The growth of a novel: a study of James Joyce's A portrait of the artist as a young man

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Authors Camoin, François André, 1939-

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Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/317852 -THE GROWTH OP A NOVEL S - A STUDY OF JAMES JOYCE0 S

A PORTRAIT OF THE ARTIST AS A YOUNG MAM

f t j j

Francois Andre Camoin

A Thesis Submitted to the Factilty of the

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH •

In Partial Falfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

In the Graduate College

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

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DR. L. D. CLARK Assistant Professor of English TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

S TPj&CT o o o a a o A o o e o o o o o o o ja o s o o o 3- V

CHAPTER

I INTRODUCTION ...... 1

II STEPHEN AID JAMES JOYCE ...... o»- ... e . 6

III. INCIDENTS AND CHARACTERS ...... 1?

IV THE ESTHETIC THEORIES ...... 28

A. The Teehnitne of the Epiphany ...... 39

B= Toward Objectivity ...... ^5

C. Time and Place ...... 48

D. Diction in Portrait and Stephen Hero .... 51

E. Style and Suggestion ...... 53

VI CONCLUSION."...... 60

REFERENCES ...... 63

ill ABSTBAGT

James Joyce began writing Stephen Hero in 1904; in

1 9 08 he abandoned it after completing nearly one thousand pages and began a different version of the same novel9 which was published in 1914 under the title A Portrait of the

Artist as a Young Man* Although both novels use as their raw material Joyce0 s own early years9 neither is autobi­ ographical« Stephen Hero is written in the naturalistic < tradition; it was to be a study of the effects of heredity and environment on the developing mind of its her©, Stephen

Daedalus o Portrait abandons the naturalistic techniques of the earlier novel in favor of a form of impressionism^ In this revised version Joyce adapted some of the techniques of poetry to the novel® He used sound patterns to directly *, convey meaning, and evolved a new form, the epiphany, for the construction of his scenes® Although he had spoken of epiphany in Stephen Hero and made occasional limited use lof it there, he had used it as one of several devices; the - structure of Portrait is based upon the epiphany, the gradual revelation of truth through apparently casual words ,* gestures, or events® Stephen Hero told a story logically and - chrono­ logically; Portrait presents a series of scenes the regrouping of which into a meaningful story must take place largely in the mind of the reader®

iv CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this paper is to traee the development

of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Mana the shaping of

the novel from the raw material of Joyee°s life through the

crude casting of the intermediate Stephen Heroa to the final9 precisely machined and polished product=

It took James Joyce ten years to complete the novel„

What was "begun in 1904 in Dublin as an explicit statement of the concept of the artist and his place in society was fin­

ished in Trieste in 1914 as a major contribution to the tech­ nique of the novel$ a contribution that is no less important for having been overshadowed by the more monumental achieve­ ments of Ulysses and Finnegans Wake,,

The novel9 in particular the autobiographical novel9-

1s but a patterned account of life* The controlling word, of course9 is ^patternedgK for it is the pattern which distin­ guishes the work of art from the court-room transcripts the newspaper account9 or the biography® A Portrait of the

Artist as a Young Man is a particularly suitable novel with which to work if we wish to trace the growth of patterns the gradual development of art$ for we have a considerable amount . of information about the life on which it is based and a partial copy of the novel in its Intermediate stage® 2

The story ©f Joyce0 s A Portrait of the Artist as a

Xonng San properly starts on January 7$ 1904a On that day

James Joyce wrote an essay in narrative form setting forth

his concept of the artist and the artist0s relation to soci­

ety 0 Ellmann calls it "an autobiographical story that mixed

admiration for himself with ironys and goes on to says

"It was to be remolded into Stephen Hero. a very long work,

and then shortened to a middle length to form A Portrait of

the Artist as a Young: Man., But this took ten years» 08

Some critics9 notably Robert Ryfclaim that the

themes of Portrait were first expressed in Joyce0s series of

poemsa Chamber Music, but although there are similaritiess

the resemblance can9 I thinks be attributed to the fact that

these were the ideas uppermost in Joyce9 s mind during this period» Chamber Musica in spite of thematic similarities9

lies outside the sequence A Portrait of the Artist (the orig­

inal essay) 9 Stephen Hero« A Portrait of the Artist as a

Young Mano which is the subject of this papere

The title for Joyce®s essay was suggested by

Stanislaus Joyce and the paper sent off to John Eglinton and

Frederick Ryan for publication in Sana, a new review of which

^Richard Ellman, James Joyce (Hew York, 1959) 3 p „149°

^Robert Ryfs A Hew Approach to Joyce (Los Angeles 9

1964)9 p.37. • •? they were the editors» It was refused because of its frank

(for the time) treatment of sexual matters„

The date dm which Joyce began work on Stephen Hero is unknown.* larrin Hagalaner quotes estimates ranging from O 1901 to 190^ without himself choosing one. But it seems most likely that the novel was begun in the early part of

1904. In his diary entry for March 2 % 19049. Stanislaus says wJim has turned the paper into a novel the title of which

— Stephen Hero— -I also suggested. He has written eleven chapters.

James Joyce himself$ in a letter to Go Holyneux

Palmer dated .July. 19s 19®9 9 says WI am at work on a novel

A Portrait of the Artist at which I have been engaged now for six years^ Joyce had by this time begun work on the final version of Portrait, and was considering Stephen Herd only as a first draft. The precise date, on which Stephen Hero was abandoned is not known. Hugh Kenner places it sometime during 1908. MAn autobiographical draft puzzled him by the refusal of its lines to converge on the desired heroic climax

^The Dublin Diary of Stanislaus Joyce, ed. George Harris Healey'(Ithaca9 Hew York9 1 9 6 2 ) 5 p.25. 2 . Marvin Magalaner9 The Time of Apprenticeship % The Fiction of Young James Joyce (London. 1959). p.102.

•^The Dublin Diary of Stanislaus Joyce, p .25.

Letters of James Joyce, ed. Stuart Gilbert (New York, 1957)9 p.6?; "l! and was abandoned in 1908 after a thousand pages = ^

A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man was finished

in 191^o In a letter to Harriet Shaw Weaver dated the

eleventh of November, Joyce said 851 have now sent on to Mr*

John Jaffe the fourth and also the fifth (and last) chapters

of A Portrait of the Artist as a.'Young ManoM . : The novel was

published in the Egoist in serial form from February 1914- to

September 1915 The three major tools of the novelist in shaping his

material have always been selection, distortion, and outright

invention, the last used more rarely than is generally supposed®

■ " Li To these Joyce added a fourths Suggestion, the direct impact

of style upon’the reader to produce an effect not directly

connected, with the sense of the words used® The. subliminal

(on first reading at least) effect of shifting rhythms is one

of the keys to an understanding of Portrait as well as

Ulysses and Finnegans Wake® Although the ultimate development

of this technique is only to be found in the Wake® where sense

is primarily to be derived from sound, it is interesting to note that Joyce made use of it even earlier than Portrait®

•^Hugh Kenner, Dublin*s Joyce (Boston, 1962), p.38®

' ^Letters of James Joyce® p®75®

3Betters of James Joyce® 88A Chronology of the Life of James Joyce,” Richard Ellmann, p®45®

^This term is used by David Hayman in Joyce et 5 that it is im fact one of the 'important features, of Chambekg

ItisiCo According to Stanislaus^ “His personal preference was for poems the interest of which did not depend on the expres­ sion of some poetical thought9 hut on the indefinable sugges­ tion of word, phrase9 and rhythm« “-**

The idea of matching sound to sense is as old as poetry itself0 Even in its extreme form of conveying sense primarily by means of sound patterns9 it is by no means new; but Joyce was the first to apply it consistently and coher­ ently to the novel9 and A Portrait of the Artist as a Young

Man the first novel in which sound patterns are essential to a grasp of the meaning $ of the philosophical content of the novelo

In the following chapters we shall.examine Joyce® s use of all four of these novelists® tools9 first in writing

Stephen Hero „ then in remolding: his first draft into the finished novel„ A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Mano

^Stanislaus Joyce9 My Brother®s Keener (Hew York; 1958)9 p*161* SHAPTEB II

STEPHEN AND JAMES JOYCE ' j

Both Stephen Hero and A Portrait of the Artist as a

Young Man are consciously created works of art;neither of which was Intended as an antohlographys though they both have as their raw material the early years of James Joyce®s own life0 The Stephen of Stephen Hero and the Stephen of

Portrait resemble Joyce because their creator knew that he had to draw from life in order to draw convincingly; his own life was the most convenient model9 Mrs own character the one he knew bests but he used them as a painter will use a street- beggar as a model for the face of Jesus— without any idea of identifying- the model-with the finished work0 Joyce set up his easel before a mirror9 but he used only those parts of his image which fitted the purpose and the theme of the works he was writing, A comparison of Joyce with the Stephen

Daedalus of Stephen Herb and the Stephen Dedalus of Portrait will show that the differences are far more important themat­ ically and artistically than the similarities,

If we consider James Joyce as the raw material out of which the two Stephens are created9 we can follow the changes made by Joyce as he worked on the novels„ Joyce omitted from

Stephen® s make-up those characteristics which were not essen­ tial to the pattern of the books„ The selection is far more rigorous in Portrait than in Stephen Hero g the Stephen of

the earlier novel is closer to his model than the Stephen of Portrait. .

Stanislaus Joyce has described his brother8 s purpose

in writing Stephen Hero.

In Dublin when he set to work on the first draft of his novel9 the idea he had in mind was that a man8s character, like his body, develops from am embryo with constant traits. The accentuation of those traits, their reaction to hereditary influ­ ences and environment, were.the main psychological lines he intended to follow, and, in fact, the pur-, pose of the novel as originally planned.^

Stephen Hero, then, was. planned as a blldungsroman.

a tale of the growth of a young mind influenced by both

heredity and environment, not as a justification or glori­

fication of young James Joyce®

Stephen, in fact, is in some ways much more like

James® brother Stanislaus than he is like Joyce himself. It was Stanislaus, for instance, and not James, who refused to 2 make his Easter duty. It was Stanislaus who was the more

strongly anti-Gatholie of the two, who was most intransigent on the subject of religion® Although James saw Catholicism as a danger to his development as an artist, he also recog­ nized the beauty of its rituals® He rebelled against the

discipline of the Church, but his rebellion, unlike those of

1 - Stanislaus Joyce, My Brother®s Keeper® ed® Richard Ellmann (Hew York, 1958), p®17° 2 Ibid® p®103° 8 Stanislaus and Step hen 9 was a quiet one, not marked "by public demonstrationso

The relationship of Stephen with his father9 Simon

Daedalus, is one of mutual dislike almost verging on hatred.

He knew that his own rain had been his own handiwork but he had talked himself into believing that it was the handiwork of others. He had his son9s distaste for responsibility without his son0 s courage. He was one of.those illogical wiseacres with whom no evidence can outreason the first impression.

But it. was Stanislaus who hated their father, and not

James, It was Stanislaus who said of him: 69His will is dissi­ pated, and his intellect besotted, and he has become a crazy drunkard,6e^ James, though he did not altogether respect his father, did not dislike him to this extent. In the episode ■ of Portrait which deals with Stephen®s trip to Cork with his father, Stephen is described as disgusted and embarrassed by

Simon®s actions, by his jokes in bars, his attempts to flirt with waitresses, his loud reminiscing with his cronies about their days as young bucks about town, f-One humiliation had succeeded another— the false smiles of the market sellers, the curveting and oglings of the barmaids with whom his father flirted,. , , His actual reaction to the trip was

^James Joyce, Stephen Hero (Norfolk, Conn,, 1 9 6 3 ), P o110,

The Dublin Diary of Stanislaus Joyce, p,l6,

3James Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, (New York, 1961), p»§3®

) considerably milder= n His letters home at the time were written in tone of amusement even when he described going from one.bar to another0^

Nor was James the sickly, weak, unathletic boy whom we see at Clomgowes in the early pages of Portrait■> He appears, on the contrary, to have been a good athlete, w,»=we had at home a sideboard full of cups and a $ silver®,,,teapot and coffee pot that he had won in the school hurdles and walking events,

In Stephen Hero Stephen is several times invited to the home of Hr, Daniel, a man with several daughters of marriageable age, Stephen is described as something of a? prig, 61,,, but whenever there was an approach to artistic matters during the process of their games Stephen with egot­ istic humour imagined his presence acting as a propriety.

He could see seriousness developing on the shrewd features of a young man,,, s?3 Far from being a prig, James Joyce

actually was something of a social success at these parties, enough of a success to arouse the envy of his younger brother.

^Stanislaus Joyce, ftv Brother9s Keener, p,6o,

^Ibid, p , % ,

3James Joyce, Stephen Hero, p,^3® 10 The wise virgins delight In the society of the necessitous young genius= They are happy when he comes in! They laugh at him, or with him9 or for him, making the heart of the dullard envious, And he is suspected of wild ways, They flatter him with pressing attention, an interest which is almost a wish!,.*

We can see, then, that there are important differences

between James Joyce and both the Stephen of Portrait and that

of Stephen Hero. There are also differences between the two

Stephens. If we consider James Joyce as the original model

we can.find a definite pattern of development from James

Joyce through Stephen Daedalus, the half-finished product, to

the hero of Portrait. With few exceptions the changes are

all in one direction, that of bringing Stephen closer to the

artist-archetype, For if Stephen Hero is a bildungsroman.

Portrait is certainly a kunstlerromans the novel of the devel­

opment of a young man has become the novel of the growth of

an artist. It is, of course, a kunstlerroman with a differ­

ence, since, as-we shall see, Stephen did not, in the end,

become an artist| but his development as an artist is the main theme of Portrait, and his eventual failure does not move the novel to another genre.

The main lines of change are thesei the removal of

characteristics in Stephen which are not essential to the

artist, his gradual isolation from the world around him, and

the loss of his sense of humor. James Joyce was apparently

•^The Dublin Diary. of Stanislaus Joyce, p. 21, a fairly good athlete| Stephen becomes a sickly child, afraid of sports and unwilling to participate in them. e,He kept on the fringe of his line, out of sight of his prefect, out of the reach of the rude feeto„oHe felt his body small and weak amid the throng of players=„«^ The change is gradual, as far as we can tell from the remaining fragment of Stephen Hero„

There is a scene in both novels in which a handball game forms the central structure around which the dialogue is built. In

Stephen Hero. Stephen takes part in the game, though he loses to Cranly= He also shows enough knowledge of the game to comment that Cranly 69was a strong, accurate player, but... too heavy of foot to be a brilliant one.^ In a similar scene in Portrait, Stephen8 s role Is reduced to that of spec­ tator, a spectator who pays little attention to the game and leaves before it is finished.

Athletic ability is but one of the non-artistic characteristics removed from Stephen as Joyce® s idea of him developed. There is little trace either in Portrait or iu

Stephen Hero of Joyce®s interest in singing, an interest which led him to take lessons and enter the Peis Ceoil. a competition in which he finished fourth in spite of his t refusal to sing a piece on sight (a refusal prompted by his inability to read music). Bor is there any sign of his

-Ljames Joyce, Portrait„ p.8.

James Joyce. Stephen Hero, p.11$. 12 talent for acting, except for his taking a part in the sehbol play0 Yet Joyce was a good amateur actor, one of his perform­ ances earning him mention in the Evening Telegrapha where it - 1 was described as wa revelation of amateur aetingo”

Joyce left these characteristics out of Stephen®s . make-up, not because they are incompatible with the idea of the artist, which they are not, nor yet simply because there was not room for.them in the finished work, but because they were unnecessary, because they would have interfered with the intensity of impression which he was trying to create, because they would needlessly have blurred the image of Stephen.

, If Stephen is so portrayed in order to bring him closer to the artist archetype, two other series of changes were made to pave the way for Stephen®s eventual failure as an artist. The Stephen of Stephen Hero is not destined to be a failure. He. is in some ways an absurd young, man, but his absurdity is that of youth; it is clearly not destined to last, ©n the other hand, the Stephen of Portrait is, as many critics have pointed out, an artiste manque'', one who is not likely to outgrow his faults. These faults are twos a gradual and willful isolation from the world around him, and the lack of a sense of humor. These are two shortcomings which appear strongly in Portrait, yet are not found to any significant extent in Stephen Hero or in the life of James

Joyce.

Quoted in Hichard Ellmann, James Joyce (New York, 1959), Pr97. 13 The first Stephen is capable of earthy, an#, sponta­

neous humor $ the best that his descendant can achieve is a

pedantic sneer. In Stephen Hero, discussing his rejection

of the Church with his friend Cranly, Stephen says §

— -That cannot be done for long by anyone who is sensitive. The Church knows the value of her services? her priest must hypnotise himself every morning before the tabernacle. If I get up every mornings go to the looking glass and say to myself !,Xo u are the Son of God69 at the end of .twelve months I will w a n t disciples,

— If you could make your religion pay like Christianity I would advise you to get up every morning and go to the looking-glass,

— That would be good for my vicars on earth but . I would find crucifixion a personal inconvenience.

Crude as this humor may bes it has a healthy crudeness

that the later Stephen never achievess a crudeness that we

finds however9 in Joyce himself. This in fact is the same

sort of humor which makes "Gas From a Burner" a lively poem,

and which is found again and again in Joyce9s limericks.

Once again Stephen has moved further away from Joyce9 in a

direction compatible with the pattern of Portrait,

Another symptom of Stephen®s forthcoming failure as an artist is his self-imposed exile— -not the exile 'from

Ireland; which comes at the end of the book, but the exile

from society and from life, which increases as the novel progresses, James Joyce was ah extroverted young man who, at the age of three, ,entertained relatives, who had

James Joyce, Stephen Hero, pp^ 139-1^0° termed, up unexpectedly In his parents5 absence9 by 8playing8 1 the piano for them and singing®

As we have seen earlier9 he enjoyed going to parties and had fun when he got there; he was popular with the local girls? and he enjoyed performing in public® As for the isolation of the artist which Stephen preaches so steadilys

Joyce did not9 either then or in later life, believe in it at a l l ’o Though he did advocate a certain degree of detachment9 he'was careful to say that complete isolation could only result9 as it did for Stephen, in complete sterility® . In an early essay entitled wDrama and Life” Joyce saids !8B^ a m a must be made out of the life we see around u s 9 not out of idealizations or yearnings for past ages of heroism and chivalry®^ This essay was written in 1900, when Joyce was 18

Stephen at the same age was busily removing himself from the world and from any possible source of material for his art®

Even much later, Joyce liked to have crowds around him.

55 Comm e a Trieste 9 il avait e hoi si pour y loger un de ces - immeubles qui, dlsait-il, sont symboliques®8 II se melait

ainsi a la foule, frequentait les petlts cafes® II eeoutait parler®

Stanislaus Joyce, By Brother8 s Keener® p®6®

^The Critical Writings of James Joyce® ed® Ellsworth Mason and Richard Ellman (New York, 1964)9 p®45®

^Philippe Souuault® Profils Perdus (Paris, 1963)9 p .56 15 From the talk that he listened to came Ulysses and

Finnegans Wake 9 works far "beyond Stephen® s capacity9 not as an artist9 but - as a listener to life* In another essay of about the same period as 65Drama and Lif e9 n an essay called

’’Th e D a y of the Babblements ff he said? ,se „«,the artist9 though he may employ the crowd? is very careful to isolate himself =.551

But the isolation must not be complete= It is probable that

Joyce? in naming Stephen Dedalus? had in mind the advice given' by Daedalus to his son0 Daedalus tells Icarus to fly a middle course between the sea-spray that will clog his - feathers and the sun that will melt his waxen wings = Stephen could not become an artist without isolating himself from the crowd to a certain extent? but he courts di s.ast.er’ by 'flying so high that its roar becomes inaudible => Stephen^s isolation is at first a saving grace» Through his sense of alienation he escapes the clutches of the church9 of nationalism? and of family life. But what began as defense ended as a ruling passion? destroying him as an artist, ■

These? then are the changes Joyce wrought in his central-■ character? changes designed to make Stephen fit a pattern? first that of Stephen Hero, then the sharper and more clearly defined one of Portrait, In neither of the books is Stephen to be identified with James Joyce, In Stephen Eero,

^The Critical Writings of James Joyce, p,69« 16 which, is closer to external reality, he resembles Joyce more than he does in the more stylized and more pattern-conscious portrait» but he is nonetheless a creation distinct from his creator0 CHAPTER III

INCIDENTS AND CHARACTERS

In writing Portrait and Stephen Heroa Joyce drew

largely9 as we have seen9 upon his personal experiences, his

memory of the early years in Dublin« When his memory failed

him, he resorted to the diary kept by Stanislaus e "James

read this record while it was being written, asked to have it

sent to him after he left Ireland, and borrowed from it the

kind of small thing that none but James Joyce would have

found worth borrowing at all,This diary also found its

way into a story in Dubliners0 where it is attributed to

Hre -Duffyo Although Joyce often ridiculed his brother9 s

writings in the diarys, he did draw from them detailed obser­

vations about characters in both Portrait and Stephen Hero0

These characters are outwardly the same in both novels| they

bear, with one or two exceptions, the same names, and have

the same physical attributes. But they do change; they

change in their relationship to Stephen; they become less

importantin themselves and more important as touchstones for

Stephen, Some characters who play large roles in the earlier

novel fade almost entirely in the latter; others lose what vitality and independence they had and become images in

Stephen9 s. mind, •

1 The Dublin Diary of Stanislaus Joyce, introduction pp.8,9 18 Maurice is Stephen®s younger brother In Stephen Hero»

He ls9 to a certain extent, Stephen®s co-rebel, and has been identified with Stanislaus. Bren in Stephen Hero, however, he is very different from the real Stanislaus. He is pic­ tured as a somewhat more dutiful son than Stephen; he is • given the role of follower, whereas, though he was never a leader, he went much farther than James in his rejection of

Church and home. Stanislaus makes, it clear in his diary that

James was the intellectual leader of the family, but he also makes it clear that James was the more adaptable of the two to the squalor of their home life and the ineffective tyranny of their father. John Joyce, though he often cursed and threatened James, had a grudging respect for him which he denied Stanislaus, who cordially hated him in return. James, on the other hand, was more amused than incensed by his father®s many short-comings. 6$My brother was never subject to the moodiness or plain tantrums that so often impelled me to go up to my room when my father came home, followed by .his sarcastic parting shot, ®What a loving son!® w In Stephen

Hero the phrase is changed to $ .nB y God, you® re a pair of ■ loving sons, you and your brother! ^

Although the burden of. rebellion is largely shifted to Stephen, Maurice remains an important character in the

1 ' Stanislaus Joyce. Hv Brother®s Keeper, p.59®

^James Joyce, Stephen Hero. p P231° 19

earlier novel = He is a rebel9 though a secondary-.one-,' and he

is Stephen9s closest disciple, goes for long walks with him

and serves as a sounding board for some of Stephen’s ideas®

In Portrait«, Maurice is mentioned by name in only one scene,

which takes place just before Stephen enters Belvederea He

comes on stage called by his mother, grins at his father and

at his elder brother, and disappears never to be seen again*

Indeed it is quite possible to read Portrait and never be

aware that Stephen has a younger brother® The virtual dis­

appearance of Maurice is quite in keeping with the other

changes made by Joyce in rewriting Stephen Hero® The maturing

young man may have disciples; the artist archetype must be

intellectually alone® The presence of another rebel detracts

from the image of the lonely, proud Stephen escaping the

chains that bind his contemporaries to home, Church, and nation®

Emma Cleary, the girl whom Stephen loves in the first

novel, fades perceptibly in Portrait, where she appears only

as the *EeG.*;to whom one of Stephen’s poems is dedicated®

She is, in Stephen Hero, an. ordinary, attractive young Irish

girl® She becomes in Portrait an aspect of Woman, along with

Stephen’s mother, the prostitute, the Virgin Mary, and finally

the girl oh the beach® What Emma loses in distinctness, in

individuality, she gains in universality® Like the Citizen

James Joyce, Portrait® p,72® 20 of Ulyssesa she becomes more symbol than character=

lynch and Granly are two of Stephen® s friends at

Trinity Collegeo Unlike Emma Cleary and Maurices they retain their identity and importance in both novels» lynch is pat­ terned after Vincent Cosgrave; a college friend of Joyce®s,

Cranly after John Francis Byrne9 another college friend! In

Stephen Hero they are Stephen®s intellectual companions ? it

is with them even more than with Maurice that he discusses the esthetic and moral questions uppermost in his mind! In

Portrait their role changes subtly! Stephen still talks to them at length and the topics remain essentially the same, but they are no longer intellectual equals or even near­ equals | they are only used by Stephen as an audience for his pronouncements on esthetics and ethics9 an audience which is sometimes not as receptive or docile as he would like it to be$ but whose chief role is nevertheless to listen respectfully9 answer an occasional rhetorical question; and be suitably impressed by Stephen® s genius!

The famous discussion, of Aquinas on beauty9 in which

Stephen attempts to define lntegritasa eonsonantiaa and

Claritas9 is carried on with Cranly in Stephen Heroa but is transferred to Lynch in Portrait! Cranly is a sympathetic; if abstracted; listener. His total contributions to the conversation are i nZes0 „ „, w -8And then? $,9 and Let us turn back!'®^ Lynch; on the other hand; is openly antagonistic;

^"James Joyce9 Stephen Eero* p„212 = 21 not to the Ideas developed by Stephen, bat to the concept of such a discussion. His comments are attempts to link the ideas with a reality of which Stephen is no longer aware.

His replies, though outwardly bantering, are in rude contrast to Stephen®s elaborate explication of Aquinas6 text. The scene is a repetition on a higher level of an earlier one in which -Stephen®s friend Heron beats him in an attempt to make him admit that Tennyson is a better poet than Byron. In that scene, Stephen was the victor, but in the contest with Lynch he is defeated without realizing it, when Lynch®s attacks finally make him change the subject!

‘— If a man hacking in fury at a block of wood. Stephen continued, make.there an image o f .a ■ cow, is that image a work of art? If not.

— That®s a lovely one, said Lynch, laughing-, again. That has the true scholastic stink®

Stephen makes no response to Lynch, but instead goes on to discuss the difference between lyric, epic, and dramatic art. The answer to Stephen®s question is obliterated by

Lynch® s perceptive analysis of the value of the whole dis­ cussion, but we can find it in one of Joyce®s Paris notebooks, dated 1903® The relevant passage begins with a definition of art: 118Art is the human disposition of sensible or intelli­ gible matter for an aesthetic end.88^ The answer to the

James Joyce, Portrait. p.214.

The Critical Writings of. James Joyce, pp.143,146. 22 qtiestion is s RThe Image of a cow made by a man hacking in fury at a block of wood is a human disposition of sensible matter but it is not a human disposition of sensible matter for an aesthetic end0 Therefore it is not a work of art 015

This definition of art has a number of faults which we will look at later9 and it certainly does have the $,true scholastic stink$r in that it is argument for the sake of argument9 a theory tied to reality by only the merest thread, an example of rationalism at its worst<> The replacement of

Cramly by lynch9 then, has the effect of providing Stephen with an active antagonist instead of a passive listener. It provides the reader with, a clearer view of Stephen®s theory by showing it against a contrasting background?

The most important difference between the treatment of major characters in Stephen Hero and Portrait is that in the first they have a certain amount of thematic independence with thoughts and attitudes peculiar to themselves. In

Portrait they exist only insofar as they demonstrate facets of Stephen8 s artistic personality, Cranly serves to emphasize

Stephen8 s non serviam and Lynch to bring out his dissociation from reality. They comment, by their presence and their acts, on Stephen, and not, as in the earlier novel, on Dublin or the world.

If Joyce changed characters to fit the pattern of

Portrait, he also changed certain incidents. One of the more

important of these latter changes affects the scene between 23 Stephen and the lean of Studies in the Physics Theatre= In

Stephen Hero the scene is a double one. In the first part9

Stephen pours out his literary theories to Father Butt9 who

does not understand them9 but praises Stephen for his sense

of the importance of tradition. In the second part9 which

takes place the next morning9 Stephen comes upon Father Butt

lighting a fire,

--There is an art. Hr, Daedalus9 in lighting a fire, — So I see9 sir, A very useful art, — That's its a useful art. We have the useful arts and we have the liberal arts.

Father Butt is made out to be a man insensitive to

the finer things9 one who considers culture and literature to

be superficial adornments, A little later we are told that

he skips over the songs in Shakespeare's plays as being of

little or no importance except as decorations.

The scene in Stephen Hero is about two pages long.

In Portrait it runs to -nearly six pages 9 the two parts

being combined into one continuous scene. In the Stephen Hero

scene Father Butt is a Philistine and little else. The

conflict is simple? the artist is set against the bourgeois

and there is little doubt as to where Joyce's sympathies lie.

In the same scene as treated in Portrait the dean of studies

is also a Philistine, but almost incidentally. He is primarily a priest and an exiled Englishman, a Catholic convert. He is never referred to by name, only as 61 the priest, 85 or 95the dean,61

1James Joyce, Stephen Hero, p.28, or eithe Eaglislamaiio58 The atmosphere of the scene becomes

charged with meanings entirely absent from Stephen Eeros

dark and evil forces lurk in the dim corners of the room,

ready to do battle for the possession of Stephen’s soul.

Every word becomes a carrier of meanings above and beyond

its apparent usage; In the original version, the discussion

dealt; , with two things § the relative values of words in liters

ature and in the market-place, and the idea of the ^useful

arts and the liberal arts,68 In the Portrait version, it

includes these two matters and adds to them discussions of

stoicism, beauty, and the differences between English and

Irish dialects. But the mere lengthening of the scene and

the inclusion of these other matters is of little Importance®

What is important is that the discussions which were the

raison d ’etre of the scene in Stephen Hero are here no more

than a diffuse foreground behind which the essential action

takes place, Joyce’s use of this technique will be analyzed

in more detail in a later section; it is sufficient for our present purposes to note that it changes markedly the impres­

sion the scene makes on the reader, J, F, Byrne later com­ plained that Joyce had distorted the scene out of all pro­ portion in Portrait, and that the Stephen Hero version was 1 the accurate one* Apparently it was Byrne, and not Joyce, who had the interview with the dean of studies, and later

1 ' " Harvin.lagalaner, Time of Apprenticeshipg The Fiction of Young James Joyce (Hew. Jork, 1959)? p , 110, 25 told Joyce about It,

Byrne6 s account of the Incident9 which there is no

reason to question., is illustrative of Joyce® s methods in

writing Stephen Hero and Portrait, In the earlier9 more

loosely constructed novel9 Joyce was content to transfer the

central role in the discussion from Byrne (Cranly) to Stephen

without otherwise changing it* In the more carefully patterned

Portrait he changed the chronology (bringing together events

that happened on two separate days) 9 and expanded the scene

considerably) using the original incident as little more than

a point of departure for the final creation. Neither treat­

ment is autobiographical, but the later one represents a much

more careful remolding of'life, a much greater attention to

theme and pattern, ,

Other key incidents in Portrait can be traced to

events in the life of Joyce, The villanelle that Stephen

writes, for instance, ’'Are You Not Weary of Ardent Ways,55 is

an actual poem written by Joyce as a young man, and later

incorporated into Portrait, It was part of a volume entitled % Shine and Bark, written during his last years at Belvedere,

One incident can be traced through all three versions

of the novel. It occurs first in the essay ffA Portrait of

the Artist9*written by Joyce in 1901, f?0me day in a wood near Malahide a labourer had marvelled to see a boy of

Stanislaus Joyce, My Brother®s Keeper, pp,85,86, 26 1 fifteen praying In an ecstasy of oriental post-are* H The same incident reappears in Stephen Hero in a slightly differ­ ent form* "He thought of his own spendthrift religiousness and airs of the cloistera he remembered having astonished a labourer in the wood near Malahide by an ecstasy of oriental 2 posture® * 6 *l? In Portrait we get yet another verslon9 this one a little longer®

And he remembered an evening when he had dismounted from a borrowed creaking bicycle to pray to God in , a wood near Malahide® He had lifted up his arms and spoken in ecstasy to the sombre nave of the trees, knowing that he stood on holy ground and in a holy hour® And when two constabulary men had come into sight around a bend in the gloomy road he had broken off his prayer to whistle loudly an air from the last pantomime®3

Once again Joyce chose one of many incidents in the earlier novel and made of it a key moment in the life of

Stephen Dedalus« The emphasis in the first version of the incident is almost9 because of the clumsy passive construction, on the labourer rather than on Stephen* In the second version the. incident takes the form of a memory instead of an actual account, and is linked with the religious phase in Stephen’s life®: But it is still the bare recounting of an incident, meaningful only because it shows us that the Stephen of that time took his religion seriously® By the time it is

1 Quoted in Hichard Ellmamn, James Joyce (New York, 1959); P«150®

James Joyce, Stephen Hero * p.1 5 6 ®

vJames Joyce, Portrait* p»232. 2? incorporated into Portrait9 howevere it takes on added impor­ tance, for it shows us not only that Stephen was deeply immersed in religion at that time, hut also that he was becoming self-conscious, that he was unwilling to appear ridiculous because of his religion, that his absorption in the worship'of God was beginning to be tinged with the con­ sciousness of a world beyond the narrow confines of his self- imposed denial of senses and imagination. In each case the incident, insignificant in itself in Stephen Hero, is given added dimension by Joyce through the use of stylistic devices

(rhythm patterns, evocative words, etc,,,), by linking each scene to previous events in the novel, and by severely limiting the number of such incidents so that the development of Stephen as an artist is shown rather than narrated. The use of isolated scenes not closely linked to each other by a conventional chronology tends to give each scene symbolic significance,. What was in Stephen Hero simply one of many events in the life of Stephen becomes in Portrait a strongly suggestive scene, one whose meaning radiates far beyond its simple narrative content. CMPTBB XT

THE ESTHETIC THEQHIES

There are extensive discussions of ar,t and esthetic

theory in both Stephen Hero and Portrait. The opinions

expressed by Stephen in the earlier work are recognizable as

those of the young Joyce in the period immediately before and

after his departure from Bablin9 as a glance at some of the

essays written at that time will show. It was in 1902% for

example, that Joyce wrote wJames Clarence Mangan,n the essay

found in slightly modified form in Stephen Hero under the

title 85Drama and Life, ”■*"

There is in the collection of Joyce8 s critical

writings, an essay titled 68Drama and Life, 58 written in 1900,

but this is not the essay paraphrased in Stephen Hero, Like

other essays'written by Joyce during these years, it expresses

views on art and society similar to those of Stephen! A

comparison of the theories of Stephen Daedalus with those of

the young James Joyce reveals no disagreements and many

< similarities. It seems, therefore, that Joyce deliberately

used his own views on art and life to form the basis of

Stephen®s philosophy in Stephen Hero,

^The Critical Writings of James Joyce, ed, Ellsworth Mason and Richard Ellman, pp,7,8 , 28 29 Nor is there any evidence in Stephen Hero that the theories expressed by Stephen are to be taken lightly. Indeed the date of their formulation, by Joyce would preclude such an interpretation, since the dates of the major parts of the theories coincide roughly with those of the writing of the . novel, Stephen Hero, as we have seen, was begun in 1904, and the critical essays in which the theories were developed date from 1899 to 1903» Nowhere in the book is there any telling attack on the theories by those to whom they are presented,

Cranly, it is true, listens absent-mindedly to Stephen, but he does not contradict him, and the attacks on the ^Drama and

Life55 paper are obviously the work of Philistines, 6?Hr, Magee said he did not know as much about Ibsen as Hr, Daedalus did— nor did he want to know anything about him— but he knew that one of his plays was about the sanitary condition of a bathing place,

Even the President of the College is forced to admit that he has.not read any of the writers that he blames Stephen for praising in his essay, Stephen®s theories, then emerge triumphant from every conflict in Stephen Hero, Joyce himself, in the role of intruding author, steps in and tells us what to think of them, Except for the eloquent and arrogant pero­ ration Stephen®s essay was a careful exposition of a carefully * p meditated theory of esthetic,w -

1 ' • James Joyce, Stephen Hero, p=102,

^Ibld, ppo80$8l. 30 The fate of these theories in Portrait Is somewhat different. The long narrative passages explaining Stephen9s position are omitted from the later work. There is no trace in Portrait of the elaborate discussions of Romanticism and

Classicism, or of Stephen's views on the poet's place in society. The only explicit statements of theory occur in the conversation between Stephen and Lynch in Chapter V. This conversation is eleven pages long, and it deals with three ideas s static vs. kinetic art, a definition of beauty, and the lyrl©”epic-dramatic progression. In keeping with the revised pattern of the novel, there is no explicit praise or condemnation of the theories, and we have to study the form of their presentation and the theories themselves in order to arrive at any conclusion about their merit.

As has already been mentioned, Stephen's audience for this occasion is changed from Cranly in Stephen Hero to Lynch in Portrait. Lynch's attacks expose one of the basic weak­ nesses of Stephen's definition of arti its lack of contact with reality. But all of the theories should be examined and judged on their own merits; Lynch's attacks might be, after all, the reactions of a man whose senses can only be aroused by gross external stimuli and who is incapable of abstract thought.

Stephen's first speeches deal with the idea that good art does not excite the mind either to loathing or to desire, that its effects are static rather than kinetic. 31 — Hae tragic emotiong in fact9 is a face looking two ways 9 toward terror and towards pity9 both of which are phases of it> You see I use the word arrest, I mean that the tragic emotion is static9 or rather the dramatic emotion is. The feelings excited by improper art are kinetic9 desire or loathing< Desire urges us to possess, to go to something? loathing urges us to abandon, to go from something. The arts which excite them, pornograph- ical or didactic, are therefore improper arts. The esthetic emotion (I used the general term) is there­ fore static. The mind is therefore arrested and raised above desire and loathing, — -You say that art must not excite desire, said Lynch, I told you that one day I wrote my name in pencil on the backside of the Venus of Praxiteles in the Museum, Was that not .desire? — I speak of normal matures,,,,I

Head superficially, the passage is impressive. Has not Stephen arrived at a theory which properly and logically

excludes pornographic and didactic literature? Has he not

successfully described what our feelings should be when we gaze at a statue, or see a tragedy performed? A closer reading will show, however, that his victory has been a costly one. There is a difference, one which Stephen does not see, between the sexual titlllation which is the avowed purpose of pornography and the feelings aroused by the contem­ plation of healthy sexuality. If the Venus of Praxiteles aroused no desire in us, if she merely raised our mind $tabove desire and loathing® she would not be very good art, Lynch8s reaction to her may have been a bit extreme, but it was healthier than Stephen®s. It is he who has the more nearly normal nature, ... Stephen®s theory is another attempt on his

1 James Joyce, Portrait, p,205« 32 part to divorce art from life, to elevate it above the human urges that he despises«

We have already spoken of his definition of beauty<=

His transmutation of the integritas. consonantia0 and elaritas of Aquinas into modern terms is done in the best traditions of scholasticism, without any reference to the real world, except for casual illustration,. There is no obvious flaw in his reasoning; it is an interesting mental exercise, as stimulating as the solution of a difficult cross-word puzzle; but it fails completely in its attempt to arrive at a satisfying definition of beautyo To know that elaritas is the equivalent of quidditas might be enlightening to the student of Aquinas, but it does not advance either the artist or the esthete very much. Like his thoughts on the "esthetic emotion,68 his defi­ nition, of beauty is sterile. It cannot be applied by either the artist or his audience. It cannot be used as a guide by the writer, or help the reader to a greater appreciation of the work.

The third and last part of Stephen9s esthetic theory seen in Portrait is that which deals with the progression of literature from lyric to epic to dramatic, "The lyrical' form,65 says Stephen, "is in fact the simplest verbal gesture of an

..... J instant of emotion,,,," He goes on to describe the epic as springing from the lyric "when the artist prolongs and broods

^James Joyce, Portrait, p,2l4. 33 upon himself as the centre of an epical eventAfter the epic comes the dramatic9 when the author.finally disappears entirely from the finished work.

Again there is nothing particularly objectionable in the body of the argument* Stephen does change the accepted meaning of the term ^epic*5 and uses it simply to indicate a certain relationship between the author and his work, a rela­ tionship not found in what we usually think of as epics. By

Stephen9s definition, for instance, the Odyssey would be more drama than epics but it is clearly the prerogative of the critic to redefine old terms if he wishes, or to create new ones. The problem comes when we try to apply Stephen9s theory.

According to Robert Ryf, $8The conventional view is that of the Portrait as lyric, Ulysses as epic, and Finnegans O Wake as dramatic. But as Ryf goes on to point out , this view can only be upheld if we in effect identify the Stephen of Portrait with James Joyce. If this identification be valid, then Portrait is indeed lyric. The classifications of

Ulysses and Finnegans Wake are properly outside the scope of this paper, but if we accept the Joyce-Stephen identity in

Portrait, then Ulysses does indeed by Stephen® s definition become an epic. But if we support this view, then it becomes obvious that before we can class any work as lyric, we must

James Joyce, Portrait, p.214=

2Ryf, p.107. 34 Identify one of the dramatis -personae<■ whether or not he "be

the narrators as the author= We can see at once that this is

going to lead us into deep waters» Is Gide9 s Ihe Immoralist 0

for instance, a lyric work? Only if we can identify Gide with Michele For if Michel is not Gide, then the novel

"becomes either epic or dramatic = One way out of the impasse

is to say that it is not the relationship of the author to his work that we must consider, "but the relationship of the

central character to the work as a whole« Indeed one of

Stephen9 s statements could be interpreted in this way„ "He

who utters [the cry] is more conscious of the instant of emo- tion than of himself as feeling the emotion," If we take

"he who utters it" to mean the character in the book rather than the artist, then we can arrive at a workable, if not particularly useful, definition of the lyric form. Then

Portrait is a lyric because Stephen9 s emotion is an instinc­ tive, unanalyzed cry, because Stephen remains visible at the center of the work. But this avenue of escape is closed off

by Joyce, for Stephen soon makes it clear that by "he who utters it," he means the artist and not the character, "The personality of the artist, at first a cry or a cadence or a mood and then a fluid and lambent narrative, finally refines itself out of existence, impersonalises itself, so to speak,

n • James Joyce, Portrait, p,214,

^Ibid, p,2 1 5 , 35 If we are to apply Stephen Vs theory9 then, we must

somehow he able to determine the relationship between the

author and his work, be able to say how much of him is found

in the finished product, and how much has been 5Jrefined out

of existence®61 But of course this is, as several modern

critics have pointed out, an impossible task; and Stephen’s

definition is not practically applicable® Stephen’s theories

in Portrait are not those of Joyce, at least not of the mature

Joyce® They are well-constructed but they fail when any

attempt is made to apply them to reality® They have a life

of their own, but they do not contain the seeds of either

greater art or a greater appreciation of art; they are sterile®

The opinions of Stephen in Stephen Hero which do not

conform to the new pattern created by Joyce in Portrait are

simply omitted from the later work® His speech to his mother on art and life is an example®

o o ® Art is not an escape from life. It’s just the very opposite® Art, on the contrary, is the very central expression of life® An artist is not a fellow,who dangles a mechanical heaven before the public® The priest does that® The artist affirms. out of the fulness of his own life, he creates®.® ®

The later Stephen could never make such a speech®

For him art is, an escape from life, an escape from family,

church, and country, from the sordid streets of Dublin to the

enchanted realm of Aquinas and Shelley, ©ne reference in the

1 James Joyce, Stephen Hero„ p®86® 36 above speech is especially significant g the disparagement of the priest by comparison with the artist® What is here rejected with scorn is accepted enthusiastically in Portrait« where Stephen calls himself e8 = .0 ®a priest of eternal imagina­ tion® "1

The omission in Portrait of the long paraphrase of the 88Drama and.Life81 paper follows the same pattern® It contains many statements that are incompatible with the Stephen of Portrait. The paper as a whole is firmly based on expe­ rience rather than on abstract reasoning® It even contains contradictions of statements made by the later Stephen®

,.he was not greatly perturbed because he could not decide for himself whether a portrait was a work of epical art or , not or whether it was possible for an architect to be a 2 lyrical.9 epical or dramatic poet.. ® ®11

dompare him with the later Stephen who says to Lynch?

89Here are some questions I set myself ? Is a chair finely made tragic or comic? Is the portrait of the Mona Lisa good if I desire to see it? Is the bust of Sir Philip Cramnton lyrical® epical or dramatic?88-^

It is admittedly difficult to take Stephen5s questions seriously9 .or to see how he himself could have done so. But

"'■James Joyce, Portrait® p.221® O • ' James Joyce, Stephen Hero® p® 77

^James Joyce, Portrait® p®2l4. 37 there Is. no evidence in the text to show that Stephen was anything but serious. He even claims that the theory of esthetics he is expounding was derived from the answers to those questions..

The complete series of questions is found in Joyce® s notebooks for the year 1903 s**" but the notebooks make no reference to the questions about lyric9 epic9 or dramatic art.

There is instead a short paragraph on the subject9 which is significantly different from Stephen® s explanation.

That art is lyrical whereby the artist sets forth the image in immediate relation to himself; that art is epical whereby the artist sets forth the image in mediate relation to himself and others; that art is dramatic whereby the artist sets forth the image in immediate relation to others....2

Not only is this shorn of Stephen®s ornate prose, but it is more specific (the differentiation between the artist and the image he creates is made clearly) 5- and it is a theory clearly subjective, not made to be applicable to others $ but created for the sole convenience of the artist himself.

The Stephen of Stephen Hero is not destined to be a failure. The artistic theories he expresses are those of

James Joyce at the time of writing. The Stephen of Portrait

/ is meant to be an artiste manque. one who fails because he loses contact with life. His theories are his own, though

^The Critical Writings of James Joyce, p .146.

2 Ibid. p.145. they may correspond to some that Joyce held at the time he wrote Stephen Hero arid later abandoned, They are logically flawless9 for Stephen®s failure is caused by his loss of contact 9 not by any lack of intelligenee s but they all share the same defects. They are not useful either to the artist or to the critic* they are based on rationalization and not on observation and have no necessary relation to the real world* no point of contact with reality. The theories found in Stephen Hero which did not fit this pattern were rejected. The selected theories were then given a setting which would emphasize their impractical aspect (the conversation with Lynch), It is significant that Stephen® s eloquent speech ends when he is brought face to face with reality in the person of the girl he loves, The passage ends % 19Lynch was

right. His mind* emptied of theory and courage* lapsed back into a listless peace,The overt meaning of the sentence "Lynch was right" is that he was right in the earlier comment about the girl* but the juxtaposition of the words with Stephen®s brave theories and.Lynch®s constant attempts to bring him back to reality is significant. The implication is that Lynch was right not only about the girl* but also about

Stephen®s theories. CHAPTER V

DEVELOPMENTS IH TECHHIQUE

A, The Technique of the Epiphany

Although Joyce9 through Stephen;, defined the Epiphany

In Stephen- - n ; rr-ur-,,.,:!.-:,-,,,,,,Hero ?=, he did not make full use of It until he wrote Portraits In the earlier book, Joyce tells us that by an epiphany Stephen meant ssa sudden spiritual manifestation8 whether in the vulgarity of speech or of gesture or in a memorable phase of the mind itself,6I^ The word Mepiphany” means ^showing forth; 66 and this is what Stephen had in mind, a sudden revelation of the nature of a thing or person through an apparently trivial phrase or gesture* In Stephen Eero* the technique of the epiphany is used occasionally as a means of adding emphasis to a point already made* Each of the sur­ viving chapter of the manuscript.; for instance; ends in an epiphany of the type described by Stephen. Some; in fact; are almost direct copies of.short pieces written earlier by. Joyce and titled Epiphanies. ^ The last few lines of Chapter XXII p of Stephen Hero are taken from Epiphany XVII with only minor changes.

James Joyce, Stephen Hero, p.211.

2James Joyce. .Epiphanies. 0. A. Silverman, ed. (Buffalo, 1956), p.I?. 39 40 But epiphanies are used in Stephen Hero as little more than punctuation9 as means of ending a chapter on a rising note, or adding extra stress to a weak sceneo What is a secondary technique in Stephen Hero becomes the central method of Portrait, In revising Stephen Hero Joyce exercised a rigorous selectivity, discarding the multiple events and elaborate expository passages of the earlier work in favor of a few scenes or Hepiphanies51 which embody the essential characteristics of Stephen® s development„ The richness of the earlier work was sacrificed in favour of intensity, and in accord­ ance with Joyce®s shifting attitudes toward his own youth.

Mr. Litz is. right in stating that Joyce removed much extra­ neous material in writing Portrait. and in identifying the central method of the book as that of the epiphany, but he is wrong in thinking that the book lost in ^richness," For richness comes of suggestion, not of the accumulation of detail. What Stephen Hero did lose when it was transformed into Portrait was the sense of specific time and place, but that is dealt with in another section. We might describe Stephen Hero as a long narrative punctuated by epiphanies, and Portrait as a series of epiphanies linked by remarkably little in the way of narrative.

But the epiphanies of Stephen Hero are not those of Portrait.

The brief sketches called by that name in the earlier book could not have carried the burden of meaning in a novel as

-*-A. Walton Litz, The Art of James Joyce (New York, 1964), p.35° 41 complex as Portrait without being developed and refined until they were hardly recognizable as epiphanies at all.

The epiphany as used in Portrait is a series of such sudden revelations rising toward a climax. They are complete scenes9 instead of isolated moments9 and some of them take place within the mind of Stephen5 his thoughts take on the epiphany form in some of his interior monologues. What dis­ tinguishes the scenes written in this way by Joyce from more ordinary scenes is their painstaking construction. One such scene is that which destroys the temporary adjustment to the world made by Stephen in the first chapter of Portrait.

Stephen has achieved heroic status in his own eyes by daring to go to the rector of Clongowes to complain about his unfair punishment. The value of the incident is destroyed when he finds out that the whole matter was treated as a joke by the rector and the priest who had pandied him. The reve­ lation is in four steps. First the Jesuit order is shown to be worldly. e3$hose are the fellows that can get you a position.R They are then shown as gluttons s 5,Fed up, by God, like game-cocks.81 ..Such of Stephen® s pride had depended on the rector®s praise, and this is the next illusion destroyed.

68... .the rector... was telling me that story about you and

Father Dolan. You®re an impudent thief, he said.®3 Finally, the whole incident is turned into a joke. 42 Mr* Dedalus imitated the mincing nasal tones of the provincial, --Father Dolan and I, when I told them all at dinner about it, Father Dolan and I had a great laugh over it* You better mind yourself. Father Dolan, said I, or young Dedalus will send you up for twice nine* We had a famous laugh together over it.. H a 2 HaS Ha 8

The last lines are then repeated again by Hr, Dedalus,

loudly, in his own voice. This scene is actually a series of

epiphanies, each more revealing than the last. This is the

showing forth, not of a person or a thing, but of the true

nature of an incident in Stephen®s past; the revelation is

through the unwitting agency of his father, and it takes

place gradually instead of all at once; but the method is a

recognizable development from the Stephen Hero epiphanies.

The limited epiphany technique in Stephen Hero can

make a point strongly only if that point is simple, for the

epiphany cannot be over a few lines long; its impact depends

on its brevity. To make it the central element in the struc­

ture of Portrait, Joyce had to remold the epiphany into a new

form; he had to modify it so that it could be used for much

longer scenes, yet retain its. force. As we saw in the above

scene from Portrait, he succeeded by combining short moments

of epiphany into larger units which still kept the structure

of the originals. In so doing he retained the qualities which made the epiphany a powerful tool of esqtression; the

sense of sudden enlightenment and the feeling that the reader

1 James Joyce, Portrait« p.72. 43 is "being allowed a momentary glimpse into another world.

Two elements contribute to these qualities» The enlightenment is objective and seemingly accidental= We do not see a character striving to tell us - something about him­ self and the world he lives in; instead we see a close-up of him in an unguarded moment $ doing or saying something that he does or says every day, and the gesture or the word suddenly reveals his essence3 his quidditas. Seemingly we have not been forced into an opinion, we have simply been shown a close-up| our attention has been focused, but our Judgment has not been Interfered with® We have the impression that the author has been completely objective in his presentation*

This is only an impression, of course, but it makes us much more ready to accept the author® s view because the essential process, the value Judgment, has taken place inside our own minds; it has not been forced upon us by the author* The illusion of complete objectivity has lulled our critical sense*

The other strength of the epiphany is its power of suggestion* When the rector of Glongowes says 81 Father Dolan and I, when I told them all at dinner about it. Father Dolan and I had a great laugh over it,®® we get a glimpse of the world of the Jesuit teachers, a glimpse made most effective because it is snatched through a narrow embrasure * The

James ■ Joyce * Portrait *. p»?2* greater part of the strange world is outside our range of vision; we see only the dinner table and hear only a brief fragment of conversation,. Psychologists say that a task left incomplete is more easily remembered than one completed; in the same way, our mind is stimulated by inevitable conjectures about the part of the world only hinted at in these scenes; and our half-conscious attempts to discern more color our impressions of every scene that follows. Had Joyce gone on, as many of his immediate predecessors would have done, to document the life of the Jesuits in a wealth of naturalistic detail, the rational surface of our mind would have been enlightened and satisfied— -and the impact of the'scene would have been lost.

Portrait is a succession of such scenes in varying lengths. As in the film technique called montage, in which a succession of images is rapidly flashed on the screen, we are faced in Portrait with a series of scenes which sometimes seem to follow each other with bewildering rapidity. As in montage, the scenes are not linked by strict chronology; they are often linked only thematically and' the reintegration of them into a meaningful pattern takes place in the mind of the reader. This is not, as some might suppose,; a technique tolerant of careless and hasty writing, Itvcalls instead for consummate artistry, for the author must in the end deal not with words,, but with the impressions created by the words.

He must work, not with the printed page, but with the emotions of his readers» Unlike the ordinary author9 who oan9 more or less subtly9 tell the reader what to think„ the writer who chooses the technique of eplphan^ can only suggest. He is, i much more than the ordinary writer9 at the mercy of possibly violent idiosyncratic reactions in his reader9 at the mercy of preconception and prejudice. Like the pointillist9 he puts his raw dots of primary colors on canvas 9 but unlike the painter9 he cannot know that every normal human eye will see a mixture of yellow and blue dots as an expanse of green. He must depend on the workings of a psychological mechanism f%r more complex and far less understood than that of color vision.

B. Toward Objectivity

Although the Stephen of Stephen Hero is clearly not to be identified with James Joyce, the separation of creator from creature is not complete. Stephen is not Joyce in any sense of the word, but Joyce has an attitude toward Stephen which is evident in the writing. The attitude does not remain the same; it shifts9 sometimes very rapidly9 from admiration to irony9 but Joyce as a commentator is always present. In the long narrative passages9 it occasionally becomes difficult to separate the voice of Stephen from that of the author. Sometimes a passage begun as Stephen®s thoughts will degenerate abruptly into a crude tirade by

Joyce on the evils of something or other. At other times the shift will be more subtle and it will be difficult to say 4 6 exactly where Stephen leaves off and Joyce begins*

These wanderings filled him with deep-seated anger and whenever he encountered a burly, black-vested priest taking a stroll of pleasant inspection through these warrens full of swarming and cringing believers he cursed the farce of Irish Catholicisms an island the inhabitants of which entrust their wills and minds to others that they may ensure for themselves a life of spiritual paralysis, an island in which all the power and riches are in the keeping of those whose kingdom is not of this world, an island in which Caesar confesses Christ and Christ confesses Caesar that together they may wax fat upon a starveling rabbiement which is bidden Ironically to take to itself this consolation in hardship “The Kingdom of God is within you* 11 This mood of indignation which was not guiltless of a certain superficiality* ***1

This is typical of the sort of passage where Joyce

( lets Stephen rave wildly for some time, then quickly puts some distance between himself and his creation* It is a weak and immature method in two ways* First, we are merely told that Stephen is angry, without seeing any really good reason why he should be* There is nothing in the description of

Dublin street life that immediately precedes the quoted passage to incite anger in even the most irritable of human beings* It is as if Joyce had arbitrarily decided that

Stephen must be angry and induced that emotion in the mind of his hero without providing reasonable external cause* The second major weakness of the passage is.Joyce9s own comment on Stephen6 s raving * There is no need for the author to intrude here and point out that Stephen9 s attack: on his

James Joyce, Portrait * p * 146* 4? fellow countrymen is superficial<> We already know it, and the only effect of repeating the obvious is to irritate the reader= 'Biis form of intrusion is also bad in that it inter­ poses the silhouette of the author between the reader and his image of the character and thus interferes with empathy, with the direct flow of emotion between reader and hero that is important to the success of the novel=

Joyce is guilty of other forms of intrusion in

Stephen Hero0 He occasionally pontificates in a manner worthy of his Victorian forebears, but without their charm or profun­ dity, 5f!fhis quality of the mind which so reveals itself is called (when incorrigible) a decadence but if we are to take a general view of the world we cannot but see a process to

-i life through corruption, 81 Flashes of this sort of pseudo­ philosophy are fortunately rare in Stephen Hero, but when they do occur they are as disturbing as a glimpse of the overhead microphone in a film love-scene.

It cannot be denied that there is considerable artis­ tic distance between Joyce and his central character« Hugh

Kenner has pointed out that 88When Stephen®s uncompromising side occasionally becomes absurd, Joyce the recorder is always at hand to supply a distancing phrase,,., But if Joyce has been able to separate himself from his hero, he has not been

1 ' James Joyce, Stephen Hero, p 037°

2Hugh Kenner, Dublin®s Joyce (Boston" 1962), p,lll. 4 8 able to separate himself from his book, James Joyce Is always present tm Stephen Hero, his voice always heard above the rustle of the pages as we read; his eyes peer at us from among the words»

If Stephen Hero is lyric by Joyce0 s own definition' of the term$ if his image in that early novel is "presented in immediate relation to himself 9 68 then Portrait is dramatic =

There are few traces in the later work of Joyce the author=

Here Stephen is allowed to stand unaided and the reader is ' obliged to form his own opinion of him. Only in one or two places does Joyce slip momentarily, and then the slips are so small that the shadow they cast over Stephen is barely percep­ tible. Once Stephen is described as saying something "some­ what bitterly" and another time he speaks "coarsely.'5 The

"somewhat" and the "coarsely" are value judgments and imply the presence of the watchful author. Occasional minor slips of this type are well-nigh unavoidable9 however9 and we can say that for all practical purposes Joyce succeeded in removing himself entirely from Portrait, in making it a thoroughly "dramatic" work.

C. Time and Place

In reading Stephen Hero we are almost always aware of the setting of each scene in time and space| in Portrait the precise coordinates of the earlier novel are replaced by a vague and shifting system of reference. The action is no lohger .fimly tied to a specific time and place; it comes about in a void where the two terms are subjective rather than absoluteo The chronology of Stephen Hero is that of the calendar; the chronology of Portrait is that of Stephen9s memory» Clock time is replaced by subjective time and the events of the novel rearranged accordingly*

It could be said that the locale of the novel is shifted si that Stephen Hero takes place in Dublin and Portrait in the mind of Stephen Dedalus $ but this would not be entirely accurate* For one thing both novels are written from the third-person point of view with access to the mind of Stephen*

Portrait is more rigorously limited to this point of view; we do not9 as in the earlier novels understand things that

Stephen does not grasp * The only overt criticism of Stephen in Portrait is self-criticism* But the novel still takes place in Dublin* We still get two views of the city9 one; through Stephen9 s eyes and one objectively described.

The Dublin of Portrait, however, is not the Dublin of

Stephen Hero* As Stephen became the artist archetype without being any the less Stephen, so Dublin, when we see it in .

Portrait * has become Everytown without being any the less

Dublin* What Thornton Wilder said of Finnegans Wake applies equally well to Portrait* 66Et tout d 9abord **.* James Joyce etait a la recherche d 9un style qui permit de mettre en

Tumi ere a quel point chaque "etre .** est un archetype tout 50 / *1 en etant unique et irremplagable.R Joyce himself said

5?Por myself j I always write about Dublin, = = because if I can get to the heart of Dublin I can get to the heart of all the cities of the world. In the particular is contained the 2 universal,n

Joyce6 s method for bringing to light the universal from the particular involved the use of detail to suggest instead of to describe. His method was the sudden close-up., the rapid movement of the eye forward until it was focused on the one seemingly insignificant detail which revealed the quidditas of the object in question, w3?he whores would be just coming out of their houses making ready for the night9 yawning lazily after their sleep and settling the hairpins in their clusters of hair, The frame which in the first few words includes the whole street rapidly narrows until only the hand capturing stray locks of hair can be seen. The narrow frame shuts out. the irrelevant and the unimportant,

It concentrates our attention on the significant9 revealing detail. But something is lost. The scene thus described is more suggestives more meaningful9 but at the same time it is less real.,. ..The extreme close-up shuts out the surroundings9

- ...... ^Thornton Wilder9 "Joyce et le Roman Moderne$" La Revue des Lettres Hodernes, VI (Hiver9 1959-1960) 9 p,272, (English edition not available),

^Quoted in William Howell Jones9 James Joyce and the Common Header (Norman, Oklahoma9 1955) ? pi6 , ■

3James Joyce9 Portrait, p,102. and the action It shows becomes Independent of specific time and space*

The loss is only significant if Portrait is judged by the same criteria as the realistic or naturalistic novel.

Ian Watt has identified the success of the novel form with % its interest in dealing with specific time and places and by his standards Portrait would undoubtedly be a weak novel9 if it were a novel at all* But to identify the novel with the realistic or naturalistic novel is unnecessarily to narrow the definitions and to judge all novels by the standards of these schools is to do an injustice to many excellent works»

The loss in Portrait of the sense.of time and place so strong in Stephen Hero is a necessary adjunct of the shift in tech­ nique from one novel to the other. Stephen Hero is very close to the naturalistic traditions Portrait is a step in a new direction, toward expressionism.

D. M o t i o n in Portrait and Stephen Hero

In Stephen Hero Joyce is careful to describe each object with accuracy. He chooses words which will best convey to the reader the picture seen by the author. He is concerned with reproducing as exactly as possible the physical qualities of the scene. The symbolic implications, if any, are carried by the action and the description, by the image

•*"Ian Watt, The Rise of the Hovel (Los Angeles, 1964)» p.21 ffo 52 consciously created by the words used9 In Portrait Joyce uses a different technique9 forcing the words to carry a double burden«,

The description of Father Butt in Stephen Hero is accurate and straight-forwards

o»«he discovered Father Butt kneeling;on the hearth­ stone engaged in lighting a small fife.fcin . the huge gratee He was making neat wisps of paper and care­ fully disposing them among the coals and sticks=»» All the while he kept up a little patter explaining his operations and at a crisis he produced from the most remote pockets of his chalkey soutane three • dirty candle-butts00These he thrust in different openings and then looked at Stephen with an air of triumpho He set a match to a few projecting pieces of paper and in a few minutes the coals had caught®

The picture of Father Butt is certainly vivid« The old priest is not only described but characterized in a few brief lines*

The sloppiness of his dress, his innocent pride at being able to perform the simple task, - are competently described® The same action is described in Portrait at greater length*

A figure was crouching before the large grate and by its leanness and greyness he knew that it- was the dean of studies lighting'the fire,„* He produced four candle butts from the side- pockets of his soutane and placed them deftly among . the coals and twisted papers® Stephen- watched him in silence. Kneeling thus on the flagstone to kindle the fire and busied with the disposition of his. wisps of paper and candle butts he seemed more than ever a humble server making ready the place of sacrifice in an empty temple, a levite of the Lord*

T James Joyce. Stenhen Hero« p*28*

^James Joyce, Portrait * pp»18^-185 53 The narrative content of the. two descriptions is the same. The priest performs the same actions in the same manner; he lights the fire with the same wisps of paper and candle buttse The difference between the two descriptions is

In their power to suggest a range of meanings above and beyond the straightforward narrative. The first passage shows us a priest. The author0s comments on him are explicit. In the

Portrait version of the same passage Joyce'8s comments are., made indirectlys through his choice of words. The priest is likened first to an animal (59 c roue hi ngg8’ "leanness^ 88 ^greyness69) g then to the helper of a Jewish priest ("kneeling3 99 5humble server5" "temple, 99 "levite"). Each word is descriptive in that it pictures the priest on the. realistic level, but each word is also powerfully suggestive, evocative of images and concepts not directly connected to the narrative.

The technique, of. course, was not new. Other authors,

(Conrad, for instance), had used it before Joyce; but its use marks one of the significant differences between Portrait and

Stephen Eero,- It is one of the means by which Joyce was able to shorten the final version of the novel to approximately one fifth of its original length without in any way reducing its scope,.

E, Style and Suggestion

One of the most striking features of Portrait is the repeated occurrence of passages of extraordinarily rich, impassioned,, almost "barbaric prose within a work whose normal style is simple and restrained, as devoid of ornament as that of the naturalists. Headers could view with approval such sentences as % 61 The faint sour stink of rotted cabbages came towards him from the kitchen gardens on the rising round above the r i v e r . This sort of thing was 9 after all, in the best tradition of Zola and Eoore. But what were these same readers to do when they encountered w.».and from each receding trail of nebulous music there fell always on long-drawn calling 2 note, piercing like a star the dusk of silence.if It seemed as though Joyce was occasionally losing control, was failing to apply the rules laid down by his predecessors, was slipping into an immature style. Jane H. Jack said of Portrait that it suffered from "...too much Buskinesque prose and the discharge of some muddled emotional experience.Such judgments, however, must assume that there is only one effec­ tive prose style and that Joyce strayed from it only acci­ dentally. Hugh Kenner was one of the first to point out that the passages in question were deliberately written in their peculiar style.

James Joyce Portrait $. p . 162'.

?Ihid. p.167...... 3Jane H. Jack, wArt and A Portrait of the Artist.a Joyce9s' Portrait# Criticisms and Critiques, ed. Thomas K. Connolly (New fork, 1962), p.1 5 7 . u ”* 55 The prose surrounding Stephen®s flight is empurpled It is not immature prose9 as we might suppose by comparison with Ulysses. The prose of RThe Dead®1 is mature prose, and ®fThe Dead81 was written in 1908. Bather, it is a meticulous pastiche of immaturity.^

If this is true, does it justify Joyce®s use of

immature prose to show Stephen® s immaturity? After all,

Stephen is not the narrator; the novel is written in the

third person, not in the first. There would seem to be a

disruption of the logical order here; since it is clear that

Joyce and not Stephen is writing the novel, Stephen8 s imma­

turity should not cause Joyce to write immaturely. But the

fault is only apparent; it disappears as soon as we realize

that Joyce is working with impressions and not with explicit

statements, lark Sohorer had this in mind when he said that

Portrait 88.. .analyzes its material rigorously and... defines

the value and the quality of its experience not by appended p comment or moral epithet, but by the texture of the style.n

The technique here is much more complex than a mere use of

imitative form. Joyce is not describing immaturity through

immature prose; he is reflecting directly through the style

the tumult within the mind of his hero. Instead of using

words to generate images which in turn evoke emotions in the

mind of the reader, he is using words to generate emotion

directly, by-passing the intermediate stage o f .image-creation.

■'■Hugh Kenner., Dublin8s Joyce, p. 120.

^Hark Schorer, ’’Technique as Discovery,18 Approaches to the Novel. ed. Robert Scholes (San Francisco, I9 6 1 },p.260.

/ 5 6 The reader is affected, not "by the sense of the words used,

"but by the ^indefinable suggestion of word, phrase, and rhythme 51 Often the meaning is largely carried by the sound, by the shifting pattern of rhythm5

His heart trembled in am ecstasy of fear and his soul was in flighte His soul was soaring in an air beyond the world and the body he knew was purified in a breath and delivered of incertitude and made radiant and commingled with the element of the spirit =, An ecstasy of flight made radiant his eyes and wild his breath and tremulous and wild and radiant his wind­ swept limbs„ --One 2 Two!e„» Look out I _ — 0, Gripes, I°m drownded! 2 As Hugh Kenner points out, this passage is a key to the meaning of Portrait, since it identifies Stephen with the drowned Icarus rather than with Daedalus. But it is interesting to note that the meaning is carried as much by sound as by sense. The juxtaposition of the word ^drownded65 with the flight imagery in the paragraph immediately above it tells us of Stephen's ultimate fate, but the sudden shift from the supple flowing rhythms of 11., .radiant his eyes and wild his breath and tremulous and wild and radiant his windswept limbs'5 to the sudden, crude force of n— One! Two! ...Look out!" makes the point far more directly. The soaring rhythm of the flight is suddenly halted and replaced by the sharp plunge into monosyllabic stresses. Icarus plummets on broken wings into, the sea.,

^James Joyce, Portrait, p.1 6 9 .

^Hugh Kenner, Dublin's Joyce, u.131. : • 57 Examples of Joyce9s use of this technique abound in

Portrait, though it is not often possible to translate the

"indefinable suggestion" into explicit terms. Sometimes Joyce uses rhyme as well as rhythm.

Flames burst forth from his skull like a corolla, shrieking like voices: — ?HellS Hell! Hell! Hell! Hell! Voices spoke near. him. — On hell. — I suppose he rubbed it into you well.

Here the triple rhyme reinforces the key word "hell89 while the triteness of both rhyme and rhythm emphasizes the commonplace reactions of his fellow students to the sermon which has so badly scared the imaginative Stephen. Once again the style is directly linked to the experience| the meaning of the incident is conveyed through the style in which it is narrated.

The failure of critics to recognize the close kinship; of sound and sense in Portrait has led many of them to mis­ interpret the novel. Herherfc. Gorman considered the Portrait to be straight-forward autobiography. Grant Bedford saw it as "...the objectification of an artistic proposition and a method announced by the central character.w Eugene Faith saw

Stephen as simply a potential artist, viewed by Joyce with

1 - James Joyce, Portrait. p.125.

^Grarnt H. Bedford, "The .Boie of Structure in Joyce®s Portrait,n Joyce®s Portraits Criticisms and Critiques, ed. Thomas E. Connolly, pp.lQ2-ll¥T ™" *” 58 neither approval nor disapproval.All of them failed to see

that Joyce commented on Stephen1s attitude and his theories

throughout the novel$ but that his comments were implicit in

the style, rather than added on as moral or esthetic append­

ages in the manner of Stephen Eero*

This is not to say that there are no other clues to

the meaning of the novel. Careful analysis of Portrait will reveal many threads which, if followed to their conclusion, will point to Stephen as the artiste manque„ as the young man who had all the attributes necessary to the artist, but who failed to use them because he separated himself from the life which should have been his raw material. Stephen8s growing isolation, his identification with Icarus rather than Daedalus, his failure to complete any work of art except the vague and bland villamelle of Chapter V, all point to the conclusion that Stephen does not become an artist at all. But these are intellectual deductions. Without the feeling engendered by

Joyce6s use of suggestion through style, they would leave

Portrait as an incredibly complex tour de force, a puzzle which would appeal only to our rational side. Through M s use of suggestion, Joyce was able to blend intellectual with emotional appeal to create a work of art. We feel on first reading that Stephen is a failure without being able to jus­ tify our opinion logically; we can then re-read with care

^Eugene 1. Waith, lfThe Calling of Stephen Bedalus, ® op.cit. pp.114-123* 59 and find textual evidence for what was at first only an emotional reaction. CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSION

The raw material that Joyce used in writing both

Stephen Hero and A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man was his own life» In the first novel he followed the tradition of the naturalists in presenting the material in approximately unaltered form, making only those changes which were necessary to fit the problem he had posed himself, that of showing how the growth of mind as well as body was subject to the governing factors of heredity and environment„ He attempted to reproduce through words the events which he selected as best fitting that pattern, keeping the style as simple and unadorned as possible.

Stephen Hero is a naturalistic novel, but it is not a good one. Joyce failed to dissociate himself completely from his central character, not because he identified himself with Stephen, but because he could not resist the temptation to comment on Stephen®s thoughts and actions. Joyce as

Stephen is absent from the book, but Joyce as author is all too visible.

In writing Stephen Hero Joyce set out to tell a story, to mold the memories of his early years in Dublin into a meaningful pattern. The task he set himself in revising the work into Portrait was much more ambitions. Portrait is one 61 of the first attempts to raise the art of the novel above simple story-tellingo Form, which had hitherto been regarded as subsidiary to content9 as a container into which the novelist poured what he had to say9 became in Portrait a means of directly expressing content. Joyce saw it, not as something imposed from without, but as an inevitable out­ growth of what the novelist had to say. The arrangement of the words into sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, each with its own rhythms and sound-patterns, became as important in conveying the philosophical content of the novel as the meanings of the words themselves.

These concepts, of course, were not new to literature; poets had used them for centuries. Hhat was new was the intro­ duction of poetic concepts and devices to the novel form.

Pope had spoken of matching sound to sense and poets both before and after him had done so with varying degrees of success, but Joyce was one of the first to use sound to con­ vey meaning in the novel, to make the novel approach levels of complexity and density hitherto reserved for poetry.

Stephen Hero belongs rightfully to the nineteenth century and Portrait to the twentieth, for in rewriting his novel

Joyce abandoned the techniques of naturalism and adopted (in some cases originated), the methods which were to change the novel almost into a new genre. He treated character and plot as means of conveying impressions instead of developing them for their own sake or as means of reproducing reality. He adapted the techniques of poetry to the novel«

But Portrait is not a mere tour de forces it is not a mere display of technical virtuosity. Although this paper has treated the novel primarily from the standpoint of tech­ nique $, its content is also important $ for if its technique is a reaction against naturalism and realisms its content is in a sense a reaction against esthetieisnn Portrait shows us the artist as inevitably engaged in the world around him; it destroys the myth of the aloof artist surveying the world from a lofty and inaccessible eyrie. Portrait is not a

^novelist1 s novel 918 worthwhile only as a study of technical tricks3 but a work worth studying for its content as well as its form, if indeed the two can be separated. BEPEEEMCES

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Ellmann, Hichard« James Joyce. Hew "Yorks Oxford University Press9 1959»

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Jones$ William Powell= James Joyce and the Common Header® Herman % University of Oklahoma Press 9 1955 =

Joyce, James® A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Han® Hew YorkT^he^Viking Press, 1 9 6 1 "

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Joyce, James® The Critical Writings of James Joyce® Edited- by Ellsworth Mason arid .11 chard Ellman® Hbw York's The Viking Press, 1964®

Joyce, Stanislaus® My Brother8s Keeper® Edited by Hichard Ellman, Preface by T® S® Eliot. Hew Yorks The Viking Press, 1958®

Kenner, Hugh® Dublin9s Joyce® Boston: Beacon Press, 1 9 6 2 ®

Litz, A® Walton® The Art of James Joyce. Hew York1 Oxford University^Press, I9 6 4 ®'

Marvin Magalaner, ed® A® James Joyce Miscellany® Third Series® Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press, 1 9 6 2 ® 64 Magalanerg Harvin^ Time 'of Apprentloeshl-p s The Fiction of Young James Joycea London, New York, Toronto s Abelard-Schuman $ 1959 c•

Hyf, Bobert 8, A New Approach to Joyce«, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1964.

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Sonpalt, Philippe.. Pro fils Perdu s. Paris s Her cure de France, 1 9 6 3 .

Watt, Ian. The Bise of the Novel. Los Angeles s University of California Press” ’l9^"4~""~"

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