic development of society. In turn, communication integrates with education, sometimes it can even be confused, but also with technology or management. The

We are talking about a custom multidisciplinary approach on a case 362 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES management term has long passed from the purely technical sphere and has even reached the class of students that can be organized DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1438530 taking into account a specific management. Conclusion

The holistic development of society is a simple appearance, but The Use of Movies in Youth Ministry: A Different Approach to the gone through the integration of education, culture, management, andin reality all this it tocovers provide a multitude a consistent of other organizational areas and supportissues. We to meethave Image–Driven Culture the needs of a society in the process of change. The ultimate goal is to build a holistic, durable and sustainable society that provides a Teodor–Ioan Colda, PhD Baptist Theological Institute, Bucharest, Romania [email protected] them with options as well as security. Beyond all this, the most importantchild–friendly, aspect youth–friendly is that of eternal development hope and environment security that to can provide only be assured by one person, unique in His being, referring in this case ABSTRACT: The purpose of this paper is to once again explore the to the Creator of the Universe. use of movies in a church context youth ministry, with an accent on integrating adjacent aspects, relevant to the topic, as: pop culture, the diverse benefits which can be achieved. The author will do so by different way of integrating movies as a resource for youth ministry, ._____. Building Human Capacities in Least Developed Countries to Promote byimage–driven using them culture, in the counseling generational process research. of ministering Finally he arguesto troubled for a BIBLIOGRAPHYPoverty Eradication and Sustainable Development, UNESCO, 2011. youth. ._____. Educație pentru o societate a cunoașterii: Cadrul de referință al noului Curriculum național. Studii de politici educaționale youth KEY WORDS: movies, youth ministry, teenagers, pop culture, troubled A Holistic Approach to Sustainable, Chișinău: CommunityInstitutul de Development Politici Publice, in the 2015. Developing World, Blekinge Institute n the past decades theologians have manifested an interest in Al–Dahir A, Kang HJ, Bisley N., I 1 or religion Human Resource Management: 2 This interest also made its way in youth ministry (our area Gainingof Technology: A Competitive Karlskrona, Advantage Sweden, 2009. ofstudying interest forthe this relationship paper), but between in a more theology practical and manner. film Different CraigNoe R, R,Hollenbeck Bittel L., J, TrainingGerhart B, and Wright Development P., Handbook, New York: youthand film. ministry theoreticians were preoccupied with the use of , Boston: McGraw–Hill, 2006. movies in youth ministry3 (or preaching and teaching ministry in Training and technology: A Handbook for HRD Professionals. general).4 A brief observation made by Barsotti and Johnston seems McGraw–Hill, 1967. accurate enough to be worth mentioning here: “Theology is being Kearsley G., Mondy R, Noe R., Personnel: The Management of Human Resources, portrayed in and will be retained from the movies we see each week Wesley, MA: Addison–Wesley Publishing Company Inc., 1984. at the cineplex. Though late to recognize this fact, the church is now Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1981. awakening to the idea that Hollywood is providing an important

363 364 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Colda: The Use of Movies in Youth Ministry

365 resource for its teaching, preaching, youth ministry, and outreach in youth ministry even in a traditional or conservative Romanian activities.” This observation brings forth one of the causes of the use Evangelical church. of movies in5 ministry in general and in youth ministry in particular. The other cause is a cultural one. It seems that at certain points a Christian leader, preacher or youth worker can hardly avoid using Movies: tools for youth ministry movies in ministry at least for the sake of relevancy. Sometimes a talk or a sermon could not be appealing for the adolescents for various reasons. At times the church youth can have Youth Culture: as Image–Driven the feeling that they are overwhelmed with sermons. It is a good opportunity for the youth leader to take a break from preaching 6 and choose alternative ways to share the message which is needed. driven culture7 8 “where story and An alternative way is watching a movie with the youth group in the metaphorThe culture are of at the the Millennials heart of spirituality” and Post–Millennials—as stated byis anJ. Roberto. image– youth meeting setting. Probably choosing a blockbuster is not the And movies always (or present media–driven stories and culture) metaphors9 that appeal to the best idea, because there is a major probability that the youth might have already seen the movie in cinemas. Also, blockbusters tend to points out, that “movies are a powerful tool for shaping people’s be highly entertaining, especially action movies, and lack to offer public. In this context it is important to bear in mind,10 as Van Gelder something more besides that. Often lower budget movies prove to 11 is be more instructive than blockbusters. To give just an example: Bang approachedperceptions ofdifferently reality in by our Christians image–driven in relation culture.” to young people. Bang You’re Dead For theThis Catholics characteristic it seems thereof today’s is a need culture, and also image–driven, an opportunity to pressure in the high school environment, tells the story of a male emphasize the sacraments as means of grace by using their outward teenager who overcomes, released his in 2002;anger a and movie bitterness about bulling achieved and afterpeer signs.12 For Protestants and also for Evangelicals things seemed to he experienced bulling as a high school student. Also, slightly older take the form of a challenge, as Todd E. Johnson observes: “Though movies can be more inspiring than newer ones, because they show a made back in 2002], Protestant Christianity remains image poor live in, though they can still relate to the life situations presented in inwe its are worship. becoming Protestants an image–driven have developed culture [thea cottage observation industry was of thosequite differentmovies. For world example: than the Dead world Poets Millennials Society and Post–Millenialls

including aspects as: friendship, trust and betrayal,, released inspiring in 1989 models (but Perhapsmaterial theseobjects are of an faith attempted outside compensation the worship contextfor the absence(from fish of the action is set in 1959); a movie about the complex life of teenagers, visuallogos on images the back in our of worship.” automobiles13 Probably to WWJD the bracelets reluctance for manifested children). by Protestants and Evangelicals toward images in worship is so watchingor mentors, the conflict entire movie between not generations, just the trailer dreams, or a selected love and video death.14— is importantWhen using to prepare movies in youthadvance. ministry—and M. Theisen Ioffers argue importantin favor of is unheard of to use clips or movies in regular worship services advice on how to prepare: “The key to the success of this strategy (especiallypowerful that in ina traditionalsome parts or of conservativethe World (for Evangelical example Romania) setting). is to choose the correct movie.15 If the young people think the movie This is not the case anymore at least during youth meetings. Now, is beneath them, they may be bored by it and miss the point. If as already stated, a youth worker can hardly avoid using movies they think the movie is above them, they may be disappointed and it will lose its impact.”16 Even more important is to “Select a video 366 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Colda: The Use of Movies in Youth Ministry 367 based on the age of the intended audience members and the types through movies the youth leader can be informed about different of relationships and issues that they would identify with. It should problems that teenagers or young people may be facing in different have rich and meaningful relationships, and it should be free of life contexts as: school, family, friends and relationships.22 objectionable sex scenes, extreme violence, and constant offensive I was personally informed in the matter of identifying problems language that would make it unsuitable to show to a group of young that teenagers can face in school or family environment, problems people.”17 Previewing a movie is very important, because it is the that need to be addressed at least through counseling, by diligently watching a series that presented all sorts of juvenile social cases: Judging Amy starting point of the preparation. Watch the movie diligently and series is focused on three major plans: the personal life of a juvenile take notes (focus on characters and their relationships; poignant , a six season series aired between 1999 and 2005. The forlines a andbreak). descriptions Review notesof symbolic and develop scenes; setsfind aof halfway information point thatand questionsseems to befor a discussions. natural split It of is theimportant film and to usehave the information halfway point and court judge, Amy Gray (interpreted by Amy Brenneman), who, questions to present before the youth group watches the movie. together with her pre–adolescent daughter, after a divorce still lives As Theisen suggests: “Develop one or two questions to plant in the with her mother, Maxine Gray (interpreted by Karle Warren), who is young people’s minds before they view the video so that they can be a very skilled social worker; then there is the consuming professional attentive to people and issues you wish to discuss.”18 Also prepare thenlife of there Judge is Gray also whothe not is daily less consuming confronted professional with sometimes life of shocking Maxine questions to present at the halfway mark of the movie and questions cases of child neglect and child abuse or juvenile delinquency; and to present at the end. passing the professional barriers.23 From personal experience,19 in general, movies can be a tool in who tries to baldly solve difficult social cases, sometimes over 2) Watching movies and the benefits in the relationship between the youth leader and the youth group youth ministrygroup (at in an three individual directions: level for or the at benefita collective of the level), youth and leader, for for the benefit of the relationship between the youth leader and the Movies can be a tool used to involve the teenagers in the personal life of the youth leader. By taking some of them along with the benefit1) Watching of the members movies and of the the group benefits (individually of the youth or collectively).leader quite helpful in developing stronger relationships with the youth, buthis familyalso trust to the and movies, genuineness. for example,24 This the approach youth leader can also can be find a toolthis movies, but also music, books, places etc.),20 can help the leader to in discipleship and mentoring the future leaders of the youth group. build Knowingcloser relationships the specific with movies them. teenagers In this way like the (and movies not justcan The youth leader can also be taught by movies on how to approach become a means of getting to better know the (pop) culture of the the younger generation in order to gain trust and develop a more teenagers in general, but also the culture of the group in particular.21 Often being involved in ministry brings a certain level of isolation. A classic movie which I recommend for every youth leader, regardingefficient youth the importance ministry. of relationship between the leader and the group in terms of trust and genuineness, is Sleepers (starring tracesAt some of point their it ethos is going could to be bring difficult important to understand insight forthe theculture youth of Jason Patric, Brad Pitt, Robert De Niro, Dustin Hoffman, Vittorio leaderthe adolescence. and could inform Watching his understandinga good movie which regarding presents the struggles, relevant New the habits and other aspects of life regarding the church youth. Also York Times Gassmann and Kevin Bacon), released in 1996 and based on bestselling Lorenzo Carcaterra’s 1995 novel of the same 368 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Colda: The Use of Movies in Youth Ministry

369 an American legal crime drama movie which tells the story bullies other students at school is watching the movie alone may of four25 childhood friends that face the consequences of a gone wrong or may not identify himself with one of the bullies depicted in the prank,name; being sentenced to detention in a state facility for boys. The abuse suffered during the detention period changed their lives and important for him. There is a scene in the movie where the bullies, friendship forever. After 14 years the friends have the chance to take mainlymovie. Becausethe school’s he is football the bully team, and and not the the bullied, bullied; Trevor, the issue watch is not in strike, in court, they need the help of Father Robert Carillo, a local took place in the school on an everyday basis. All of them are priestrevenge in on the the neighborhood guards that systematically in which the abused friends them. grew For up thein, finalwho confrontedthe principal’s with office the same a video story. tape Just depicting after both cases parties of bulling are exposed which together to the same reality which now they can share as spectators, principles and is willing to give false testimony in court so that the some of the bullies understand the gravity of their acts and show boysremained can have a father their figure vengeance. to the boys. The priest is ready to bend his remorse. Because of the drama he suffered, Trevor became bitter and tried to fabricate a tough image for himself, going so far as to 3) Watching movies and the benefits of the members of the group make a false bomb threat on his high school. As an outcast his only support came from one of his teacher, Val Duncan (interpreted by Faith or moral topics can easily be taught by using movies. Tom Cavanagh), who noticed that something happened with Trevor Movies can be “a starting point for a discussion about Christian and tried to reach him. He does that by asking Trevor to take the main values that may or may not be present in the movies.”26 The advice part in a play called Bang Bang You’re Dead, depicting a teenager of C. J. Semmel is to: “Take advantage of youth’s interest in movies to consumed by rage who is haunted by his parents and some school colleagues who he had shot dead. In this way Trevor is challenged of current popular movies.”27 It could be said that, in a sense, movies canprovide substitute them with a lesson a few or observations a sermon, if and the reflections message of on the the movie themes is On a personal note, I used this movie a couple of years ago while clear enough and if the movie itself appeals to the youth. tryingto find to his solve true a selfproblem and to which be saved occurred from in his my anger church and youth bitterness. group. A member of the group was always made fun of by the others. Any watching it individually, because the adolescents can relate together interventions from my behalf as a youth leader to straighten up this Watching a movie together as a group is quite different from faulty behavioral attitude of some members of the group seemed to home is a highly individualistic and subjective activity. So are the be failing. After watching the movie together with the entire group conclusionsto the same which story, one as homogenousdraws after watching group. Watchingit alone. But a watchingmovie at the problem was solved. a movie together with other friends can help relate to the multiple stories which are told in the movie and relate to those different A somewhat different approach: To give an example from Bang Bang You’re Dead. After watching the use of movies in ministering to troubled youth thestories movie which alone other the members adolescent of whothe group others identified make fun with. of or who is bullied at school can easily identify himself with the main character The movies which I used as examples share in a sense a common of the story, Trevor Adams (interpreted by Ben Foster), who from aspect depicted in different ways: suffering. This is a recurrent theme the best student of the school becomes the black sheep of the school in many movies because it is one of the most common realities of after he was trashed by the football team in the high school cafeteria life. C. Detweiler makes an interesting observation that explains while the entire crowd was laughing. In the same time if one who

the affinity for movies of today’s generation in relation to suffering: 370 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Colda: The Use of Movies in Youth Ministry 371

reader or audience occupies a position in which the detachment… offers a crucial vantage point for securing knowledge and directing relief.”30 holdsWe turn our todemons pop culture at bay for when a couple we can’tof hours. quite It offers name some our distancedilemmas. or We perspective, may go to athe chance movies to worryas a way about to buy somebody time. It Van Gelder’s observation shades even more light into the morematter: holistic “Needless version to say, of reality in a subjective tends to image–driven,bias interpretation postmodern toward vicarious experience where we can enter into the suffering of culture, the powerful character of film as a medium to present31 a anotherelse’s quandaries. and perhaps The gain best controlfilms and or televisionmastery over series our offer own a the viewer regardless of the intent of the director or author.” Or struggles. Surely Jesus offers the most vicarious example of taking on our suffering, entering in our world and our pain. passions, interests, and needs. Our favorite shows offer something Pop culture invites us to identify with a character. It is an weagain, need—from in Detweiler’s surrogate words: friends “Our and pop family culture to ahabits laugh orreflect a cry.” our32 opportunity to see ourselves in someone else’s story.28 Based on the observations that “postmodern culture… tends to bias interpretation towards the viewer,” that in pop culture “shows offer something we need,” and that through movies “we stepping back from our own suffering so that we could somehow can enter into the suffering of another and perhaps gain control or understandIn other words, it and movies better cope become with it.a meansThey are of a reflection;short refuge, a away break of mastery over our own struggles,” I dared to use movies in one on one from our sorrows, while contemplating someone else’s problems. ministering to troubled youth. The movie Good Will Hunting, released This should not be surprising. Suffering is often the means which drives the plot of a story. A brief explanation from literary theory may be useful at this point, an explanation from the way in which hasin 1997, been starring suggested Ben by Affleck, other authors.Matt Damon,33 I will Stellan make Skarsgård, use of someone Robin Aristotle viewed the link between plot and suffering. D. B. Morris else’sWilliams, summary proved34 to to be remind useful about in this the respect. movie: Its use in youth ministry that tragedies must include pathos, suffering alone does not create Good Will Hunting is the tragedy.explains: It “Plot, is the foraction, Aristotle or plot, is thatthe soulcreates of tragedy. a structure While within he insistswhich story of a troubled young South Boston man who works as For those unfamiliar with the film, the pathos makes sense. Plot, then, for Aristotle, is what imparts to a janitor at MIT. A working class genius with a photographic suffering its tragic status. . . . Plot, we might say, is somehow crucial to memory who has mastered art, literature, history, and the generic framework within which both novels and tragedies place upon a problem a professor had left for his students to puzzle human suffering.” Suffering lays also at the heart of the Christian overphilosophy and quickly but whose but anonymouslyspecial gift is mathematics,solves it. The Will professor, comes 29 history, beginning with Adam and Eve. The coming of Christ into the identity and takes him under his wing, rescues him from worldmeta–narrative. directly linked Sin and with suffering the problem represent of sin the and plot suffering. of the humanThis is beingGerald sentenced Lambeau, to once jail for a prodigybarroom himself,brawling, discovers and makes Will’s him the reason why from all the actions present in a movie we probably a member of his mathematical team. To deal with his antisocial best relate to suffering. In the words of D. B. Morris, “Suffering is an action. It is the outcome of a series of preceding acts. Indeed, this behavior, the professor enlists as Will’s therapist a community may lead to the possibility of personal and social change. Although college psychology instructor Sean McGuire (Played by Robin Williams), who is also35 the MIT professor’s Harvard roommate. theplot–centered protagonist view of a holds tragedy the promiseor novel ofmay cognitive be inextricably clarifications trapped that The two vie for Will. within a structure of action too intricate or complex to reverse, the 372 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Colda: The Use of Movies in Youth Ministry 373

I thought the movie might be helpful in the counseling process BIBLIOGRAPHY (which is not totally unheard of)36 of a troubled male teenager, member of the church youth group. I believed this could be possible Barsotti, Catherine M. and Robert K. Johnston. Finding God in the Movies: because my expectations were that the teenager could easily draw 33 Films of Real Faith Belknap, Bryan. Group’s Blockbuster Movie Illustrations raised without his parents who got divorced while he was very Saint Mary’s Press, 2002.. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2004. young.some parallels He was alsobetween a very Will’s intelligent story andyoung his man, own. though Like Will, his hegrades was ______.Group’s Blockbuster Movie Illustrations: The Return. Winona,. Loveland, MN:

37 did not ______. Group’s Blockbuster Movie Illustrations: The Sequel did not reflect that. He did not trust adults in a similar way in which CO:MN: Group Saint Mary’sPublishing, Press, Inc., 2006. 2006. . Winona, Will (was diagnosed with reactive attachment38 My disorder)hope was that the The Continuum Companion to Religion and Film. trust adults, so it was sometimes difficult for me to reach to him as Blizek, William L., editor. it was for Sean McGuire, Will’s therapist. Bonnemaison, Joël, edited by Chantal-Blanc-Pamard, Maud Lasseur and ChristelLondon, Thibault,New York: translated Continuum, by 2009.Josée Pénot-Demetry. teenager could relate not just with Will’s struggles, bitterness and Culture and which emerges at the end of the movie when all things seem to have Space: Conceiving a New Cultural Geography. London, New York: I. pain, but also with Will’s story positive outcome and with the hope came quite relieved to the next pastoral counseling session (or Carcaterra, Lorenzo. Sleepers probablyworked out a pedagogy happily for session). Will. After He viewing admitted the that movie, he could the teenager identify Cardwell,B. Tauris, Mike 2005. and Cara Flanagan. Psychology AS: The Complete 39 40 Companion . New York, Toronto: Ballantine Books, 1995. I do not to suggest that a movie could solve a teenager’s Dean, Kenda Kreasy, editor. OMG: A Youth Ministry Handbook. Nashville, problemhimself with or cure Will a and person. his story41 But (which, using theagain, movie is not in unheardministering of). to TN: Abingdon. Cheltenham, Press, 2010. UK: Nelson Thomas Ltd, 2005. done next in order to give him the best care I was able to give. Also the Adoptive Youth Ministry: Integrating Emerging Generations into Detweiler, Craig. “Screen Time: A Window into Teens’ Dreams.” In moviea troubled proved teenager to be angot encouragement me some time tofor figure the teenager out what and should helped be the Family of Faith Academic, 2016. him to overcome the depressive episode he was dealing with. After Dowd, James J. “Understanding, edited by Social Chap Mobility Clark. Grand Through Rapids, the MI: Movies.” Baker a couple of more meetings with the teenager I decided to send him In Cinematic Sociology: Social Life in Film, edited by Jean-Anne to a professional Christian psychotherapist. Sutherland and Kathryn Feltey. Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Though movies might have a multiple use in youth ministry, Esquith, Rafe. Teach Like Your Hair’s On Fire: The Methods and madness ministering to troubled youth. A movie or a series can make a youth InsideSingapore, Room Washington 56. New York: DC: Penguin Sage, 2013. Books, 2007. leaderI find that more movies aware can of thebe usedproblems quite the successfully members inof thethe areachurch of Fields, Doug and Eddie James, Videos That Teach youth group might be facing, and more diligently look for signs of ______. Videos That Teach 2 . Youth Specialties; Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1999. or a refuge from the bitter reality that teenagers may experience Zondervan, 2002. ______. . Youth Specialties; Grand Rapids, MI: ondistress a daily in basis the lives because of teenagers. of different A movie life situations. can definitely But a bemovie a break can Videos That Teach 3 Zondervan, 2004. also offer encouragement and hope. In order to achieve this is very ______. Videos That Teach 4. Youth Specialties; Grand Rapids, MI: important to choose a movie with a positive ending and with heroes . Youth Specialties; Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005. that manage to find their way through life. 374 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Colda: The Use of Movies in Youth Ministry

375 Psychiatry and the Cinema. In Josh McDowell’s Youth Ministry Handbook, compiled by Sean Gabbard, Glen O.Postmodern and Krin Semiotics: Gabbard. Material Culture and the Forms Menconi, Al. “Helping Youth Handle the Influence of Entertainment.” ofWashington, Postmodern DC Life / London: American Psychiatric Press, Inc., 1999. Michener, Ronald T. Engaging Deconstructive Theology. London, New Halstead,Gottdiener, Jeremy. Mark. B. R. M. (Bathroom Reading Material) for Youth Workers. York:McDowell Routledge, & Ray Willey.2007. Nashville, TN: Word Publishing, 2000. . Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 1995. Mitchell, Jolyon and Sophia Marriage. Mediating Religion: Conversations 2014. in Media, Religion and Culture Hurley,Eugene, Neil P. Oregon:Theology Resource through FilmPublications, Wipf and Stock Publishers, Continuum, 2006. TV Shows That Teach: 100 TV . London/New York: T&T Clark moments to Get Teenagers Talking. New York: Harper & Row, 1970. In Social Suffering, edited by Arthur Kleinman, Veena Das, and James,MI: Eddie Zondervan, and Tommy 2008. Woodard. Morris, David B. “About Suffering: Voice, Genre, and Moral Community.” Johnston, Robert K. “Visual Christianity.”. Youth In The Specialties; Conviction Grand of Things Rapids, Not Seen: Worship and Ministry in the 21st Century, edited by Todd E. Newman,Margaret Michael. Lock. “From Berkeley Beats & toLos Arcs: Angeles, Towards CA: Universitya Poetics of of TelevisionCalifornia Narrative.”Press, 1997. In Literary Theory: An Anthology, edited by Julie Rivkin ______. Reframing Theology and Film Johnson (Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos Press, 2002. Ng, Eddy S. and Emma Parry. “Multigenerational Research in Human Klarke, Anthony J. and Paul S. Fiddes. .Flickering Grand Rapids, Images: Michigan: Theology Baker and Resource& Michael Ryan.Management,” Oxford: Wiley In Research Blackwell, in 2017). Personnel and Human FilmPublishing in Dialogue Group, 2007. Resources Management, edited by M. Ronald Buckley, Jonathan R. B. Kellner, Douglas. Media Culture: Cultural studies, Identity and Politics between the Modern. Oxford: and Regents the Postmodern Park College,. London, 2005. New York: Halbesleben, Anthony R. Wheeler, 1-10.Youth Research Ministry in Personnel Management and Tools:Human Everything Resources You Management, Need to Successful 34; Bingley, Manage UK: Emerald,and Administrate 2016). CommodityRoutledge, 1995. in Good Will Hunting.” In Imagining the Academy: Olson,Your Ginny, Youth Diane Ministry Elliot and Mike Work. Keroes,Higher Jo. Education “Picturing and Institutions: Popular Culture Intellectual, edited Workby Susan as Edgerton, Gift and Zondervan, 2001. Roberto, John. Becoming a. Church Youth of Specialties; Lifelong Learners Grand . Rapids, New London, Michigan: CT: Twenty-Third Publications, 2006. Kielbasa,Gunilla Marilyn. Holm, Total Toby Youth Daspit, Ministry: and Paul Ministry Farber. Resources New York, for London:Pastoral CareRoutledgeFalmer, 2005. In Argeşul ortodox 2011). Larson, Craig Brian and Andrew Zahn. Movie-Based Illustrations for Sellars,Rotaru, Jeff,Ioan-Gheorghe. editor. Light “Modalităţi Shining in dea Dark educare Place: a copiilor Discovering în familie Theology (I)” Preaching. Winona, and MN: Teaching: Saint Mary’s 101 Clips Press, to Show2004. or Tell through Film. Eugene,, X, No. OR: 516, Pickwick (Curtea Publications, de Argeș: Romania, 2012. MI: Zondervan, 2003. Semmel, Christina J. No Meeting Required: Strategies for Nongathered Larson, Craig Brian and Lori Quicke. More Movie-Based .Illustrations Grand Rapids, for Ministry with Young People Preaching and Teaching: 101 Clips to Show or Tell Zondervan, 2004. Learning in Dead Poets Society. Winona,, Good Will MN: Hunting Saint Mary’s and Patch Press, Adams 2007..” Lyden, John, editor. The Routledge Companion to Religion. Grand Rapids, and Film MI:. Spirou,In Penny. Teaching “O Captain, and Learning My Captain! on Screen: Robin Mediated Williams Pedagogies and Transformative, edited by Mark Readman. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016. Marsh, Clive. Theology Goes to the Movies. An Introduction to Critical Theisen, Michael. Youth Ministry Strategies: Creative Activities to ChristianAbingdon, Thinking Oxon: Routledge,. Abingdon, 2009. Oxon: Routledge, 2007. Complement the Horizons Curriculum. Horizons: A Senior Parish Mayward, Joel. Jesus Goes to the Movies: The Youth Ministry Film Guide,

Religion Program; Winona, MN: Saint Mary’s Press, 1998. San Diego: The Youth Cartel 2015. 376 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Colda: The Use of Movies in Youth Ministry 377

Preaching and Teaching: 101 Clips to Show or Tell Movies.” In Confident Witness-Changing World: rediscovering the 2004. Van Gelder,Gospel Craig. in North “Reading America Postmodern Culture through the Medium of Barsotti, Catherine M. and Robert K. Johnston,, Grand Finding Rapids, God in MI: the Zondervan, Movies: 33 Films5 of Real Faith , edited by Craig Van Gelder. Grand Rapids, 6 A useful summary on the research done on these generations and on (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2004), 12. MI / Cambridge, UK: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Religion and Film: An Introduction. London, New York: Emma Parry, “Multigenerational Research in Human Resource Management” in 1999). I. B. Tauris, 2007. Researchthe different in Personnel names given and Humanfor each Resources generation Management was produced, edited by Eddyby M. S.Ronald Ng & Wright. Melanie J.

NOTES Buckley,7 An important Jonathan researchR. B. Halbesleben, was done Anthony by Douglas R. Wheeler, Kellner, Media (Bingley, Culture: UK: Emerald, Cultural studies,2016), 1–10; Identity 34. and Politics between the Modern and the Postmodern, London,

1 Cf. Neil P. Hurley, Theology Through Film Postmodern Semiotics: Finding God in the Movies: 33 Films Material Culture and the Forms of Postmodern Life New York: Routledge, 1995. Also see: Mark Gottdiener, of Real Faith , New York: Harper & Row, 1970; , Oxford: Wiley–Blackwell, S.Catherine Fiddes, M.Flickering Barsotti Images:& Robert Theology K. Johnston, and Film in Dialogue, Oxford: Regents 8 “As is well known, a culture is transmitted through various media but, more 1995. , Grand Rapids, MI: TheologyBaker Books, Goes 2004;to the Movies.Anthony An J. Introduction Klarke & Paul to Critical Christian Thinking driven culture, or culture as spectacle, which at times takes the place of culture as importantly, the media themselves transform culture. We then speak of a media– ReframingPark College, Theology 2005; Cliveand Film Marsh, such—an evolution that is rarely synonymous with enrichment or achievement Light, Abingdon,Shining in aOxon: Dark Routledge,Place: Discovering 2007; Robert Theology K. Johnson, through Film, Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications,, Grand Rapids, 2012. Michigan: Baker Publishing Group, in the Greek sense of the term.” Joël Bonnemaison, edited(London, by Chantal–Blanc– New York: I. 2007;2 Jeff Sellars, ed., Mediating Religion: Conversations in Culture and Space: Conceiving a New Cultural Geography Pamard, Maud Lasseur & Christel Thibault, translated by Josée Pénot–Demetry, Media, Religion and Culture Cf. Jolyon MitchellReligion & Sophia and Marriage, Film: An Introduction, London, New York: I. B. Tauris, 2005), 69. , London/NewThe Routledge York: T&T Companion Clark Continuum, to Religion 2006; and story9 and metaphor are at the heart of spirituality.” John Roberto, Becoming “We used to live in a word based print culture. We now live in a world where FilmMelanie J. Wright, The Continuum a Church of Lifelong Learners CompanionB. Tauris, 2007; to Religion John and Lyden, Film ed., 2006), 8. 10 (New London, CT: Twenty–Third Publications, 3 , Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2009;Videos William That Teach L. Blizek, ed., , London, New York: Continuum,Videos 2009. That Teach 2 Movies” in Confident Witness–Changing World: rediscovering the Gospel in North Cf. Doug Fields & Eddie James, (Youth Specialties), Grand AmericaCraig Van Gelder, “Reading Postmodern Culture through the Medium of James,Rapids, Videos MI: Zondervan, That Teach 1999; 3 Doug Fields & Eddie James, , edited by Craig Van Gelder (Grand Rapids, MI / Cambridge, UK: William (Youth Specialties), Grand Rapids, MI:Videos Zondervan, That Teach 2002; 4Doug (Youth Fields Specialties) & Eddie 11 It is important to note that postmodern culture was also described as B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1999), 2, 39–66. (Youth Specialties), GrandGroup’s Rapids, Blockbuster MI: Zondervan, Movie media driven or web driven. See for example Ronald T. Michener, Engaging Illustrations2004; Doug Fields & Eddie James, Group’s Deconstructive Theology BlockbusterGrand Rapids, Movie MI: Zondervan, Illustrations: 2005; The Bryan Return Belknap, 12 (London, New York: Routledge, 2007), 5–6. , Winona, MN: Group’s Saint Mary’s Blockbuster Press, Movie 2002; Illustrations: Bryan Belknap, The Sequel, “For young people accustomed to a participatory, image–driven culture, the , Loveland, CO: Group Publishing,TV Kreasy Dean, editor, OMG: A Youth Ministry Handbook (Nashville, TN: Abingdon power of outward signs—active tangible, and personal—is significant.” Kenda ShowsInc., 2006; That BryanTeach: Belknap,100 TV moments to Get Teenagers Talking (Youth Specialties), Winona, MN: Saint Mary’s Press, 2006; Eddie JamesJesus & Goes Tommy to the Woodard, Movies: The 13 Robert K. Johnston, “Visual Christianity” in The Conviction of Things Not Press, 2010), 75. st Youth Ministry Film Guide Seen: Worship and Ministry in the 21 Century Grand4 Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2008; Joel Mayward,Movie–Based Illustrations for , edited by Todd E. Johnson (Grand Preaching and Teaching: 101, San Clips Diego: to Show The Youth or Tell Cartel 2015. 14 This way of watching movies is supported by some school teachers that use Rapids, MI: Brazos Press, 2002), 179. Cf. Craig Brian Larson & Andrew Zahn,More Movie–Based Illustrations for movies as additional materials in their teaching. Rafe Esquith, Teach Like Your , Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2003; Craig Brian Larson & Lori Quicke, 378 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES Colda: The Use of Movies in Youth Ministry

379 Hair’s On Fire: The Methods and madness Inside Room 56 (New York: Penguin 27 A way of doing it would be: “Instead of having the young people come together to watch a movie and discuss it afterward, simply send out study Theisen speaks about videos, referring to clips from movies. I am referring to guides for two to three movies per month and encourage young people to watch theBooks,15 entire 2007), movies. 89–92. Michael Theisen, Youth Ministry Strategies: Creative Activities the movies and think about how the topics are covered.” Christina J. Semmel, to Complement the Horizons Curriculum (Horizons: A Senior Parish Religion No Meeting Required: Strategies for Nongathered Ministry with Young People,

16 Theisen, E:48. 28 Adoptive Program;17 Theisen Winona, adds MN:“in Sainta church Mary’s setting,” Press, 1998), but thisE:48. last observation seems YouthWinona, Ministry: MN: Saint Integrating Mary’s Press, Emerging 2007. Generations into the Family of Faith, edited Craig Detweiler, “Screen Time: A Window into Teens’ Dreams” in between sanctuary, worship, youth ministry and life outside church walls or churchunnecessary programs. and Theisen may reflect also aadds: subjective “If the video thinking you towards select is therated relationship R, parents inby 29 SocialChap Clark Suffering (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2016), 71–72. should be informed as to the reason for the rating and invited to attend the video David B. Morris, “About Suffering: Voice, Genre, and Moral Community” viewing and discussion.” Theisen, E:48. 30 Morris, 37. , edited by Arthur Kleinman, Veena Das, & Margaret Lock 18 Theisen, E:48. (Berkeley31 & Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1997), 37. 32 Detweiler, 71.

1920 “It is critical that we stay informed about the types of entertainment that are 33 ItVan was Gelder, suggested 53. in relation to different topics (Action, Knowledge, Love, havingSee such Theisen, an impact E:48–49. on the lives of young people. Not knowing about our kids’ movies, TV, or music [and I would add the internet and the social media] sends a message loud and clear: We don’t care! If we are not informed, we communicate Obedience)34 See also and James different J. Dowd, Bible “Understanding passages (Luke Social 6:46–49, Mobility James Through 1:22, the 2:14–16). Movies” that we are not concerned about their lives.” Al Menconi, “Helping Youth Handle inFields, Cinematic 1: 9, 11, Sociology: 12, 16, 17. Social Life in Film Josh McDowell’s Youth Ministry Handbook, , edited by Jean–Anne Sutherland & 2000).the Influence of Entertainment” in Kathryn Feltey (Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore, Washington DC: compiled21 by Sean McDowell & Ray Willey (Nashville, TN: Word Publishing, inSage, 35Good 2013), Will 65–67.Hunting” in Imagining the Academy: Higher Education and Popular CultureJo Keroes, “Picturing Institutions: Intellectual Work as Gift and Commodity In otherYouth words: Ministry “Build aManagement reminder file Tools: to help Everything you keep You up withNeed their to Successful favorite Managethings—foods, and Administrate music, books, Your places Youth andMinistry movies.” Ginny Olson, Diane Elliot & 36 “The, edited power by of Susancinema Edgerton, is especially Gunilla in evidence Holm, Toby when Daspit, a patient and in Paul treatment Farber Mike Work, (New York, London: RoutledgeFalmer, 2005), 42.

22 (Youth Specialties; Grand Rapids, ArgeMichigan:şul Ortodox Zondervan, 2001), 35. reports feeling ‘cured’ by a film depicting psychotherapy. Some members of the 23 InIoan–Gheorghe other words: “InRotaru, a typical “Modalităţi Judging deAmy educare a copiilor în familie (I)” in audience identifyPsychiatry so powerfully and the withCinema the characters in the film that they may court case and her, X, mother, No. 516, Maxine’s (Curtea socialde Argeș, work Romania, case and 2011), the various 5. family story experience the therapy as if it were happening to them.” Glen O. Gabbard & lines are all tied up in the same set of thematicepisode concerns, Judge with Amy interventions Gray’s juvenile and Krin37 “This Gabbard, condition was made popular by (Washington,the movie Good DC Will / London: Hunting American. Children variations running up against one another.” Michael Newman, “From Beats to withPsychiatric reactive Press, attachment Inc., 1999), disorder 181. have learned that the world is unsafe, and Arcs: Towards a Poetics of Television Narrative,” in Literary Theory: An Anthology, have learned not to depend on adult caregivers. They develop a protective emotional ‘shell’, which isolates them from the pain of their attachment failure. 24 Jeremy Halstead says: “My wife, Rhonda, includes girls when cooking and baking,edited by shopping, Julie Rivkin scrap & Michael booking, Ryan crafting, (Oxford: and Wiley attending Blackwell, plays 2017), and 256.movies.” their sole means of coping with the world. Anyone who tries to remove this shell Jeremy Halstead, B. R. M. (Bathroom Reading Material) for Youth Workers isThese seen shells as a threat become and very so theydifficult turn to against remove, the as very children people depend who want on them to help as Psychology AS: Lorenzo Carcaterra, Sleepers The Complete Companion (Eugene,2526 Marilyn Oregon: Kielbasa, Resource Total Publications,Youth Ministry: Wipf Ministry and Stock Resources Publishers, for Pastoral 2014), Care83. them38 the most, the caregivers.”Ordinary Mike Cardwell People, which & Cara appeared Flanagan, seventeen years , New York, Toronto: Ballantine Books, 1995. earlier, has portrayed psychotherapy(Cheltenham, in such UK: aNelson positive Thomas light. Matt Ltd, Damon 2005), portrays67. “Probably no film since (Winona, MN: Saint Mary’s Press, 2004), 147. Will Hunting, a young man with impulse control problems who is ordered by the 380 HARVARD SQUARE SYMPOSIUM | THE HOLISTIC SOCIETY: MULTI–DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES court to see a therapist. He also happens to be a mathematical genius working as a janitor at MIT. A mathematics professor who recognizes his potential arranges badfor him boy, to who see isa therapistfar from aplayed cooperative by Robin patient. Williams. Even Much though of the the narrative movie suggests hinges on the psychotherapeutic relationship between William’s therapist and Damon’s caststhat psychotherapy aspersions on hisis helpful, therapist’s if not deceased curative, wife, for Willthe therapist the treatment grabs depictedhim by the is pure Hollywood fiction. In the first session, for example, when Will indirectly An interesting observation: “In Good Will Hunting, therapy is a form of throat,39 pushes him against the wall, and threatens him.” Gabbard, 144.

Transformativepedagogy, where Learning the individual in Dead (Will, Poets in Societythis case),, Good undergoes Will Hunting a reorientation and Patch Adamsof perspective.”” in Teaching Penny and Spirou, Learning “O onCaptain, Screen: My Mediated Captain! Pedagogies Robin Williams, edited and by Mark Readman (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), 36. 40 humanities who went to psychotherapy for chronic feelings of depression There was the case of a twenty–three–year–old graduate student in Good Will Hunting, andidentified he came himself to his withsession the the character next day portrayed and asked by his Matt therapist Damon. if she “After had about seen three months of psychotherapy, the young man saw the film said through his tears, ‘It was me.’ The therapist asked him to elaborate. He the film as well. She told him she had not. The patient then started crying and himclarified a great that deal just of like his Willmentor Hunting, in graduate he had school. always He blamed said he his was abusive deeply past moved on whenhimself the and therapist he also repeated said that over the andtherapist over again, played “It’s by notRobin your Williams fault, it’s reminded not your

41 wentfault, it’sto psychotherapynot your fault.” isGabbard, important 181. to note that even though “he announced himselfRegarding ‘cured’ the by twenty–three–year–oldthe movie of any deeply graduate rooted studentissue,” atin thehumanities end “As whoone would expect, the ‘cure’ lasted only about a month and served as a resistance to more painful explorations of the past with all their ramifications in the patient’s current life.” Gabbard, 181–182.