Hawai‘i Community College
A JOURNAL OF ACADEMIC WRITING This publication is available in alternate format upon request. UH Hilo/Hawai‘i Community College are Equal Opportunity Affirmative Action Institutions. VOLUME 4 Hohonu 2 0 0 6
Academic Journal
University of Hawai‘i at Hilo • Hawai‘i Community College d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d
Table of Contents
Bycatch: The Effects of Pelagic Longlining on Pacific Sea Turtle Populations ...... 1 by Frances Kinslow
Dynamic Beauty: Cultural Influences and Changing Perceptions - Becoming Prettier or Erasing One’s Own Culture? ...... 5 by Christopher Frazier
Educating Margaret: Puritanical Rhetoric in Emerson and Hawthorne ...... 9 by Jeanne L. Kroenke
Egaeus Diagnonsed ...... 13 by Lori Beth Griffin
Enewetak: A Nuclear Atoll ...... 17 by Andrea E. Chernov
From the Melting Pot to the Tossed Salad Metaphor: Why Coercive Assimilation Lacks the Flavors Americans Crave ...... 29 by LeAna Gloor
A Brief Look at Globalization Through Kava ...... 33 by Christopher Frazier
He Blinded Me with Science: The Effects of 19th Century Science on Melville’s Moby Dick ...... 37 by Jason Foxworthy i am the other ...... 41 by kelly m. woods
Ka Mana o ke Känäwai a me ka Mana o ke Kanaka ...... 45 by Hulilau Wilson
Literary Dysfunction: Finding Truth Where There is No Meaning ...... 47 by Jeanne L. Kroenke
Pehea e Ho’oikaika Hou ‘Ia Ai Ka Papahana Kaiapuni ‘Ölelo Hawaiÿi? ...... 51 by Lehua Wilson
Renter Beware ...... 53 by Raphael D. Chenault
Riding Tourism’s New Wave: Evaluating the Cruise Industry’s Impact in Hilo ...... 57 by LeAna B. Gloor
Some Styles of Thought in Science: Examples Applied to the History of Evolution ...... 61 by Erik Rau
iii The Diesel Engine: An Answer to the Rising Prices and Shrinking Supply of Gas ...... 63 by William L. Todd
The Lion of Keanakolu ...... 67 by Elizabeth Leina`ala Kahahane
The Original British Invasion ...... 75 by Jessica Anne Gard
“There’s Nothing So Bad for a Cough as Coughing!”: An Insight into the World of Quackery, Nostrum, and Patent Medicine...... 81 by Dane Olson
Thermoregulation in Montane and Coastal Species of Native Hawaiian Damselflies - from May 31,2005 to August 5, 2005 ...... 93 by Shauna Tom, David Foote and Sharon Ziegler-Chong
Thought vs. Life ...... 97 by Raphael D. Chenault
To Veil or Not To Veil? ...... 101 by Aletha Dale McCullough
Weight Discrimination: The Effects of Obesity on Employment and Promotion ...... 107 by Andrea E. Chernov
Women’s Role in Combat: Is Ground Combat the Next Front? ...... 115 by Sylvia Wan
Worms Go to School ...... 121 by Piper Selden
iv HOHONU
Aloha and welcome to the fourth edition of Hohonu, A Journal of Academic Writing. We are proud to present the very best of student writing which displays the quality and diversity of students on the campuses of University of Hawaii at Hilo and Hawaii Community College. Hohonu, which means “deep, profound” in Hawaiian, celebrated its inaugural issue in the fall of 2003. The publication reaches out to faculty and students, as well as to the community at large. Our new website extends our reach to the rest of the world, allowing us to more fully share our mission: To encourage academic discourse and enhance the educational experience at the University of Hawaii at Hilo and Hawaii Community College. Hohonu features non-fiction academic writing in any format and on any subject. The work in this journal includes personal reaction papers, analysis, argument, review, and research papers. Among the works of great student writing in this issue, we are pleased to include two pieces written in the Hawaiian language. Mahalo to everyone who helped make this issue possible. A gracious thank you is extended to the student authors for their hard work and contribution to another successful issue of Hohonu. We gratefully acknowledge the financial assistance of the Board of Student Publications and the staff at Campus Center for their help. A big mahalo goes to James Rubio, IT Specialist extraordinaire at UHH, for his assistance with our website. Students wishing to submit work for consideration for future issues of Hohonu can now submit work online. Visit our website: www.uhh.hawaii.edu/academics/hohonu/ Finally, Hohonu would like to express warm gratitude to our staff ‘ohana for making the dream a reality for yet another year. Hohonu appreciates the efforts of Luke Bailey and John Cole, whose inspiration and energy resulted in the creation of this journal. Luke Bailey’s support continues today as our Faculty Advisor. Hohonu values the ongoing hard work of our dedicated student staff: Andy Gramlich (in memory), Kalyan Meola, Anela Gramlich, Piper Selden, Teresa Stanonik, Alicia Wilson, LeAna Gloor, and Brianne Castro, our outgoing Business Manager. We do this for the love of it!
Aloha nui loa to all,
Piper Selden Editor-in-Chief
v IN MEMORIAM
Andrew Gramlich
1952-2006
A founding editor of Hohonu, colleague, and friend d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d
Such interactions can have potentially devastating Bycatch: The Effects effects on species like sea turtles. Of the seven species of sea turtles found in our oceans today, all of Pelagic Longlining are considered threatened or endangered, with six listed on the IUCN redlist of endangered species. on Pacific Sea Turtle Two species, the loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) have been identified Populations as being at particular risk of population decline as a result of incidental take by longline pelagic fisheries (Lewison et al. 2004b). In fact, incidental catch by by Frances Kinslow fisheries is considered to be one of the most important causes of anthropogenic mortality for sea turtles Each day the world’s human population expands (DeFlorio et al 2005). to record size. The ultimate apex predator, humans As with many other marine megafauna, the have put pressure on nearly every ecosystem in the life history characteristics of sea turtles make their world to provide food and other resources. That populations particularly vulnerable to collapse. pressure not only affects the species that is being Turtles have a long lifespan and take years to reach hunted, but can sometimes have unintentional sexual maturity. There is a very high rate of mortality effects on other species. In fishing, this type of among young offspring, and population stability accidental interaction with non-target species is requires a high survival rate for those few individuals called “incidental take,” with the non-target species which do reach adulthood. Therefore, turtles suffer becoming “bycatch.” significant population decline when adult and Many populations of marine animals have been sub-adult age classes endure higher-than-average negatively impacted as a result of fishing practices mortality: the loss of even a few individuals can have which incur large amounts of bycatch. Generally, significant effects (Lewison et al. 2004a). Longlines are bycatch species are not of economic value and documented to cause selective mortality among these therefore bycatch incidents have been largely ignored older age classes in sea turtles (Lewison et al. 2004b). and under reported. However, studies of threatened Like turtles, longliners are found in every ocean and endangered marine vertebrates have shown that in the world. With the banning of high seas driftnets many already at-risk species face an even greater by the United Nations in 1991, many industrialized decrease in survival rates due to incidental take from fisheries turned their efforts to longlining. Boats fisheries (DeFlorio et al. 2005). from 40 nations set approximately 3.8 million hooks One such fishery, pelagic longlining, is on 100,000 miles of longline every day, with more responsible for hundreds of thousands of tons of than half of that fishing effort concentrated in the bycatch every year (Lewison et al. 2004b). Longlines Pacific. In the year 2000, conservative estimates put target commercially valuable pelagic fish using numbers of global bycatch for loggerheads at over heavy duty monofilament. A surface longline will 200,000 and for the critically endangered leatherback have a mainline suspended by floats with weighted at 50,000. Nesting populations of Pacific leatherbacks vertical lines attached which have baited hooks hung have experienced a 95% decline in just two decades at regular intervals. Longlines can stretch for tens (Lewison et al. 2004b), leading scientists to speculate of kilometers (several miles) and are suspended at that the Pacific leatherback faces imminent extinction different depths depending on the location and type in the next ten years (James et al. 2005). Loggerhead of fish being targeted (Deflorio et al. 2005). In the turtles showed over an 80% population decline in the Pacific Ocean, longliners primarily target two species: same period (Lewison et al. 2004b). bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus) and swordfish (Xiphius Although these numbers seem to indicate a gladius). However, non-target animals accidentally correlation between longlining and population caught on longlines are extensive and include decline, the actual effects of longlining are difficult dolphins, whales, seabirds, sharks, and sea turtles, to quantify. When analyzing the effects of fisheries among others (Lewison et al. 2004a). bycatch, two things are crucial: determine how many individuals are being removed from the population, 1 and then determine the effects of this removal fronts (Polovina et al. 2000), one indication that the (Lewison et. al. 2004a). Data to accurately answer juvenile turtles are feeding at those sites. More recent these questions in many cases is simply unavailable. advances in technology have allowed researchers to Although the existence of bycatch is acknowledged track turtles in the wide open ocean using satellite for all fisheries, the extent and magnitude is transponders. Studies that tracked loggerhead turtles sporadically recorded. The most reliable data on and olive ridley turtles for months at a time in the bycatch numbers comes from onboard observers Pacific confirmed that those species did in fact migrate (Lewison et al. 2004b). However, out of 40 nations along ocean fronts (Polovina et al. 2000). A single with active longlining fisheries, only 15 have an loggerhead tracked in 2001 spent over three months onboard observer program and of those, only a small following the edge of an oceanic front (Polovina et al. percentage of trips are actually required to have an 2004). observer onboard (Lewison et al. 2004a). Logbooks Determining the nature of the turtle’s pelagic kept by ship’s crew commonly under-report bycatch, habitat can be crucial in finding ways to limit turtle and in most cases there is no reporting at all. In interactions with longlines. For instance, satellite addition, much longline fishing is illegal and even tracking studies that recorded the depths of turtles’ the fishing itself is unreported (Lewison et al. 2004b), dives found that loggerheads spent 90% of their time making extrapolating data to draw conclusions an at depths of less than 40m (Polovina et al. 2004). This even more difficult task. would explain why although fishing effort for tuna in In addition, relatively little is known about the Pacific is up to six times greater than fishing effort the behavior of sea turtles while in their pelagic for swordfish, swordfish longliners have bycatch habitat. As adults, turtles will often find foraging ten times that of tuna (Lewison et al. 2004b). The grounds near land masses, and adult female turtles longlines for tuna are known as “deep-set” because will travel thousands of miles to the beaches where they are weighted to depths below 100m, while the they were born to lay their eggs. Hatchlings emerge swordfish lines are “shallow-set” at less than 100m several months later and enter the sea on their own. (Polovina et al. 2004), where turtles are much more However, during the years in between hatchling likely to encounter them. and adulthood, which vary depending on the turtle Another factor that needs to be considered is how species, the turtles “disappear” and their habits are the turtles are interacting with the longlines. A study virtually unknown. of loggerheads in the Ionian Sea showed that of 200 This lack of comprehensive knowledge has turtles caught in longlines, 87% were hooked, while hampered conservation efforts to save the sea turtles 13% were entangled (Deflorio et al. 2005). This is a (Lewison et al. 2004a, James et al. 2005). Recent definite indication that the bait is a primary attractant studies have focused on strengthening scientific data for the turtle, and that the turtles were caught when in these areas. For instance, turtle biologists have long trying to feed. However, this did not hold true for hypothesized that juvenile turtles spend much of their all species or all areas. A study of leatherbacks off developmental years associating with oceanic fronts. the Atlantic Coast of Canada found that 95% of those In the Pacific, these fronts occur when warmer water turtles caught by fixed gear longlines (a specific from a subtropical ocean gyre meets cold water from type of longline set in shallower coastal waters and a subartic ocean gyre, causing a weak downwelling. attached to the bottom) were entangled, not hooked. These fronts are characterized by rich chlorophyll A fifth of these turtles drowned (James et al. 2005). density caused by the abundance of phytoplankton These are important distinctions to make when in the cold water. Predators are attracted to the rich discussing conservation efforts as type of interaction convergence of the phytoplankton, and a complete can have major implications: snared or hooked turtles pelagic food web develops at these sites. Jellyfish, may be discovered before they drown and released, such as the wind sailor, Vellela vellela, are among but often with hooks embedded deeply in their mouth the first predators, and also among the staple foods or digestive system, or with fishing line entangling a of loggerhead turtles (Polovina et al. 2000) and limb which may become severed. The implications of leatherbacks (Lewison et al. 2004b), giving rise to the these post-hooking scenarios are simply not known theory that oceanic fronts can provided an abundance (James et al. 2005). of resources for turtles in their pelagic stages. U.S. based fisheries are monitored by the National Studies support this theory. Stomach analyses of Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), a division of the 55 juvenile and sub-adult loggerheads drowned in National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration driftnets in 1993 showed that all of the prey consumed (NOAA). In 2001, the Hawaiian based longline by the turtles were species found at these convergent fishery was ordered closed, based on data collected
2 by the NMFS that showed that the incidental take of SST of 20oC. Further research found a correlation endangered species by pelagic longliners exceeded between sea surface temperatures at these levels that allowed by the Endangered Species Act (NMFS and high incidence of accidental take with turtles. Report on Technical Gear Workshop, 2001). Based on these results, the study concluded that Although several studies cited pelagic longline requiring longliners to cease fishing efforts when fishing as the number one threat to leatherbacks in surface temperature approaches these limits may the Pacific (James et al. 2005, Lewison et al. 2004b), help reduce incidental take of sea turtles in the Pacific the longline fishery was reopened in Northern (Polovina et al. 2000). Another study involved dying Hawaiian waters in 2004. The fisheries management squid, a commonly used bait. Researchers found authority, NMFS, initiated new restrictions and that green turtles (Chelonia mydas) virtually ignored guidelines intended to reduce bycatch of turtles and the bait when it was dyed blue, although the target other species. One of these new guidelines included fish showed no difference in preference. Studies to requiring trained observers on 100% of the swordfish test this theory on loggerheads are underway (NMFS longliners and 25% of the tuna longliners, to carefully Report on Technical Gear, 2004). Such studies may monitor bycatch. Another requirement was that lead to a better outlook for the turtles. swordfish longlines use only the newly developed Still, efforts made solely by the United States circle hooks, rather than the traditional “J” style hooks to reduce bycatch in only U.S. based fisheries may (NMFS Small Entity Compliance Guide, 2004). not have a very large overall impact, as the problem Some scientists question the re-opening of the simply cannot be addressed by regional or national fisheries. Few studies on the effect of the circle efforts (James et al 2005). In fact, U.S. based fisheries hook on bycatch have been completed. One study account for less than 3% of all pelagic longlining conducted in longline fisheries around the Azores in the Pacific (NMFS Report on Technical Gear found there was no significant difference in the Workshop, 2001). Japan and Taiwan together are number of turtles caught by each hook type. The responsible for more than half the Pacific longline circle hooks were more likely to embed in the mouths fishing effort, while no other nation claims more of the turtles rather than the throat, which may help than 7% (Lewison et al. 2004b). Because turtles travel reduce mortality after hooking (NMFS Report on across oceans, through the waters and onto the shores Technical Gear Workshop, 2001). However, because of many different countries, a truly international of the lack of data regarding post-hooking recovery conservation effort would be required to have lasting and behavior, it is unknown if these hooks can be consequences. Scientists are pushing the U.S. to considered an effective conservation tool. take a leading role in conservation efforts here, then Although many studies indicate that a encourage other countries to do the same. The United moratorium on pelagic longlining is the only measure Nations has been presented with reports calling for which could produce significant results in halting international regulation of longlining, as with the high declines of sea turtle populations (James et al. 2005), seas driftnets. this seems unlikely. Pelagic longlining accounts for As loggerhead and leatherback populations 85% of the world’s swordfish and 60% of the bigeye continue to decline in the Pacific, it emainsr to be seen and albacore tunas and the high consumer demand what effects the loss of these links in the food web cannot be met by other fishing methods (Lewison et may cause to marine ecosystems. Studies to improve al. 2004b). scientific knowledge of the turtles’ life cycles, to find Conservation efforts instead are focusing on ways alternative technology for fishing, and to reduce to reduce turtle interactions with longlines. One of turtle interactions with longlines are underway. the satellite tracking studies showed that juvenile With nesting beaches being destroyed, new diseases loggerheads foraging in the Pacific traveled most plaguing sea turtles, and pressure from fisheries, frequently along fronts with a sea surface temperature much remains to be done to ensure the future of sea (SST) of 17oC, and secondarily along fronts with turtles in our oceans.
3 CITED REFERENCES
DeFlorio, M., Aprea, A., Corriero, A., Santamaria, N. and DeMetrio, G. 2005. Incidental capture of sea turtles by swordfish and albacore longlines in the Ionian Sea. Fisheries Science 71:1010-1018.
James, M.C., Ottensmeyer A., and Myers, R.A. 2005. Identification of high-use habitat and threts to leatherback sea turtles in northern waters: new directions for conservation. Ecology Letters 8: 195-201.
Polovina, J.J., Kobayashi, D.R. Parker, D.M., Sekii, M.P., Balazs, G.H. 2000. Turtles on the edge: movement of loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) along oceanic fronts, spanning longline fishing grounds in the central North Pacific, 1997-1998. Fisheries Oceanography 9:71-82.
Polovina, J.J., Balazs G.H., Howell, E.A., Parker, D., Seki, M.P., and Dutton P.H. 2004. Forage and migration habitat of loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) sea turtles in the central North Pacific Ocean. Fisheries Oceanography 13:36-51. a Lewison, R.L., Crowder, L.B., Read, A.J., and Freeman, S.A. Nov 2004. Understanding impact of fisheries bycatch on marine megafauna. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19: 598-604. b Lewison, R.L., Freeman, S.A., and Crowder, L.B. 2004. Quantifying the effects of fisheries on threatened species: the impact of pelagic longlines on loggerhead and leatherback sea turtles. Ecology Letters 7:221- 231.
United States Department of Commerce (US). Report of the NMFS Technical Gear Workshop to Reduce the Incidental Capture of Sea Turtles in the Atlantic Pelagic Longline Fishery, 2001. Report on workshop. Silver Spring (MD): National Marine Fisheries Service Highly Migratory Species Division; 2001 Jan. 11 p. Available from: http://nmfs.noaa.gov.
United States Department of Commerce (US). Small Entity Compliance Guide for the April 2004 Changes to the Regulations Governing the Pelagic Fisheries of the Western Pacific Region. Compliance guide for regulatory changes. Honolulu (HI): National Marine Fisheries Service Pacific Islands Region; 2004 July. 36 p. Available from: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/gov/mediacenter/turtles/.
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reverse ethnocentrism or internalized racism on the Dynamic Beauty: subjugated populations. This paper is divided into two major parts. In part Cultural Influences A, I identify trends of the phenomenon of affected standards of beauty by Western influence. In part B, I and Changing discuss several predominant theories as to the cause Perceptions - of these trends. Behavioral Trends of Beauty Modification Becoming Prettier or There are many examples of non-Western standards of beauty that have been affected and Erasing One’s Own influenced by those of the West. In these non-Western examples, a preference for Western standards has Culture? surfaced. Here we will look at some of the most obvious and extreme elements: skin bleaching and plastic surgery. by Christopher Frazier The act of skin bleaching by darker-skinned populations is the first case of interest. I first became Is there a universal standard of physical beauty? aware of it while living in New York City. Friends Is it ‘White?!’ We will explore the causes of changing of mine from South Asia first told me that it was ideals of beauty in terms of cross-cultural interactions. common in their communities to use “skin lightening Specifically, this paper looks at how a culture’s creams” to bleach their skin. I quickly learned that concepts of beauty change as a result of influences it is not just practiced by East Indians, but by South from other cultures. I look at the influence of Western East Asians, and West Indians as well. Alex Haley cultural concepts of beauty on non-Western cultures even makes mention of African-Americans using skin through cultural interaction and domination and bleach in The Autobiography of Malcolm X. the contemporary results that grow out of these This derived interest in whiter skin can be seen situations. the world over. Another example can be seen in A culture’s ideals of physical appearance are non-Western companies which use Western and dynamic. Change can be induced by external cultural Western-looking models to advertise their products contact and, particularly, domination. Do these to non-Western populations. According to Angela affected standards of beauty imply a kind of reverse Mak’s research in China, “whiter/lighter are preferred ethnocentrism? facial skin colors for Chinese females in magazine To clarify, this paper does not go into issues of advertisements” (97). In Japan, “Western celebrities whether or not aesthetic operations and alterations appear prominently in the Japanese advertising are good or bad, but rather looks at the socio-cultural media as spokespersons for various products, factors that influence populations on the large scale especially those carrying a certain level of status to perform certain behaviors in attempts to reduce or appeal, [i.e.] luxury items” (Engstrom 20). And in even remove physical ethnic characteristics. Ghana, beauty salons “use light [skinned] women... This concerns one population’s indigenous in their advertisements … [though] the majority of standards of beauty changing as a result of being these pictures don’t represent the average Ghanaian subjugated by another population; specifically, that of woman” (Chisholm). the West subjugating large portions of Westerners and “whiteness” are thus associated the non-West, predominantly through means of mass with luxury and status. According to N. Chisholm’s media and commercialism. How much influence Village Voice article, “Skin Bleaching and the Rejection does mass media (e.g. television, internet) have on of Blackness”, in West Africa, “the lighter you are, the human behavior? “We can extend advertising’s more attractive and financially secure you must be.” basic assumption that messages influence behavior” She also contends that skin bleaching is a large scale (Kottak 98). This process of long-term cultural problem in the region despite several countries having domination may ultimately result in societal level banned the creams. 5 The other most extreme illustration of this trend There are several variables that point to causes of non-Western populations borrowing from Western other than the cultural domination of the West that standards of beauty can be seen in the increasing some argue have played a part in the changing frequency of surgical operations which altogether ideas of beauty. For example, in the case of China, alter the ethnic appearance of recipients. This is researcher Angela Mak explains: particularly common in East Asia and East Asian We can go beyond the media influence of populations in places like North America. the last 40 years and look at the possibly The most commonly practiced operation is called deeper and earlier explanations for light blepharoplasty, which is also referred to as “eyelid skin preference: that elite people don’t need surgery.” The operation “creates an indention of the to labor outside, thus in Southern China, eyelid right on the top of the eyeball that makes it developed an association of “whiteness” with stand out” giving the eyelid a double-fold (Valhouli). status. Ann Shin, a filmmaker who made a movie on this She goes on to mention that the above occurrence topic, said of the situation in Canada: “women will coupled with the later colonization of Hong Kong by encourage their [daughters] to think about getting the British Caucasians”reinforced the idea” (88-89). eyelid surgery in the way that parents might get In Japan, before large scale Western influence, braces for a kid or have an overweight child lose some opinions of Caucasians were quite negative. One weight” (Kar) . scholar in 1807 even described Westerners as being In 1998, “Asian-Americans represented 7.5 beasts that resembled human beings (Engstrom 18). percent of all patients undergoing facial cosmetic However, not long after the West was recognized as surgery,” according to the American Academy of being “technologically and economically superior Facial, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery to Japan... [which began the belief by Japanese] that (Valhouli). The statistics are staggering; “[In] Korea, Japan was inferior, not only as an economic power, surgeons estimate that at least one in 10 adults have but also as a race” (Engstrom 19). This inferiority received some form of surgical upgrade” (Cullen et complex developed into what Japanese call retto-kan, al) . or “inferior class feeling,” to the West (17,19). Following blepharoplasty in popularity is an Many of the arguments for surgery or bleaching operation that makes the nose appear longer and include beliefs that doing so will increase status pointer and another operation in which “botox is or improve an individual’s chances of success in injected into wide cheeks so the muscle will atrophy competitive societies (Kar; Chisholm). and the cheeks will shrink” (Cullen et al). On surgery, some people claim that the practice So who’s to blame? How about Michael Jackson? has nothing to do with trying to look more Western. Is he not the epitome of both of the above described They just want to look more attractive or as one acts of physical alteration? Catherine Tetteh, a surgeon put it, “the Asian eye is beautiful and beautician in Geneva points out, “by using cosmetic [recipients]’re only trying to enhance it [by surgical surgery to make his face look more European, Michael operation]” (quoted by Valhouli). But, as Valhouli Jackson, was sending out the wrong signal.” Of course points out, this argument breaks down “into a game we cannot place blame on one popular icon but it can of semantics... [in which] people say’ I want to look offer illumination. prettier’ ...but how does it come to mean a Western eye?” And this observation of semantics brings up Explanations and Variables another example, one that I noticed. The word fair has All of the above trends seem to illustrate the come to mean light complexioned; however, fair used growing influence of esternW cultural domination. to mean beautiful, as in Shakespeare’s use when he From actual imperialism to modern cultural describes a fair maiden. colonialism via mass media, “few would argue that Skin bleaching is a little clearer cut in its origins, under the relentless bombardment of Hollywood, especially in West Africa, since it started in the 1500s satellite TV, and Madison Avenue, Asia’s aesthetic as the Europeans came and colonized (Chisholm). ideal has changed drastically”(Cullen et al). But is all this change solely the result of Western influence? And what role, if any, does reverse ethnocentrism play in the adoption of Western standards and the downplaying of indigenous ones?
6 Conclusion WORKS CITED AND RELATED READING This paper only scratches the surface of an interesting area that should not be neglected. Bodley, John. Victims of Progress. Mountain View, This is an interdisciplinary field in which both California: Mayfield Publishing Company, Anthropological and Mass Communication type 1999. theories can be useful in better understanding these Chisholm, N. “Skin Bleaching and the Rejection of cultural dynamics. Blackness.” Village Voice 22-28 Jan. 2001. 16 In this paper, we looked at examples of non- Oct. 2004. Western peoples adopting Western standards of
Klapper, Joseph. The Effects of Mass Communication. New York: Free Press, 1960.
Lester, Paul, ed. Images That Injure: Pictorial Stereotypes in the Media. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 1996.
Lutz, Catherine and Jane Collins. Reading National Geographic. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.
Mak, Angela. “Facial Skin Color Preferences for Chinese Women in Hong Kong Magazine Advertisements.” Human Communication: a Journal of the Pacific and Asian Communication Association 2.1 (1998-1999): 87-97.
Poblete, Patio “The price to pay for an ‘American’ nose and eyes is more than the $2,500” San Francisco Chronicle 24 Feb.2002. Oct. 2004
Valhouli, Christina. “’Fixing’ the Asian Eye- Racist or no Big Deal?” Talk Surgery, Inc. 2001-2004. Oct. 2004
clear lines between a man’s place and a woman’s have Educating Margaret: become blurred. Women were not only entering the workplace, Puritanical Rhetoric but the sphere of education. This new behavior was generating a conflict in the status quo. In her article in Emerson and “The Woman Question: A Multi-Faceted Debate,” Theresa DeFrances argues: “Knowledge, many men Hawthorne and women believed, defeminized women. Many ministers likened it to forbidden fruit because it opened the world to women at the expense of by Jeanne L. Kroenke closing off heaven” (170). By associating women’s education to forbidden fruit and the Garden of Eden, According to the Garden of Eden myth, women the educated woman becomes the new Eve, and her played a crucial role in the downfall of man, and knowledge and assertion of rights become evil, and because of this have been distrusted throughout something we must protect society against. history and literature. It is not uncommon for this Knowledge, education, and evil are all issues duality to play itself out textually. The struggle addressed in Norton Juster’s A Woman’s Place: against this concept can be seen in Nathaniel Yesterday’s Women in Rural America. This Hawthorne’s The Blithedale Romance, and Ralph compilation of magazine articles, letters, and pithy Waldo Emerson’s “From the Memoirs of Margaret Fuller sayings sheds light on the rhetoric used in the early Ossoli.” Both men feel an attraction to, and at the to mid-nineteenth century. The knowledge of evil same time, are repelled by this woman who combines is addressed in an article from “Scribner’s” titled “A both aspects of the sinner and the saint. The rhetoric Mother’s Duty to her Girls.” The author writes that Hawthorne and Emerson use to describe women women absolutely should be educated: “Purity means expose their hidden beliefs in good and evil, and spotlessness, not mere ignorance. It is a mental poise women’s role in the downfall of man. In addition, – that attitude toward evil which can only be taken each man attempts to eulogize a woman who, because and maintained where a knowledge of evil exists. It of their religious bias, embodies strong characteristics is not what one knows that constitutes impurity, but which they fear and are unable to deal with. what one loves,” ( S.B.H. 72). This article suggests The binary of the female good and evil is seen that women must be educated insofar as they learn throughout literature, and is discussed in Tracy what evil is in order to avoid it. Education and Fessenden’s “The Convent, the Brothel, and the woman’s role in the home is also underscored in an Protestant Women’s Sphere.” In her article, Fessenden article from “The Household” which makes the claim writes: that the home is: “The domestic circle, the cherished As sites for probing boundaries of private and home of the affections, and the dwelling place of public spaces, behaviors, and roles, the figures every social virtue, was transplanted from Eden,” of the nun and prostitute both vex and bolster (59) and that it is woman’s “holy mission,” (60) to nineteenth-century constructions of legitimate protect and nurture the future generations. Woman femininity as domestic, maternal, pious, and must not give in to temptation again, and while she separate from the workings of the market. must be educated, it is only to “secure that degree The emergence of this discourse of woman’s of refinement necessary to fit them to move with sphere marks a reversal in Anglo-American grace and dignity in good society,” (60). While these representations of women’s sexuality since articles suggest that women should indeed have some the seventeenth century: where Puritan access to education, it is the rhetoric of Eden and evil theology had attributed greater carnality to carefully woven throughout, that warn women of women than to men. (453) the dangers of knowledge, reminding them of their One of the reasons for the confusion writers such as original failure. Emerson and Hawthorne feel results from women This fear of knowledge can be seen in Emerson’s entering new spheres. They are finding themselves description of Fuller. In his “Memoirs,” he writes: “I, in the workplace due to the Industrial Revolution; the slow and cold, had come fully to admire her genius, 9 and was congratulating myself on the solid good (816) in their essay, “The Madwoman in the Attic.” understanding that subsisted between us, I was It is Zenobia’s lack of the feminine that makes her surprised with hearing it taxed by her superficiality so dangerous. They write: “social historians have and halfness” (389). While Emerson appears to fully explored its part in the creation of those ‘eternal be complimenting Fuller, his use of the words feminine’ virtues of modesty, gracefulness, purity, ‘superficiality,’ and ‘halfness,’ express his inability delicacy, civility, compliancy, reticence, chastity, to deal with her complexities and differences. While affability, politeness …” (816). Priscilla is the eternal he claims to respect her intelligence, his suppressed feminine while Zenobia is the antithesis of the beliefs actually cause him to find fault in her feminine. Hawthorne writes: “As for Zenobia, I saw knowledge. no occasion to give myself any trouble. With her This confusion Emerson feels toward the feminine native strength, and her experiences of the world, she is not only directed at Fuller – his aversion is also could not be supposed to need any help of mine” (74). expressed in his views on Nature. Emerson gives Zenobia has strength and experience, what many nature female qualities, even going so far as to refer to consider to be masculine traits as opposed to Priscilla it as “she.” Emerson explains: who has more feminine qualities. Therefore, Zenobia Nature stretcheth out her arms to embrace is one to beware of, while Priscilla is innocent and man, only let his thoughts be of equal must be cared for. greatness. Willingly does she follow his steps These views have been reinforced, not just in the with the rose and the violet, and bend her literature of the time, but in the scientific world as lines of grandeur and grace to the decoration well. DeFrancis argues: of her darling child. Only let his thoughts Biological sexual difference contributed to be of equal scope, and the frame will suit the arguments about women and education. The picture. A virtuous man is in unison with her education question shifted from could girls be works, and makes the central figure of the educated to should they be (Hubbard xvi). A visible sphere. (33) contradiction existed: nature, heredity, and Through his description of nature, Emerson reveals biology dictated that women must be wives his opinions of what a woman should be. She follows and mothers, yet society contended they must and is submissive, graceful, and allows a man to be be taught how to perform these roles. (169) the best he can be. She is the epitome of the saying This type of argument reveals that men felt even “Behind every great man, there is a great woman.” if women could be educated, they should not be. This is the role society has historically given to DeFrancis continues: “Even though women made women, and while Emerson never explicitly claims he strides by enrolling in colleges and universities, the believes women should be subordinate, his rhetoric in curriculum was not only gender specific but also many ways suggests this. “sphere” specific. Women’s colleges trained women If one looks at the rhetoric Emerson applies to for two roles: teaching and motherhood” (170). women and nature, his opinions become clear. When Therefore, in an effort to keep women dependent on Emerson applies the feminine to nature, she is the the patriarchy, it was decided they should only be “rose and the violet,” she is “grace,” and “grandeur.” taught subjects that would keep them in their place. If With the exception of the above quote, Emerson knowledge other than what was deemed acceptable generally refers to nature as “it,” and has strong for women was encouraged, it would only lead to the opinions about the purpose of nature. Emerson further downfall of man. writes: “Nature is thoroughly mediate. It is made There are some women, however, who did not to serve. It receives the dominion of man as meekly capitulate to these ideas, and that is where the conflict as the ass on which the Savior rode. It offers all its can be seen. At the time Emerson and Hawthorne kingdoms to man as the raw material which he may were writing, women were beginning to demand mould into what is useful” (40). Emerson believes equality, and one of the leaders of this movement was nature is to serve man, and by applying the feminine Emerson and Hawthorne’s close friend, Margaret to nature, he has revealed a similar belief for women. Fuller. In her essay “The Great Lawsuit,” Fuller Woman is made to serve and be subordinate to men. writes: This belief in women’s roles can also be seen in And as to men’s representing women the female character’s of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s fairly, at present, while we hear from men The Blithedale Romance. The delicacy Hawthorne who owe to their wives not only all that is attributes to Priscilla is part of what Sandra Gilbert comfortable and graceful, but all that is wise and Susan Gubar attribute to the “eternal feminine” in the arrangement of their lives, the frequent
10 remark, ‘You cannot reason with a woman,’ living are to learn from the example of the deceased when from those of delicacy, nobleness, and and follow in her path” (493). What do you do poetic culture, the contemptuous phrase, when the woman who has died is so far from the ‘Women and children,’ and that in no light ideal? How do you eulogize her? You hold her up sally of the hour, but in works intended as a warning, like Hawthorne does with Zenobia, as to give a permanent statement of the best opposed to an example of the ideal. Henderson also experiences, when not one man in a million, writes: “This glistening goddess stands as a warning shall I say, no, not in the hundred million, can to the audience, the horror of an impious woman. rise above the view that woman was made for And what befalls such a woman? She dies a terrible man, when such traits as these are daily forced death and goes unmourned….She dies repenting upon the attention, can we feel that man will her short-sighted life.” (494-95). In order to teach a always do justice to the interests of a woman? lesson about what the “ideal” woman is, she must be (868) punished insome way. Fuller has identified the rhetoric men are using in The character of Zenobia is used by Hawthorne their efforts to keep women in their roles, and she as a way to eulogize Margaret Fuller, and also, as a argues against it in her essay. When Fuller argues warning to other women like her. Hawthorne makes that men view women as made ‘for man,’ and can Zenobia’s death unattractive: therefore make no unbiased decision regarding Of all modes of death, methinks it is the women, she is in direct opposition to Emerson’s ugliest. Her wet garments swathed limbs argument that women and nature are meant to serve of terrible inflexibility. She was the marble man, and this is what repels Emerson. image of a death agony. Her arms had grown In Emerson’s poem “The Sphinx,” there is some rigid in the act of struggling, and were bent interesting rhetoric that reflects Emerson’s confusion before her, with clenched hands; her knees, of and fear toward strong women. Textually, Emerson too, were bent, and – thank God for it! – in the uses a good deal of paradox, suggesting his confusion attitude of prayer!...She knelt, as if in prayer. at the various roles of women. Some of these With the last, choking consciousness, her soul, paradoxes are “Out of sleeping a waking, / Out of bubbling out through her lips, it may be, had waking a sleep” (13-14); “Life death overtaking” (15) given itself up to the Father, reconciled and and “Under pain, pleasure -- / Under pleasure, pain penitent. (216-17) lies” (99-100). But he also suggests blame towards Zenobia, the antithesis of the “eternal feminine,” has the female for the fall of man in the lines “The fate of not only died in this horrible manner, she has finally the man-child; / The meaning of man; / Known fruit repented. As Henderson argues: of the unknown;” (9-11). He suggests that this type “The death of a fallen woman is understood of mysterious woman is his muse: “I am thee me to as a deserved punishment, rather than a name? / I am thy spirit, yoke-fellow, / Of thine eye tragic loss. The consequence is that funeral I am eyebeam.” (110-112), and he suggests that her oratory for women, especially in the colonial riddle can never be answered because she won’t allow and early national periods, is devoted it: to constructing an ideal image of female Thou art the unanswered question; identity” (487-88). Couldst see thy proper eye, Therefore, while Zenobia is not the “ideal,” by asking Always it asketh, asketh; repentance, she can be properly mourned while she is And each answer is a lie. (113-16) also punished. The language Emerson uses here suggests his Often, when one opens a book, one does not perplexity at women like Margaret Fuller who go think about the impact the words might have upon against everything he believes in, yet is so attractive society, or how the language might influence theirs to him. as well as future generations. While Emerson and While Emerson deals with his confusion and fear Hawthorne undoubtedly felt themselves enlightened of strong women, Hawthorne finds a way to mourn men, a thorough study of their rhetoric shows us them and at the same time warn them. According to that the vein of Puritanism runs deep and is hard to Henderson, the Puritans, because they believed the escape. Women struggle against this rhetoric even “God’s election,” saw death as more of a lesson to today as they continuously break down and beat the living, not associating good deeds with salvation. against the barriers thrown up against them. Emerson In the declining days of Puritanism, however, they and Hawthorne, no doubt, had a deep respect for rejected this. In this period, it was believed that “the Margaret Fuller, yet were unable to negotiate the
11 conflict between what they had been taught and what they must have felt instinctually for this strong woman.
WORKS CITED
DeFrancis, Theresa M. “The Woman Question: A Gilbert, Sandra and Susan Gubar. “The Madwoman Multi-Faceted Debate.” ATQ. 19.3 (2005):165- in the Attic.” Literary Theory: An Anthology. 85. Academic Search Premier. EBSCOHost. Ed. Julie Rivkin and Michael Ryan. 2nd ed. U of Hawaii Hilo Lib., Hilo. 20 Nov 2005. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004. 812-25.
Fuller, Margaret. “From The Great Lawsuit.” American “Woman as Educator.” The Household. Vol. I, 1868. A Literature. Vol. 1. Ed. William E. Cain. New Woman’s Place: Yesterday’s Women in Rural York: Pearson Education, 2004. 863-69. America. Comp. Norton Juster. Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 1996. 59-61.
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schizophrenia, including delusions in his reasoning. Egaeus Diagnosed Delusions are, according to Schizophrenia.com, “firmly held erroneous beliefs due to distortions or exaggerations of reasoning and/or misinterpretations by Lori Beth Griffin of perceptions or experience.” Poe juxtaposes Egaeus with Berenice in look, health, and the way in Thy soul shall find itself alone which each of them carries themselves. Egaeus says: Mid dark thoughts of the gray tomb-stone— “How is it that from beauty I have derived a type Not one, of all the crowd, to pry of unloveliness” (Poe 141). He is already setting up Into thine hour of secrecy a binary between good and himself. He goes on to Edgar Allan Poe from “Spirits of the Dead” say that “evil is a consequence of good” (Poe 141). It is because of his later comparison between himself There are many aspects of Edgar Allan Poe’s and Berenice that it comes to light that he is meant work that often leave the reader feeling disturbed. to represent the bad that has sprung from Berenice’s These works often focus on themes of insanity and good. In this way, he justifies his brutal behavior other mental disorders today, diagnosable and toward Berenice’s supposed corpse, a justification usually treatable. However, in Poe’s time mental which is delusional because he is using his flawed illnesses were not so understood and much stigma reasoning. One cannot have a one-sided binary, so he and superstition surrounded those afflicted with justifies his “evil” as being a “consequence of [her] such disorders. Schizophrenia, one such disorder, good.” is displayed by many of his characters in his short Poe shows Egaeus hallucinating several times stories. Poe’s Egaeus in “Berenice” displays every within the narrative, which further supports the sign of schizophrenia and therefore is proof of Poe’s analysis of his having schizophrenia. When Egaeus particular insight into this realm of psychology. views Berenice he says: “the peculiar smell of the Schizophrenia is not a “split personality” coffin sickened me; and I fancied a deleterious odor disorder, as many believe. Rather, this disorder was already exhaling from the body” (Poe 146). This has several severe symptoms which, according to olfactory insight is a hallucination because we find out the World Health Organization’s website, include later in the tale that Berenice is not dead and therefore “delusions, hallucinations (visual or auditory), could emit no “deleterious odor.” In addition, he is disorganized speech (derailment of speech or haunted by the teeth of Berenice while sitting in his incoherence), disorganized or catatonic behavior, solitary room. He says: “the phantasma of the teeth or negative symptoms such as flattening of affect or maintained its terrible ascendancy as, with the most lack of motivation.” In order to be diagnosed with vivid and hideous distinctness, it floated about amid Schizophrenia, one must display two of the five the changing lights and shadows of the chamber” symptoms listed above for an extended period of (Poe 146). The visual hallucination of the teeth stems time, usually about 5 months (Johnston 300). The from his obsession. This particular hallucination disorder is named “schizo,” Greek for split, and underlines his self-professed monomania and gives “phrenum,” Greek for mind, and is therefore often him motivation for his final act. He also has an confused with split personality disorder (Johnston auditory illusion, which the W.H.O.’s website says is 299). These two disorders differ greatly, but mostly the most common form of hallucination in schizoids. because schizophrenia has “impaired reality The remnant of his victim stays with him and haunts testing,” which means that “the person is unable him “like the spirit of a departed sound, the shrill to tell the difference between fact . . . and fantasy,” and piercing shriek of a female voice seemed to be (Johnston 298). Those affected by split personality, in ringing” (Poe 147). It is evident that his shriek is being comparison, are perfectly aware of the surrounding disclosed to the reader in the aftermath, rather than reality but have two or more distinct personalities when the extraction of the teeth took place and is perceiving and reacting to the reality (Johnston 298- therefore an aberration of the character’s mind. 99). The one time that Egaeus passes off an event as an Poe writes Egaeus in “Berenice” as exhibiting hallucination or delusion is when he sees Berenice’s behavior consistent with the diagnosis of body in the coffin. He discounts the movement of her 13 finger and jaw: Poe exhibits evidence of Egaeus having memory Is it my brain that reeled—or was it indeed deficiencies, specifically episodic ones, which is the finger of the enshrouded dead that stirred consistent with negative symptoms. Episodic memory in the white cerement that bound it . . . There is “memory for episodes in your own life” according had been a band around the jaws, but, I know to Princeton’s website. Schizophrenia.com cites not how, it was broken asunder. The livid lips memory problems as one of the major symptoms were wreathed in a species of smile. (Poe 146) that lead people to be diagnosed with schizophrenia. and considers them figments of his imagination Poe exposes Egaeus’ memory problems by writing rather than being able to distinguish reality from him as being unable to recall the event of pulling out the happenings of his mind and thus realize that Berenice’s teeth. He becomes confused about the box his betrothed is not dead. Egaeus’ condition is which we find out contains her teeth, why would it underscored by his hallucinations and his inability make “the hairs of [his] head erect themselves on end, to differentiate between reality and imagination and the blood of [his] body become congealed within (Johnston 300). [his] veins” (Poe 147). He also cannot remember His behavior also includes negative symptoms. what it is he has done, though he realizes that he has Negative symptoms in schizophrenia include low done something, saying, “I asked myself the question energy, lack of interest in life, and social isolation aloud, and the whispering echoes of my chamber according to W.H.O. Egaeus says, “I loitered away answered me, ‘what was it’”(Poe 147). In testing done my boyhood in books...as years rolled away, and the recently on schizophrenics, “episodic memory noon of manhood found me still in the mansions of impairment was found to be prevalent, and in some my fathers- it is wonderful what stagnation there fell cases, severe” as suggested by National Library of upon the springs of my life” (Poe 141), describing Medicine website. This would explain why Egaeus depression and negative behavior. Egaeus isolates could not remember what he had done to Berenice. himself from the world and closes himself up Our protagonist admits to, and displays within the confines of his family home. He neither symptoms of, a disorder that plagues him, but participates in social relationships nor feels that he is he identifies it with a dated term: monomania, missing out, which outlines his lack of interest. The “a pathological obsession with one idea; a fixed very fact that he remains within his parents’ home is idea associated with paranoia” (Poe 142). It is an evidence of his reclusive attitude and lack of eighteenth century term with striking parallels to interest in both the outside world and in meaningful the modern diagnosis of catatonic schizophrenia. human relationships. Catatonic schizophrenia is “a form of schizophrenia Egaeus begins to show signs of another symptom: characterized by a tendency to remain in a fixed the negative symptom of alogia, “poverty of speech, stuporous state for long periods; the catatonia may is the lessening of speech fluency and productivity, give way to short periods of extreme excitement” thought to reflect slowing or blocked thoughts, and suggests the Princeton University website. This often manifested as short, empty replies to questions” behavior can be seen in Egaeus’ description of his (Schizophrenia.com). Egaeus is approached by a monomania: “tenant of the tomb” (Poe 147) who told of Berenice’s to become absorbed for the better part of a “violated grave— a disfigured body enshrouded, yet summer’s day in a quaint shadow falling still breathing, still palpitation, still alive” (Poe 147). aslant upon the tapestry, or upon the floor; to When presented with this information Egaeus says lose myself for an entire night in watching the “I spoke not, and he took me by the hand gently” steady flame of a lamp or the ember of a fire. (Poe, 147), which is an example of alogia. Rather than (Poe 142-143) shouting in disbelief or horror, he remains silent. The idleness of these actions is indicative of someone His preceding and subsequent narrations reflect his without goals and implies that Egaeus was in a “blocked thoughts” as he slowly realizes that he has “stuporous state.” Egaeus also says that one of his “done a deed” (Poe 147); his words are disjointed and symptoms is “los[ing] all sense of motion or physical reflect excitement uncharacteristic to his previous existence” (Poe 143). This directly coincides with narrations. Finally, the only thing he uttered was “a one symptom of catatonic schizophrenics which is shriek [as he] bounded to the table” (Poe 147) which “characterized by a tendency to remain in a fixed displays a poverty of speech, not in the shriek alone, stuporous state for long periods” as Princeton but in the fact that it is the only thing he can verbally University’s website suggested. The main character express. exhibits catatonic schizophrenia, rather than only having monomania, as suggested by Princeton
14 University’s website, which identifies a patient as In addition to the obvious diagnosis of sometimes “giv[ing in] to short periods of extreme schizophrenia, Egaeus was also afflicted with excitement.” This, in and of itself, seems harmless depression. Depression is an underlying theme, and enough, but when coupled with the description of therefore a symptom, of the main character. Egaeus those affected by the disease possibly “hurt[ing] contrasts himself, of “ill health and buried in gloom” themselves, attempt[ing] suicide, or becom[ing] (Poe 141), against his “agile, graceful, and [energetic]” violent toward others” (Komaroff 410), it becomes (Poe 141) cousin, bringing out the differences between evident that the final outcome of Berenice is directly the two, and by connotation, leaving him with being linked to Egaeus’ mental state. While Poe does say gloomy, unenergetic, and of ill health. The rhetoric that monomania is “a pathological obsession with one in his description of his family home as being idea” (Poe 142), no part of the definition Poe provides “gloomy [and] gray” further calls forth the feelings of monomania accounts for the protagonist’s final of depression and denotes unhappiness. He says that perverse behavior toward the teeth of the presumed “evil is a consequence of good, so, in fact, out of joy deceased. is sorrow born” (Poe 141). It is this attitude which Egaeus also shows the onset of schizophrenia at reflects the morbid and desolate ideals Egaeus holds the right age. Egaeus says that he spent his boyhood about life. brooding and that as he became a man, he had Egaeus shows every sign of schizophrenia known become the person he is today. That being said, it today in the medical world. However, the term can be assumed that at about the age of 17 or 18 he “schizophrenia” was not coined until 1887 by Dr. was showing all the symptoms of schizophrenia. Emile Kraepelin as Schizophrenia.com noted. Poe According to Naqvi et al schizophrenia “can begin has masterfully created a character who has every at any age but commonly manifest itself in late symptom of schizophrenia as doctors diagnose it teens through early to mid 20s.” With this fact, it today. The unusual thing about this is that “No single can be assumed that Egaeus was a textbook case characteristic is present in all types of schizophrenia” of schizophrenia. Not only does he show all the (Kalyanam). This means that Poe put together all symptoms of the disorder, but his age was also quite the symptoms of an illness into one man, when in unremarkable at the onset of this disorder. actuality no one person shows all these signs. Poe’s remarkable insight into psychology shows through in his schizophrenic creation—Egaeus.
15 WORKS CITED
Bernheim, Kayla F. Schizophrenia : symptoms, Poe, Edgar Allan. “Berenice.” Selected Writing of causes, treatments . New York: Norton, 1979. Edgar Allan Poe. 1835. Ed. G. R. Thompson. New York: W. W. Norton and Company Inc., Davidson, Ronald H, and Richard Day. Symbolism 2004. 140-47. and Realization: A Contribution to the Study -- “Spirits of the Dead.” Selected Writing of of Magic and Healing. Berkeley: Center for Edgar Allan Poe. 1835. Ed. G. R. Thompson. South and Southeast Asia Studies University New York: W. W. Norton and Company Inc., of Berkeley, 1974. 2004. 16.
Grant, Brian W. Schizophrenia, a source of social Princeton University. World Net Search. Vers. 2.1. insight. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, Princeton University Cognitive Science 1975. Laboratory. 1 Nov. 2005
National Library of Medicine. Memory impairment in schizophrenia--a comparison with that observed in the Alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome. 1994. NCBI. 1 Nov. 2005
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Entrance current. This current has a speed of 80 cm/s Enewetak: A Nuclear and reverses during the tidal change. During the spring tide, the calculated volume transport is 3.0 x Atoll 108 m3/half tidal cycle of water each direction. No net transport of water goes through the Deep Entrance. Water continuously flows from the South Channel at by Andrea Chernov a speed from 8 to 30 cm/s with a steady outward flow of 6.9 x 108 m3/tidal cycle. The tides reverse out of the Introduction South Channel like in the Deep Entrance, though it is World War II has just ended. The United States minimal because of the outflow (Atkinson et al., 1981). wants to test out their nuclear weapons on Japanese Atkinson et al. (1981) divided the lagoon currents war ships. Where do these nuclear weapons get of Enewetak into three categories: surface currents, tested? In the late 1940’s, Enewetak Atoll seems to be middepth currents, and deep currents. Each current is the easiest answer. distinguishable from the other by speed and direction. Enewetak lies in the Pacific Ocean nestled within The surface currents respond to wind direction the Marshall Islands, lying at 11º30’N longitude, with current speed at 2% of the wind speed. Dye 162º15’E latitude (Robison et al., 1999; Web et al., traces demonstrate that the middepth current flows 1975). The atoll is between 50 to 60 million years old, northeast, opposite of surface currents, between 10 originating during the Eocene era (Reese, 1987), with a and 30 feet below the surface with speeds of 2 to 4 major transformation in its coastline during a change cm/s, transporting 8.6 x 10 m3/tide cycle of water. in sea level in the Holocene (Nunn, 1990). 39 islets The final current is the deep current, running south with a land area of 2.5 mi2 (Reese, 1987) compromise below 30 meters at 1 to 2 cm/s. The deep current the majority of dry land of Enewetak. Enewetak Atoll flows around lagoon pinnacles every 6 to 12 hours brings an amazing view of the oceanic environment of with a volume transport of 2.2 x 108 m3/tide cycle an atoll lagoon with its unique oceanography, geology, (Atkinson et al., 1981). biology, and history with nuclear weapons. Water Budget and Residence Time Oceanography The water budget and water residence time The von Arx’s model of circulation, using primary have unique distinctions. Water enters the lagoon circulation and secondary circulation to explain the primarily through the windward reef because it does oceanography, describes several atolls well, especially not reverse directions and carries twice the amount of Bikini atoll (Atkinson et al., 1981). However, the water of the other passages (Atkinson et al., 1981). For von Arx model does not hold up within the lagoon the most part, water exits through the Deep Entrance, of Enewetak, though both are situated in the North the leeward reef, the South Channel and Southwest Equatorial Current (Atkinson et al., 1981). Passage (Atkinson et al. 1981). Figure 3, taken from Currents Atkinson et al. (1981), presents the water budget of the Atkinson et al. (1981) first looked at Enewetak’s Enewetak Atoll lagoon. cross-currents. Shallow currents flow across the To calculate residence time, divide the volume atoll’s windward reef margins and into the lagoon, of the lagoon by the water input rate. Atkinson et al. having a large water exchange between the open (1981) found that the input rate total is the input from ocean and Enewetak lagoon. The average speed of the windward reef added to the 30% from the Deep these currents is 10 to 150 cm/s; the average volume Entrance. Using this number, the average residence transport equals 0.05 m3/s at low tide and 1.5 m3/s time of the lagoon water equals 28 days. However, at high tide. The leeward cross-reef currents have no the actual residence time varies in different parts of particular pattern, generally flowing along the reef. the lagoon due to the windward reef water input These currents have a net drift towards the ocean and and South Channel water exit. A north to south a net outflow of .4 x 108 m3/tidal cycle (Atkinson et al., recirculation does not exist within Enewetak: water 1981). entering from the northern end has a longer residence Channel currents affect the waters of Enewetak time than water entering from the southern end Atoll. Atkinson et al. (1981) first described the Deep (Atkinson et al., 1981).
17 Current Volume transport mean and Comments (range) 108m2 per 12.4 h Windward cross‐reef +6.6 (+2.2 to + 19.8) Continuous inflow Leeward cross‐reef ‐0.4 (slightly plus to –0.8) Variable Speed and direction Deep Entrance Net = 0 (‐1.0 to +1.0) Reversing; typical tidal currents (3.0 x 108 m3 transport each way 0 – 80 cm•s‐1 South Channel ‐6.9 (‐4.5 to –8.5) Continuous outflow; pulsing with the tide Southwest Passage Net = 0 (‐2 to +2) Reversing; typical tidal currents (0.8 x 108 m3 transport each way) Surface 9.2 (3 to 30) Variable; function of wind speed Middepth 8.6 (unknown, but probably Variable; function of wind speed about the same as surface) Deep 2.2 (unknown) Variable; function of wind speed and windward cross‐reef input
Figure 3 The water budget. The + represents water going into the lagoon and the – represents water going out of the lagoon. Taken from: Atkinson, M., S.V. Smith, and E.D. Stroup. 1981. Circulation in Enewetak Atoll Lagoon. Limnology and Oceanography 26(6):1074-1083.
Surf, Wind Stress, and Tides convection was part of the machinery behind Atkinson et al. (1981) also depicted surf, wind dolotomization at Enewetak Atoll. Two holes were stress, and tides. The surf comes as breaking waves drilled through the carbonate cap over the volcanic over the windward reef, putting water into the island, finding two dolotomized intervals at 1300 lagoon. Thus the cross-current reefs depend on the meters, with sediments dating back to the Eocene age. surf height and reef water depth. The net transport The dolotomization is almost finished, but for some of the water is southward and increases as it moves reason severely declines right above and below a 2 south to hold the water coming over the windward meter interval (Wilson et al., 2000). side (Atkinson et al., 1981). Wilson et al. (2000) first noticed that Wind stress comes from the winds generating dolotomization may be transport-controlled. This downwind drift of surface currents and upwind transport-control comes in two reactions. One drift of middepth currents that, when mixed with a is the thermal gradient reactions, which move shallow current moving spirally, appears to be the forward because of the equilibrium change from Ekman spiral pattern (Atkinson et al., 1981). The pore fluids streaming over temperature gradients. wind-driven currents overlay the net flow of water The thermal gradient reaction pattern is probably towards the South Channel, having speeds between dispersed because of small thermal gradient sizes. 5 and 20 cm/s, or 2% of the wind speed (Atkinson et Dolotomization moves forward on carbonate al., 1981). If vertical mixing were absent, the lagoon platforms because of a reaction front, meaning that surface water would turn-over in 5 to 10 days because seawater is supersaturated in reference to dolomite of the wind driven currents. Finally are the tides as it enters the platform. The water moves toward and the tidal currents as described by Atkinson et al. equilibrium along a flow path on the platform. (1981). Tidal currents completely influence waterflow Reaction fronts appear to produce a more solid within kilometers of the passes. These currents can reaction area than thermal gradients (Wilson et al., be stronger than the wind-driven circulation, causing 2000). a left directed spiral one kilometer north of Enewetak Wilson et al. (2000) produced reactive-transport island (Atkinson et al., 1981). simulations to attempt to determine other effects of reactions and transport on dolotomization. The Geothermal Convection and Dolotomization dolomite precipitation rate has a large scale influence The process of geothermal convection appears on dolotomization. Dolotomization occurs at the to be related to dolotomization at Enewetak Atoll boundary of coarse and fine sediments because higher (Wilson et al., 2000; Jones et al., 2000). Dolotomization, temperatures, which support dolotomization, happen according to Jones et al. (2000), is the process of at the lower areas of this zone. The simulations creating the mineral dolomite. Wilson et al. (2000) established dolotomization to occur at 45-60°C, which attempted to determine whether geothermal 18 is above the typically estimated dolotomization three other atolls. Yamano et al. (2002) found that temperature. Calcium-rich waters where water influx other sediment constituents are coralline algae and was weak occur along side of dolotomization (Wilson molluscs. et al., 2000). Jones et al. (2000) describes dolotomization Three types of lagoonal facies were identified as it relates to geothermal and reflux circulation. Table 1 Sedimentary Constituents in four atolls, including Enewetak. Taken from Wiens, H.J. 1962. Lagoon terraces Geothermal circulation occurs when the water to lagoon sediments. In: Atoll Ecology. Yale University temperature of the Pacific Ocean differs from the Press atoll ground water. Thermal convection dictates the transport of heat; however, a cooler strip of water Sedimentary Constituents in an Atoll exists between the atoll margin to the center of the Percent occupied by atoll (Jones et al., 2000). Reflux circulation is defined Atoll Foraminifera Fine Halimeda Coral as circulation that happens when “lagoon waters, debris debris concentrated by evaporation, flow downward, Bikini 5 30 56 9 displacing less dense groundwaters of near seawater Rongelap 3 53 36 8 salinity at depth” (Jones et al., 2000). Lagoon brines Enewetak 9 52 26 13 reflux down up to 600 meters in a zone at the center Rongerik 3 36 27 34 of the lagoon, stretching for 10 km. At this point, geothermal circulation counteracts reflux circulation within Enewetak, Majuro, and Kayangel: Calcarina and groundwaters are pushed up and out through facies, Calcarina-Heterostegina facies, and Heterostegina two places: the lagoon and upper slope (Jones et al., facies (Yamano et al., 2002). The discussion here forth 2000). focuses on the facies within the lagoon. Calcarina According to Jones et al. (2000), seawater causes gaudichaudii, a foraminifera species, characterizes dolotomization from high magnesium concentrations. the Calcarina facies along the reef flat, making it reef To dolomitize 1 m3 of limestone, 320 kg of seawater based. The sea-level change during the Holocene is needed. However, seawater contains only 1.34 epoch may have contributed to the amount of kg/m3 of magnesium. The 2 meter thick dolomitized Calcarina on the reef flat (Yamano et al., 2002). interval (also described by Wilson et al., 2000) could The Calcarina-Heterostegina facies, a mix of be produced if there was a flow velocity of 4x10-4 m/a. Calcarina and Heterostegina tests, tend to be located on This would have to happen over the 5 Ma available in the windward side of the reef (Yamano et al., 2002). the area. So the amount of magnesium needed can be The Calcarina-Heterostegina facies form from reef- obtained from both geothermal and reflux circulation based materials (C. gaudichaudii) and organisms from (Jones et al., 2000). deep-lagoon areas (Heterostegina) (Yamano et al., 2002). Since Enewetak is subject to NE tradewinds, currents The Lagoon Floor and wind-driven waves may be responsible for taking Weins (1962) described various parts of the C. gaudichaudii to the deep-lagoon (Yamano et al., lagoon floor for several atolls, including Enewetak 2002). Atoll. Enewetak is one of the northern Marshall atolls The final facies, the Heterostegnia facies, is with a lagoon terrace extending a maximum of two completely composed of Heterostegina sp. and miles in width in some areas. Extensive soundings distinctly lacking in Calcarina (Yamano et al., 2002). at Enewetak Atoll show 2,293 patch reefs. Within The Heterostegina facies make up the sediments in these patch reefs, there are coral knolls that are non- the deep lagoon, the main components of which are observable from the air (Weins, 1962). Halimeda and several foraminifera species, including According to Weins (1962), these coral knolls are Amphistegina and Heterostegina (Yamano et al., 2002). an important part of the smoothness of the lagoon Since these facies are below 40 meters, bioturbation, floor. The lagoon floor characteristics form because or the modification of the sediments by burrowing of sedimentation processes as well as coral knoll organisms, may affect them more than typhoons, formation. The topography can be influenced by hurricanes or deep water currents (Yamano et al., 2002; these two processes. The lagoon floor of Enewetak Duxbury et al., 2000). has a quite rough topography with an average smoothness coefficient of is 43% (Wiens, 1962). The atoll’s sediments contain four major constituents: foraminifera, fine debris, Halimeda debris, and coral (Wiens, 1962). Table 1 shows the percentage of these constituents at Enewetak and 19 Marine Biological Factors 90 meters (Colin et al., 1986). Halimeda was the most Nitrogen Cycling easily seen macroalgae at or below 100 meters with It is thought that nitrogen is a limiting factor algal films and smaller macroalgae below 140 meters within the tropical Pacific (Webb et al., 1975). The (Colin et al., 1986). Below 100 m, the substratum was atomic ratio between nitrogen and phosphorous was covered by gorgonians and alcyonaceans (Colin et al., 2:1- the Redfield Ratio states the required ratio of 1986). Colin et al. (1986) observed dents and caverns nitrogen to phosphorous be 16:1 (Webb et al., 1975). at depths of 120-160 meters and discovered sponges, Webb et al. (1975) suggest that this low amount of antipatharians, what may have been sclerosponges, nitrogen may be an indicator of nitrogen deficiency, and more invertebrates that were sessile. At 220 especially upstream of the windward reefs. This meters, seapens are abundant along a sand slope deficiency is not due to a decrease in biomass, (Colin et al., 1986). otherwise the entire community would disappear in Miller (1986) studied the hermit crabs and 2 to 6 months (Webb et al., 1975). The next question, gastropods at Enewetak. The hermit crab and therefore, is how the coral reef community gets gastropod populations live within the middle/upper nitrogen. The most plausible explanation is nitrogen intertidal zones on the reef flat that looks toward fixation: blue-green algae may have significant the ocean. Apparently, population sizes of hermit nitrogen-fixation abilities, and the blue-green algae C. crabs and gastropods oscillated more in areas with crustacea has a broad distribution at Enewetak Atoll greater topographic relief and a larger amount of (Webb et al., 1975). algae. However, algae that covers the bottom adds to Webb et al. (1975) calculated the nitrogen fixation the topography and is prone to the effects of strong rate, using the acetylene technique, as 100 nM N/m2/ waves, e.g. shortening and displacement (Miller, sec. Using nitrogen export data, daytime nitrogen 1986). fixation was calculated as 190 nM N/m2/sec. Also 50 species of invertebrates classified into 7 dissolved organic matter, ammonium and the total phyla live within the lagoon sediments, along with nitrogen exported were higher between 12:00 pm and 15 families of fish, participate in the bioturbation, 12:00 am (Webb et al., 1975). (Suchanek et al., 1986). The amount of sediments The Calothrix community needs to be in either disturbed have been calculated for Callianassids and light or dark for a certain amount of time before it Enteropneusts, as can be seen in Table 2. Bioturbation started nitrogen fixation, so nitrogen fixation and in Enewetak Atoll lagoon can have a major photosynthesis are slackly tied to each other (Webb consequence: radionuclides buried deep in the lagoon et al., 1975). Dissolved Organic Nitrogen (DON) was sediments can be put back into the water (Suchanek seen during the day and used at night, indicating that et al., 1986). The re-entry of radionuclides via deep nitrogen fixation is dependent on light and DON as bioturbation into the water can be a re-entry for those the major source of nitrogen (Webb et al., 1975). Non- radionuclides into higher levels of the food chain nitrogen fixing organisms are nitrogen limited and the (Suchanek et al., 1986). nitrogen fixers are phosphorous limited because of the Table 2 Organisms and sediment production due to low N:P ratio (Webb et al., 1975). bioturbation for two organisms. Adapted from: Suchanek, Lagoon Biology and Ecology T.H., and P.L. Colin. 1986. Rates and effects of Enewetak Atoll has the most marine benthic bioturbation by invertebrates and fishes at Enewetak and Bikini atolls. Abstract. Bulletin of Marine Science algae species out of all the atolls in the Indo-Pacific 38(1):25-34. (Tsuda, 1987). There are 238 species in 106 genera of marine benthic algae with the following breakdown: Organism Sediment Mean estimates 16 species of Cyanophyta, 89 species of Chlrophyta, 24 production, per m2 2 species of Phaeophyta, and 109 species of Rhodophyta cc/day cc/m /day (Tsuda, 1987). No seagrasses exist at Enewetak Callianassids 1,300 800 (Tsuda, 1987). The dispersal mechanisms have not Enteropneusts 700 600 allowed seagrasses to reach the atoll, though it could survive in the lagoon environment (Colin, 1987). This There are 800 known species of fish at Enewetak is also the reason why mangroves are also absent from Atoll (Colin, 1987). Several of the fish are herbivores, Enewetak (Colin, 1987). living on the reef flat or on patch reefs (Colin, 1987). Branched stony coral grows as deep as 60 meters; Predatory fish are also important, the Carangidae between 60 and 112 meters, the stony corals become family (species Cranx melampygus, Carnax ignobilis, flat (Colin et al., 1986). However, the substratum and Elagatis bipinnulatus) having a major role consisted of less than 1% of stony corals at a depth of 20 (Colin, 1987). Some fishes are detritivores, or those Shark movement was divided into two categories. organisms that eat decaying organic material- the One, C. amblyrhynchos tagged along reefs near the mullet species Crenimugil crenilabis has been seen ocean appear nomadic, moving an extended length to expel sand through the gills after feeding (Colin, along the reefs (McKibben et al., 1986). 1987). Two, sharks tagged at either lagoon reefs or Several species are coralivores (coral eaters), with lagoon pinnacles had a home range, going off to a some being obligate coralivores (Colin, 1987). The different area at night and returning to the tagging coralivores include the Chaetodontidae family and sight during the day (McKibben et al., 1986). During the species Oxymonocanthus longirostris, Labrichthys the day, C. amblyrhynchos groupings can be divided unilineata, and the Labropsis spp.; the only known into three groups: species to feed on sponges is the puffer Arothron 1. Polarized schools: schools that stay near the mappa (Colin, 1987). Ciguatera is the most common bottom of flat areas fish toxin, with the fish following the typical form 2. Loose aggregations: groups that congregate of toxicity: large, roaming predators that are mostly around the drop-off between the ocean and piscivorous (fish eating) (Colin, 1987). reef Gladfelter et al. (1980) compared coral reef fish 3. Single sharks: individuals that stay over communities of Enewetak Atoll and St. Croix. Diurnal shallow reefs and pinnacles (McKibben et al., planktivores, which point toward the larger amount of 1986). daytime plankton within the water column, nocturnal The silvertip shark, or Carcharhinus albimarginatus, plankton feeders, and piscivores were found to be is found at a depth between 20 and 30 meters along slightly higher at Enewetak (Gladfelter et al., 1980). the seaward slope (Colin, 1987). The silvertip Most significant about the Enewetak patch reefs is the shark can be seen in Picture 1. C. galapagensis (the low numbers of nocturnal feeders, mostly because the Galapagos Shark) is large and dangerous but is not low amount of nocturnal foraging grounds (Gladfelter typically seen in Enewetak lagoon (Colin, 1987). et al., 1980). The biggest shark that is dangerous at Enewetak is Labroides dimidatus, a cleaning fish, may have Galecerdo cuvier, the tiger shark (Colin, 1987). a significant effect on the ectoparasite infecting the damselfish Pomacentrus vaiuli (Gorlick et al., 1987). L. dimidiatus tend to eat larger ectoparasite copepod Dissonus sp., reducing numbers on P. vaiuli hosts (Gorlick et al., 1987). The ectoparasite reduction seen by Gorlick et al. (1987) may be an immune system response post-infection. However, Gorlick et al. (1987) reminds that any symbiosis, like the one between L. dimidatus and P. vaiuli, are not that simple. L. dimidatus removes larger members of the ectoparasite, allowing for smaller members to grow on the host. This ensures the cleaner a constant supply of food and reduces the ectoparasite biomass on P. vaiuli (Gorlick et al., 1987). Sharks are a major part of the lagoon community. The blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus) can be found on the reef flats while the whitetip reef shark (Triaenodon obesus) can be found on the main reefs and sandy areas on the marginal areas (Colin, 1987). Negaprion brevirostris, the lemon shark, is a large shark that is able to travel into shallower lagoon waters (Colin, 1987). Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos, the gray shark, can be typically found in the lagoon but is more abundant on the seaward reef and is considered the most dangerous (Colin, 1987). Gray reef shark movement was studied at Enewetak using ultrasonic telemetry and direct observation by McKibben et al. (1986).
21 Table 3 Marine Mammals anticipated at Enewetak Atoll. All have dorsal fins. Taken from: Reese, E.S. (b). 1987. Mammals of Enewetak Atoll. In: Devaney et al. The natural history of Enewetak Atoll. 2:348
Large whales Medium whales Small Cetaceans Blue Whale Minke Whale Spotted Dolphins Fin Whale Bottlenose Whale Spinner Dolphin Sei Whale Cuvier’s Beaked Whale Striped Dolphin Bryde’s Whale Beaked whales, genus Common Dolphin Mesoplodan Humpback Whale Killer Whale Fraser’s Dolphin Sperm Whale False Killer Whale Bottlenose Dolphin Short-finned Pilot Whale Rough-toothed Dolphin Risso’s Dolphin Pygmy Killer Whale Melon-headed Whale Pygmy Sperm Whale Dwarf Sperm Whale
Marine mammals are only seen occasionally up for the difference in nutrients (especially carbon at Enewetak (Reese (b), 1987). Two dolphins have and nitrogen) due to their increased numbers in the been positively identified: the spinner dolphin from summer. photographs and the striped dolphin, seen in Picture Land-based factors 2, from skeletal remains (Reese (b), 1987). It is not The People of Enewetak: Before World War II known if any Pinnipeds (walruses, seals, sea lions, Enewetak Atoll is isolated, even among the otters, etc.) occur at Enewetak (Reese (b), 1987). Table Marshall Islands, and has been so for thousands of 3 is of those marine mammals that can be anticipated years (Kiste, 1987). The people of Enewetak mastered at Enewetak and is taken from Reese (b) (1987). the sailing art and built outrigger canoes 55 feet long Lagoon Trophic Relationships with 30 foot tall masts into the 1960’s (Kiste, 1987). There are three major trophically linked sections in Their natural resources included coconuts, pandanus, Enewetak atoll lagoon - the coral reefs and knolls, the papaya, bananas, and arrowroot; domestic animals open lagoon, and the lagoon floor environment that included pigs and chickens, though these were only excludes the coral knolls (Marshall et al., 1987). The eaten on holidays (Kiste, 1987). reef and the lagoon are linked, as seen by the fact that The Enewetak people were divided into two there are plenty of fish within the lagoon, possibly groups: those who lived on Enewetak Island and because of matter like detritus, mucus flakes and algal those who lived on Enjebi Island (Kiste, 1987). fragments that are coming off the reef (Marshall et al., These groups, nevertheless, did intermarry and 1987). For example, two zooplankton species in the cooperate during many activities (Kiste, 1987). The lagoon had detrital material in their gut (Marshall et Enjebi islanders and the Enewetak islanders, called al., 1987). riEnjebi and riEnewetak respectively, are headed by Marshall et al. (1987) point out that the copepods a patrilineal chief but are divided into matrilineal and larvaceans eat phytoplankton as well as detritus clans (Kiste, 1987). The clans practiced exogamy, or and had particulate organic carbon (POC) in their marrying outside the clan; clan members consider guts. In the lagoonal water column, fishes had each other family, so sex within the clan equates to stomachs filled with copepods and larvaceans, thus incest (Kiste, 1987). The couple lived with the male’s taking up the detritus and POC (Marshall et al., family after marriage, so having a patrilocal extended 1987). Based on data from Atkinson et al. (1981), family was quite common (Kiste, 1987). Children Marshall et al. (1987) calculated the productivity of inherit lands bilaterally (from both parents), and Enewetak lagoon: 1.07 mgC/m3/day in summer most people can trace their land back almost six and 3.21 mgC/m3/day in the winter. Marshall et al. generations (Kiste, 1987). (1987) believe that phytoplankton may be making 22 Soils species were placed in a small-mesh bag, a large The soils are calcareous, with constituents of mesh bag, or the control basket at three areas: the limestone, rubble, sand, organic litter, and humus, and beach, the fringe scrub, and the central forest. In the tend to have poor water retention abilities (Reese (a), control baskets, which were open, all four species 1987). Reese ((a), 1987), describes five different types disappeared at significant levels. Survival in the open of soil. First is a buildup of coral rubble about the size was found to be a factor of two things: perseverance of stones. Second is soil made of coral sand/gravel of the fruit and the amount of fruit and seeds that that is unaffected. Third are weak A horizon soils that remained undamaged. (Louda et al., 1985). are slightly darker than the sand above and have no Part of the experiment excluded predators: fruit obvious structure. Fourth are strong A horizon soils, species perseverance went up and predator-induced which are below and darker than the weak A horizon damage went down with predator exclusion (Louda soils. Fifth are raw humus soils that have a deep A et al., 1985). Though finding that survivorship related horizon (Reese (a), 1987). to predation pressures were species specific, Louda et al. (1985) discovered three points in their study. Weather and Climate One, M. argentea and T. catappa recruitment capability Enewetak Atoll lies within the NE tradewind was diminished by insect predation. Two, S. taccada zone, though it is not considered part of the typhoon was missing in the forest because of land crabs and belt (Yamano et al., 2002). The tradwinds blow around possibly birds. Third, land crabs were the biggest 95% of the year (Reese (a), 1987). Enewetak has predator of fruit and seed post-dispersal, especially two seasons: the dry season (December-March) and for T. catappa (Louda et al., 1985). Overall, post- the wet season (April-November) (Reese (a), 1987; dispersal survival depends on “predation intensity…, Merrill et al., 1987). The atoll has a 1470 mm average by generalized omnivorous predators,…” (Louda et annual rainfall with 85% falling during the wet season al., 1985). (Reese (a), 1987; Merrill et al., 1987); in spite of that Enewetak is considered one of the driest atolls within Land Biology: Animals the Marshall Islands (Reese (a), 1987). The average Land crabs are one of the major animals depicted minimum and maximum temperatures can be seen in by Reese (a, 1987). One of the species found was the Table 4. land hermit crab Coenobita perlatus that are bright
Table 4 The minimum and maximum average temperatures, °C. Taken from Merrill, J.T., and R.A. Duce. 1987. Meteorology and Atmospheric Chemistry of Enewetak Atoll. In: Devaney et al. The natural history of Enewetak Atoll. 1:228 pp
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec Min. 23.5 23.4 23.6 23.8 23.5 24.0 23.6 23.6 23.8 23.4 23.7 23.8 Max. 30.4 30.5 30.6 31.1 31.4 31.6 31.8 32.3 32.3 32.1 31.7 30.9
Tropical storms, the severest called typhoons, to brownish red (Reese (a), 1987). Birgus latro, as happen without warning (Reese (a), 1987). Tropical described by Reese ((a), 1987), is the coconut crab, a storms typically form during the wet season, more scavenger that is the largest invertebrate known. It is specifically between the months of July and October nocturnal and typically lives in dense vegetation on (Merrill et al., 1987). Eight tropical storms have hit the southwest islands ranging between and including Enewetak between 1959 and 1979, and only Alice in the islands of Ikuren and Biken (Reese (a), 1987). 1979 gained enough strength to be labeled Typhoon Coconut crab mating happens on land and the male (Reese (a), 1987). transfers the spermatophore to the female. Though it is not known when fertilization happens, the Land Plant Post-Dispersal Survival female carries the eggs on the plepods for a period Louda et al. (1985) looked at the predation that of three weeks, typically between the months of occurred on seeds and fruits post-dispersal. During April and August. After three weeks, the female the experiment, the main predator observed was can be seen walking out into the water, flexing her hermit crabs and the plant species used were M. abdomen several times, and releasing the eggs as free- argentea, G. speciosa, T. catappa, and S. taccada. The swimming zoeae larvae (Reese (a), 1987). This larval initial hypothesis: seeds have higher survival rates stage turns into the postlarval stage of the glaucothoe, within the forest over the beach area. Seeds for each
23 which lives in a mollusc shell for two to three years (Reese (a), 1987). There are a total of seven species of land lizards and one species of blind snake on Enewetak (Lamberson, 1987). None of the reptile species are endemic to Enewetak or even Micronesia. The House Gecko, Hemidactylus frenatus, may have come from tropical areas in Asia, Africa, and India and can be frequently found in places where humans live (Lamberson, 1987). The House Gecko can be seen in Picture 3. A second lizard found on Enewetak is the mourning gecko, Lepidodactylus lugubris, that also tend be found in areas of human habitation (Lamberson, Sea birds whose main breeding range is to the 1987). It is a parthogenic species and the eggs are North use Enewetak as a nesting ground (Berger, highly adhesive, so can be carried easily to other 1987). Enewetak has one enduring species, the reef places by boat (Lamberson, 1987). A third species of heron (Egretta sacra), but it has a wide range that lizard is Hemiphyllodactylus typus, the tree gecko; the includes places such as Korea, Japan, Australia, and tree gecko is quick to escape and is an agile species Polynesia (Berger, 1987). Eudynamis taitensis, the long- so may be more common than previously thought tailed cuckoo seen in Picture 5, nests in New Zealand (Lamberson, 1987). but spends the non-breeding season on Enewetak (Berger, 1987).
There is also Gehyra oceanica (the Polynesian gecko), which can be found on the trunks and leaves under several trees; Emoia cyanura (blue-tailed skink) tends to be found under plant debris and scrub vegetation (Lamberson, 1987). The last two lizards found on Enewetak are the moth skink (Lipinia noctua) and the monitor lizard (Varanus indicus), the latter of which is the largest found on Enewetak (Lamberson, The main land mammal of Enewetak is man, 1987). bringing with him the Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans) The blind snake is the Brahminy blind snake, and the domestic pigs (Sus scrofa) (Reese (b), 1987). Ramphotyphlops bramina, and was introduced from the The Polynesian rats tend to eat primarily plant Philippines and Southeast Asia (Lamberson, 1987). detritus but will eat some animal detritus, mainly The blind snake tends to be a secretive, nocturnal insects (Reese (a), 1987). They aerate the soil through reptile that is parthogenic (Lamberson, 1987). Blind burrow digging and eat the carrion, thereby reducing snakes eat termites, soft-bodied bugs, and bug larvae, fly reproduction (Reese (a), 1987). 19th century so benefit those who live on the atoll (Lamberson, Europeans are believed to have brought the domestic 1987). The Brahminy blind snake is presented in Picture 4. 24 dog, Canis familiaris, and the domestic cat, Felix catus Enewetak and Bikini Atoll. The following discussion (Reese (b), 1987). of these radionuclides comes from Robison et al. (1999). 241Am was found to be more widespread at Past and Present Issues Enewetak, especially in surface sediments on the World War II lagoons west side. There is also ten times more 207Bi at Laurence Marshall Carucci (1997) describes the Enewetak. events of World War II that caused devastation at The radionuclide concentration in different Enewetak Atoll. Between the years 1885 and 1915, reef fish was looked at by Robison et al. (1999) as Germany used the Enewetak islet of Wūjlan as a well. At Enewetak, the highest levels of 137Cs were place for copra (dried coconut meat) production. found in fish that reside in the northern part of the After Germany exited, the Japanese established a atoll. Most of this radionuclide can be found in the colony with missionaries trained in Kosrae coming to flesh over the bones, viscera, or liver. In goat fish, Enewetak afterwards. In the 1930’s, the first trading there was a significant value of207 Bu concentration post was opened with two more opening later that within the muscle tissue: goat fish use 70% of their decade. In the early 1940’s Japan decided to build a muscle tissue for whole body movement (Robison military installation on the islet of Enewetak as part et al., 1999). But why look at these concentrations? of the plan to expand in the West Pacific. (Carucci, It is to see the dosage of these radionuclides based 1997). on the consumption of these fish. Yet the dose of On February 17 1944, Enewetak Atoll was taken radionuclides from the nuclear tests only measure from Japan by the United States during Project 0.1 to 0.3% of the total dose, perhaps because the CATCHPOLE; over 3,200 Japanese people were concentrations some radionuclides are found within killed in the attack (Carucci, 1997). After Project parts not eaten e.g., the bone, viscera, and organs CATCHPOLE, the U.S. decided to use the atoll (Robison et al., 1999). for bomb testing, so the people of Enewetak were Halimeda sp. is the major macroalgae within relocated (Carucci, 1997). the Enewetak lagoon (Spies et al., 1981). One of the According to Carucci (1997), the Enewetak people species Spies et al. (l981) looked at in conjunction with believed their relocation would be short lived; they radionuclides was Halimeda incrassate by transplanting lived away from their native home for 33 years. several plants from Runit Island to Enewetak When they came back to their home islet, they found Island. Within twenty days, those plants had lost six their home in ruins. By 1958, over 45 nuclear tests radionuclides. had been conducted and the atoll became a target for Halimeda tends to uptake 241Am, 155Eu, and ballistic missiles that were launched all the way from 239+240Pu all at the same rate, which suggest that all the California (Carucci, 1997). The nuclear tests were radionuclides had similar preliminary accumulation performed on the surface of or beneath the lagoon within the macroalgae (Spies et al., 1981). 239+240Pu waters and above or on the land surface (Robison tends to accumulate within the coencytic filaments of et al., 1999). In the 1970’s, the US tried to recreate Halimeda, which may be due to the large surface area: the outcomes of the nuclear weapons by detonating volume ratio (Spies et al., 1981). from 5 to 500 tons of explosive, but this practice was stopped in 1974 via court injunction (Carucci, 1974). Anti-Cancer Drugs Allen et al. (1986) sampled 137 species of Radionuclides marine invertebrates from different environments The nuclear tests during World War II left several on Enewetak atoll. Some of the invertebrates were radionuclides at Enewetak Atoll; over the years screened for an ability to inhibit the growth of L1210 several have decayed out of the environment (Robison mouse leukemia cells in culture. Of all the samples, et al., 1999). Currently, the sediments of Enewetak 35 species had extensive action against L1210 atoll act as holdings for 239+240Pu, 241Am, and 238Pu, as cancer cells. These 35 species were collected again well as various fission and activation products like with another 10 species (previously uncollected). 90Sr, 137Cs, and 207Bi (Robison et al., 1999). Robison et Researchers took aqueous and ethanolic extracts of al. (1999) point out that radionuclides do not remain 33 of the recollected organisms and were screened for in the fine sediments they originally deposit in; the capability to increase the survival rate of mice that radionuclides have been found in biogenic materials have P388 leukemia. Extracts of 14 species were able such as Forams, coral, Halimeda bits, and mollusc to increase the survival time by 20% or more (Allen et shells. al., 1986). Robison et al. (1999) compares the amounts of the previously mentioned radionuclides between
25 Potential Lobster Fisheries Conclusion Ebert et al. (1986) studied the fishery potential Enewetak has an amazing history, especially in of Panulirus penicillatus, the spiny lobster, between relation to man. The Atoll has amazing biology both 1978 and 1979. 791 lobsters were caught in order to on land and in the lagoon. The lagoon itself brings study this, with more being caught on the north reefs unique features to the environment of Enewetak. over the south reefs and more females being caught The future holds boundless opportunities, if only the then males (Ebert et al., 1986). The lobsters had a 25% present can be healed. mortality rate, with a natural mortality rate coefficient of 0.284/yr for male lobsters and 0.244/yr for female lobsters (Ebert et al., 1986). The maximum yield weight/lobster is 450 grams, which was used to assess the yield characteristics to the possible intensity of fishing (Ebert et al., 1986).
REFERENCES
Allen, T.M., A. Sharma, and R.E. Dubin. 1986. Fosberg, F.R. 1953. Vegetation of Central Pacific atolls, Potential new anti-cancer drugs from marine a brief summary. Atoll Res. Bull. 23:1-26. organisms collected at Enewetak Atoll. Abstract. Bulletin of Marine Science 38(1):4-8. Gladfelter, W.B., J.C. Ogden, and E.H. Gladfelter. 1980. Similarity and Diversity Among Coral Atkinson, M., S.V. Smith, and E.D. Stroup. 1981. Reef Fish Communities: A Comparison Circulation in Enewetak Atoll Lagoon. between Tropical Western Atlantic (Virgin Limnology and Oceanography 26(6):1074- Islands) and Tropical Central Pacific (Marshall 1083. Islands) Patch Reefs. Ecology 61(5):1156-1168.
Berger, A.J. 1987. Birds of Enewetak Atoll. In Gorlick, D. L., P.D. Atkins, and G.S. Losey. 1987. Effect Devaney et al. The natural history of of Cleaning Labroides dimidiatus (Labridae) Enewetak Atoll. 2:348 pp. on an Ectoparasite Population Infecting Pomacentrus vaiuli (Pomacentridae) at Carucci, L.M. 1997. Nuclear Nativity: Rituals of Enewetak Atoll. Copea 1:41-45. Renewal and Empowerment in the Marshall Islands. Northern Illinois University Press, Jones, G., F. Whitaker, P. Smart, and W. Sanford. DeKalb. 217 pp. 2000. Numerical modelling of geothermal and reflux circulation in Enewetak Atoll: Colin, P.L., D.M. Devaney, L. Hillis-Colinvaux, T.H. implications for dolotomization. Journal of Suchanek, and J.T. Harrison III. 1986. Geochemical Exploration 69-70:71-75. Geology and biological zonation of the reef slop, 50-360 m depth at Enewetak Atoll, Kiste, R.C. 1987. History of the People of Enewetak Marshall Islands. Abstract. Bulletin of Marine Atoll. In: Devaney et al. The natural history Science 38(1):111-128. of Enewetak Atoll. 1:228 pp.
Colin, P.L. 1987. Subtidal Environments and Ecology Lamberson, J.O. 1987. Reptiles of Enewetak Atoll. of Enewetak Atoll. In: Devaney et al. The In: Devaney et al. The natural history of natural history of Enewetak Atoll. 1:228 pp. Enewetak Atoll. 2:348 pp.
Duxbury, A.C., A. B. Duxbury, and K.A. Sverdrup. Louda, S. M., and P.H. Zedler. 1985. Predation in 2000. An Introduction to the World’s Oceans. Insular plant Dynamics: an Experimental 6th ed. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Boston. Assessment of Postdispersal Fruit and Seed 528 pp. Survival, Enewetak Atoll, Marshall Islands. American Journal of Botany 72(3):438-445 Ebert, T.A., and R.F. Ford. 1986. Population ecology and fishery potential of the spiny lobster Marshall, N., and R.P. Gerber. 1987. Trophic Panulirus penicillatus at Enewetak Atoll, Relationships in Enewetak Atoll. In: Devaney Marshall Islands. Abstract. Bulletin of Marine et al. The natural history of Enewetak Atoll. Science 38(1):56-67. 1:228.
26 Merrill, J.T., and R.A. Duce. 1987. Meteorology and Spies, R. B., K.V. Marsh, and J.R. Kercher. 1981. Atmospheric Chemistry of Enewetak Atoll. Dynamics of Radionuclide Exchange in the In: Devaney et al. The natural history of Calcareous Algae Halimeda at Enewetak Enewetak Atoll. 1:228 pp. Atoll. Limnology and Oceanography 26(1):74-85. McKibben, J.N., and D.R. Nelson. 1986. Patterns of movement and grouping of gray reef sharks, Suchanek, T.H., and P.L. Colin. 1986. Rates and Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos, at Enewetak, effects of bioturbation by invertebrates and Marshall Islands. Abstract. Bulletin of Marine fishes at Enewetak and Bikini atolls. Abstract. Science 38(1):89-110. Bulletin of Marine Science 38(1):25-34.
Miller, A.C. 1986. Long-term fluctuations in algal Tsuda, R.T. 1987. Marine Benthic Algae of Enewetak cover and populations of hermit crabs and Atoll. In: Devaney et al. The natural history gastropods at Enewetak Atoll. Abstract. of Enewetak Atoll. 2:348. Bulletin of Marine Science 38(1):12-18. Webb, K.L., W.D. DuPaul, W. Wiebe, W. Sottile, and Nunn, P.D. 1990. Recent Environmental Changes on R.E. Johannes. 1975. Enewetak (Eniwetok) Pacific Islands. The Geographical Journal Atoll: Aspects of the Nitrogen Cycle on a 156(2):125-140. Coral Reef. Limnology and Oceanography 20(2):198-210. Reese, E.S. (a). 1987. Terrestrial Environments and Ecology of Enewetak Atoll. In: Devaney et al. Wiens, H.J. 1962. Lagoon terraces to lagoon The natural history of Enewetk Atoll. 1:228 sediments. In: Atoll Ecology. Yale University pp. Press.
Reese, E.S. (b). 1987. Mammals of Enewetak Atoll. Wilson, A.M., W. Sanford, F. Whitaker, and P. Smart. In: Devaney et al. The natural history of 2000. Geothermal convection: a mechanism Enewetak Atoll. 2:348. for dolotomization at Enewetak Atoll? Journal of Geochemical Exploration 69-70:41- Robison, W. L. and V.E. Noshkin. 1999. Radionuclide 45. characterization and associated does from long-lived radionuclides in close-in fallout Yamano, H., H. Kayanne, F. Matsuda, and Y. delivered to the marine environment at Bikini Tsuji. 2002. Lagoonal facies, ages and and Enewetak Atolls. The Science of the Total sedimentation in three atolls in the Pacific. Environment 237-238:311-327. Marine Geology 185:233-247.
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in 1908, a time when American immigration was From the Melting Pot booming from North-western Europe (Booth). This theory later appropriately came under fire when it to the Tossed Salad became apparent that the mainstream public had no intention of “melting” with certain “other” races Metaphor: and cultures. Subsequently, American immigration policies became restrictive based on race, an example Why Coercive of state sponsored racism intended towards reducing the diversity of the melting pot (Laubeová). Much Assimilation Lacks has been written about the so-called “myth” of the melting pot theory (Frey; Booth). However, the the Flavors Americans metaphor has persisted and epitomizes what some Americans see as an ideal model for this country. Crave The melting pot theory, also referred to as cultural assimilation, revolves around the analogy that “the ingredients in the pot (people of different cultures by LeAna B. Gloor and religions) are combined so as to lose their discrete identities and yield a final product of uniform Americans love pizza, Thai food, burritos, and consistency and flavor, which is quite different sushi. Our collective taste buds reflect a culinary from the original inputs” (“Melting Pot”). This idea appreciation for various cultures’ foods, and by differs from other analogies, particularly the salad extension, the cultures that bring us these foods. bowl analogy where the ingredients are encouraged However, a heightened philosophy of patriotism is to retain their cultural identities, thus retaining their currently being promoted that threatens to change “integrity and flavor” while contributing to a tasty our views on ethnicity, culture, and homogenize our and nutritious salad (“Melting Pot”). Yet another tastes. Meanwhile, multiculturalism, where we were food analogy is that of the ethnic stew, where there is a asked to celebrate the cultures that brought us every level of compromise between integration and cultural delicacy from samosas to goulash, is waning and distinctiveness (Laubeová). being replaced by ever-conservative assimilation- What these food analogies have in common is oriented thinking. If this trend away from an appreciation that each of these ethnicities has multiculturalism continues and coercive assimilation something to contribute to the society as a whole. views become mainstream in America, I believe we By comparing ethnic/cultural groups to ingredients will stifle our creative power and squelch the civil in a recipe, we start with the assumption that each liberties that this country is built upon. ingredient is important and the final product would Amalgamation of materials is the process by not be the same if some distinct ingredient were which metals are exposed to extremely high heat until missing. However, in the melting pot analogy, this they meld into a new compound. With people, this premise is the least apparent and can be criticized metaphor of a melting pot has long been applied to for its dismissively simplistic social theories. This is cultural integration, especially in the case in forming one appropriate evaluation of the weaknesses of the the American nation. A look into the background of melting pot and the tossed salad analogies: this social theory will help us orient ourselves in this In the case of the melting pot the aim is that debate. The foundation of this theory was perhaps all cultures become reflected in one common first explained in 1782 by a French immigrant named culture, however this is generally the culture J. Hector de Crevecoeur, who envisioned America of the dominant group - I thought this was becoming a nation comprised of a completely new mixed vegetable soup but I can only taste tomato. race that would eventually affect changes to the world In the case of the salad bowl, cultural groups scene through its labour force and its subsequent should exist separately and maintain their posterity (Laubeová). The metaphor was specifically practices and institutions, however, Where is popularized in a play by Israel Zangwill, entitled the dressing to cover it all? (Laubeová). “The Melting Pot,” which opened in Washington
29 This criticism that the melting pot produces a society assimilation theories often take on a decidedly that primarily reflects the dominant culture instead racist overtone (Laubeová), with many assimilation of fusing into a completely new entity is reiterated proponents urging Americentric policies such as by other sociologists, anthropologists, and cultural English-only education, strict immigration policies, geographers as “Anglo-conformity” (Kivisto 151). stipulations of nationalistic criteria for citizenship, This type of assimilation was seen as working like and eliminating programs aimed at helping minorities a one-way street and it was viewed as something (Booth; Hayworth). This issue over terminology that depended primarily on the cooperativeness of and social metaphors is vitally important because immigrants to be reoriented towards the dominant America stands at a critical ideological turning point. culture. The idea that the dominant culture would Cultural geographers describe our current society be infused with new energy through the influences as experiencing a “multicultural backlash” that of ethnic groups retaining their distinctive cultural will drastically affect immigration legislation and attributes and thereby forging a new, stronger ethnic studies and possibly lead us towards a more America due to their divergent cultural contributions restrictive and intolerant nation (Mitchell 641). The was not given much weight by early researchers current discourse about cultural assimilation seeks (Kivisto 152-154). to relegate incongruent cultural attributes to the It should be noted in this discussion that earlier private arena so as not to disturb the dominant society in American sociology history, some of these terms (Mitchell 642), and instead of promoting a tolerance took on distinctly different flavours. This ambiguity of diversity, we see the modern-day assimilation of terminology contributes to confusion in the current proponents urging strict deportation and increasingly discourse. For instance, in 1901, Sarah Simons is restrictive immigration policies in order to protect so- quoted as making this conclusion with regards to called American values (Hayworth). assimilation: Some proponents, such as Arizona Congressman In brief, the function of assimilation is J.D. Hayworth, are calling for a return of the same the establishment of homogeneity within type of assimilation policies that others refer to as the group; but this does not mean that the “humiliating Americanization programs of the all variation shall be crushed out. In 1910’s and 1920’s” (Rodriguez). Those programs vital matters, such as language, ideals of occurred during another time of heightened national government, law, and education, uniformity concern, namely WWI and the subsequent “Red shall prevail; in personal matters of religion Scare,” where coercive education and employment and habits of life, however, individuality policies were enacted that compelled immigrants shall be allowed free play. Thus, the to assimilate. This assimilation process was spread of “consciousness of kind” must be structured to produce citizens that conformed, accompanied by the spread of consciousness not just to American democratic ideals, but also to of individuality (qtd. in Kivsito 153). Americanized private habits, American English, Furthermore, according to Peter Kivisto’s and basic political and social ideologies intended to interpretation of Chicago School sociologist Robert E. create a pliable work force and ensure certain political Park’s writings on the subject, theories on assimilation leanings (“Americanization” [1]). During the war, originally differed from the melting pot fusion theory immigrants experienced oppression, xenophobia, and in that assimilation “signals the proliferation of propaganda designed to strip them of their native diversity. Rather than enforced conformity, it makes cultures and loyalties. The public school system possible a greater degree of individual autonomy” “instructed the children of immigrants in “proper” and creates “a cultural climate that is predicated Anglo-Saxon values and traditions and strongly by pluralism” whereby this “cultural pluralism (or encouraged them to take their lessons home to their multiculturalism) can coexist with assimilation” families (“Americanization” [2]) Meanwhile, ethnic (156-157). The idea that a multiethnic society could presses were scrutinized and inspected by the U.S. attain an interdependent cohesion based on national government and higher financial burdens were solidarity while maintaining distinct cultural histories place upon them from the U.S. Postal Service, who not dependent on like-minded homogeneity was thus demanded to analyze translations, effectively limiting proposed back in the early 1900’s (Kivisto 161). their freedom of speech and eventually resulting in However, it is vital to recognize that coercive many presses closing (“Americanization” [2]). assimilation theorists often do not support the idea After the war, the leftover social strains and that immigrants should maintain distinct cultural extreme patriotism gave vent for new obsessions, attributes. In the modern-day discussion, coercive including the Red Scare over suspected communists,
30 resurgence in the white supremacist organizations On the other hand, multiculturalism has its such as the Ku Klux Klan, religiously based own set of weak points that need further evaluation fundamentalism, labor strikes, and the prohibition and revision. The melting pot and the tossed salad of alcohol (“Americanization” [2]). Certainly, civil metaphors are both inherently flawed, at least so- liberties were being cast aside, and minority groups far in their practical application. On this, there bore the brunt of this assault under the guise of are many social theorists who are writing about a becoming more “American” and less “foreign.” Now compromise between the melting pot approach and we are seeing a similar leaning towards coercive the tossed salad analogy. One such new theory is the assimilation spreading across America due to the aforementioned “ethnic stew” from Laura Laubeová, heightened concern over terrorism and the cultural/ who hopes that such an analogy can help bridge the religious differences that are perceived to be behind gap between the two concepts to create “a sort of that ideological discord. If this assimilation thinking pan-Hungarian goulash where the pieces of different proceeds toward its logical conclusion, America will kinds of meat still keep their solid structure.” Indeed, move backwards socially and become a truly bland some sort of compromise between full assimilation melted pot of cultures that is willing to sacrifice and multiculturalism will be necessary to retain our everything under a misplaced paradigm of patriotism. multiethnic flavour while building a cohesive society. The stance of many coercive assimilation The bottom line is that people are people, not proponents smacks of racist overtones and is based on food. Despite the variety of food metaphors at our apprehension of “others” and exclusionary thinking disposal, the power of this rhetoric is limited and more than it is based on preservation of core values. wears thin during pragmatic application. Food For example, in the case of the political debate over metaphors can be useful, but we do not need more designating English as America’s official language, vague metaphors that lead to interpretive disparities. Thomas Ricento makes this point: What we need is an entirely new dialogue on the The English language has often been used as subject, one that completely and clearly redefines a marker of one’s “American-ness”, and the America’s objective for a multiethnic society that use of non-English languages as a marker to allows for diversity, not just in the private realm, but one’s “foreign-ness.” Penalizing non-English also in the public sphere. We do not need a coercive speakers by limiting their access to public assimilation program that reverts back to outdated services, voting and education is illogical, nationalistic paranoia. We need an inclusive working for it would further stigmatize non-English social theory that unites the disparate enclaves of speakers, rather than help them acquire the this society into a manageable entity moving in language. . . Restricting access of citizens and the same collective direction. Whether Americans non-citizens alike because of a language will ever eventually be reformed into what Israel barrier is not only bad public policy, but an Zangwill called “a fusion of all races” remains to be insult and a calculated provocation, the initial seen (Zangwill). Right now, what America needs step would certainly be a pro-tracted conflict is a definitive social direction that leans away from between English and non-English speakers coercive assimilation dogma and towards a truly (7). inclusive national identity. True American dreamers The implications of this type of proposed legislation should not settle for anything less. drives fear into minority groups seeking to preserve their cultural heritage against a tide of Americentric propaganda. Ultimately, those seeking to enact coercive assimilation policies threaten to fracture the common ground of the American dream that they claim to be focused on protecting. Minority groups are nearing such numbers in this country that it is projected that the word “minority” will soon become obsolete. Enacting exclusionary policies will only fracture an already delicate social framework and potentially further disenfranchise the very groups America needs for inclusive unity.
31 WORKS CITED
“Americanization.” 25 February 2006.
“Americanization” [2]. American History Study Laubeová, Laura. “Melting Pot vs. Ethnic Stew.” Guide. 6 February 2006.
Booth, William. “One Nation, Indivisible: Is Mitchell, Katharyne. “Geographies of Identity: It History?” Washingtonpost com. 22 Multiculturalism Unplugged.” Progress in February 1998. 23 February 2006.
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culturally. It was a drink that held “sacred overtones” A Brief Look at (Marshall 2004:201). Kava’s consumption was generally restricted to adult men (Marshall 2004:201; G1oba1ization Brunton 1989:64). Only a few exceptions existed to whom this restriction did not apply conventionally through Kava (i.e. before European influence). Brunton points them out as being “women of high rank in stratified societies, [...elderly] women, [and...] women who used by Christopher Frazier it illicitly” (1989:64). One of the traditions that revolved around kava This paper will address various aspects of the consumption in many places included the idea that it psychotropic and culturally significant medicinal was forbidden to wash the cup from which kava had plant, Piper methysticum, also known as kava, or ‘awa been consumed (Brunton 1989:62). Furthermore, these in Hawai’i. Kava is a plant that has gone through cups should never come in contact with the ground; many different relationships with humanity - as instead, they would either be suspended by cord or human history with the plant has unfolded. Here, placed on posts (Brunton 1989:65). Also, in some we will look at (1) its traditional use throughout places, “there were tight restrictions on the kinds of Oceania, (2) its commercial introduction into movements allowed with the hands and the strainer international markets for medicinal uses by profit- when preparing the kava” (Brunton 1989:71). driven, pharmaceutical companies, and attempts to In places such as Pohnpei, kava--locally known as patent the plant by such companies, (3) its decline in sakau--is given, along with other traditional gifts, as international popularity due to health related issues an offering at funerals (Hezel 2001:105-106). that resulted from the improper use of the plant, (4) the future of kava, and, finally, (5) my first-hand Internationa1 Popu1arity and Patenting experiences with kava. In recent times, kava has undergone a tremendous Kava is traditionally consumed as an elixir growth in international popularity as an over-the- made from soaking the ground roots of the Piper counter herbal supplement used to treat anxiety. methysticum plant. According to Mac Marshall (2004), According to ETC Group, “[i]n Europe alone, .t kava contains several potent alkaloids that, when kava extracts [were] being sold by at least 14 drug consumed in a traditional manner, induce “a range companies” (ETC Group 1997). Contributing of physical effects, notably analgesia and muscle to kava’s popularity outside of Oceania was its relaxation, and it leads to a sense of sociability and reputation as an effective and safe alternative to tranquility [; ...while] the mental facilities are left clear alcohol and other drugs associated with relieving (201). anxiety. “Kava bars” have sprung up all over the place that serve it as if it were an alcohol drink - but often History of Kava out of a coconut shell to maintain the “Pacific island In the Pacific, there are over 100 varieties of feel.” kava (ETC Group 1997). Serious cultivation of kava According to the supervising pharmacist at most likely began in Vanuatu about three thousand Manhattan Plaza Pharmacy, Steve Kaufman, kava years ago; this is the conclusion of most scientists, has been shown to be as effective in treating anxiety which is based upon studies that indicate Vanuatu as as the benzodiazine class of drugs; and, furthermore, being the location with the greatest genetic variety shown to be effective in reducing several menopausal (Kava History). From Vanuatu it spread and could symptoms (Kaufman 1999). be found “in most major Polynesian islands, in Fiji, Kava has decidedly become an appealing plant [...] in scattered coastal and island locations of PNG globally due to its medicinal applicability. Needless and west Papua [otherwise known as Irian-Jaya of to say, pharmaceutical companies have been keen to Indonesia], and on the island of Pohnpei” (Marshall market the plant. The development, or patenting of 2004:201). naturally occurring biological materials, like plants Kava was traditionally associated with elaborate and other forms of life, including human genes, ceremonial customs, and was extremely significant is an act referred to as biopiracy, a term originally 33 coined by ETC Group. Yet, this is exactly what large Hea1th Scare and Dec1ine in Popu1arity pharmaceutical corporations have been aspiring to All of these developments and fears of do. In fact, the French company L’Oreal has already exploitation took a back seat when, in 2002, Germany patented or is seeking to patent kava as a means of banned the plant citing health reasons - that kava treating hair loss in the US, Canada, Japan, China, use can cause liver toxicity. Soon, other countries Germany, France, Italy, the UK, Spain, Hungary, and followed by banning or restricting sales of kava, Poland (ETC Group 1997). There is a long list of other including Australia, the UK, Switzerland, Singapore, examples of multinational companies--including France and Canada. This ban has had a serious impact Willmar Schwabe GmbH, American Home Products, on the production of kava. The American FDA has Merck, Pfizer, Rhone Poulenc, SmithKline Beecham, also issued an advisory on the potential risk of kava Boehringer Ingelheim, and Monsanto--endeavoring consumption (http://_w_.cfsan_da.gov/%7Edms/ to identify unique aspects and uses of kava to which addskava.html). they can claim exclusive ownership. These qualities This of course has damaged the market for range from how the powder is prepared from the root kava production. According to Hawaii Agricultural to a whole variety of specific applications. Statistics, kava manufacture in Hawaii has declined Kava is perceived as a prospective money-maker, since use of the plant has been associated with liver a plant especially well suited for marketing in the damage. However, HAS also indicates that despite herbal remedies niche. The idea of patenting kava the drop in production of Kava, the revenues have is that a company can obtain exclusive rights to the increased - a result, they note, of marginal farmers plant, thereby demanding full profits associated ceasing operations (National Agricultural Statistics with usage and ultimately creating a monopoly of Service). ownership. Pacific Business News (2005) explains that According to a 1997 Biopiracy Update from ETC kava remains an important Hawaiian crop both Group, this could eventually lead to reducing farmers economically and culturally, despite its decline in to mere “cheap labor” for the ETC Group which is an peak production since 2001 (Noni Revenue Up; Kava organization involved in protecting indigenous rights Still Sells). In Fiji and Vanauatu, the other major and knowledge; (previously known as the Rural producers of kava, the decline in production has been Advancement Foundation International) companies similar. making Western, kava-based pharmaceuticals.” It also explains that there is concern that kava could A Brighter Future for Kava be monocropped elsewhere in places outside of the An encouraging study was conducted in 2003 Pacific all together (e.g. Mexico or Australia), which which shook the kava world with its fascinating would hurt the market value for the indigenous results. The University of Hawaii at Manoa populations of the plant’s origin. discovered that quite likely the real liver damaging The indigenous groups should fight back. culprits are the leaves, stems and bark of the kava However, in the first chapter of IPR for Indigenous plant. Traditionally, only the root was used in the Peoples, Tom Greaves (1999) points out three reasons making of the elixir. It was not until the boom in why it is difficult for indigenous groups to patent production that companies would start their own cultural property. First of all, “copyrights manufacturing kava products containing what and patents are for new knowledge, not knowledge otherwise would have been considered waste. This that already exists” (8). Secondly, patents and seemed like a good hypothesis in “explain [ing] how a copyrights can only be awarded to individuals, or plant used in island cultures for 2,000 years, legal entities that act as individuals (i.e. corporations). could suddenly be so toxic” (Dayton 2003). The last problem is that copyrights and patents are With this and other encouraging news, the market temporary; they expire after a duration of time (8) seems as if it will be headed for more changes once Additionally, intellectual property rights is an again. In other news, it is suggested that Germany, alien concept to many indigenous populations around formerly the largest importer of Pacific island kava, the world; they do not have the knowledge or the is in the process of lifting its ban on the plant, and resources to pursue such options (10). kava farmers are anxious that other European countries will likely follow (Fiji takes 2005). Also, as the Kava Council of Fiji notes, the kava industry has the support of the World Health Organization on the safety of kava (Fiji takes 2005).
34 First-Hand Experience Conclusion I first partook in kava consumption a couple of Kava has a long, turbulent history and has been years ago. I tried several times, never really knowing approached differently through time. Originally, it what to expect or how to react. Actually, I never really was a plant revered as sacred and instrumental in consumed it in quantity enough to experience any ceremonial situations. It was highly regulated by the more effect than simply a numb feeling in my mouth. societies which used it traditionally; restrictions were The first time I actually partook in kava was not placed on who could consume it, when it could be until about two months ago. I had begun work on consumed, and how it was prepared and consumed. data gathering for the topic of kava and realized the These restrictions have changed rapidly in recent importance of getting first-hand experience. A friend times, first with colonization of the Pacific, and then of mine from Kiribati came over with the kava that he with economic globalization and the spread of kava procured from a friend of his. He explained to me that in popularity in places outside of Oceania. This he picked up kava drinking while working in Pohnpei large-scale growth in consumption and disregard over the last several years. Also, he noted that it was for traditional knowledge has coincided with the Tongan kava that we would begin drinking. growth of kava’s noted health threats. If, in fact, He prepared the kava and he and I, along with my there is something to be learned from this, it is that roommate and another friend, proceeded to consume rapid change without time for adjustment can lead to the beverage. We drank it out of coconut shells and negative consequences and that traditional knowledge clapped in the Fijian style, twice before and three should be respected and understood in full, not just in times after someone or yourself takes a drink. In all, part in hopes of making a profit. we drank about four medium, gallon-sized bowls. As, Kava is a plant that should be carefully harvested the night progressed, the conversation became slower so that only the root is consumed. Stricter regulations and eventually nearly extinguished completely. When and control measures could be applied in order to another friend entered the apartment to visit, he noted ensure its quality. This author has high expectations how quiet we were. for the future of this Oceanic plant and believes that Physically, I felt relaxed and tranquil. I did not its popularity will continue to increase, especially feel confused mentally, but my body felt drunk. I once the bad image of liver toxicity passes. It is a safer particularly enjoyed the kava and, especially after alternative to alcohol and in my opinion, can lead to having minimal side effects the next day-- contrasted more interpersonal communication and less violence with an alcohol related hangover--I was very satisfied. among recreational users. I have become a fan of kava and have since consumed it on several more occasions and promoted its use to my friends as an alternative to illicit drugs and alcohol. Unfortunately, it is a controlled substance in Korea, where I plan to live for the next year, so I will not be able to enjoy it over there.
35 REFERENCES CITED
Brunton, Ron Kava History 1989 The abandoned narcotic: Kava and 1999 Antelope Internet Systems Inc, cultural instability in Melanesia. Cambridge [Online]. Available: http://kavaroot.com/ University Press. History?History.htm. Accessed: Oct 26, 2005.
Dayton, Kevin Lalakato,Aqela 2003 UH scientists may have solved 2005 Kava market opens up. Fiji Times. kava mystery. The Honolulu Advertiser, May 27, [Online]. http://www.fijitimes. April 7, [Online]. Available:
Kaufman, Steve. 1999 New York City Voices: A consumer journal for mental health Advocacy. Ask the pharmacist: Relaxing with kava kdva. Sept/Oct: [Online]. Available:... http://www. Newyorkcityvoices.org/sept99p.html> Accessed Nov 09, 2005.
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mention of science seemed only to be used He Blinded Me descriptively to promote a fuller picture of nature. However, a closer look reveals science and reason are deeply integrated into Melville’s narrative and with Science: The he employs his familiarity with science in important turning points of the novel. th To begin, I must address what was happening in Effects of 19 science from the middle of the 18th century up to the publication of Moby-Dick in 1852. Science between these two centuries was influenced by radical changes Century Science on in the beliefs about the consistency of species found in nature; this change in belief resulted from the empirical classification of plants by Linnaeus around Melville’s Moby- 1750 (Amundson 37, 40). These observations led to the theory of species fixism, meaning that new Dick species do not spontaneously generate but are the same they were thousands of years ago; species fixism was a necessary requirement for taxonomy to begin. by Jason Foxworthy The field of taxonomy is a good example of what arose from 18th and 19th century science as a result During the time that Melville wrote Moby-Dick, of studying species from both a structuralist and there was a profound shift in the way that scientists functionalist perspective. observed nature; especially with respect to what A year before Moby-Dick was published there counted as observation. Some of the terminology was an important shift toward the structuralists in discussed in this essay is from a very specialized the structuralist/functionalist debate. This debate area of philosophy: the history and philosophy centered on an explanation of traits and parts in of science. I will provide definitions in the text to individual species and between different species eliminate confusion. This debate occurred between (Amundson 57). Structuralists rejected the common structuralists and functionalists. The former held the belief that function or purpose was inherent and position that considers observation free from purpose; a necessary requisite for observation to be fact. in the case of corresponding bones between species, a Functionalists conformed to the common belief structuralist would maintain that all vertebrates come about function being the only non-abstract way to from one archetypal vertebrate. The latter, conformed observe and classify nature. The debate took place to the mainstream view that for observation to be in 1830, approximately twenty years prior to the scientific it must contain function, otherwise it would publication of Moby-Dick, between Baron Georges be abstract or metaphysical. This shift resulted from a Cuvier, a functionalist, and Etienne Geoffroy, a reevaluation of what counts as empirical observation structuralist (Waggoner). Cuvier had two advantages: for science and provided the conditions necessary functionalism was the dominant view, and he was for the field of taxonomy to arise. Effects of this one of the most influential scientists of his time. On debate are strongly evident in Moby-Dick. In Chapter the structuralist side of the debate, Etienne Geoffroy 32, “Cetology,” Ishmael briefly mentions some of argued avidly against Cuvier’s position by coming the influential scientists and their theories about up with counter evidence to Cuvier’s evidence; his whales, primarily dating about one hundred years evidence supported that there were unities within before Moby-Dick was published. After examining structure that were not related to the function, for the scientific beliefs of this period, it is evident example a bone thought necessary for the flight that Melville was indeed influenced by scientific of birds was found to be in a fish near the gills empiricism. However, he expands his empirical (Amundson 56). The debate was important because insights of nature to include the nature of man. it was very influential to the field of taxonomy over In the chapter Cetology, which is the branch the next few decades. Despite the popularity of of zoology that studies whales, Melville mocks functionalism, structuralism became the mainstream the scientific approach of observing nature. Yet, view in 1850, a few years before the publication of throughout the book, Ishmael employs scientific Moby-Dick (Amundson 57-58). methods of analyzing his observations of religion, The science of the day relates to the literature in culture, and nature. On the surface, Melville’s that nature is examined and empiricism is broadened 37 beyond its focus on purpose. The role of scientific Yet, his position is not strictly functionalist. He influence in Moby-Dick has not been given its due. shifts between favoring functionlist and structuralist Melville was at least familiar with Baron Cuvier and assertions. Ishmael goes on to make structuralist some of his works, since his name was mentioned assertions about human nature. Ishmael also in the article “Whales” published in the Penny blatantly mocks religious authority by questioning Cyclopedia, which Melville heavily drew upon for the Christian/Pagan binary. Ishmael subverts scientific eferencer of the whale (Melville 115). Thus authoritative figures with whom he can not reconcile some of the greatest and most influential scientists of his own beliefs. He makes an appeal to reason when his time have indirectly shaped the creation of Moby- authority tries to refute his common sense view of Dick. nature. His friendship with Queequeg allows him In “Cetology” Melville attributes structuralism to intimacy enough to measure Queequeg beyond the scientists of his day and functionalism to common Captain Bildad’s demand that Queequeg demonstrate sailors. Leon Howard, author of Herman Melville: A himself as a Christian. Captain Bildad’s demand Biography writes: judges Queequeg functionally because he determines A careful study of the sources of the finished Queequeg’s worth by the way in which he worships, work bears out this conclusion, rather than recognizing in Queequeg as good enough showing that he interpolated one distinctive as a human being. Captain Bildad’s religious views chapter, “The Advocate,” in his early subordinate all heathens on the fundamental assertion sourceless narrative and did not begin to of Christian superiority. Ishmael retorts: draw regularly upon Beale and his other I mean sir, the same ancient Catholic Church sources of [scientific and technical] to which you and I, and Captain Peleg there, information until he reached chapter thirty- and Queequeg here, and all of us, and every two, entitled “Cetology.” (162) mother’s son and soul of us belong; the great This scientifically saturated chapter is used as a and everlasting First congregation of this transition between Melville’s first and second types whole worshipping world; we all belong of narratives. Whereas the first narrative focuses to that; only some of us cherish some queer on Ishmael and Queequeg, the second narrative crochets noways touching the grand belief; in after “Cetology” diminishes their role as it takes an all that we join hands. (84) explicitly functionalist turn. Melville uses Ishmael to When Ishmael refuses to permit Queequeg’s examine two opposing world views in “Cetology;” worth to be determined merely on a functional Ishmael begins by defining the whale structurally level, it is the same refusal he made with regard to (Linnaeus’s view) and goes on to compare this now favoring scientist’s reasoning over common sailors. trendy scientific view with the more traditional Ishmael consistently empathizes with the humanist functional view. To validate his preference for the perspective and, like structuralists, invests his time in functionalist meaning of what a whale is, Ishmael an analysis of human character rather than whether or states: “down to the year 1850, sharks and shad, not people conform to established forms of theology alewives and herring…were still found dividing or ethnocentrism. Melville’s ability to utilize elements the possession of the same seas with the [whale]” of both the structural and functional arguments shows (117). Ishmael favors the functionalist method for that he is a product of his time, since both views determining the status of a whale: were influential. His versatility is implanted into his The grounds upon which Linnaeus would creation of Ishmael, who continually uses scientific fain have banished the whales from the judgment before arguing his case. He does not allow waters, he states as follows: ‘On account of his own values to be compromised with respect to their warm Binocular heart, their lungs, their oppressive institutions. With respect to these societal movable eye-lids, their hollow ears, [a penis constructs he does not see the need to create a which enters the female, whose breasts lactate hierarchy from the function or location of individuals, and justly and deservedly because of the laws so thus far, Ishmael has not behaved out of character. of nature]’. (Melville 117) If Melville wrote Moby-Dick to accurately Ishmael derides the structuralist assertion that whales describe the career of whaling to the masses, then it are not fish based on correspondences with other would make sense for him to use Ishmael to glorify animals not found in the water. Rather than agreeing the career of the whaler; this is made possible by with the scientists about whales, Ishmael agrees with rejecting the status of a whale being anything more his messmates who accept the place where a whale than a fish since it is the task of a whaler to slay these resides as being sufficient enough to end the fish/ creatures. Also the great magnitude of the whale mammal debate; the mainstream functionalist view makes its death a noble victory. Another reason appeals to our common sense because it would be that follows this logic is the desire Melville had absurd to question that a whale is not a fish, after all, to maintain the image that Ishmael was a realistic it lives in the ocean. sailor. How typical is it for fishermen to go about
38 philosophizing about the humanistic qualities of a Curiously, Ishmael lightheartedly criticizes sea creature that he intends to kill? Though Melville’s science, but only after he at least considers it, description of whales comes from both personal whereas Ahab who is clearly aligned with evil and encounters and other accounts of whaling, Ishmael’s selfishness throughout the novel takes his defiance to understanding comes only after a scientific account a completely different level. In “The Quadrant” there has been given. While there are a variety of awe- is a description in which Ahab provokes his crew inspired human thoughts ascribed to the whale into behaving in opposition to science, that is he gets sightings in the novel, the manner in which whales them to follower him after mesmerizing them, action are described utilizes both functional and structural devoid of a rational reason. When Ahab mutters to characteristics to more fully develop the image of himself briefly before giving his sermon he says, whale that Melville presents throughout Moby-Dick. “Science! Curse thee, thou vain toy; and cursed be all Melville’s rejection of the structuralist assertion things that cast man’s eyes aloft to that heaven, whose that whales are unlike the other sea creatures live vividness but scorches him, as these old eyes because of their functional role in their sea lacks the are even now scorched with thy light” (378). It is no transcendentalist attitude he exhibits regularly in accident that Melville aligns evil with the opposition relation to human dignity, such as his elevation of of science. Especially since throughout the novel he Queequeg’s character or his appreciation of whalers uses very rational reasoning that science validates to as opposed to other sailors. According to Milton R. make his grounded points about his insights on unjust Stern who wrote an essay titled, “Melville, Society, mainstream views like western ethnocentrism and and Language” in A Companion to Melville studies: religious superiority. The transformation, which Melville was to Melville is truly a product of his time. His inherit from the religious liberalism of his writing style reflects the tumultuous structure/ father, was a social and political translation function debate which was an important argument of the benevolently rational science derived for scientists during his life. His writing reflects the from the fixed and perfect laws of nature struggle that scientists had during this period. He and of nature’s God. The good society now suffered much anguish like the structuralist Geoffroy, becomes in effect, a fully secular type of who received many criticisms for his controversial absolute divine rationality and toleration. position when he went against and attacked the (Stern 435) mainstream view of functionalism. Moby-Dick’s This rationalistic approach to nature allowed Melville structural elements were vehemently attacked by to escape the tyrannical oppression of Puritanical Melville’s critics. He used this style of thinking to thought, opening the door for conceptions of subversively mock religion and ethnocentrism. universal unity. This universal unity can be observed Even more unfortunate for Melville was the fact by the way Ishmael views religion after coming to that his controversial examination of religion and know Queequeg. western superiority alienated people from his works The placement of scientific information in the and resulted in the loss of numerous future texts novel indicates a significant oler that transcends mere which most likely would have been realized had he description of nature. Like the shift discussed earlier experienced the success that Moby-Dick experiences in “Cetology,” this shift occurs in another adequately to this day. He paid a heavy toll for critically named scientific chapter, “The Fossil Whale.” In this examining mainstream values. Yet, although the chapter a prominent British scientist, Richard Owen, quality of his remaining years diminished, he has renowned for his ability to piece together fossils given the world an amazing work of open-minded reconstructed a prehistoric whale skeleton (350). literature which not only provides its readers with “The Fossil Whale” leads to the question “Does the incredibly keen insights about the nature of man but Whale’s Magnitude Diminish?—Will he perish?” of critical thinking as well. He has left the world a (351). Melville continues to employ science in order better place for having his novel. to gain understanding of nature. However, something dark and sinister replaces science. The chapters that follow range from “Ahab’s Leg” wherein the greedy monomaniac seeks to replace a lost limb to “Ahab and Starbuck in the Cabin” where Ahab loses control and grabbed a musket “and pointing it towards Starbuck exclaimed: “There is one God that is Lord over the earth, and one Captain that is lord over the Pequod.— On deck!” (362). Perhaps this could be taken for a coincidence if it were the sole instance of science appearing right before Ahab’s fit of rage, but it is not.
39 WORKS CITED
Amundson, Ronald. The Changing Role of the Embryo in Evolutionary Thought: Structure and Synthesis. New York: Cambridge UP, 2005.
Bickman, Martin., John Bryant, Milton R. Stern et al. A Companion to Melville Studies. Ed.
John Bryant. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1986. 515-541, xvii-xxvii, and 433-479.
Howard, Leon. Herman Melville: A Biography. Los Angeles: California UP, 1967.
Melville, Herman. Moby-Dick: A Norton Critical Edition. Eds. Harrison Hayford and Hershel Parker. ed. 2. New York: W.W. Norton, 2002.
Wagonner, Ben. “Etienne Geoffroy St. Hilaire (1772- 1844). University of California, Berkeley, Museum of Paleontology. Feb 23 1996. 5 Dec 2005.
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strongly. It is this lack of physical barriers that often i am the other blinds the “non-others” to the painfully strong boundaries that still do exist. Nowadays, “overt racist discrimination is not as fashionable as it once by kelly woods was and that is why everyone can pretend racism does not exist” (killing rage 5). Our country all too “Things are pretty much equal for blacks and often promotes a Political Correctness that does not whites now in America.” I sat astonished by those condone discrimination but that also does nothing to words. I was in a classroom much like those found change the current racial tensions that do exist. These on college campuses all across this country; one ignored issues that are swept under the rug are then engaged in conversation, a free sharing of ideas and assumed to have been solved. This lack of addressing thoughts. These rooms are assumed to be filled with and dealing with racism in general society is then intellectuals in progress; minds open and willing mirrored in the higher education institutions. And to learn. Rarely does one expect these classrooms even as the demographics of today’s colleges continue to be exuding with ignorance. But in that moment I to transform into more racially diverse communities, realized I was in the latter. There was as much racially they still remain a predominantly White forum ignorant thought here in Hilo as there was in any that harbors societal ideas of a blatantly dangerous town in the Deep South. In that moment the ignorance ignoring of racial problems. was intolerable for me, my hands shook as did my One such setting of this is Colby College, a small voice as my anger bubbled up inside me and I tried campus in Waterville, Maine. This school’s website to defend my place as the other. Eyes of white faces represents itself as being dedicated to “engaged were all suddenly focused upon me, the lone black persons prepared to respond to the challenges of girl in the class was about to speak and the weight of an increasingly diverse and global society and to bell hooks lay on my plate to explain. In that moment, the issues of justice that arise therein” (“Colby”). my assumed assignment expanded itself to so much However, in 1999 a white male student wrote an more than merely reading an article by bell hooks and editorial in response to increased police patrolling discussing it; it became a study of America’s modern of campus parking meters. The student suggested day race relations. the police could better spend their time fighting real bell hooks, a product of quite tempestuous times crime, like that found in Compton. His editorial in American history, is now a renowned African- then compared the small town of Waterville to that American scholar whose works severely divide of Compton. In this comparison Waterville was audiences in their opinion of her. She is as highly personified as being full of law abiding White citizens revered as she is attacked for her views of race and whereas Compton was portrayed stereotypically as feminism, and so was the case for this particular full of crime committing, Jeri-curl wearing Blacks. discussion. hooks’ commonly used phrase, “white After African-Americans students on campus took supremacist capitalist patriarchy” is surely where clear offense to his editorial, he wrote a defensive many draw the line against her ideas. Primarily it is response in which he said that when writing his those who are privileged and in positions of power in article he “wasn’t thinking about race, [he] was society that are often offended by her four powerful thinking about Jeri-Curls” (Gordon 421). Jeri-curls? I and carefully chosen words. It is from this phrase that am bewildered. This student’s attempt to claim artistic the racial tensions between the other and “non-other” license in his works then allows many to overlook the members of society emerge. hooks’ ploy here is quite underlying racist thought and ideas that are presented useful. Her ability to so easily conjure up emotions by in the work and regard them as merely satirical. using this phrase simply shows the amount to which While brushing off these transparently obvious racist racial ignorance and its displays are still dividing our statements as jokes, the overall seriousness of the society into two quite distinct groups. African-American struggle not only gets severely In the 1960’s, society was more visually divided demeaned but is being redefined by the very group into black and white. And while most of these of oppressors that have created the struggle. Gordon physical separations have dissipated, the oppressive notes this fact by stating that “the white monopoly, constructs of society still continue to hold quite by having the privilege to name the problem… also 41 determine de facto what the problem is not” (422). you will sadly encounter these forms of belittlement In these situations, the oppressors have the power to in your lifetime. It is in these first hand experiences change and dismiss what they will. that one cannot deny the presence of racism today. These incidents are also increasingly becoming These all too common events are the very ones that more than just a dichotomous Black and White hooks so poignantly explores and utilizes in her problem. Racists are becoming equal opportunity writings. offenders. On the larger campus of Washington But the validity of hooks’ writings are still State University, we encounter yet another blatant questioned, as they were in our classroom. One peer display. Beginning in the fall 2004 semester, two wondered what place hooks’ argument had among white male basketball players began harassing Asian- scholars like Chomsky, Burke and others, who American female students while they worked at through no coincidence all happen to be white males. the Multicultural Center. Acts reported to the police The validity of their work was not heavily questioned, stated that the two males were “mimicking her as if for they fit the description of those who sit atop she was a monkey; [they] made a motion to indicate our culture’s power structures. hooks courageously that Kim [one of the accusers] had chinky eyes, and forces us to step outside the boundaries setup by commenting, Asians take all the jobs.” (Matsudaira). her white counterparts. Her compelling experiences Despite these accounts that included other eye- are so eloquently put that they empower the people witnesses, police found no criminal activities had who share her voice- like me! By doing this, hooks’ taken place and the University conduct board found writings attempt to adjust the imbalances of power that no harassing behaviors had taken place either. not only within her field but in the unfair structures When asked about the accusations, the two students of society as well. While most of my peers were up in could only recall one attention grabbing incident in arms, hooks’ place seemed quite exact to me- to part which they were dancing in front of the center. They the sea of white rhetors and create a place for the all claimed that it was a dance from the movie Dumb and too forgotten other. Her words build a platform on Dumber, “however, the complainant and at least one which we can stand and proclaim that the realm of other witness perceived this same dance as a racially academia should be open to and take seriously the motivated ‘minstrel’ dance” (Tinney/Strenge). Again, words and actions of the other. This platform hopes the acts of racism are quickly excused by declaring to create an open forum for people whose voices are them a joke. Gordon and Johnson note that it is not not normally represented in the words of her more likely that these racially discriminated communities welcomed colleagues. “will find hope in the law, at least not without The American hegemony surely makes a significant changes in its structures and practice” contribution to how these rhetorical exchanges are (417). By having control over the law, oppressors read. Although hooks would surely disapprove of the again are able to redefine these compromising way she may have been presented as the lone other, situations so as to not confront or condemn the actions she is a one of a kind writer in the field of rhetoric. of anyone who is a part of their inclusive privileged It may have been easy for my peers to question her group. merely because her voice was so different from her The lapse of time since the Civil Rights movement contemporaries. One student claimed that it was also seems to pose a problem for many. Unlike other “the blatant crudeness of [hooks’] writing and her movements, time has not held the promise and somewhat militant feminist assumptions that didn’t success for racial equality; instead, time has allowed sit right with me” (Hunter). Though each theorist for the morphing of a new generation of racists. had made assumptions, only hooks’ were deemed A form whose underlying ideas are the very ones as such. hooks’ works contain as much sophisticated that were being challenged during the Civil Rights information as her male white contemporaries, but I Movement. In the book Living with Racism, authors feel that it is not as widely accepted because it doesn’t Feagin and Sikes note that most white Americans capture the idealized nature of what White-America “look at serious racism as the prejudices and actions sees as a happily ever after, it is instead completely of extreme bigots not considered to be representative raw much like the country’s racist situations. of the white majority” (3). The ability to distance And with the privileged behind the forces of the oneself from these serious issues is an ignorant luxury hegemony, I would not deny that this situation may that I, hooks, and those who share our voice do not be quite purposefully set up in this way as to have have. Instead these distant memories for today’s hooks misconstrued. But what the hegemony has yet White America are the ever present realities of the to take into account are the people like me, who in lives of the other. If you are distinguished as other then many situations sit as the lone example. The other that
42 hooks so powerfully connects with and empowers WORKS CITED acts as a counter to some of the resistance that has come up against her works. Colby College. 30 Apr. 2005. Colby College.
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makahiki e hiki mai ana. I këia manawa, loaÿa kekahi Ka Mana o ke mau kula kaiapuni i aÿo ÿia ma ka ÿölelo Hawaiÿi ma nä mokupuni a pau koe ‘o Kahoÿolawe. He höÿike Känäwai a me ka këia i ka nui holomua o ka poÿe o Hawaiÿi nei. He höÿike pü këia i ka hiki ÿole ke pepehi ÿia a make ka Mana o ke Kanaka ÿölelo makuahine o Hawaiÿi. E ola mau ka ‘ölelo Hawaiÿi.
Hulilau Wilson
Ma ka makahiki 1896 ua hoÿokumu ÿia he känäwai e päpä ana i ka ÿölelo Hawaiÿi ma nä kula o Hawaiÿi nei. Ua lilo këia känäwai päpä ÿölelo a ka ÿoihana hoÿonaÿauao he mana käkoÿo politika no ka ÿaoÿao hoÿokahuli i ke aupuni Möÿï o Hawaiÿi, a me ka hoÿokahuli pü i ka mauli Hawaiÿi o ko Hawaiÿi poÿe känaka. Ma loko o ka ÿölelo, he mana ko laila. Ma loko o ka hana, he mana nö ko laila. I ka ÿoki ÿia ÿana o këia ÿaoÿao ÿölelo o ko Hawaiÿi poÿe, ua hoÿomaka e loli ke au a me ka nohona kanaka ma o ka ÿölelo makuahine. I ka hoÿopuka ÿia ÿana o këia känäwai, ua päpä ÿia ka ÿölelo Hawaiÿi ma ke ÿano he ÿölelo kühelu a ua höÿole ÿia ka ÿölelo Hawaiÿi ma nä ÿoihana hoÿonaÿauao. No ka päpä ÿia o ka poÿe Hawaiÿi i ka ÿölelo makuahine ua hoÿomaka e nalo ka ÿölelo. ÿAÿole i aÿo nä mäkua i nä keiki no ka ÿike o läkou i ka hopena ma ka hoÿopaÿi ÿia ma ke kula. Ua hili ÿia nä haumäna i ka läÿau inä ua loaÿa pono läkou e ÿölelo Hawaiÿi ana ma ke kahua kula. Pëlä i höÿike ai ka poÿe o kahi ÿë i ko läkou mana hoÿopaÿi kanaka. A ma këlä mana hoÿopaÿi i hoÿomakaÿukaÿu ÿia ai ka poÿe Hawaiÿi i ka läkou ÿölelo ponoÿï iho nö. No ia kumu i hoÿomau ÿole ai nä hanauna i hänau ÿia ma hope i ka läkou ÿölelo ponoÿï. ÿOiai ua pau liÿiliÿi ka poÿe ÿölelo Hawaiÿi i ia manawa ÿaÿole i ÿole ka loaÿa o ka poÿe i küpaÿa ma hope o ke aÿo i ka ÿölelo Hawaiÿi ma ka hale a ma nä wahi kuaÿäina pü kekahi i loaÿa ÿole ai nä kula nui e like me ko ka poÿe o Niÿihau. Ua mälama ÿia nö kekahi kula ÿölelo Hawaiÿi ma Niÿihau i ia wä no ke kaÿawale loa o ia ÿäina mai nä wahi e päpä ÿia nei ka ÿölelo. Pëlä i ola ai ka ÿölelo ma këia mokupuni. Nä këia poÿe i paÿa i ka ÿike a hiki loa mai i këia wä. I ka makahiki 1986 ua hoÿololi ÿia ke känäwai päpä ÿölelo a ua hoÿonoa ÿia ka ÿölelo Hawaiÿi ma nä kula. Ua hoÿäÿo ka poÿe haole e hoÿokahuli i ka poÿe Hawaiÿi akä ÿaÿole i kahuli ka ÿölelo. Ke hoÿi mai nei nö. Ma ka makahiki 2006 ua piÿi ka nui o nä poÿe ÿölelo Hawaiÿi a e laupaÿi ana ka heluna poÿe ma nä
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While his thesis implies that Labanyi will show Literary Dysfunction: how the patriarch loses power through language, his jargon-laden argument speaks more to the Finding Truth Where unreliability, and therefore, the lack of power of language itself. One of the ways Labanyi does this is There is no Meaning in his exploration of the narrator: What is more, the text is the product not of one unreliable intermediary narrator, but by Jeanne L. Kroenke of a bewildering profusion of intermediary narrators, all of them unreliable. It is Throughout the study of literature and current impossible to know at how many removes theories, the study of how the author uses language we are from the original version; all we and to what means, is crucial to understanding a text. know for sure is that the version we have is What happens, however, when it is discovered that adulterated. (142-43) language lacks meaning and there is no definitive The text itself is unreliable, and therefore, lacks power. answer to why an author communicates what he When the reader cannot trust language, he is less does? If one looks at the numerous critical essays likely to believe what a text says. Labanyi claims about Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s The Autumn of the the reader does not know who is speaking, what the Patriarch, the various theories regarding language speaker knows, and to what extent the speaker knows blur the discourse leading to multiple meaning and what he does not know. This ambiguity amounts various truths. Literary scholars Jo Labanyi and to textual, as well as verbal fallibility in both The Raymond Williams each explore how Marquez’s use Autumn of the Patriarch and Labanyi’s critical essay. of language and narration establish the meaning of his To find the crux of this argument, however, one text. While Jo Labanyi looks at the rhetoric Marquez must first cut through convoluted and idiomatic uses to illustrate power, Raymond Williams uses a writing. Labanyi is clearly the epitome of a Post- more technical approach to establish a relationship Modern Deconstructionist, cleverly using jargon between compositional structure and meaning. such as “trace,” and “mirror-image” throughout his Williams studies the language and the structure of writing. Labanyi writes: “The written word does not the text to find humor and a sympathetic view of the hold a mirror up to reality, but turns reality into a patriarch, while Labanyi finds only fallibility and mirror-image. The image of the trace…” (140). This impotence. If one studies how these two critics have is clearly a deconstructionist reading of the novel, taken the same text, yet come to different conclusions and therefore, makes one wonder if Labanyi’s essay about the meaning behind the words, one might has any meaning at all, as all deconstructionists know imagine that Marquez’s work is more about the language has no meaning. dysfunctional nature of academia as opposed to Latin If Labanyi is the ultimate in Post-Modernism, American governments. then Williams is the embodiment of New Criticism. In his essay “Language and Power in The Autumn William’s reading of Marquez’s novel is concerned of the Patriarch,” Labanyi examines the relationship with literary devices such as sentence structure to between language and power. Labanyi writes: “On explain the meaning of the novel. Williams writes: the one hand, language is the patriarch’s principal The transformation of this anecdotal material instrument of power. On the other, it is his increasing to the actual story of the text can be described delegation of power to language that brings about his by considering the novel’s six chapters as a downfall. Garcia Marquez shows that language can system of progressive apertures. That is, the undermine power as well as enforce it” (135). Labanyi first chapter is developed on the basis of an implies that he will prove how language brings down aperture, the second on another aperture, and the Patriarch. While he does occasionally refer to this, so on. The qualifier “progressive” underlines making many excellent points, his essay does not so the fact that the apertures occur at an earlier much support his thesis as provide an opportunity to point in each of the six chapters. (151) use literary jargon.
47 Williams literally breaks down each chapter into Williams’ reading, one sees that Williams is striving sentence structure as well as sentence length to to sublimate his sexual desires, when one sees his determine what Marquez is trying to say. multiple references to “apertures,” another word for The most difficult part of this essay is trying to openings. Williams also makes frequent reference to figure out what Williams is trying to say. Williams “original situation,” blatant code for original sin, only spends several pages discussing the progressive further underscoring his puritanical fear of sex. nature of sentence length: “The fourth sentence While the two critics differ drastically in their expands to twenty-one lines. Throughout the next interpretation of the novel, they are each able to find seven pages the length of the sentences varies, but humor in what many consider to be a fairly disturbing remains approximately within the limits of the story. Labanyi writes: “The episode with the three sentences on the first two pages, ranging from a few caravels of Columbus again provides the most lines in length to a full page (thirty five lines in the amusing example of this ambiguous use of narrative text)” (156). Williams does note that “the progressive voice, with the patriarch’s informers slipping and precise manner of organizing the sentence length anachronistically into the language of Columbus’s in correspondence with the opening of the original diary that ought to be reserved for the newly arrived situation contributes to the formation of the narrative conquistadors” (143). Of course, this incongruity system Garcia Marquez constructs in this novel” (157), could demonstrate Marquez’s intent to parallel yet does not expound on this idea. Therefore, after Columbus and American powers either in academia a lengthy discussion about the progression of the or dictatorship; however, in the Post-Modern world, sentence structure, one is still left wondering how this language has no definitive meaning, so it must be applies to Marquez’s meaning in this text. amusingly ambiguous. The focus of the paper abruptly turns from Williams is also able to find humor in The sentence structure and length to how Marquez Autumn of the Patriarch through his careful narrates the story. Williams makes several references examination of narration: to narration: …he went into the bedroom, shut the three An unidentified narrator…the narrative begins crossbars, the three bolts, the three locks, and to open to other speakers…the narrator inside with his fingertips he took off the pants he the story is relating details about the physical was wearing that were soaked in shit.) Until environment, and suddenly the narrative the narrator reveals the General’s reactions changes…the narrative has changed from pure in the last three words, the readers view has narration to inferring a live dialogue…the been exterior and similar to that of the people narrator changes his scope…the voices observing the General’s reactions. The last continue to vary…(157-59, Emphasis added) three words provide the interior contrasting The reader of the essay can see that Williams provides characterization of the General and thus several clues to the unreliability of the narrator, create the humor. (163) Labanyi’s most valid argument. Williams feels that When one is only looking at the technical aspects of the narrative structure provides “a more complete language, one might see humor, as opposed to the characterization of the General” (161). While Labanyi humanity, in a scene like that. Williams’ explanation sees the narration as evidence of the fallibility of only underscores his fallacious reading of the text, power, Williams sees is it as an illumination of the while supporting the idea that the General represents General’s nature. academia as opposed to Latin-American dictatorship. If one were to apply a formalist reading to The fact that two critics have examined the Williams’ essay, one would see that Williams narration of this novel, yet come to oppositional is concerned about the anecdotal structure of conclusions, only illustrates the dysfunctional nature progression. Throughout the text, Williams uses of theory reinforcing Marquez’s obvious intention to the word “anecdote,” at least ten times, and in one poke fun at literary theorists. Marquez writes: “so paragraph, he uses it four times. He is also concerned you see general the time comes for the roughest of with “progression,” mentioned often, but especially us studs to turn into fairies, what a damned thing” in conjunction with “structure.” One could see this (57). By using blatant homo-erotic imagery, Marquez as Williams’ attempt to organize a circular novel that is challenging Freudian theorists to analyze the gay takes a great deal of concentration to study. But, in aspects of Latin-American machismo. This is only the spirit of literary discourse, one could also apply further underscored by the fact that most of the men a psycho-analytical reading to his anal attempts Marquez refers to wear uniforms, and the General at classification. When one also applies Freud to was installed by the Marines, who are under the
48 Naval branch of the armed services, an obvious WORKS CITED reference to The Village People. Marquez is not limited to lambasting any one Labanyi, Jo. “Language and Power in The Autumn of school of literary theory, as he takes great care to the Patriarch.” Gabriel Garcia Marquez New evenly distribute his disdain across all spectrums of Readings. Ed. Bernard McGuirk and Richard the academy. Marquez takes on Marxist theorists in Cardwell. New York; Cambridge UP, 1987. 135-49. his many references to the General’s mother, a former whore. Marquez writes: Marquez, Gabriel Garcia. The Autumn of the Benedicion Alvarez was to live for many Patriarch. New York: HarperCollins, 1976. years lamenting poverty, fighting with the maids over bills from the market and even Williams, Raymond. “The Autumn of the Patriarch.” skipping lunch in order to economize, and no Modern Critical Views. Gabriel Garcia one dared reveal to her that she was one of Marquez. Ed. Harold Bloom. New York, the richest women in the land, that everything Chelsea House, 1989. 147-68. he accumulated from government business he put in her name (58) It is in language such as this that Marquez’s true genius is exposed, as a true Marxist is unsure as to whether or not he should criticize Alvarez for having maids, or applaud her for attempting to economize. In addition, Marquez is creating a battle between Marxist theorists and gender theorists who are appalled at the idea that a male is abusing his power over the female in such a way as to allow her to act poor when she is indeed rich. Marquez’s true motive is found in the ending: he was condemned not to know life except in reverse, condemned to decipher the seams and straighten the threads of the woof and warp of the tapestry of illusions of reality without suspecting even too late that the only livable life was one of show, the one we saw from this side which wasn’t his general sir. (254) It is in this moment that Marquez expresses the pity he feels toward academics who are so busy unraveling the lives of others that they do not make the time to live their own. When one realizes that The Autumn of the Patriarch is so amusingly ambiguous as to be open to multiple anecdotal evidence regarding the progression of its structure, as well as its lack of obvious meaning, one can see that Marquez is criticizing not only Latin-American dictators, but also those who philosophize about the literature written about Latin-American dictators. When Marquez makes anachronistic anecdotal reference to Columbus while talking about the Marines, it becomes obvious that after many years of writing about the plight of the Latin-American poor, he has become frustrated that academia would rather argue over a New Critical approach versus a Deconstructionist approach, while dictators continue to kill boatloads of children.
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ke kanaka no käna ÿölelo ponoÿï iho a no ko Hawaiÿi Pehea e Ho’oikaika ÿölelo ponoÿï iho? Eia nö kekahi hoÿomaka he ÿuÿuku naÿe ma ka Hou ‘Ia Ai Ka pae o ke kula no ka hoÿoikaika ÿana i ka papahana. E hoÿopiÿi aku i ka uku kumu inä he walewaha ÿo ia, a Papahana Kaiapuni aÿo pü ÿo ia ma nä ÿölelo ÿelua a ÿoi. E ÿume aku i nä känaka e lilo i kumu ma kekahi kula kaiapuni ÿölelo ‘Ölelo Hawaiÿi? Hawaiÿi. E hoÿokumu pü ÿia kekahi pähana e ÿimi ana i kumu no nä kaiaulu ma kahi e kü nei nä Kula Lehua Wilson Kaiapuni. Inä no laila mai ke kumu, e ÿoi aku ana kona ÿiÿini e noho paÿa ma këlä kula. Kamaÿäina pü ÿo Ma hope o ka hoÿokahuli ÿia ÿana o ke aupuni ia i nä ÿohana o nä haumäna o laila a pëlä pü läkou iä Möÿï ma Hawaiÿi nei, ua päpä ÿia ke aÿo ÿana ma o ia. ka ÿolelo Hawaÿi ma nä kula a ÿo ka uhau pepehi loa No ka hoÿoikaika ÿana i ke aupuni, e hoÿohana pü ihola ia no ke ola o ka ÿölelo Hawaiÿi a hoÿonele ÿia ÿia ka ÿölelo Hawaiÿi ma ke käkau ÿana i nä känäwai, ihola nä hanauna ma hope mai i ka ÿike ÿölelo Hawaiÿi. ma ka walaÿau ÿana ma nä keÿena, a laila e ÿoi aku ana Ma nä makahiki 1970 naÿe, ua kupu hou mai ka ka waiwai o ka ÿölelo Hawaiÿi i ke aupuni no ko läkou hopohopo o ka Hawaiÿi no ka ÿölelo Hawaiÿi o hala hoÿohana ÿana. pau loa kahi hunahuna i koe. Hoÿopau ÿia akula ia ÿOiai like ko ka ÿölelo Hawaiÿi külana me ka ÿölelo känäwai o ka wä aupuni Lepupalika a hoÿokumu ÿia Pelekänia ma këia mokuÿäina, e koi i ka lehulehu e ihola nä Kula Kaiapuni ÿÖlelo Hawaiÿi hou ÿelua, ÿo hana i nä höÿailona päÿoihana a pau, mai nä papa Waiau ma Oÿahu a me ke Kula Haÿahaÿa ÿo Keaukaha meaÿai a i nä lula keÿena, ma ka ÿölelo Hawaiÿi a e koi ma Hawaiÿi. I këia manawa he ÿehä kula ÿölelo ÿia ke keÿena e hai i kekahi walewaha ÿölelo Hawaiÿi Hawaiÿi ma këia mokupuni nei a piÿi akula ka heluna e hana ma ia ÿoihana. Inä pëlä, hiki i nä känaka ÿölelo haumäna a puni ka mokuÿäina i ka 1,500 a ÿoi. ÿAÿole Hawaiÿi a pau ke komo i loko o kekahi päÿoihana, he naÿe i hoÿomöhala piha ÿia aÿe ka papahana, e like me haleküÿai paha, a hoÿohana i ka ÿölelo Hawaiÿi. No ke ka makemake. aha i koi ÿia ai ka namu haole ma ka hana akä ÿaÿole Wahi a ka lohe, ÿo ka nele i ke kumu mäkaukau koi ÿia ka Hawaiÿi? loa a me nä haÿawina küpono ka mea e pëpë nei i ka E nui aÿe ana ka ÿume o nä haumäna a me ko hoÿomöhala piha ÿia o ka papahana. I loko o ka pololei läkou ÿohana e komo i ka papahana Kaiapuni ÿÖlelo o këia, ÿaÿole ÿo këia wale nö ka pilikia. Hawaiÿi inä kö nä mea ma luna aÿe. E lako ana ke Pono e loli ka noÿonoÿo o ka lehulehu ma Hawaiÿi kula a e maÿalahi ana ka hoÿohana ÿia ÿana o ka ÿölelo nei. Ma waho o ke kaiaulu ÿölelo Hawaiÿi, ÿaÿole nui ka ma waho o ke kula. minamina o ka lehulehu i ka ÿölelo Hawaiÿi. Noÿonoÿo ÿO ka hoÿoikaika i ke ola ÿölelo Hawaiÿi ka mea läkou, he ÿölelo kahiko ko ka Hawaiÿi, ÿaÿohe ona e hoÿoikaika pü ai i ka mauli Hawaiÿi. E loli ana ke külana ma këia au hou, a ua kälele nui i ka namu kuanaÿike Hawaiÿi a kü ka mauli Hawaiÿi e hanohano Pelekänia. hou ai i ke kulaiwi o Hawaiÿi nei. Hana nui ka hoÿoikaika a paipai mau i nä Hawaiÿi i loko o ke kaiaulu ÿölelo Hawaiÿi e hoÿomau ma muli o ke käkoÿo ÿole mai o kona lehulehu e puni ana. ÿO ka mana o ka ÿölelo Pelekänia ke älai nui e ÿalo a e hoÿomaopopo ÿia ma kekahi külana, ÿaÿole ÿo ka ÿae wale ÿia ÿo ia ke ÿaÿaiawä mai a hiki i ka pau loa o ke kuanaÿike Hawaiÿi. Inä ua komo hou ka hoihoi o ka ÿölelo Hawaiÿi i ka lehulehu, a laila e käkoÿo nui ÿia ana ke aÿo ÿana o ka ÿölelo a me ka hoÿohana ÿia ÿana o ka ÿölelo. Akä, ÿo ka nïnau, pehea e hoÿoulu hou ai i ka hoihoi i loko o
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Initially, I envied them, but I came to accept that I Renter, Beware might never live in such awesome conditions, since they cost much more to rent than the regular dorms How the dorm you’ve always wanted may not be the dorm on campus. Instead, I saved my money for my books you’ve been expecting. and tuition, since coming here was expensive enough in the first place, but worth it. by Raphael D. Chenault See, this particular campus is the center of the Moving In astronomical universe, and as such is one of the best When I first eceivedr the letter, I was thrilled. Hale schools in the world to study astronomy. Having Ikena? Isn’t that the really nice dorm? Awesome. been interested in the subject since I was a small boy, I was prepared to endure whatever academic hardships No longer would I have to deal with the public lay ahead of me in order to fulfill my childhood bathroom and reverberant hallway of Hale Kauanoe dream of looking at the stars for a living. with its leaky lounge. No more would I have to question in fear of my life exactly what bathroom And hardships there have been. The courses were fixtures I could or could not touch in Hale Kanilehua. hard enough, the instructors demanding enough, Gone were the days of navigating the twisted maze the books heavy enough, and the fellow students of corners and offset dorm rooms that is Hale Kehau, competitive enough. wondering if my suitemates would let people into my room. After four years of college (not all students on the five-year plan are stupid), I made a decision. It was No, I would no longer have to deal with a crappy, unfortunate but necessary that I take summer classes dirty, dilapidated, insecure dorm building. And I in order to graduate on time. I didn’t want to be in even get to have a kitchen! A real one! With a stove school longer than I had to, so I was going to put forth and full-sized refrigerator! the extra bit of effort to get out of there on time.
Such luxuries were practically unknown to me since So I did. It came time for summer enrollment, and I having gone to college. Of course I grew up with signed up for a full semester load in the space of less them in my home, and I have periodically made my than three months. (Some people speak of suicide way back there to visit over the years I have been in terms of guns, ropes and razor blades; I speak of away, but I quickly forgot what it was like, having it in terms of credit load.) I paid my tuition bill in lived on various campuses for over four years now. advance because I could do so for once. I made final arrangements to move out of my current dorm room But now I was preparing myself for a life of privilege. because the term was coming to an end. I knew that I’d be able to run to the grocery store to get whatever I wanted whenever I wanted (as long as And then it hit me: I had nowhere to live over the I could afford it, fitting the stereotype of the strapped, summer. I spoke to the people in the housing office, broke college student), because you know what? I and they informed me that Ikena was the only dorm now had a refrigerator to put it in, and a stove to open in the summer, sorry, and would I please fill cook it on. And maybe, just maybe, there would be out an application if I desired to live in the building a garbage disposal and a dishwasher, though I knew during that time. that would be asking a lot, even for the highly reputed “Campus Luxury Apartments.” Oh, how the gods were smiling on me! I would be immediately rewarded for the hard work that lay I had first heard of Ikena from many of the campus ahead of me, and that made my bleak outlook of the residents. “Fit for a king,” some said, making those coming summer a bit brighter. I’d have plenty of who lived there feel as though they were gods. It room, a big, cold box to keep food, a place to cook it, was the ultimate goal, the home of dreams, at least and a balcony. After dealing with the hard courses, for those who ever dreamed of living on a college demanding instructors, heavy books, and competitive campus. 53 students, I would have a place to come home and The sink was next to the stove, which itself was truly relax instead of trying to wrestle through a another story altogether. It was absolutely caked tiny space where the only food was dry and non- with grime, which was sadly unidentifiable, since The perishable. A quiet place in which I could study Hawaii Police Forensics Lab was unwilling to assist without worrying about loud floormates and partiers me for some reason, citing something about a waste was what awaited me, and I could not wait to inhabit of their resources. (This I did not understand, as no this, the ultimate of domiciles, the pinnacle of campus scientific endeavor is a waste of anything.) dorms. None of the burners sat level, preventing almost I remember receiving my key from the desk attendant all boiling of water, and the oven burned about a and initialing the needed forms with the RA. At last. hundred degrees too hot, depending on the day. The key to a real home. Sometimes it was just fifty degrees. Either way, it was impossible to know how much it would I took my new key, holding tenderly my passage to overcook those brownies. I had wanted to record its peaceful living. I approached my door, inserted the behavior over a period of time to try and extrapolate a key, and turned the knob. predictive algorithm for temperature, but I lacked the instrumentation, and I am not a statistician any more To say that the apartment did not entirely match my than I am a microbiologist. expectations would not be accurate, mostly because I did not really have expectations, per se. What I Across from my chemically intriguing stove was had was a series of impressions, stories, and mental another item which would occupy much of my images of what it might be. curiosity: the refrigerator. Covered completely with a solid coat of ferric oxide, the rusted unit never sealed However, to say that the apartment did not entirely completely, forcing me to keep the milk and any other match my impressions, stories, and mental images real perishables in the very back. Unfortunately, I had would not be accurate, either. What it did was no way of compensating for the broken seal, since the completely violate them. temperature adjustment knob was missing. However, this provided me with a true challenge which I What I saw with my eyes and what I had seen in my never did conquer: the task of thermally imaging the mind did not match at all, and almost immediately I refrigerator to locate any temperature leaks. Although recognized the potential for scientific study. such thermal images would make an insulation salesman dream very happy dreams indeed, creating There were ants and roaches everywhere. The ants them is a very expensive process, one which the rent especially were everywhere. The roaches scattered on my new domicile itself prevented. when I opened the door, but the ants made thin, black lines that spider-webbed around the entire kitchen. Disappointed in the kitchen with my initial inability It was like a small child had managed to draw very to perform tests and observations to gather solid long, crooked lines up and down the walls and across scientific esultsr for further analysis, I decided to the ceiling with a thin pencil, and I was eager to find check out my new room. I found everything to the colony. be disappointingly in order at first glance, but small things kept cropping up all over the place. They seemed to be coming from behind a switch Apparently, the previous inhabitants were slobs. above the filthy, nasty sink, which made me wish for Almost every drawer in the room had garbage in it. a moment that I was a microbiologist, since I was sure That’s six bureau drawers and four drawers on each that new species of microbes had developed there, just of the two desks. Of all those drawers, only three waiting to be discovered. were empty, and this was a happy thing indeed: the only thing a true scientist enjoys more than the ability The switch must have been what controlled the to accrue knowledge is to find three free gloves, a garbage disposal, which I was surprised to find at frozen pizza wrapper, and a giant bag of Christmas all (but, as I reasonably expected, no dishwasher), lights, all of which worked. but I was never given the opportunity to test that hypothesis: my disposal was broken the entire time I As I pulled out the chair from the desk I claimed lived in that dorm, despite three work orders. I never as my own, I stepped my bare foot on something had the courage to venture inside it to try and repair rubbery and cold. I looked down and saw a circle it; courage is for the Army. which blended in quite well with the carpet. 54 I stuck my nose down real close to see what it was. It as wonderful as they actually are: collectively, fortunately took little analysis to discover that it was a the residents rated their stove and overall living pile of DRIED VOMIT OH GOD YUCK! (Even I have quarters as “below average” and their refrigerator a fully-functional “quease” button.) and bathroom as “average.” However, of the 108 respondents, an astounding 17% rated at least one Right away I went to the bathroom sink to splash of the four items as “unusable,” 38% rated at least some water on my face to help hold back the slight one item as “extremely poor,” and almost two-thirds feeling of nausea I was feeling from that incident. I rated all four items as “below average” or worse. reached down and immediately stopped myself. My favorite respondent, though, was an RA, who Little, black, curly hairs all over the counter. Once rated her refrigerator as the best of the four at “poor.” again, HPD refused to assist me, this time in Apparently, there were many apartments like mine, submitting fiber samples for DNA and biological though I was thankful to find that I did indeed live profile matching. in the one best suited to my natural curiosity about things. Ok, maybe the shower. I opened the door to the shared toilet and shower room and the stench of uric Each respondent had the opportunity to enter acid and ammonia (the main components of urine individual comments at the end of each simple which so strongly stimulate the olfactory nerves) questionnaire, enhancing my research with their almost knocked me to the floor, once again triggering own conclusions. Many expressed a general my quease button. discontent, such as one that says, “Bathroom needs remodeling,” or another that asks, “When will our Obviously, this was not the dorm room I thought kitchen be retiled?” Some even went as far as to it would be. No, it was much, much more, and I express disgust with the apartment (which surprised worried very much for the success of my studies, for I me): “Everything in bad shape. When will anything knew that I would be spending a majority of my time get fixed? Do they fix things here?” and “Windows in the curious pursuit of knowledge of my new home. broken and major pest control problem; I feel like I live at the YMCA” were the most humorous for me to Not Alone read. The more I extolled the wide variety of scientific study afforded me by my new apartment, both to the However, there are some truly scary comments in my powers that be and to anyone that would listen, the pile of questionnaires, comments on conditions that more I realized that there were other students with even I would not find pleasing, and oddly, it is these opportunities similar to mine. Granted, I moved into that are stated in the most matter-of-fact tones of all what might be the most intellectually stimulating the comments. (It is these comments, stated with such dorm in the history of the world, but many students calm objectivity, that remind me what I ultimately had moved into similar living quarters on campus. want to be as a scientist someday.) “Stove electrocutes us and fridge leaves massive piles of water;” The scientist within me again dominated my train “Doorknob is broken, so does not lock;” “Window of thought, and it occurred to me to investigate this louvers openable from outside.” highly intriguing phenomenon. How many were there? Might there be another apartment on campus The fact that such safety issues remain unresolved is which I might like even more to live in? How many disconcerting, to say the least. Should these problems (admittedly backward) students actually disliked such not be immediately addressed? Why isn’t the clearly brain-enhancing conditions? residents’ safety and security the university’s number- one concern? In a randomized, Ikena-centric study, I found that there were far more students that were very Ultimately, the question remains as to whether any displeased with their rooms than there were students of these problems will be addressed at all. As long who were content. as the dorms do not present any major safety risks, why spend the money to repair anything at all? I went door-to-door during two class days, ultimately Unfortunately, I am not a politician either, and so getting over 100 residents to rate their refrigerator, lack the insight to answer such questions. Perhaps stove, bathroom, and living quarters. Averaging someone with trepidation similar to my own can the data together doesn’t make the dorms sound tackle this problem.
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Environmental Concerns Riding Tourism’s New The environmental concerns about the cruise industry in Hawai‘i are fairly universal to wherever Wave: cruise ships call home-port or visit. Issues such as releasing contaminated bilge or ballast water into the Evaluating the Cruise ocean are common to any large maritime industry. However, issues of raw sewage/black water dumping Industry’s Impact in are particularly exacerbated when it comes to cruise ships due to their large people-carrying capacity. For Hilo instance, each day it is estimated that a cruise ship can produce 30,000 gallons of raw sewage/black water and 255,000 gallons of grey water. Minimally treated LeAna B. Gloor sewage or sludge can be dumped into the water anywhere past the 1 mile mark from shore, as long as The cruise industry invariably brings both the ship is traveling at 6 knots (Kahea 2). Untreated positive and negative impacts to their home-port grey water can be released 3 miles from shore, and communities and to the ones they visit. Due to the may consist of bleaches and other chemicals used recent increases of the cruise industry in Hawai‘i, on the ship (Kahea 2). While in port, the ships many controversies have surfaced regarding the themselves continue to have impact on the local proper management of this activity. Most of the communities they visit in that they keep their engines discussions have centered on the environmental idling, sometimes for days at a time while visiting a concerns, but other factors, such as the social and destination. The diesel exhaust released is estimated physical impacts deserve considerable more time on to be the equivalent to 10,000-12,000 cars per day the discussion table. This paper will provide a brief (Kahea 3). Also, a cruise ship can produce 7 tons of overview of the range of cruise industry impacts garbage per voyage, whereas 75% of these wastes currently being evaluated in Hawai‘i, with special are incinerated onboard and dumped, unregulated, focus on the town of Hilo, in Hawai‘i County. into the ocean (Kahea 3). Further research is needed Presently, Hawai‘i is benefiting economically to ascertain the impact on the air quality on the from the cruise industry on unprecedented communities located near ports due to cruise ship levels. According to an impact study conducted exhaust, smoke stacks, and incinerators. by the State of Hawai‘i Department of Business, Environmental groups are quick to point out that Economic Development and Tourism for the years the cruise industry has a lengthy record of breaking of 2002-2003, the cruise industry’s overall economic environmental laws and regulations. However, contribution to the State’s Gross Product increased Charles Toguchi, who lobbies for the Northwest to $390.5 million for 2003 from $381.1 million in 2002 Cruise Ship Association in Hawai‘i, claims the (“Cruises”). According to statistics reported by both industry’s records are excellent and incidents that the International Council of Cruise Lines and the have been reported and given media attention were State’s study, in 2004 the industry was responsible mere “infractions” and do not reflect a noncompliant for 7,569 jobs with wages totaling $250 million for attitude toward environmental policy (qtd. in Hawai‘i workers (ICCL, State of Hawai’i 5). This McNarie 15). Still, when reviewing statistics collected economic growth is due in part to the increases within by author Ross Klein at his website devoted to cruise the industry itself since 2001, plus approximately ship information, he notes over 100 violations by 550,000 cruise passengers visited Hawai‘i in 2004, cruise companies within the last ten years, many of which accounted for more than 13% of all passengers which resulted in fines and some of them with fines of to U.S. ports (ICCL). The cruise industry is expected over $100,000 (Klein). to continue to experience growth due to more ships As of 2002, the cruise industry was voluntarily being added in 2005, and more are slated to begin abiding by a Memorandum of Understanding with cruising Hawaiian waters in 2006. the State of Hawai‘i and the State of Florida regarding environmental standards and policies. One of the inherent weaknesses with the MOU was that it relied 57 on the industry to self-report violations and accidents. is supported by many groups because of its tough Certain other States, namely Alaska and California, stipulations. A short list of some of them follows: have taken legislative steps to protect their interests, • No dumping of sewage, graywater, oily bilge refusing to rely on the perpetrator’s to self-tattle within 12 miles of any shore (Klein 2). Recently though, the Northwest Cruise Ship • Empower the Coast Guard and the Association has given notice to Hawaiūi Governor Environmental Protection Agency to Linda Lingle, that they will be bowing out of the determine standards for sewage and MOU as of December 31, 2005. Reasons cited for graywater discharged beyond the 12 mile- this are the State of Hawaii’s new Act 217 consisting point and charges the Coast Guard and EPA of maritime regulations which render the MOU with enforcing the standards redundant and unnecessary (McNarie 14). Critics of • Allows for cruise ships to have their pollution the State Act 217 decry this new development because control equipment inspected Act 217 is environmentally weaker in its dumping • Protects cruise ship employees who report stipulations. The MOU required dumping be outside polluting activities onboard vessels of 4 miles off any coast but Act 217 stipulates only • Allows citizens to launch civil action against 3 miles off the coast, which would open up some any vessel or carrier in violation of the Act previously prohibited areas between the island (Kahea website) chain that are customarily used for recreation and The cruise industry following these regulations would fishing industries (McNarie 14). One plus of Act resolve many of the complaints currently launched 217 is that it does have authority to legally hold by environmental groups in Hawai‘i. This bill violators accountable by fines and possibly even would have sweeping repercussions for the industry, criminal charges, something that the MOU had no however, the bill needs more support for it to pass such authority to provide. However, they are both through Congress. fundamentally flawed in that they both rely on self- reporting by the industry (McNarie 14). Physical and Social Impacts on Hilo Advocacy groups are now encouraging the Two of the most overlooked discussions of the public to report any suspected violations, and are cruise industry are the physical and social impacts even promoting financial incentives. Kahea, an on the communities that have become ports of call. Environmental and Native Hawaiian organization, Considering that some ships carry 3,000 passengers, has started a campaign entitled “Be the Eyes of the it is obvious that when those passengers disembark Ocean” whereby the public is prompted to report on on their land-based visitations, amenities need to be the cruise lines by either filling out a website form available for them. To this end, cruise lines endeavor or by calling the complaint in to a Hawaiian phone to deal with this potential onslaught of visitors by number. At the bottom of the form, it cites a case booking them on various land-based tours and where passengers who reported illegal dumping were adventures. For visitors to the east side of the island entitled to claim shares on the $250,000 fine against of Hawai‘i, this may include a helicopter tour of the the cruise line and notes that “individuals whose Hamakua Coast or the Volcano, a driving tour of documentation of dumping leads to fines against a downtown Hilo, and various other adventures or cruise line may be eligible to receive half of any fine shopping excursions. However, the independent- that is levied” (qtd. in McNarie 16). Whether this will minded passengers, and those not seeking to pay be an effective method of control is yet to be seen, the exorbitantly overpriced bookings through the but grassroots organizations and advocacy groups in cruise lines, often opt to embark out on their own. various areas have already had impacts on changing Apparently, the cruise lines do not fully prepare their cruise industry policies, and at times, even routes. passengers for the immediate area surrounding the Protests in Monterey, California were successful Hilo port, and many of the passengers that attempt in keeping a cruise ship banned from that port. In to find adventure on their own quickly become Alaska, a shopkeepers’ strike resulted in a cruise ship discouraged by what they encounter. not making that village a port of call (McNarie 16). For one thing, the Keaukaha area is primarily Several groups, including Hawaii’s Kahea, industrial directly around the port. The streets are the Sierra Club, Blue Water Network, Oceana and lined with warehouses and huge gas tanks. While others, are banding together to educate and spur the passengers are informed that they can walk to government into action to regulate the cruise industry the beach from the ship, many do not apparently effectively. A bill recently introduced into Congress, understand that it is at least a one mile one-way called the Clean Cruise Ship Act (S.793/H.R. 1636), trip to Onekahakaha and a 3 mile one-way trip to
58 Richardson’s beach. Dressed inappropriately, many backed up on both sides to accommodate tour buses, cruise ship passengers attempting the walk are not delivery trucks, and the general populace using the prepared to hike that far, especially on hot days. The road, not to mention the passengers and crew workers walk is entirely without a sidewalk, and at times one attempting to cross the busy street on foot to get to is forced to walk in the street on the narrow shoulder Keaukaha Market. At lunch-time when the cruise of busy Kalaniana‘ole Avenue. Even if passengers ship is in, this small market, which is already dealing hike to the beaches unscathed, many find that the with a lunchtime rush of locals, now finds that it is beaches aren’t what they were expecting. One cruise often inundated with cruise ship crew and passengers line advertised Richardson’s beach as a good place browsing for souvenirs. Locals that formerly could to surf, which implies a very different type of beach count on ordering box lunches often find the lines than what most visitors find. Admittedly, some locals stretching out the door and lunch provisions quickly do surf there, but the rocky shore is treacherous and running out. should be attempted by experienced surfers only. Considering the physical impact that Keaukaha Overall, some of the cruise ship passengers that make residents are enduring due to the influx of cruise it to the beaches are shocked by the small amount ship visitors, what are the social impacts being felt of sand and the lack of wave action and are sorely from the locals in the area? This is an area where disappointed by the ‘false’ advertising presented to research needs to be done to ascertain the true nature them by the cruise line. of how the industry is impacting the residents in more Some who disembark from the ship are subtle ways than are readily apparent. Community attempting to reach some mysterious shopping area meetings to discuss their views should be encouraged, as plugged by the cruise line. Silva Street, which is a along with a door-to-door survey to determine side street off of Kalaniana‘ole Avenue and directly the community’s perspective and goals for their across from the Port entrance, is mainly filled with future. The community in Keaukaha, with particular huge gas tanks and light industrial establishments attention to the Native Hawaiian community within with a few commercial businesses. I have often the area, should be involved in deciding the future observed cruise ship passengers wandering through of the Keaukaha area. Native Hawaiian cultural this street trying to find a shopping district. When impacts should neither be overlooked nor minimized asked, these passengers claim that they were told in decision making for the future. As was noted on the ship that they could walk to the shops easily. previously, grassroots organizations elsewhere have Through my research, I have gathered that the cruise had direct impacts on the cruise lines’ decisions on line was referring to the small gift shops that are in where to visit and what to do while in port. To this the lobbies of the Naniloa and the Hilo Hawaiian end, the County of Hawai‘i should be proactive in Hotels. The cruise lines repeatedly fail to supply researching and implementing a community plan for adequate directions to their passengers, and it is improving the area and the existing infrastructure in doubtful that they would have been pleased by the order to benefit tourists and residents alike. Possible selection available even if they had found these shops. resources to cover these costs may come, in part, This problem highlights weaknesses in the cruise from implementing a per-passenger tax that has been industry and in Hawai‘i County’s preparation for proposed at the State level. dealing with this industry. On the one hand, the industry should take better responsibility in educating Business Impacts their passengers on what is reasonable to expect at While the Keaukaha market is one of a few local their ports of call, and on the other hand, both the businesses that has been profiting from the surge industry and the County would do well to invest in in cruise ship visitors, it seems that most locally the local communities that are near the ports. The owned businesses in Hilo are ‘missing the boat’ as Keaukaha community is home to a large population far as profits are concerned. The options that cruise of Native Hawaiians and this community deserves ship passengers have, if they want to be shuttled to be protected and consulted on matters that impact somewhere free, are limited to places such as Walmart their physical environment and way of life. and the Prince Kuhio Mall. Due to enhanced security Since Kalaniana‘ole Avenue is the only precautions at the port facilities, the contract for road for entering and exiting the area, special shuttling passengers is carried out by one company, considerations should be given to traffic policies and Arnott’s Lodge and Hiking Adventures of Keaukaha. road improvements, such as ADA sidewalks and Since the cruise ships are already providing room and alternative routes for vehicles. Several times a week board, the main amenities passengers take advantage when the cruise ships are in, Kalaniana‘ole Avenue is of while visiting their land-based destinations are
59 shopping facilities. It is unfortunate that so much WORKS CITED of the cruise ship shopping business is captured by Walmart and the Mall, while local businesses “Cruises’ Economic Role in Hawai‘i Grows.” in the downtown areas are seemingly overlooked. Honolulu Advertiser.com 7 January Requirements and/or incentives for the cruise 2005. 30 November 2005 http://the. industry to expand their local marketing should be honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2005/ Jan/07/ -bz/bz05p.html. considered in order to fully realize the resource that the cruise industry could bring to Hilo. By giving ICCL. “The Cruise Industry in Hawaii.” August 2005. cruise tourists more local options, they may better be 5 December 2005. http://www.iccl.org/ able to appreciate Hawai‘i culture and have a more resources/2004econfactsheet_hi.pdf. ‘authentic’ local experience. By ensuring that more local businesses benefit from the cruise industry, Kahea. Our Ocean is Not a Dump! Cruise Ship we will be more likely to curtail any negative social Brochure. Honolulu. 5 December 2005. impacts and build a strong economic base from which http://www.kahea.org/ocean/pdf/Cruise_ to continue to improve Hawai‘i Island. Ship_Brochure.pdf.
Conclusion --- Cruise Ships Ocean Issues. 5 December 2005.
The cruise industry is booming in Hawai‘i, with http://www.kahea.org/ocean/ cruises getting longer and more ships being added. Klein, Ross. Pollution and Environmental Fines. 5 For Hawai‘i to protect its maritime treasures and its December 2005. http://www.cruisejunkie. communities, we must manage the cruise industry com/envirofines.html more carefully, with a proactive vision for the future. Other states are enacting strict legislation with hefty ---The Cruise Industry and Environmental History penalties for environmental violations, and other and Practice: Is a Memorandum of areas have formed grassroots organizations that Understanding Effective for Protecting the have impacted cruise industry decisions. Hawai‘i Environment? October 2003. should waste no time in exerting its jurisdiction over this industry so as to better protect the Lewis, C. S. Progress Quotes. 11 December 2005. environment and the local residents’ best interests. http://en.thinkexist.com/quotations/
Physical improvements are drastically needed to progress/ our port facilities and the surrounding communities’ McNarie, Alan D. “A Lack of Cruise Control.” infrastructure, as well as sociological studies to Hawai’i Island Journal. Dec 1-15, 2005. pgs determine how the cruise industry is affecting 14-16. the local communities and Native culture. Local businesses in Hawai‘i should be encouraged to reach State of Hawaii. Department of Business, Economic out to the cruise ship market, and Hawai‘i County Development, & Tourism. 2002- 2003 Hawaii should take the lead in making sure that the cruise Cruise Industry Impact Study. 30 November lines are making adequate local options available to 2005 60 d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d and give theories of vera causa wide berth, for good Some Styles of reason. They are leery of any attempt to extrapolate causes from observations, confining themselves to Thought in Science: laws and the extraordinarily rare causal theory. The 1859 publication of Darwin’s On the Origin Examples Applied of the Species is a watershed event, in the neutrally geographic sense of that word—recognized regardless to the History of of how you feel about it. Subsequently, scientists established functionalism, based on the adaptation Evolution of critters to their niches via natural selection, as the dominant paradigm in evolutionary biology for virtually all of the 20th century and still going strong by Erik Rau into the 21st. Functionalism explains diversity among species of critters through adaptation to either the In the vastly cluttered secondhand shop of tasks those critters perform or the environment philosophical ideas, there is a large but somewhat they live in or both. Though he wasn’t the first to empty cardboard box labeled ‘SCIENCE.’ A few terms do so, Darwin clearly propounded the supremacy rattle around inside, some of which look very similar of adaptation over conservation of structure in to each other. When these terms are unpacked and natural selection: ‘Hence every detail of structure in tried out on a few actual theories, however, we begin every living creature (making some little allowance to see how they might work. What follows is a short for the direct action of physical conditions) may discussion of some often-used but little-identified be viewed, either as having been of special use to epistemological terms in the philosophy of science, some ancestral form, or as being now of special use and their roles illustrated through part of the history to the descendants of that form,’ (Darwin 200) and of evolution. this supremacy was then taken up as inevitable by Cautious realism and cautious inductivism can subsequent researchers. be unsatisfying scientific paradigms. Since both One of the main criticisms of functionalism is that exclude stark ultimate causes, their organic natures while newly generated causes of traits supplant old leave us feeling a little unsure of our footing, walking ones in endless succession, there is no examination on a frozen lake. This lack of absolute conviction of whether functionalism is the best way to explain doesn’t imply any lack of scientific progress, however. these traits. The definitive tactic of functionalism is to Cautious inductivism, such as that discussed by Sir atomize a critter into traits, all of which are optimized John Herschel in Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects to their fullest extent, except where more optimization is a generalization that sharply limits the gathering would compromise some other function. The only and sorting of knowledge whereas cautious realism is limit to natural selection’s power under functionalism milder--a sort of reluctance to overreach on the same is the trade-off between one trait and another. topic. As new scientific information is developed Structuralism is an alternative theory for and theories are proposed, cautious realists will craft explaining changes in critters and species, which uses theories using new information but hesitate to force a different approach to that of functionalism, above. the universe to fit inside those theories, preferring Structuralists see features of critters as both the things instead to use the most predictive theory of a given that are optimized through natural selection (traits), moment without asserting anything about the true and the unselected byproducts of those optimizations. nature of the universe. One of the classic examples Thus some things are not traits as such: the human of cautious realism is found in the astronomy of the chin being one example that is rather a byproduct of late 16th and early 17th centuries. At a point after the two other separate traits: an articulated lower jaw and work of Brahe, Kepler, and Copernicus but before a respiratory canal separate from our feeding tube. Galileo’s telescope observations, a cautiously realistic The headlining debate of biology in the late astronomer could use a heliocentric model of the 18th century—between Geoffroy and Cuvier with Cosmos without discarding two thousand years of their slogans of ‘Unity of Type,’ and ‘Conditions of physics. Cautious inductivists take this a step farther Existence,’ respectively—opened in a not-always- 61 civil discussion about structure and function in Stephen Jay Gould used very different rhetorical Europe at the Institut in Paris. In England fifty years devices when he made his critique of adaptationism. later, Richard Owen espoused structuralism when Gould published his paper The Spandrels of San Marco his expertise with comparative osteology led him and the Panglossian Paradigm in 1979, and attacked the to propose somewhat obscure correspondences in same certainty of adaptation that Owen contested the bones of bats, moles, horses, and humans. Owen 150 years earlier. Neo-Darwinists ossified the held to cautious inductivism with these varieties adaptationist paradigm with an unending sequence of cohesion to an archetype, even going so far as to of discarded hypotheses; Gould offered simpler say flat out that, ‘To what natural laws or secondary structuralist explanations instead. Unlike Owen’s causes the orderly succession and progression of such use of repetitive arguments to establish structural an organic phenomena may have been committed we similarities, Gould dissects the adaptationist are as yet ignorant’ (Owen 86). Owen was responding paradigm itself, and then proceeds point by point. in part to a competing theory involving an ultimate As discussed above, he argues against the tactics of cause: the metaphor of animals designed to their atomizing every critter into traits and viewing each purpose by their Maker as are vehicles such as a hot- trait as optimized. The prior example of the human air balloon, a locomotive, and a sailing ship designed chin is taken directly from Gould. His analysis of the to their purpose by their maker. chin is that it is not a trait unto itself, but a byproduct Owen’s cautious inductivism contrasted sharply of two overlapping growth fields that coincidentally with the full-throated adaptationism and theological makes us more like Dudley Doright. ultimate cause popular in other publications of the Gould also cites as a flaw the frequent changes time. The Bridgewater treatises (commissioned in of tack amongst adaptationist arguments—if one the early 19th century for the purpose of showing off argument fails, another will serve just as well. His the intricacy of God’s creations) and other works abundant examples of about-face maneuvers in kept adaptationism closely linked to creationism, adaptationist research papers cover Eskimo face so Owen tried to divide and conquer. Salting many shapes (described first as adapted for cold weather references to Christian doctrine throughout his text, and second for chewing tough stuff like muktuk) he emphasized religious solidarity while criticizing and mollusk shell patterns (as camouflage, or adaptation. Owen’s tour de force of explication perhaps as structural reinforcement). The next step with limbs from widely disparate vertebrates leaves in Gould’s deconstruction is the claim of imperfect little doubt that while adaptation does play a role understanding of a critters ecological niche as a cure in making a bat look different from a horse, the fact for a paucity of adaptive explanations for traits. This that the body plans of the bat & the horse cleave to also leads to a paradigm where a lack of immediate a common archetype doesn’t allow for totality of utility in a trait renders it totally inexplicable. And adaptation. indeed, due to the influence of Gould and others, On the third hand in this discussion about adaptationism is beginning to yield pride of place to causality, Darwin was not shy about touting natural structuralism in evolutionary biology. selection both as a mechanism for the change of Gould’s critique carries issues into the modern one species to another, and as an ultimate cause for arena that have been debated since Galileo tried to sell adaptation. Organizing these preceding authors into his telescope as signal intelligence technology. But as divisions by their style of epistemology can place science exists as much in the context of society now as Darwin together with the natural philosophers, since then, we can expect that the demesnes of scientists are both he and they have ultimate causes, and casts shaped by similar winds of thought and change. The Owen into another camp of cautious inductivists tools we have examined need not go back into their like Von Baer and Geoffroy. Owen’s stance on the dusty box—they can be useful, if kept in good order. change in critters with time is unequivocal in the last paragraph of ‘On The Nature of Limbs.’ The two main points on that change are: first, it happens, and second, we don’t know why it happens. He then goes a step further: we don’t know why it happens, but it doesn’t have to be God. Not only is Owen a cautious inductivist, he is also a cautious realist. Like some other controversial scientific authors, Owen may have used cautious realism to ease the passage of his ideas among criticism both collegial and religious. 62 d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d coal-derived liquid fuels, hydrogen, electricity, and The Diesel Engine: biodiesel (B100)” (Alternative Fuels Data Center). In an attempt to encourage the perfection and use of An Answer to the these fuels, the EPAct provides subsidies, tax breaks, and credits to groups and companies that switch over Rising Prices and to or do extensive research and development with the qualified alternative fuels. Shrinking Supply of With oil supplies dwindling, pump prices rising, and the EPAct’s incentives for the fuel and motor Gas industries, a choice of which alternative fuel to use will need to be made, sooner or later. With this decision looming over many people’s heads, and by William L. Todd many of the fuels not having been publicly used yet, they look at alternative fuels skeptically when trying Most people can agree that the price of gasoline to make a decision. Will the fuel provide enough has increased significantly over the last decade and power? What are the tailpipe emissions like? How a half, and that the supply of crude oil is shrinking hard and expensive is it to make a car compatible because it is finite. In the late 80’s and early 90’s, with the alternative fuel? Will the alternative fuel gasoline was less than seventy-five cents a gallon. It vehicle be able to compete with the range and driving was costing small, independent oil producers twelve capacity of gasoline? These are some of the questions dollars to pump a fifty-five gallon barrel of crude oil asked when a person attempts to choose. The answer out of the ground and these barrels were only selling is here and it isn’t some fancy, space age contraption for eight dollars a piece. This was a result of a surplus like hydrogen or electricity. It is our country’s work without a high enough demand. But as economics horse, the diesel engine combined with biodiesel. dictates, with a shrinking supply and an inelastic or The diesel engine has been a success since it was even increasing demand, prices will rise. Now prices invented by Rudolf Diesel. According to A Clean, average just over three dollars a gallon at the pump, Green Alternative Fuel (CGAF), Rudolf Diesel on the Big Island, and were near four dollars for a originally ran his engine off of biodiesel, derived from short time after Hurricane Katrina. Also, the price of refined peanut oil. Unfortunately, “the rise of cheap a fifty-five gallon barrel of crude oil has successively crude oil killed his vision of farmers growing their been breaking records since 2000 and has made it past own fuel” (CGAF). This means that the diesel engine a whopping fifty-seven dollars a barrel,in 2005. On was easily converted to gasoline, and that it can a side note, combustion engines fueled by gasoline easily be converted back to biodiesel with little or no produce a significant amount of air pollutants. modification. There is no reason to get rid of a success Until recently, most of the general public was if it is already geared towards a cleaner fuel. None of unaware or apathetic to the dwindling supply the other alternative fuels can do this. Propane and of crude oil and the resulting price increases. natural gas both need special tanks and can only run Fortunately, government officials, economists, in heavily modified engines. According to Amos, environmentalists, and scientists anticipated this electricity requires a huge battery bank that costs economic principal. As a result, EPAct was created roughly two thousand dollars and has to be replaced in 1992. The EPAct is an attempt to fight rising gas every two years or so. Hydrogen also requires a prices, a dwindling supply of oil, and gas’ effects on compressed tank and special engine if being used in a the environment. It classified alternative fuels that combustion engine. The hydrogen fuel cell is still in a met certain emissions standards and were thought prototype phase and has not even made it to useable to be capable in competing, performance wise, with production yet. Ethanol and Methanol are the only gasoline. The fuels that the EPAct designated as two fuels that compete for the easiest switch over, but acceptable are “methanol, ethanol, and other alcohols, they still require a flex fuel system that costs upwards blends of 85% or more of alcohol with gasoline, of a thousand dollars, and some minor engine natural gas and liquid fuels domestically produced modification. from natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (propane), 63 A second issue, when deciding which alternative As for the diesel engine, car companies already fuel to choose, is how easy it will be to switch the offer numerous models which can come with a country’s infrastructure over to that specific fuel. factory diesel engine. If consumers consistently According to “Report Alt Fuel” (RAF), propane order diesel engines, then the producers will see the currently has the highest number of refueling stations, rise in demand, and these producers did not become numbering four thousand four in 2003. While this is large companies by ignoring the economy’s demand. a large amount of refueling points for an alternative The result would be that a high demand would fuel, it is not nearly enough to supply the country and force producers into manufacturing more diesel would require many fuel providers to put in propane engines because they know the economic benefits of specific equipment. Natural gas has roughly one producing for high demand markets. This en masse third of the amount of fueling stations as propane. It production switch over would not happen extremely also runs into the difficulty of forcing providers to quickly, but the invisible hand of supply and demand switch over to natural gas specific equipment. It is has proven, throughout history, that effective fairly easy to recharge an electric car assuming that substitute products will eventually out produce and there is a readily available outlet nearby. The problem replace the current product if the current product is with this is that, with the relatively long amount of too costly for consumers or producers. time it takes to recharge an electric car compared the Not only is it relatively easy to switch vehicles other alternatives, how would you effectively allow and fueling stations over to biodiesel, but it is everyone to recharge outside of the home? One of also exceptionally good for the environment. The the viable answers is to put a few outlets at most Alternative Fuels Data Center (AFDC), CGAF, GABG, light poles in parking lots so that people could just RAF, Polz, and Lebow, et al. all state that biodiesel plug in while they shop. This would result in a large is made from refined, new or used, vegetable and scale, expensive remodeling of parking lots that could animal fats and oils. This means that biodiesel is become very impractical. According to RAF, there a renewable resource since the feedstock could be were only seven publicly available refueling stations grown and re-grown as needed. This is much better for hydrogen in 2003. This means that if the country than having to rely on fossil fuels the way that gas, switched to hydrogen, for the combustion engine, an propane, and natural gas do. Ultimately, electric extensive infrastructure would have to be built. If the cars are usually dependent in the same way since hydrogen fuel cell ever gets mass produced, it will be most of the country’s power is produced at fossil able to run off of tanks filled with methanol, which fuel using power plants. Methanol and ethanol are could be attained from a methanol pump. Methanol the only other choices that use renewable biomass, and ethanol would be relatively easy to incorporate such as corn, wood and other cellulose materials. into the current fueling system. This could be done by Unfortunately, MTBE, a product of methanol, has converting the current gas storage at gas stations into been found to contaminate ground water. Hydrogen ethanol and methanol compatible systems. This really can be extracted from MTBE, so its renew-ability would not entail much more than putting in alcohol is directly related to methanol. Another nice thing resistant rubber and some minor pump modification. about biodiesel is that it, like all the other alternative Biodiesel is roughly the same way. Biodiesel fuels, has a much lower emissions rate than gasoline. could be substituted into the current petroleum diesel “Neat biodiesel (100 percent biodiesel) reduces pumps with only a good cleaning of the storage carbon dioxide emissions by more than 75% over tanks and a replacement of gaskets, seals, and hoses. conventional petroleum diesel. Biodiesel also With a diesel pump at almost every gas station, it produces fewer particulate, carbon monoxide, and would be relatively easy and inexpensive to phase in sulfur dioxide emissions, all in which are targeted as biodiesel while not having to worry about the average public health risks by the Environmental Protection consumer having to hunt down a distribution site. Agency” (RAF). Also, “Biodiesel offers safety Also, biodiesel can easily be brewed in a person’s back benefits over petroleum diesel because it is much less yard, according to RAF, CGAF, Groupe Alternatives combustible, with a flash point greater than 150°C, Biodiesel Group (GABG), Lebow, et al. This means compared to 77°C for petroleum diesel” (AFDC). that if the consumer wanted to put forth a little effort, Natural gas, propane, ethanol, and methanol all they could produce their own small renewable supply. have emissions similar to biodiesel when used in This makes biodiesel one of the easiest fuels for their pure forms. While electric cars have no tailpipe producers to phase into the current infrastructure and emissions, the power plants do. Hydrogen fuel cells for consumers to obtain, since they can make their produce only water as a byproduct, but unfortunately own. no emissions is not the only thing that needs to be considered when choosing a fuel. 64 Biodiesel is also capable of competing with WORKS CITED gasoline when it comes to performance, range, and price. Biodiesel has ten octane and five centane “A Clean, Green Alternative Fuel.” Path to Freedom. more then petroleum diesel. It also has about the 9 Mar. 2005. 16 Sep. 2005 65 d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d nails; various faunal remains; and glass fragments The Lion of of a brandy bottle and its foil labeled ‘vieux cognac.’ Another interesting artifact recovered was a pressed Keanakolu copper figure of a rampant lion (Figure 1). This purely decorative item is the most seemingly ‘out-of- place’ object recovered from the excavation. While by Elizabeth Leina‘ala Kahahane the other artifacts have some utilitarian value—even the ‘quackery’ medicines, brandy, and French ABSTRACT perfume can be looked upon as necessary when one The archeological assemblage recovered during lives and works at 6,000 feet with a herd of bovine a partial excavation of the stone-walled cabin in companions—the Keanakolu lion is not currently Keanakolu’s Stone Corral Complex (Site 50-10-15- associated with any utilitarian object. 24250) revealed a variety of nineteenth-century technomic and socio-technic artifacts. One of the The Facts of Keanakolu’s Lion most interesting and seemingly ‘out-of-place’ artifacts Given the lack of specific comparative information recovered was a pressed copper figure of a rampant on this decorative object, the lion figure presents lion. Research was done exploring the symbolism of a challenge in discovering what it was and why it lions; the techniques used to manufacture the figure; was in a paniolo’s cabin at 6,000 feet. The obvious and seriation of lion motifs in an attempt to discover place to start a query is with what is known. It was what it was used for and why it might have been left uncovered in the SE quad of the N16W15 unit. Other in a stone cabin on the slopes of Mauna Kea. items found in the quad’s screen-bag were: ceramic sherds, glass shards, nails, bone, and charcoal. The Introduction figure measures 2 cm wide by 2.8 cm in height and is On the slopes of Mauna Kea, in the North Hilo made out of copper. Two ‘finished’ holes, most likely district of Hawai‘i Island, there is a region called used for attachment, vertically bisect the figure. The Keanakolu (“the three caves”) where the remnants of back of the figure is concave (Figures 2a and 2b), in a large stone corral and its associated outbuildings keeping with pressed sheet metal. The actual figure hint at past industry that is tangibly connected shows a lion in profile facing left on its hind legs with with Hawai‘i’s modern ranching culture. The 2005 the front legs raised, like it is pawing the air. Since University of Hawai‘i at Hilo archaeology field school lions are sexually dimorphic with only male lions was tasked with excavating one of the complex’s having manes, the lion represented by the artifact is outbuildings — a stone-walled cabin, which included obviously male. Overall, the emblem is very detailed a built-in fireplace and now-collapsed chimney. for its size. The archeological assemblage recovered during the excavation was plentiful and varied. Taken together, METHODS this material culture presents a fascinating glimpse of Research was done by exploring representations the folk culture of Hawai‘i Island’s paniolo. and symbolism of lions; the techniques used to manufacture the figure; and a seriation of lion About the Site motifs in an effort to understand its use and place The Stone Corral Complex of Keanakolu was first in comparison to the rest of the recovered material mapped in 2001 and added to the Hawai‘i State culture. Inventory (50-10-15-24250). During the 2005 field school, five contiguous 1 x 1 m units were placed Historical and Present Representations inside the stone-walled cabin. The archeological The first true lions appeared about 600,000 years ago assemblage recovered during the excavation revealed throughout Europe, the Middle East, India, much a variety of nineteenth-century utilitarian and socio- of Africa, across Asia and into Alaska (World Book technic artifacts. Among the artifacts recovered were Encyclopedia 2004:340; O’Brien 1987:115). Other lion nineteenth-century ammunition, percussion caps, subspecies roamed North and South America during lead shot, and a musket ball; medicine and toiletry the upper Pleistocene (O’Brien 1987:115). “Although bottles; stoneware food-jars and other ceramic sherds; the lion achieved a terrestrial range greater than any 67 land mammal except man…” (O’Brien 1987:115), side (i.e., dexter and sinister) which is determined lions are currently found in the wild only in Africa from the perspective of the person carrying the shield. and India. Despite their current limited range, lions The term rampant refers to “any animal erect, having have been depicted in art and architecture throughout one hind paw on the ground, the other three paws the world. The earliest civilizations painted lions and tail elevated, head looking to the dexter” (Grant on cave walls or fashioned talismans for personal 1976:117). adornment. The symbol of the lion has persisted and “…been recognized throughout human civilization as Symbolism a symbol of power and strength” (O’Brien 1987:114). “Symbols express complex ideas succinctly and Nicknamed the ‘king of beasts,’ the lion is a “well- economically...” while conveying multiple levels of known symbol of both beauty and power” and meaning at the same time. Symbols are multivocal, impresses with its “strength and royal appearance” polysemic, or multivalent (Womack 2004:3). That is, (World Book Encyclopedia 2004:340). symbols speak with many voices, have multiple levels of meaning, and make multiple appeals. Though both Throughout history, the lion motif has been used in use and meaning are culturally assigned, there is still art and architecture, as items for personal adornment, a logical association between a symbol and the thing and national symbols. Images of lions have been it represents (Womack 2004:5). According to Novalis, found in ancient Sumeria and Mesopotamia; in Coptic a poet-philosopher of the late eighteenth-century Egypt, Syria, Iraq, and Afghanistan; in India, China, Romantic movement, “the relation of a symbol to Japan, and Sri Lanka; in England, Scotland, Greece, its meaning could always be reversed: the meaning France, Germany, Italy and the Americas. Some of the could become the symbol, the content could become motifs are ostentatious (Figure 3) and some are highly the symbolic form” (Rosen 1984:69). Whether the abstract (Figure 4). One of the most persistent uses is emblem of the lion was adopted by royalty because in the adornment of various modes of transportation it symbolized strength, courage, and power or the — for example, a first-century Roman chariot fitting qualities of that class infused the lion semantic with (Figure 5); a medieval harness pendant (Figure 6); and regality, prestige and grandeur, the result is a symbol a contemporary automobile hood ornament (Figure recognized for both sets of appeals. 7). The placement or arrangement of the image is also A widely recognized modern use of the lion motif is important to the message being conveyed. For in heraldry, where it was appropriated by sovereigns example, a lion passant (standing on all four paws) and leading nobles for their coats-of-arms. Though gives a sense of latent, harnessed power; whereas the the use of various symbols emerges earlier, the science image of a lion rampant (on its hind legs and pawing of heraldry was formalized at the beginning of the the air with its front legs) is viewed as a fighting thirteenth-century and describes armoral bearings, attitude (Adeline 1966:329). or coat-of-arms, and their accessories in the proper terms (Grant 1976:I). The origins of heraldry lie in Technology the European Middle Ages, resulting from the need Before the industrial revolution, the technology to distinguish participants in battles or jousting of copper production consisted of a coppersmith tournaments, and to describe the various devices hammering out objects, using an anvil to shape they carried or had painted on their shields (Figure the creations. In 1769, John Pickering, a London 8). The earliest documented use of the lion in a royal toymaker, patented his machine for stamping articles emblem was by Henry I of England (son of William out of sheet metal. Modifying Pickering’s stamping the Conqueror), who had earned the title of ‘Lion of press, another Englishman, Richard Ford, began Justice’ during his reign. It is said that at the wedding to employ shaped dies which enabled pots, pans, of his daughter, Henry I hung a shield painted with dishes, and an unending variety of other things small lions around the neck of his new son-in-law to be manufactured from sheets in bulk quantities (Pinches 1974:13). (Alexander 1955:internet). The Keanakolu lion has two ‘finished’ holes and a resource on modern The heraldic terms that apply to the Keanakolu lion stamping press practices hint at possible past are: dexter and rampant. In heraldry, dexter is used techniques: “The majority of holes in metal stampings to “signify the proper right side of anything; that is, are round…[and] may be either punched with press the side on the left of the spectator” (Grant 1976:76). tools or drilled and reamed” (Strasser 1971:18). Once In other words, each coat-of-arms has a right and left the stamping process was mechanized, the low overall 68 costs for simple manufacturing processes (Strasser (30.15%); the coast of California for $62,000 (22.79%); 1971:3) enabled companies to mass produce wares for China for $42,000 (15.44%); and Valparaiso and Lima sale. for $36,000 (13.24%). The article mentions types of goods brought into the Hawaiian economy: from the As for establishing a date of manufacture, Pickering’s United States, Chile, and Peru—American domestic patent of the stamping press allows for a terminus cotton cloths, prints of calicoes, hardware, sheathing post quem date of 1769 for the Keanakolu lion. copper, cordage, canvas, naval stores, paints, iron, Unfortunately, establishing a terminus ante quem date ship bread, nails, glass, salt provisions, rum, brandy, is not possible at this time. The item most stylistically gin, wine, and furniture; from California—otter similar to the Keanakolu lion is the contemporary skins, bullock hides, and horses; from China—silk automobile hood ornament and a specific date for that and cotton goods, nankins, teas, sugar, etc.; from the design has not been determined, but the company Society and other islands—pearl shells, turtle shells, was founded in 1910 and the ornament is still sold sugar, cocoa nut oil, etc. The article also states that, today. in 1834, the total number of vessels to arrive at the Honolulu harbor was 159, 36 of which were merchant Seriation ships (Niles’ National Register 1836: 440). While the Assembling various depictions of lions resulted in a correspondent’s notations do not specifically mention huge array of time periods and styles. Initial seriation an imported item decorated with a small copper lion, of the examples proved relatively straightforward. the information recorded establishes that by 1834 a For example, the fantastical caricatures of Japan healthy economic exchange of international goods (Figure 9) and China (Figure 10) were not at all flowed through the port of Honolulu. similar to Keanakolu’s lion figure. Passant (on all fours) motifs, while interesting, were not comparable In 1851, John Thomas Waterhouse established to the rampant lion. Most of the rampant lion an import business in Honolulu. In 1872, an images gathered are European, with one American advertisement ran in the Pacific Commercial example (Figure 11). Of these, the motifs of Advertiser that included an ornate crest of a Scotland (Figure 12), France and America were more rampant lion, shield and unicorn heralding John slender and stylized. The image that most closely Thomas Waterhouse as an ‘importer of English, resembles Keanakolu’s lion is the present-day hood French, American and German goods’ (Figure 13). ornament manufactured in England (Figures 1 and 7 Unfortunately, a product with a rampant lion motif respectively). Both are realistic representations of a was not mentioned, but the advertisement further lion: a powerful body, a thick mane and an executable reinforces the presence of global trade and economic stance. Both lions are rampant, in profile facing networks in nineteenth-century Hawai‘i. dexter, have open mouths and a tail that curves into an ‘S’ while touching the lion’s back. This stylistic According to Post Office in Paradise and maps from trait may be attributed to the manufacturing process Whitney’s Guide to Hawai‘i (1890 edition), native or the fact that without the ‘support’ of the body, the schooners were the mainstay of inter-island shipping tail would easily break. well into the latter part of the nineteenth-century. Maps detailing early inter-island shipping and mail Tangents … Just a Few routes between the five main islands of Kaua‘i, O‘ahu, Economic Systems / Global Networks Moloka‘i, Maui and Hawai‘i Island (Figure 14), in In 1836, the Niles’ National Register (published addition to over-land mail routes specific to Hawai‘i from 1811 to 1849) reprinted an article entitled Island (Figure 15), give a visual representation of “Trade with the Sandwich Islands” by a unidentified how goods and correspondence moved throughout correspondent of the Boston Mercantile Journal. the islands. These routes of commerce and According to the article, in 1834, imports were communication could well have transported goods brought into the port of Honolulu from the United not available for direct purchase from stores on States of America; Valparaiso and Lima; the coast Hawai‘i Island. of California; China; the Society and other south sea islands; America and England (via whaling Possible Associations ships); New Zealand and New South Wales; and The ‘finished’ holes that bisect the figure would the Columbia River and Russian settlements. For suggest that it was mounted onto a surface using 1834, the total value of imports was $272,000 with small tacks or nails. There is no evidence that it had the United States of America accounting for $82,000 been attached to another metal surface. The four 69 main methods by which two metallic surfaces are occupants of a relatively isolated stone cabin, 6,000 joined are soldering, brazing, welding, and riveting feet above sea level. Foreign companies could afford (John 1953:23). Three of the mentioned techniques to produce and export items in mass quantities that (i.e., soldering, brazing and welding) use molten had previously been available only to the wealthy. metal to attach two separate metal pieces to each Shipping, trade and mail routes potentially allowed other; therefore, holes would be unnecessary. The for the ‘mail-order’ of certain goods, while other fourth technique, riveting, is used when the join specific faunal remains suggest a trade or social needs to support a substantial amount of weight (John relationship with coastal dwellers. A Hawai‘i 1953:30). This is not the case with the Keanakolu lion; Island paniolo had access to medicine from America; the figure itself is lightweight and concave, seemingly preserved food-stuffs from China; and perfume for decorative purposes and not heavy use. and brandy made in France. These are examples of technomic and socio-technic items that the cabin’s With all this in mind, there are limited materials to occupants deemed worthy of purchase to enhance which the figure could have been attached, namely their quality of life. Collectively, the recovered leather and wood, the most readily available materials material culture presents an intriguing look at the folk at the time. The idea of the figure being mounted culture of Hawai‘i Island’s paniolo. onto leather horse tack or an associated item is very appealing, possibly because of the already established use for the cabin, corral complex and area. With some objectivity, one quickly realizes that the lion figure was not made to withstand the heavy use of work-gear. However, it is possible that the figure was attached to a decorative tack item, like a ‘Sunday-best’ saddle bag or pair of chaps. As for the lion being mounted onto wood, the possibilities are almost limitless — a walking cane, furniture, and an endless number of decorative items. The lion of Keanakolu could have decorated a clock; a box used to store tobacco (Figure 16), snuff, or jewelry; or even a wood bowl. At this time, the figure’s association is only speculation. CONCLUSION — THE ANTHROPOLOGy OF IT ALL Midway through the nineteenth-century, international expositions (‘world fairs’) brought together the nations of the world and transformed the nature of international commerce (Francastel 2000:35). Communication and transportation also improved, exposing an ever-increasing rural population to cosmopolitan taste (Bishop and Coblentz 1982:126). Knowledge of sea routes developed parity between countries, “…causing earlier commercial motives to disappear” (Francastel 2000:35). A complete reversal of commerce resulted and “…instead of seeking light, expensive products to furnish to advanced countries, nations sought low-cost products to supply to poor countries in large quantities. Commerce was tied no longer to luxury, but to labor” (Francastel 2000:35). What does this mean to Keanakolu? The material culture excavated represents the last occupation of the stone cabin and speaks to the economic and social systems of that time. Goods produced in countries around the world were readily available, even to the 70 71 72 73 REFERENCES Adeline, Jules No Author Listed 1966 The Adeline Art Dictionary. New York, 2000 Post Office in Paradise (on-line). Frederick Ungar Publishing Co. Accessed on December 7, 2005 at http:// www.hawaiianstamps.com/. Alexander, W. O. 1955 A Brief Review of the Development of the O’Brien, Stephen J., Janice S. Martenson, Craig Packer, Copper, Zinc and Brass Industries in Great Britain Lawrence Herbst, Valerius de Vos, Paul Joslin, from AD 1500 to 1900. Murex Review, Vol. 1, Janis Ott-Joslin, David E. Wildt, and Mitchell No. 15. Reprinted on the web and accessed Bush on December 7, 2005 at http://72.14.203.104/ 1987 Biochemical Genetis Variation in search?q=cache:wHsQNeBXOEAJ:www. Geographic Isolates of African and Asiatic Lions. oldcopper.org/industry_development.htm+Jo National Geographic Research, Vol. 3, No. hn+Pickering+London+toymaker&hl=en&gl= 1:114-124. us&ct=clnk&cd=2. Pinches, J. H. & R. V. Bishop, Robert and Patricia Coblentz 1974 The Royal Heraldry of England. 1982 American Decorative Arts: 360 Years of Vermont, Charles E. Tuttle Co. Creative Design. New York, Harry N. Abrams, Inc. Rosen, Charles and Henri Zerner 1984 Romanticism and Realism: The Francastel, Pierre Mythology of Nineteenth-Century Art. New 2000 Art & Technology in the Nineteenth and York, The Viking Press. Twentieth Centuries. New York, Zone Books. Schaller, George B. Grant, Francis J. 2004 Lion. The World Book Encyclopedia, 1976 The Manual of Heraldry: A Concise “L” Vol. 12:340-343. Description of the Several Terms Used, and Containing a Dictionary of Every Designation in Strasser, Federico the Science. Detroit, Gale Research Company. 1971 Functional Design of Metal Stampings. Dearborn, Society of Manufacturing John, F. Engineers. 1953 Metalcraft. New York, Dover Publications, Inc. Womack, Mari 2005 Symbols and Meaning: A Concise No Author Listed Introduction. Walnut Creek, AltaMira Press. 1836 Trade with the Sandwich Islands. Niles’ National Register, Issue: August 27, Vol. 50, No. 1:440. 74 d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d unique aspect of American literature and culture. The Original British Poe became a pioneer of the “American short story” (Thompson xv). Invasion Unfortunately, for Poe, the American serials publications fared no better against the onslaught of pirated British literature. The Anglo plague’s effect by Jessica Anne Gard on the magazine, or serial market, was manifold. First, American periodicals had the same privileges In the mid-nineteenth century, the dialogue of the as the book printer regarding copyright laws. For American literary world focused on discussion over example, Godey’s Lady’s Book was almost completely the need for a legitimate and recognized American comprised of British material for the first seven literature. Lack of international copyright protection, years of its publication (Furnas 321-322). A second coupled with the rise of the American capitalist drive incarnation was formed by publishers who did not and compounded by a need to assert independence constrain themselves to the pirating of articles but from the suffocating yoke of British culture, yielded a often republished the entire British periodical. The disenfranchised generation of American authors who New Monthly, the Quarterly and the Political Register waged a war of literary self-reflection against their found themselves reprinted for the American market culture, their public and the publishing industry. (Peach 17). A third publishing trick was to reprint One of these authors, Edgar Allan Poe, worked to selections from several overseas periodicals into achieve a revolution of American literature through an eclectic magazine as in the title, Select Reviews his work as a writer and in the business of publishing. and the Spirit of the Foreign Magazines (Peach 17). Poe sought ways to bypass the issues of book In less damaging and more admirable instances, publishing while still reaching the American public British magazines served as a template for fledgling and mercilessly promoted raised standards towards American publications such as American Quarterly American literature. Poe’s “Ms. Found in a Bottle,” Review, North American Review, and American Monthly analyzed through the lens of historical interpretation, Magazine (Peach 17). echoes the problems inherent in British hegemony in A fine sketch of the frustrating roundabout of publishing and in American culture, and reverberates Nineteenth century publishing lies in the tale of Poe with political and personal resonance. This short and his Folio Club manuscript. Poe began earnest story is rife with evidence of self-reflection regarding attempts at a writing career in 1829. By May 1833, his forays into the business end of serial publications. he was peddling a treatment for “The Folio Club” or The foremost problem presented to American “Eleven Tales of the Arabesque” to various publishers writers was the entrenchment of European literature (Thompson xxiii-xxv). Publishers universally balked in the American market. Lack of international at what they perceived to be a risky venture. In 1834, copyright protection for works of literature enabled Poe secured a tentative interest from Carey & Lea, printers to pirate British works and sell them at a but the publisher refused to grant Poe an advance cheaper rate than American literature by avoiding on the publication. The reason for Carey & Lea’s the cost of royalties to the author (Thompson xxxvii). reluctance to provide an advance lay in the estimated Although it would appear the unfairness was in risk that the publication of the book would not prove balance on both sides of the pond, the scales of profitable. Poe, in dire straights, wrote to his patron injustice were tipped slightly by the fact that British John P. Kennedy and requested his intercession in the professional authors outnumbered their American matter (to Kennedy Nov.19, 1834 www.eapoe.org). brethren twenty to one (Furnas 322). According to Kennedy replied by explaining Carey & Lea’s opinion publisher Samuel Goodrich, in 1820 in the United in the matter and describing a compromise to secure States British authors sold twice as many books as Poe needed money. Carey & Lea would send out their American counterparts (Nye 76). the short stories in the work to interested magazines, Examination of Poe’s correspondence reflects which would supply Poe with money while he waited the author’s frustrated attempts to navigate the for the publication to prove lucrative (from Kennedy hostile climate of American publishing. In the end, Dec.22, 1834 www.eapoe.org). This compromise later circumstances led Poe on a course that formed a worked to Poe’s detriment and sealed his fate as a short story writer. 75 Presumably, Carey & Lea’s concern regarding She is built of a material to which I am a the profitability of publication led to a significant stranger. There is a peculiar character about delay. When the publication of “Eleven Tales of the wood which strikes me as rendering it the Arabesque” by way of Carey & Lea was not unfit for the purpose to which it has been forthcoming, Poe sent treatments to more publishers. applied. I mean its extreme porousness, In 1835, a letter to Kennedy makes it clear that considered independently of the worm Poe had convinced his employer, Mr. White of the eaten condition which is a consequence of Southern Literary Messenger, to print his “Tales” in navigation in these seas, and apart from the the format which they were intended (to Kennedy rottenness attendant upon age. It will appear Sept.11, 1835 www.eapoe.org). perhaps an observation somewhat over- Apparently, the arrangement fell through and curious, but this wood would have every in early 1836, Poe appealed to the good nature of characteristic of Spanish oak, if Spanish oak J.K. Paulding to help him publish the manuscript. were distended by natural means. [italics Paulding replied that he knew of two publishers in Poe’s] (Poe 113) New York, one published only religious texts and In addition to this description of the ship and its schoolbooks and he held some personal enmity peculiar porous wood, Poe mentions a Dutch sailor’s toward the other. Paulding instead forwarded the saying regarding the inevitability of a ship’s body manuscript to Harper & Brothers (from Paulding, growing in bulk on the sea, as with a living body (Poe Mar.17, 1836 www.eapoe.org). Harper & Brothers 113). Add to this the assertion that the ship itself is declined to publish the manuscript, in large part due caught in a powerful and inescapable current that to the previous publication of much of its material in carries it southward (Poe 115). Furthermore, the periodicals (from Harper & Brothers June 19, 1836. narrator claims “the ship and all in it are imbued with www.eapoe.org). the spirit of Eld”; he feels like a “dealer in antiquities” In September 1836, Poe wrote to publisher and laments the influence of this spirit. It has affected Harrison Hall peddling the same book (to Harrison him and “[his] very soul has become a ruin” (Poe 114). Hall Sept. 2, 1836. www.eapoe.org). “Eleven Tales of In analyzing these passages, with the ship as a the Arabesque” would not see publication in a book metaphor for America’s literary world and the sea format until 1839. Lea & Blanchard, formerly Carey as its primary influencing force, Poe’s statements & Lea, published it (http://www.eap.org/works/ betray a particularly astute commentary on the editions/tga.htm). pervasiveness of British literature and culture. First, Published in October of 1833, the beginning the ship being porous takes on more of the seawater of Poe’s battle over “The Folio Club,” Poe’s short (British influence) than is best. Second, is the story, “Ms. Found in a Bottle,” shows some of Poe’s unnaturalness of the material, “if Spanish oak were frustration in navigating the literary world. In this distended by unnatural means,” the ship presents the tale Poe is seen as both as captain and passenger appearance of a wood carrying a European means on a cursed ship navigating tumultuous seas. He but, the appearance is achieved by an unnatural is speaking in a foreign tongue and his voice is less distending or bloating. The ship is waterlogged audible than would be natural in that situation. This with this British influence. Third, the influence that problem of voice and language in the captain and has pervaded the ship has pervaded the men in it, crew suggests communication problems, problems including the narrator. Fourth, the nature of the being seen or discovered, and problems being heard. influence is one of antiquity or, “the spirit of Eld,” These are the problems of the American writers in and like the obsolete mathematical instruments, it Poe’s time. is useless, inspires hopelessness and is dead and In the extended metaphor, the ship is the source of deadening. Last, this current traps the ship, the the crew’s problem and the only thing on which they pervasiveness of its element destroys the souls of the can rely. This dependence and causation inextricably men and it carries the ship southward or hellbound. links the crew, captain, and ship together. The ship is A few years after the publication of “Ms. Found uncontrollable. It is what tosses adrift on the ocean, in a bottle,” Poe embarked on a career working in containing the sailors and condemning them to an the business end of the writing business (Thompson eternity at sea. The ship is what can never reach port xxvii). He spent many years working on the editor’s and so the men within her to share her fate. On the staff of various literary magazines. He was a vicious condition of the ship, the narrator says: critic of American literature, intolerant of both the idea that the promotion of American literature necessitated a lower standard (Thompson xxix) and 76 the American literary world’s aping of European Bottle.” His experience with rejection and other conventions (Poe 632-633). After establishing his frustrations attendant upon the American author reputation, working under various editors, Poe in this time are echoed in the experiences of the attempted to launch several projects, such as new narrator. Poe’s narrator finds himself flung on to a magazines, which sought only the contributions of passing ship, where he is invisible to the crew stating, American authors or buying out failing serials to “Concealment is utter folly on my part, for the people revamp the format (Thompson xxxii & xxxix). will not see” [italics Poe’s] (Poe 113). He undertakes to Just as tales of Poe’s trials illustrate the popularity write his “Ms. Found in a Bottle” for the sole reason of and development of the short story, a method to tossing his story into the ocean, hoping it will gain an which American authors wishing to publish were audience, but not for any hope of salvation (Poe 112). often limited, the professional trials of Poe as an Clearly, the frustration of the undiscovered writer editor and critic of literary magazines illustrate even manifests in a tale, but in the event the reader doubts, more clearly the problems inherent in promoting Poe strikes one more blow: American literature in the mid-nineteenth century. An incident has occurred which has given me Steep competition in the serials market led to many new room for meditation. Are such things failures. Of the four to five thousand magazines the operation of ungoverened Chance? I launched between 1825 and 1850, only six hundred had ventured upon deck and thrown myself survived by mid-century (Sellers 371). down...while musing upon the singularity of The first clue is the use of the abbreviation, Ms., my fate, I unwittingly daubed with a tarbursh which is shorthand for manuscript in the publishing the edges of a neatly-folded studding-sail...the business. Additionally, several key biographical thoughtless touches of the brush are spread details relate back to Poe and solidify this impression. out into the word DISCOVERY (Poe 112). First, the narrator establishes his position in society This theme of the publishing business in ‘Ms. as one in which “hereditary wealth afforded [him] an Found in a Bottle” is not limited to the experiences education of no common order” but he had become of the writer. Although Poe would not begin his estranged from his family (Poe 106). At this point in foray into the business end of serial publications until Poe’s life, communications with his wealthy foster 1835 (Thompson xxvii), Poe provides an encoded father, John Allan, had ceased (Thompson xxiii). Poe explanation as to the plague in American publishing. then establishes that the narrator has been adrift in the As the stowaway/narrator is the writer in this world as if the writing is currently adrift on the sea extended metaphor, the crew is the audience and (Poe 107-108). The parallel to Poe’s life is that John publishers, and the ship is the American publishing Allan had been a steady source of financial and social business and the culture. support for Poe and because of their estrangement in Having established that the men of the ship “will 1830, he was left without the contacts and income on not see” (Poe 112), Poe’s narrator adds another detail which he had come to depend (Thompson xxiii). “Ms. about the crew: Found in a Bottle” underscores the reality of Poe alone They paid me no manner of attention, and, and tossing adrift on a hostile sea, when the narrator although I stood in the very midst of them explains how after encountering a mysterious all, seemed utterly unconscious of my atmospheric anomaly on the sea and experiencing presence. Like the one I had first seen in the some cataclysm apparently related to it, the narrator hold, they all bore about them the marks of discovers that all on the ship, except himself and a a hoary old age. Their knees trembled with Swede, have disappeared (Poe 108-109). infirmity; their shoulders were bent double The parallels to Poe’s life established, the story with decrepitude; their shriveled skins rattled moves into the crux of Poe’s theme. By October 1833, in the wind; their voices were low, tremulous Poe’s passion for a career as an author, an anathema and broken; their eyes glistened with the to his foster father, had gained the momentum rheum of years; and their gray hairs streamed of ambition. He had been active in establishing terribly in the tempest. Around them...lay himself as an author since 1827, but it appears scattered mathematical instruments of the to have become more a consuming desire as the most quaint and obsolete construction (Poe circumstances of his sacrificed his military career 113). in 1831 might be construed as a choice to focus on In viewing the “decrepitude” of his fellow writing (Thompson xxii-xiii). This timeline places countrymen, bent of back and weak of knee, the Poe in the business of seeking publication for six significance of voices that are “low, tremulous and years prior to the publication of “Ms. Found in a broken” suggest these are fellow compatriots and 77 authors adrift in the same impassible ocean. The moment of revelation regarding the British influence. mention of obsolete mathematical instruments is also He is cursing the commission of a monarch, which telling, their presence underscores failed attempts to has condemned him to sail an eternity, tossed about solve the problem, an inability to guide the ship, and on the ocean on an uncontrolled ship. The captain it supplies imagery that these are men of a long time pours over this royal commission, as if within it is the past. Here is a frustrated narrator/author trapped solution to the problem. The captain suffers also the on a ship frozen in time. This is an accusation that same insubstantial voice as the crew. American subservience to the older British culture To understand the depth of the devastating cycle, and literature prevents the growth of American perpetuated by the lack of international copyright literature. It seems almost certain when Poe’s narrator protection on American authors’ careers, one must finds Poe among their number: examine the rapid expansion of the United State’s I have seen the captain face to face, and in printing business that left national literature failing his own cabin--but, as I expected, he paid me in its wake. A steady innovation in technology and no attention. Although in his appearances distribution that characterized the mid-nineteenth there is, to a casual observer, nothing which century, caused an explosion of publication in might bespeak him more or less than man... America. By 1825, America had almost twice as In stature he’s nearly my own height; that many newspapers as Britain. Magazines and is five feet eight inches. He is of well-knit periodicals, which numbered twelve at the beginning and compact frame of body, neither robust of the century, grew to almost one hundred titles nor remarkably otherwise. But it is the by 1825, between 1825 and mid-century four to five singularity of expression which reigns upon thousand more were launched. By 1830, America the face--it is the intense, the wonderful, matched Britain’s book production at approximately the thrilling evidence of old age so utter, so one thousand titles annually and “the estimated extreme, which excites within my spirit a value of American book output more than doubled sense--a sentiment ineffable. His forehead, from $2.5 million in 1820 to $5.5 million in 1840.” although little wrinkled, seems to bear upon Unfortunately, the nation’s writers gained nothing it the stamp of a myriad of years--his gray since the subject matter consisted mostly of religious hairs are records of the past, and his grayer works and schoolbooks with a fair sprinkling of eyes are Sybils of the future. The cabin floor pirated British works (Sellers 369-371). Such a was thickly strewn with strange iron clasped profound loss of opportunity mitigated both the folios, and mouldering instruments of science, writers’ economic and influential gains, and ensured and obsolete long forgotten charts. His the monetary poverty of American writers and the head was bowed down upon his hands, and cultural poverty of the nation. he pored, with a fiery unquiet eye, over a By 1825, the economic motivations of American paper which I took to be a commission, and printers firmly secured British domination of the which, at all events, bore the signature of a American book and magazine market and created monarch. He muttered to himself, as did the a hostile environment toward American authors first seaman whom I saw in the hold, some (Krupat 966). The trend fed the market’s creation of low peevish syllables of a foreign tongue, and a cultural vortex that swept publishers, the public, although the speaker was close at my elbow, and literary critics into a vacuum of obsequiousness his voice seemed to reach my ears from the toward British culture. distance of a mile (Poe 114). In 1820, British literary critic Sidney Smith jeered, Physically, Poe seems to be describing himself. “In the four corners of the globe, who reads and Poe’s physical appearance is documented; his military American book?” (Sellers 372). Such taunts provided records place his height at 5’8”, many accounts a strong impetus for writers such as Edgar Allen describe his eye color as gray, which seems to fit Poe to promote a wholly American literature to rival with the famous daguerreotype, and most sources their European counterparts and win the respect describe him as slight of build, an estimated 140 and recognition of the rest of the world as a nation pounds (www.eapoe.org). This is Poe, the writer, at a independent of its mother country. 78 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY FURTHER READING Krupat, Arnold & Hershel Parker. Introduction. The I regret a lack of space required to fully demonstrate Norton Anthology of American Literature, the influence of the British culture on America in the Sixth Edition. Vol. B American Literature: first half of the nineteenth century. It seems to be 1820-1865. Ed. by Nina Baym. New York & common knowledge as I find it referenced in every London: W.W. Norton & Company, 2003. 957- source. The following are books and articles I read 977. but was unable to reference that specifically address the problem. Furnas, J.C. A Social History of the United States 1587- 1914. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1969. This is an informative introduction to a book of collected Nye, Russell Blaine. Society and Culture in America: articles on the subject of cultural change and the market 1830-1860. Ed. by Henry Steele Commager economy at this time. It also examines the main ideas of a and Richard B. Morris. New York, Evanston, number of works produced on the subjects related to the San Francisco and London: Harper & Row book’s theme. Publishers. 1974. Martin, Scott C. Introduction. Cultural Change and the Market Revolution in America, 1789-1860. Poe, Edgar Allan. “Exordium to Critical Notices.” Edited by Scott C. Martin. Lanham, Boulder, The Selected Writings of Edgar Allen Poe: New York, Toronto and Oxford: Rowman & A Norton Critical Edition. Ed. by G.R. Littlefield Publishers, Inc. 2005. 1-12. Thompson. New York & London: W.W. Norton & Company, 2004. 632-636. Examines the role of the literary critic in the Nineteenth Century and the sway he held over the American public Poe, Edgar Allan. “Ms. Found in a Bottle.” The and the literary marketplace. Showing how Poe hated New Selected Writings of Edgar Allen Poe: Norton England Brahmins’ love of all things British could have Critical Edition. Ed. by G.R. Thompson. New significant influence on the American public and cultural York & London: W.W. Norton & Company, development. 2004. 106-115. Machor, James L. “Fiction and Informed Reading in Early Nineteenth Century America.” Peach, Linden. British Influence on the Birth of Nineteenth Century Literature 47, No 3 American Literature. London & Basingstoke: (1992):320-348. JSTOR. University of The MacMillan Press LTD, 1982. Hawaii at Hilo Mookini Lib., Hilo. http:// www.jstor.org. Sellers, Charles. The Market Revolution Jacksonian America 1815-1846. New York & Oxford: This article examines the adoption of British aristocratic Oxford University Press. 1991. conventions and a slavish worship of them by Bourgeois The Edgar Allan Poe Society of Baltimore, Inc. Home Americans, the US Nouveau Riche. Page. 19 August 2005. 29 October 2005. Mann, Anthony. “ ‘A Nation First in All the http://www.eapoe.org/works/editions/tga. Arts of Civilization’:Boston’s Post- htm. Revolutionary Elites View Great Britain.” American Nineteenth Century History Thompson, G.R. Introduction. The Selected Writings 2, no. 2 (2001): 1-34. JSTOR. University of of Edgar Allen Poe: A Norton Critical Edition. Hawaii at Hilo Mookini Lib., Hilo. Ed. by G.R. Thompson. New York & London: http://www.jstor.org. W.W. Norton & Company, 2004. xiii-xlviii. 79 d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d More importantly, I will be discussing their legacy “There’s Nothing on today’s medical culture, and perhaps, some vital so Bad for a Cough lessons we can learn from this broken medicine bottle. Keanakolu’s Bottle of Ayer’s Cherry Pectoral as Coughing!”: An The area of Keanakolu was a large ranching industry center in the later half of the 19th century. Insight into the World The Stone Corral Complex is a series of stone walled corrals, with two (known) small outbuildings with of Quackery, Nostrum, stone foundation. These outbuildings, most likely had stone walls built half way up, with a wooden and Patent Medicine. or thatched roof. During the summer of 2005, archaeological teams from the University of Hawaii at Hilo excavated five (5) 1x1 meter pits (Fig. 1) in by Dane Olson one stone cabin with a single-room floor plan and stone fireplace. Many artifacts were found during Abstract the excavation. Included in the find were fragments In this article, I evaluate late 19th century patent of an “Ayers Cherry Pectoral” bottle. About 85% of medicine on a local and global level. I attempt to the bottle fragments were found and reconstructed explain the social, cultural, and economic mechanisms (Fig. 2-1, 2-2). The bottle does not have a pontil mark in place that would allow a heroin filled medicine and does not have “Lowell/ Mass. USA” on the back bottle to go from its production factory in Lowell, panel, which in later bottles was changed to “Lowell/ Massachusetts to a little cabin 6000 ft. on the side of Mass” (Hoyt 2005). Also, the bottle style, height, and Hawaii’s tallest Mountain. embossments limit it to the early 20th century bottles or earlier (Hoyt 2005). Based on that information, Introduction the best initial estimate for date of production of the Over the summer of 2005, students from Ayer’s Pectoral bottle is 1865-1910. From the way the University of Hawaii at Hilo conducted a field fragments were dispersed throughout the site and excavation of a stone cabin associated with a Stone on the disbursement of other fragments from other Corral Complex at Keanakolu. Among the artifacts bottles found at the site, I theorize that the bottle was found, there where the fragments of a late 19th-early placed on a mantle above the fireplace. Fragments of 20th century bottle. The embossing on the bottle the base were found closest to the hearth, and the top identifies it as an “Ayer’s Cherry Pectoral, Lowell parts of the bottle were found scattered away from Mass”. After reconstructing the bottle, I began to the heath. From the fragmentation, I believe that the investigate the cultural mechanisms and global bottle fell from the mantle, striking the ground on the economic factors that brought a late 19th century bottom end on the side of the bottle where “Pectoral” medicine bottle from Lowell, Massachusetts up to a was embossed (Fig. 2-1, 2-2). ranching complex 6000 ft. on the side of Mauna Kea in Hawai’i. During the course of my investigation, I Ayer’s Company re-discovered the history of home-grown medicine After J.C. Ayer’s death in 1878, the company that played a major part in the turn of the century continued under the guidance Mr. A. G. Cook and American economy. The history is well known in the J.C.’s brother, Frederick Ayer until his eventual United States, but historical archaeology has yet to retirement in 1893. The company continued in focus on the anthropology of it all. The issues such as Lowell under the management of family members abuse, false advertisement and selling a potentially until it finally left Lowell around 1939. The Ayer’s lethal drug that were prevalent then are the same drug company was founded by J. C. Ayers (Fig 3) issues that the Food and Drug Administration deal in 1841 when he bought an apothecary shop from with today. In this paper, I discuss quackery, nostrum, Mr. Jacob Robbins (whom J.C. Ayers apprenticed and patent medicines in America and consider its under) in April of that same year for $2,486.61. The effects on the global economies, heath, and culture. money for the purchase was loaned to J.C. Ayer by 81 his uncle and to be paid back in 5 years. However, the early 20th century due to a more robust west coast Ayer was so successful that he paid his uncle back shipping network and the introduction of aircraft. in 3 years. Ayer produced a series of medicines, It is difficult to actually place a date for the arrival first starting with Cherry Pectoral in 1843. It was of Cherry Pectoral to the Hilo area, but on of the not until 1847 that it was bottled (Lowell Courier earliest newspaper known to contain an ad from the 1878). Cherry Pectoral was advertised to cure Pacific Commercial Advertiser in 1866 (Fig 9). The most “Coughs, Colds, Influenza, Hoarsenenss, Croup, exciting part of this advertisement is that it actually Bronchitis, Incipient Consumption, and for the Relief lists “Ayer’s Cherry Pectoral”. Honolulu was the of Consumptive Patients, in the advanced stages of major port and city for the Kingdom during the later the Disease.....”(Prince Edward Island The Examiner half the 19th century, as a result, many of the major 1861)(Fig 4). druggists and apothecaries were located in Honolulu. Additionally, Ayer came out with Cathartic Pills Upon reviewing advertisements for druggist and in 1854, which were advertised to treat: “Stomach, apothecaries in that area, I found a few companies Liver and Bowels, whose derangements they prevent listing Ayer’s products (Fig 10).The majority of the and cure. They are a sure remedy for Costiveness, advertisements where located in Thrum’s Hawaiian Jaundice, Indigestion, Headache, Dizziness; transient Annual, a yearly publication. The advertisements in attacks of Numbness, Biliousness, and all other Hawaii were mostly from general stores, druggist, or diseases resulting from a disordered state of the apothecaries. Digestive Apparatus.” (Ayer’s Trading Card.)(Fig 5) Ague Cure in 1857. “Ayer’s Ague Cure: History of Patent Medicines Warranted a speedy and certain cure for Fever and Patent medicines are as old as patents themselves. Ague, Intermittent, Remittent, and Bilious Fevers, and Alternatives have always existed in traditional for all disorders peculiar to malarious, marshy and western medicine. The rise in popularity of patent miasmatic districts” (Ayer’s Trading Card)(Fig 6) medicines coincides, in some extent, with journalism. Ayer’s Sarsaparilla in 1859 “Ayer’s Sarsaparilla The vast majority of patent medicines, were not, produces rapid and complete cures of Scrofula, in fact, patented. The term “patent” comes from Erysipelas, Salt Rheum, Tetter, Scald Head, Ring marketing these medicines, the medicines that Worm, Sores, Boils, Humors, Pimples, Ulcers, won favor with the royalty of Europe would be Tumors, Eruptions, and all scrofulous diseases and issued Letters of Patent, which would allow for conditions.” (Ayer’s Trading Card.)(Fig 7) the royal endorsement to be displayed on printed And finally Ayer’s Hair Vigor in 1864 “Ayer’s advertisements. After the American Revolution, the Hair Vigor: Restores gray hair to its original color, name stuck. The first really known patent medicine prevents baldness, preserves the hair and promotes its surfaced around the 1630s, “Anderson Pills” were first growth, cures dandruff and all diseases of the hair made in England, but allegedly a Scotsman leaned and scalp, and which forms, at the same time, a very the formula in Venice while posing to be a physician superior and desirable dressing.” (Ayer’s Trading of King Charles I of England (Wikipedia 2005). The Card.)(Fig 8) second royal English patent (The first is unknown) was issued to Richard Stoughton’s Elixir in 1712 and Distribution in Hawaii by the mid-18th century, an incomplete list was made When I first started this project, I really wondered of all the “proprietary” medicines, those protected by how readily available this medicine was in Hawaii. patent or registration (Nickell 1998). Ayer’s Co. was a massive medicine empire of the time, so the question of distribution was an interesting The American Revolution one. The rate at which products are released on Up until the Revolution, the British Empire the mainland and to when they start appearing in dominated the patent industry. The British where Hawai’i seems to be around 3+ years from initial able to produce, market, and sell their products more release to actually available in Hawai’i, this can be efficiently due to their existing colonal infrastructure; seen in the gap of dates in newspaper advertisements the colonists were essentially captive consumers. and actual store ledger listing the products sold in The ability to produce, ship, and have an exclusive the store. This is not exclusive to medicines, but can market for medicines was part of the British’s recipe be seen in many products; for example, introduction for success. During the Revolution, the import of of gun cartridges into the Hawaiian Islands was most British goods was banned. As a result, this relatively later then seen on west coast of the created a niche for the development of American mainland. However, this changed dramatically in patent medicines. After the Revolution, American 82 medicines where cheaper due to lower shipping costs, Citric Acid 2 Grains and American patriotism played a part in choosing Heroin 1-6 Grain products “Made in America”. (Munsey 1970). Solvent: Alcohol, 10 minutes to each fluid drachm; glycerine; syrup; water. American Patent Medicine’s Golden Age Due to several Factors, the Golden Age for One of the more well known patent medicines patent medicines was the years after the Civil War was Lydia E. Pinkham’s Vegetable Compound (which (Young 1961). One factor was the Civil War itself; was also found on the H-3 project) and depending many wounded and injured veterans came home, on the formula, 15 to 20 percent alcohol (Wood 2005). and this created a market for pain killers and other Dr. Hostetter’s Stomach Bitters were another popular drugs. Also, newspapers became widely distributed remedy; it contained 44.3 percent alcohol, more potent at this time, and it was the patent medicines’ than 80 proof whiskey (Wood 2005). During the advertisements that fueled the fire. The patent Prohibition era, patent medicines contained a large medicine industry also would be saved by its “deep amount of grain alcohol, and people would often buy pockets” in the newspapers. By the 1890s, the patent them for their alcohol content. One patent medicine, medicine industry used so-called “red clauses” in “Jamaica ginger,” was ordered by prohibition officials their advertising contracts with newspapers. These to change its formula because it contained too much clauses voided the contract if a state law regulating alcohol. In order to pass a chemical test that the patent medicines was passed. This effectivly shut prohibition officials ordered to ensure compliance, down any editorials on the issue (Center for Drug for some sellers added a toxic chemical called cresyl Evaluation and Reserch 2005). This provided a buffer phosphate, an organophosphate compound that had for the patent medicine industry, if the issue was ever effects similar to a nerve agent. Some drinkers often brought up, it was in the newspapers best interest to suffered from a form of paralysis that came to be advocate against it. known as “jake-leg” (Wikipedia 2005). Towards the end of the 19th century, there were Substance a number of radioactive medicines, among the most The actual contents of these medicines can be popular were water irradiators that would fill water shocking by 21st centrury pharmacologial standards. with radon, which at the time was thought to be The majorty of these patent medicines contined heathy. A number of these radioactive medicines morphine, heroin, cocaine, and other opium based contained uranium or radium (Wikipedia 2005). One drugs, as well as a hefty dose of grain alcohol. So of the more noteable deaths due to radon poising much alcohol was used that some patent medicines was Eben McBurney Byers, a steel heir, who died a where closer to liqueur with herbs for flavoring. The horriable death after drinking more then a thousand contents of Ayer’s Cherry Pectoral are known from bottles of “radium water”(Wikipedia 2005). The two sources; Pacific Medical and Surgeons Journal, effects of the medicines could, at very best, “cure” the 1899 & Ayer’s American Almanac, 1906. The original consumer, and at very worst, kill them. formula was published in the Pacific Medical and The question then becomes why did people Surgeons Journal in 1899: take them at all? In the case of patent medicines that Acetate of morphia 3 Grains contained morphine, heroin, cocaine, and opium, it Tincture of bloodroot 2 drops became a matter of addiction. There was no better Wine antimony 3 drops way to secure a market than to get them addicted to a Wine ipecac 3 drops drug. There was a large market for teething aids and Syrup wild cherry 3 oz. drugs advertised to help “sooth” children. A few of Mix these drugs were; Dr. Moffett’s Teethina, Dr. Fahrney’s Teething Syrup, Mrs. Winslow’s Soothing Syrup, And a “revised” formula was published by Ayer’s and Dr. James Soothing Syrup, which all contained himself in his almanac in 1906: opiates. These drugs were rubbed on the gums of Wild Cherry 6 Grains infants or given to small children. Often, when these Grindelia Robusta 4 Grains children where taken off these drugs, they would White Pine 4 exhibit withdrawal symptoms, and as a result would Grains Senega 4 Grains become sick again, forcing the parent to give the child Terpin Hydrate 4 more or face him being sick. One can see how this Grains Blood Root 2 Grains vicious cycle would be a business dream. Rio Ipecac 2 Grains 83 Economics drug officials, the American Medical Association, and The patent medicine industry was extremely the American Pharmaceutical Association helped to profitable in its golden age. In 1859, the yearly sales expose faults in the food and drug systems in America patent medicines were estimated at $3.5 million and (Center for Drug for Evaluation and Research 2005). by 1904 it had grown to $74.5 million. This rate of The result from all this was the Food and Drug Act in growth can be attributed to many things; the advances 1906, which some consider the pinnacle of progressive in newspapers allowing for more advertisements legislation. and almanacs which were another favorite medium of advertisement for the patent medicine industry Conclusion (this was a favorite of the Ayers Co.). The Ayer’s The passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act Cherry Pectoral bottle was sold in three (3) sizes: in 1906 was one of the first regulatory statutes on small for 25c, medium for 50c, and large for $1.00 the federal level. This heralded in a new era of (Fig. 11). Compared with the modern dollar, these government oversight in many areas. However, the prices would range from $3.83 to $15.20. So, today’s legacy of the patent medicine golden age is still with over-the-counter medicine prices are comparable to us today. In recent years, major drug companies have those of the later 19th century. The low price and the started a trend of advertising medication directly to ability to easily administer these drugs made them the public, informing them of a new medication and popular among those of the lower classes. Also, it is advising them to ask their doctors if it is right for important to look at the medical industry at the time. them. This is a harkening back to the golden age of Around this era, traditional physicians had negative patent medicines in terms of advertisement styles. reputations because of the Civil War, since the surgery Hopefully, this time around, we are more aware they performed was sometimes more fatal than the wound. At this time, to be a professional doctor with Acknowledgments medical school training was expensive and excluded I would like dedicate this paper to Dr. Peter Mills all but the upper class. Lower class people distrusted for teaching me the meaning of archaeology and to professional doctors because they came from a much Scott Sasaki for being my robot. I would also like to higher class, often the doctor’s fees and medicines thank the entire summer school field team for their were too costly for them to afford. Not knowing what hard work and Bill Liebeknecht for providing me with the disease was or how to treat it could lead people to the Pectoral formula and the trading card ads. search out any “cure all”. Patent medicines have always benefited from the placebo effect. Patent companies also exploited the desperation of the terminally ill. This is still a major issue within today’s medical culture, in fact, physicians are now advising patients with terminal illnesses to seek out non conventional medicines. Medical economics is a slippery slope, on one hand, a company is producing a life-saving medicine (in most cases), and on the other, it wants to make a profit. Companies produced drugs that were known to be harmful for the sake of profit, and this was a major issue in the age of quackery (Collier’s 1906). The Great American Fraud The end to the patent medicine golden age came around turn of century. In October 7, 1905 Samuel Hopkins Adams printed a series in the Collier’s entitled “The Great American Fraud” (Fig 12). Adams published ten articles in the series, which concluded in February 1906 (Center for Drug for Evaluation and Research 2005). Adam’s work was one of the most influential exposés of the time. The collective efforts of mudraker journalists and organizations like the General Federation of Women’s Clubs, state food and 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 REFERENCES Collier’s The National Weekly. “The patent Medicine Prince Edward Island The Examiner. 8 Feb 1861 Trust Palatable Poison for the Poor.” 1906 “Quackery.” Wikipedia. 6 Dec. 2005. 8 Dec. 2005 Hoyt, Cliff. Hoyt, Linda. “The Founder of the House 92 d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d ponds (Polhemus & Asquith 1996). Distribution and Thermoregulation in breeding habitats vary from species to species; some are restricted to high elevations, some to lower coastal Montane and Coastal elevations, and some even to the different islands (Polhemus & Asquith 1996). Species Of Native Damselflies are a very important species within an ecosystem because they are both terrestrial and Hawaiian Damselflies aquatic in different stages of their life; thus, they can be indicators of health in aquatic ecosystems from May 31, 2005 to August 5, 2005 (Polhemus 1997). A healthy aquatic ecosystem consists of native plant and animal species, with no pollution and other habitat degradation that threatens United States Geological Survey, the existence of the damselflies (DiSalvo 2003). Biological Resources Discipline Additionally, Hawaiian damselflies are a sensitive and useful source to measure global change in hydrologic systems in Hawai’i because they display strong by Shauna Tom, David Foote and Sharon Ziegler-Chong ecological interactions with other major components of communities along elevational gradients (USGS Abstract BRD). Thermoregulation in native Hawaiian damselfly A candidate endangered species, Megalagrion genus Megalagrion can be used to determine slight xanthomelas are often associated with anchialine changes in temperature in regards to global warming. ponds. Anchialine ponds are unique habitats because Hawaiian damselflies are an indicator species of they have no coastal connection to the sea, but still habitat health and degradation. Through field and lab demonstrate tidal fluctuations that influence salinity experiments the males and females of the Megalagrion gradients due to a subsurface connection (Chai 1989). calliphya and Megalagrion xanthomelas species were Due to many anthropogenic influences changing the found to have different thermoregulatory processes anchialine pool ecosystems as well as the introduction due to their different colorations and place in which of non-native predators such as mosquito fish and they inhabit. The temperature differences exhibited guppies, many rare anchialine pool species such as by different sexes and between two female color crustaceans and invertebrates are threatened and of morphs show that there is a significant difference, and concern. may be the cause of their different behavior choices. In previous population density experiments conducted along the Hilo coast in the summer of Introduction 2004, Lori Tango found that there were more male The endemic Hawaiian damselfly genus M. xanthomelas perched in the sun while the female Megalagrion, order Odonata, family Coenagrionidae congregated in the shade. From these observations, inhabits the most isolated archipelago in the world she speculated that the two sexes have different and is a spectacular group that is valuable for thermoregulatory processes. Thermoregulation is the biological research. Megalagrion damselflies have maintenance of temperature by active behavioral or radiated from a single ancestor into 23 species physiological responses of an organism in its natural occupying a wide range of aquatic habitats (Polhemus environment independent of the environmental 1997). Hawaiian damselflies have a diverse range of temperature (May 1979). The ability of an organism coloration from red, black, orange, yellow, blue, and to thermoregulate depends on the ability of the green (Polhemus & Asquith 1996). In some species organism to control the amount of heat stored in the males are different colors or shades than the the body. Light preferences and thermoregulatory females, which makes observation very interesting processes may affect the color of males and female (Polhemus & Asquith 1996). They have undergone Megalagrion, and these patterns may also change with a spectacular adaptive radiation into many different elevation. It was hypothesized that there would be habitats including streams, waterfalls, rainforest, a difference in thermoregulation rates between male reservoirs, cattle ponds and coastal anchialine and female M. calliphya and M. xanthomelas. It is also 93 hypothesized that the green female M. calliphya color hour, five minutes after starting the experiment. The morph will have a higher body temperature than the “HOBO U12 J, K, S, T” thermocouple data logger was red female M. calliphya color morph. then programmed to a delayed start to give enough Using both field and lab experiments the specific time to set up the rest of the experiment. The first thermoregulation ability of both males and females part of the thermo-models using the “Onset 6’ Beaded in two different damselfly species, M. xanthomelas Type J” thermocouple was constructed by attaching it (coastal species) and M. calliphya (montane species) to the “HOBO” thermocouple data logger. One of the were examined. The majority of the testings damselflies from the selected pair was chosen; then were with M. calliphya, because they are the most a tiny incision on its right side was made allowing commonly found species on Hawai’i Island and not to easily insert the tip of the thermocouple into the a candidate endangered species like M. xanthomelas. damselfly. These steps were repeated for the other This experiment helped to explain habitat choice, damselfly. To complete the set of thermo-models, the behavior, and evolution of color differences between two damselfly thermo-models along with one without male and females. a damselfly attached to measure the ambient air temperature was needed. Materials & Methods A black piece of construction paper was placed Field Collection: under the lamp to resemble the black lava rock Four sites on Hawai‘i Island were selected to substrate damselflies would normally perch on. The collect Megalagrion damselflies. M. calliphya was set of thermo-models were placed onto the black collected at eleven artificial pools, set up by Idelle construction paper orientating the damselflies so they Cooper in 2002 outside of the research station at face the same direction, and are at the same height Hawai’i Volcanoes National Park (HAVO) at about of 10cm above the substrate. The final step to set up 3,500 feet and at a bog habitat above Kulani Prison the experiment was to place a wind block around at about 6,000 feet. Before and after collection, air the lamp and set of thermo-models using cardboard temperature, cloud cover, precipitation & wind were box with peep-holes so observations can be made quantifiably measured. The Beaufort Rain & Wind while the experiment is being conducted. All of scales were used to measure the precipitation and these steps to set up the experiment are done before wind. The damselflies were collected using fine the thermocouple loggers start logging (20min. is a meshed nets and transported into plastic containers sufficient amount of time). with a few blades of grass after capture. Upon After exposing the thermo-models for an hour capture, color, sex and behavior were noted. M. to the different light intensities, the thermocouple xanthomelas was collected at anchialine pools at data loggers were connected to a computer and data Ninole, Ka’u and at Kaloko-Honokohau Historical was imported into the “HOBOware” program. The National Park (KAHO) in Kona. The same materials “HOBOware” program provides a graph of the and methods for collecting M. calliphya were also used logged data from the whole experiment. To get a to collect M. xanthomelas. graph of specific times and intervals, the data was exported into “EXCEL,” made into spreadsheets and Lab Test Trials & Observations: graphs to be analyzed later. After collecting male & female M. calliphya, After data was imputed into the computer, they were transported back into the field lab in damselflies were emovedr from the thermocouples to plastic containers or collecting nets to conduct the be measured again on the scale. If both damselflies thermoregulation experiments. Before making were alive after the experiment, they would be reused the thermo-models, they were each weighed by again to run another experiment. If they were dead, placing a piece of paper over the live damselfly on they were scanned using a “HP Scan Jet 5300C” a Denver Instrument Company A-200DS scale to scanner. The pair along with a ruler placed upside measure their mass before exposing them to different down was scanned into the “HP Precision Scanning” light intensities to find out if desiccation from light program. The damselflies were placed as straight as exposure would have a great affect on their mass. possible and labeled. The “dpi setting” was set at Depending on the damselflies caught, a pair of 1200, and it was scanned as a “color photograph.” damselflies were selected to test. The testing is done After scanning the image of the damselflies and part on a green female & red female, a green female & red of the ruler, it was cropped, and saved as a “jpeg” file. male or a red female & red male. After selecting a pair, the “Intermatic DT17C” timer was programmed to turn on and off the “plant grow” lamp for an 94 Field Test Trials & Observations: When comparing the red M. calliphya females After collecting males and females, they were with red M. calliphya males, the females had a higher set-up in the same way as in the lab trials, except body temperature than the red M. calliphya males 4 they were turned up so the left side of their thorax out of 5 of the lab trials with a “z” value of 2.035 and would face the sun. The trial was only conducted for a “p” value of 0.042. In the outdoor trials comparing 10 minutes instead of the full hour. After the trials the red M. calliphya females with the red M. calliphya the data was also imported into the computer to males, the red M. calliphya females had a higher body make graphs and they were also scanned. The field temperature 4 out of 6 times with a “z” value of 1.177 comparisons were able to validate differences we saw and a “p” value of 0.239. in the lab between sexes and species. The results from outdoor shade trials conducted on M. xanthomelas showed that the red M. xanthomelas Statistical Analysis: male had a similar body temperature to the tan M. Field and lab data was analyzed first with xanthomelas female. In the outdoor trials, the red M. “Wilcoxon” tests in “SYSTAT 11.0” to see how many xanthomelas male had a higher body temperature than times one had a higher temperature than the other. the tan M. xanthomelas female. Those numbers were then analyzed using “Z-test” in “SYSTAT 11.0” to determine “z” & “p” values and Discussion if there was a difference in thermoregulation rates When conducting experiments in the lab, the data between sexes and species. need to be analyzed very carefully. It had to be taken into consideration the possibility of complications the Results results may encounter when using artificial habitats Through the data and graphs from the lab trials to run the trials. The “plant-grow” lamp was used for M. calliphya, it was found that the ambient air to replicate the sun, but the light was dispersed temperature was always lower than the damselfly unevenly and the placement of the damselflies had a body temperature. M. xanthomelas was never tested tremendous effect on individual body temperatures. in the lab, but for the outdoor sun trials the ambient The lamp also heated up very quickly, so desiccation air temperature was always lower than the damselfly of the damselflies under the lamp may have skewed body temperature for both M. xanthomelas and the data slightly. M. calliphya. In outdoor shade trials the ambient Although only a few outdoor trials were air temperature was higher than the damselfly conducted, we were able to obtain more conclusive body temperature for M. xanthomelas. The body results than the lab trials. The first 15 minutes of the temperatures for M. calliphya had increased slowly lab trials seem to correlate with the trials conducted over time with each trial conducted in the lab. outdoors, so when analyzing the data Experiments comparing a live damselfly with a dead and graphs, only the first 15 minutes of the lab trials damselfly had shown that the live damselflies had a were used. higher body temperature than the dead damselflies The green M. calliphya female morphs had a for three replicates of female M. calliphya. higher body temperature than the red M. calliphya When comparing green M. calliphya females to red females, which may be one reason the green female M. calliphya females the green M. calliphya female morphs are rarely found at higher elevations due morphs had a higher body temperature 8 out of the to their coloration absorbing more heat at sites 10 lab trials with a “z” value of 2.878 and a “p” value with higher maximum solar radiation. Results of of 0.004. The green M. calliphya females had a higher temperature experiments on M. calliphya were similar body temperature than the red M. calliphya females to those for M. xanthomelas, which may be due to the 2 out of the 3 outdoor trials with a “z” value of 0.832 similar colorations of both females and males. With and a “p” value of 0.405. the similar results of M. calliphya and M. xanthomelas When comparing green M. calliphya females with we were able to conclude that may have been the red M. calliphya males, the green M. calliphya females reason the male M. xanthomelas were in the sun while had a higher body temperature than the red M. the female M. xanthomelas were in the shade. calliphya males in 9 out of the 11 lab trials with a “z” value of 3.235 and a “p” value of 0.001. In the outdoor trials, the green M. calliphya females had a higher body temperature than the red M. calliphya males 3 out of 3 trials with a “z” value of 3.848 and a “p” value of 0.000. 95 REFERENCES Chai, D. K. 1989. An Inventory and Assessment Polhemus, D. A. 1997. Damsels in distress: a review of Anchialine Pools in Hawai’i Volcanoes of the conservation status of Megalagrion National Park from Waha’ula to Ka’aha, Puna damselflies (Order: Coenagrionidae). and Ka’u, Hawai’i. Cooperate National Park From the World Wide Web: http://www. Resources Studies Unit, Technical Report 69. bishopmuseum.org/research/natsci/ento/ University of Hawai’i at Manoa Department Megalagrion/htmlPages/Mega01.shtml of Botany, Honolulu. Polhemus, D. A. and Adam Asquith. 1996. Hawaiian DiSalvo, C., Orr, R., & Foote, D. 2003. Dragonflies Damselflies:A Field Identification Guide. And Damselflies: Invertebrate Indicators Of Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. Ecological Health. NPS Natural Resource Year In Review p. 86-87. USGS BRD Project Summary. Developing A Listening Post In The Tropical Pacific: Sensitivity Of May, M. L. 1979. Insect Thermoregulation. Ann. Rev. Hawaiian High-Elevation And Aquatic Entomol. 24: 313-49. Ecosystems To Global Change p. 3-4. 96 d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d If considered for even a brief amount of time, it is Thought vs. Life obvious that all of these questions are really one set, not two. How those two words are mutually exclusive by the inclusion of another: Evolution If it is not readily apparent to you why this is, then consider this: since as far back as the ancient by Raphael D. Chenault Mesopotamians, and quite probably before, religion explained the laws of physics. It explained the Social hot-button issues are always that: hot-button creation of the universe, how and why the sun rises issues. You can never walk into a populated room and sets, why water is important to us, how the with an opinion on one and expect complete human body works, the causes of illnesses, and agreement from everyone. Worse, if you were to many other questions now answered by science and do just that, it would be best to walk into that room commonly accepted by the general populace. What with a flame-retardant suit to shield yourself from used to be accepted fact is now viewed as ridiculous the inflammatory remarks about to be brought down ancient religious belief, in favor of a physical, upon you like a napalm firestorm. observable, testable explanation. The problem is religion. Not to knock it or degrade Even science of the past is viewed today as laughably those who have it. Not at all. In fact, I have true stupid. The cause of malaria? Certainly not what admiration for those who can honestly believe its Latin roots would imply (mal = bad, aria = air), something based purely on faith with no physical and what was believed to be the cause when the explanation. There are many things which science disease first started afflicting workers and soldiers will never be able to explain, so these questions will since the beginning of time, but microscopic protozoa never have physical answers. To have the faith to carried by mosquitoes, which feed on red blood cells, believe so strongly in any answer despite that is causing anemia. The proper way to treat a cold or flu? remarkable. Certainly not bleeding with leeches to release the evil spirits, as was the highly medically advanced ancient The problem with religion, however, is that it seems Greek custom, but rest and warm fluids. The correct to be an intrinsic human need. Human nature seems way to treat schizophrenia? Not electroshock therapy, to long for something, seek something that isn’t which was the only way to deal with such people and obviously there. Religion goes back to the beginning expect any sort of results back in the forties through of humanity (either five thousand or five million the seventies, but through therapy and medication. years ago, depending on which bomb shelter you’ve crawled into). Even cave paintings seem to suggest Indeed, science has brought us many wonderful something bigger, something in the sky, a larger figure and fulfilling answers to many perplexing questions dominating over many smaller figures on the ground. which have haunted us for millennia. In fact, we now laugh and ridicule the peoples of old, finding Obviously, we, as humans, need an explanation. How it utterly ridiculous that “bad air” could cause a did we get here? Why are we here now? What are we disease. The closest we can even come to reproducing doing? How should we do it? Over the eons, those such a cause of illness is radiation and its subsequent questions have been tackled by the greatest minds in poisoning of all life near it, but even that we firmly history, recorded or not. understand. We shudder to think of using leeches to break holes in our skin to bleed out the evil spirits and Another set of questions that has historically been cure common illnesses. We feel a stab of pity for those teasing humanity is this one: How does the world poor psychotic or insane patients at mental hospitals work? Why does the sun give us life? How and why enduring hours and hours of electricity being jolted do our bodies work? Why do we get sick? Why do through their bodies to cure them of their insanity, we die? and a pang of rage at those “doctors” who inflicted such torture upon them. 97 Of course, now armed with modern science, we can Astronomy and biology are not the only fields of logically explain the true causes behind each of these science to have seen oppression by religious political problems. While science of the past is something to power. Chemistry and physics also saw their share be ashamed of, even lamented, science of the present of persecution and victimization from the churches in day is something to be lauded. The advancement power at various times. of computers specifically has allowed science to answer so many questions that in the past have been Religion and science are not always at odds, though, relegated to philosophy and theology. even when they do not corroborate each other. In fact, some ancient religious documents state things that So if science is such a powerful tool in attaining a true anyone with a basic grade-school education knows to understanding of the physical behavior and traits of be inaccurate. For instance, some ancient Polynesian the world, and indeed the universe, why is it accosted beliefs state that the world is held up by a series so when it attempts to explain the evolution of the of stakes in the sky, holding it up like a table. The universe and life within it? Christian bible repeatedly speaks of the four corners of the earth, implying the earth to be a flat, four-sided To understand that, we must first understand that surface. Ancient Babylonian beliefs stated that the this is not a new problem. Religion, and Christianity earth was actually the remains of a cracked skull, a in particular, has been restricting knowledge and remnant of a brutal, bloody fight between two deities. oppressing those who wish to disseminate it for centuries. Obviously, the world is not some flat surface held up, such as a table. We know this to be true simply Galileo springs immediately to most people’s minds. because we have cameras in orbit around the earth, Over the course of many years, he made a series of each of which has taken countless millions of pictures observations of Jupiter, one of the stars in the sky of its surface, revealing no such support stakes, and which changed position relative to the surrounding emphasizing beyond any doubt its spherical nature. stars. He observed that it was actually a large body with four moons that periodically circled it. With This leads us to the rather roundish shape of a skull. further observation, he noticed that Jupiter was Might the earth be an ancient skull? We might relatively close to our planet, and didn’t circle us surmise as such for a moment. However, if it is a at all as it should have, according to the geocentric skull, that means it was attached to a truly gargantuan thought of the time (with the earth as the center of living being. On what surface did this being live? the universe) enforced by the Catholic Church, but Space is not a surface; it is quite the opposite: space circled the sun. Armed with this new knowledge, is nothing. In fact, no such solid surface exists on he watched the sun’s motion around the earth and which such a being could possibly have ever existed. realized that such motion was not occurring at all, but Therefore, we can soundly discount this hypothesis that the earth was spinning, giving the illusion of an for the origin of the world. Further evidence against orbiting sun. This in turn allowed him to realize that this hypothesis comes from the fact that the belief the earth was actually orbiting the sun on a path that states that the skull was cracked and incomplete. As was significantly inside Jupiter’s. the world is a complete sphere, this is obviously not the case. He published his discoveries in a series of journals and was immediately arrested for heretical thought. This leaves us with the Christian belief of the Facing execution, he recanted his publications in world’s origin: Creation. Might the earth have been exchange for lifetime house arrest. willed into existence instantaneously, exactly as it is now? Might all life have appeared within the same Galileo was not the first to suggest a heliocentric week, exactly as we see it now? Might all this have model for our system of planets. Copernicus, an happened less than five thousand years ago? astronomer from the sixteenth century, faced similar challenges when he published his model of the solar Before I address such questions, I must first address system. He, however, was reluctant to publish his the idea of mythology. Specifically, I would like work not because he was afraid of religious officials, to define the word “myth” as the Miriam-Webster but because he did not think his work to be complete dictionary does. It states that a myth is “a usually enough. Though he was challenged by the church of traditional story of ostensibly historical events that the time, he did not care about it, and that makes him serves to unfold part of the world view of a people or rather unique in the history of science. 98 explain a practice, belief, or natural phenomenon.” try to figure out what happened so many billions of That is to say that a myth is a story that is accepted years ago so that our galaxy could give rise to a small and traditionalized by many (or all) of a group (or planet, which would later be called home by what several groups) of people. Further, it states that this is quite possibly the most intellectual species in our traditional story is these peoples’ way of explaining small orb’s history. something about the world. As such, my work directly contradicts the Christian We have many times heard of the phrase “creation myth of creation. Though I do not focus on the myth.” We have all heard about the Greek creation evolution of life, the evolution of the universe is my myth as children and readily accepted that it was prime focus, one into which I pour a large percentage actually not how the world was created. Many of my time. people who have studied ancient cultures have read about the Chinese creation myth, the Mesopotamian My colleagues and I spend many hours of our creation myth, the Egyptian creation myth and the time looking and thinking and number crunching Christian creation myth. and programming and talking and surmising, and ultimately, theorizing. And it’s not just us, either. Unfortunately for those who would thwart the Biologists do this, too. And chemists. And ecologists. advancement of science based on ideological belief, And for that matter, economists do it as well. a creation myth is exactly what the first chapter of Genesis actually is. The word “myth,” as defined As scientists, we spend the vast majority of our lives by what is quite likely the most famous and well- thinking about how things work, and a majority of read dictionary of the English language, perfectly that time goes into actually figuring it out. In that describes the Christian idea of creation. From a sense, science is very personal and selfish. We spend logical standpoint, it is grossly improbable. Why our time doing this because we are curious. We want must this myth be treated differently than the Greek to know. We are on a perpetual learning spree, eager or Mesopotamian or Egyptian or Polynesian ones? It to glean everything there is to know about everything. is almost exactly the same: a supernatural being lazily wills the world into existence and is pleased with However, for those scientists that choose to publish the result. If read with a logical mind, it is very, very their work, their time becomes a public service. They similar to creation myths from around the world. It share the knowledge which they gleaned with others, should, then, be scientifically treated like those other giving so many hours of their time away to those that creation myths: as a maximally unlikely and illogical might use it to do the same. We scientists are learners hypothesis which seeks to explain the origin of the for ourselves, but we are also teachers for the world. world and life within it. Unfortunately for those scientists who choose to While the debate which rages within the country is publish their work, they risk coming under fire from largely one of Biological Evolution vs. “Intelligent groups of people who know little to nothing of the Design” (which is Christian Creation with the word published work except that it violates their ideological “God” taken out to appease the constitutional belief. Lawsuits are consistently filed against separation of Church and State), the fact that ID is scientists from all fields by members of the religious given any merit whatsoever reaches beyond that political right, making anyone who has had to deal singular debate into all branches of legitimate, real- with such annoyances a modern-day Galileo. world-based science. While no scientist has had to face execution or arrest I myself will expound upon one which, to my because of published work for well over a century, knowledge, has not been touched upon before: persecution of the scientific community still exists. astronomy and cosmology, my own fields of study. We are forced to second-guess our choices to publish because our work may become the latest target for the I am a deep-sky astrophysicist. I make observations Creation movement. In a scientific world where the of the very edge of the universe, where it behaves as working slogan might as well be “Publish or Perish,” it did at its very beginning. My research is pooled in this is unpalatable. Peer-review journals criticize with that of many other astronomers, and together, we our work strongly enough that mediocre science attempt to explain what happened in the very early never gets published. To risk real, valid science not stages of the evolution of the universe. As a team, we making it out into the open because of a culture war is ridiculous. 99 To automatically invalidate our work simply because of a disagreeing four-thousand-year-old document written by some sexist patriarch that didn’t have a clue how the world actually works is a degradation of that public service which scientists provide, and I find it personally insulting. To call into question my own intellectual value simply because I choose to root myself in the real world and obtain all my knowledge from it is grossly castigating and defamatory. To point at a paragraph, a paragraph! of ancient text and use it as the truth of the matter to abrogate anything that might even slightly say differently casts away all my work as a cosmologist, and all that of those that have come before me, and I find it disgusting. [Editor’s Note: This is a position piece and does not necessarily reflect the views of Hohonu or the University of Hawaii.] 100 d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d the law will provide temporary respite from a cultural To Veil Or Not To practice that is oppressive to those women who are forced to wear the veil by male relatives (Kramer 8). Veil? Opponents of the law feel that it robs students of their right to freely practice their religion and, if the ban continues, it could further marginalize and ostracize by Aletha Dale McCullough the Islamic community in France. The potential consequences for female Muslim students are also For the past few decades the religion of Islam very grim (Eisenberg 2; Kramer 9; Richter 1). has been at the center of many international and While both sides of this issue present convincing controversial events. In the United States, the arguments, it is clear that this controversial law Nation of Islam and its leader, Louis Farakhan, obscures and neglects to address the political, advocate separatism based on religion and ethnicity. economic and social problems that plague the Thousands of Iranian refugees fled to Europe and Arab Muslim population in France and the French the United States when the secular government of government’s role in creating the current dire Iran was overthrown by Islamic fundamentalists. conditions that exist in these North African, Islamic The continuing conflict in Israel pits Jews against communities (Derakhshan 1; Kawwas 1; Moniquet Palestinians. Many acts of terrorism are linked to 3). Muslims who advocate a radical or extreme form Historically, the French government practices of Islamic worship; like the Taliban government secularism, which resembles the U.S. government’s of Afghanistan that helped Osama Bin Laden to policy of the separation of church and state (Ajbaili destroy the World Trade Center and cause the 1). Prior to the French Revolution in 1789, the French deaths of thousands of American civilians and the Crown routinely persecuted people of minority terrorists responsible for the Madrid bombing in faiths . The genocide of European Jews during WWII March 2004. The Western media tends to portray increased the French’s belief in secularism or ‘laicité’. Muslims as rabid terrorists who oppress women and Secular laws passed in 1789, 1881 and 1946 were are against peace and democracy. Many Westerners meant to foster a sense of national identity and are unaware of most Islamic religious practices and pride in being a French citizen. The underlying beliefs. The practice of veiling for Muslim women philosophy of laicité stresses that French citizenship is one of the few Islamic practices that Westerners takes pre-eminence over one’s ethnicity or religion are aware of, and for Westerners unused to this (Melkonian 1-2). The laicité law implemented in practice, it is seemingly associated with the seclusion September 2005 is designed to promote the goals of and oppression of Islamic women (“Education- On secularism in the French public schools (Eisenberg Allowing” 2; Landor 1). In recent months this practice 1; Ajbaili 1). The law clearly states, “In public of veiling has received much media attention since elementary schools, middle schools and high schools, the French government passed “Article 141-5-1 of it is forbidden to wear symbols or clothes through Law No. 2004-2008”, which bans the wearing of which students conspicuously...display their religious religious clothing and symbols in public schools affiliation” (Kramer 3). (Kramer 3). Despite the fact that this law also Although this new law prohibits the display of prohibits the display of crosses, yarmulkes and Sikh all religious symbols, its main targets are Muslim turbans, the law is informally referred to as the ‘veil girls who wear the Islamic veil or head scarf. That law’, since its main purpose is to prevent the wearing is why the law is commonly referred to as the “veil of veils or head scarves by female Islamic students law” (Kramer 3; Lerougetel 2). There are 5 to 6 million (Kramer 3; Lerougetel 2; “Wearing The Veil” 1). Muslims in France, and the government estimates that The law faces both strong support and opposition. 50 to 80% of women in these Islamic communities Supporters of the law feel that it promotes the secular wear the veil (Moniquet 1). Prior to the September principles of the French government and that its law, 1000 to 2000 girls wore head scarves to school implementation will help to integrate Islamic students (Derakhshan 3). The number of women who wear into French society, giving them a sense of French the veil has noticeably increased in the last ten years. identity (Eisenberg 1; Melkonian 2). It is also felt that The French government feels that this increase in 101 veiling is linked to a growing acceptance of Islamic which exclude and oppress women are wrong and fundamentalism in Muslim communities across need to be challenged (Kramer 9). In Kramer’s article Europe (Bryant 2; Moniquet 1). Since 9/11 and the “Taking the Veil”, a French school principal states subsequent military occupations of Afghanistan and why she voted for the ‘veil law’; “These children are Iraq, French Muslims have become more vocal in not integrated. I see the veil as more about social expressing dissatisfaction with French government exclusion...The time you’re in school should be free. policies that affect them and Muslims in other parts Muslim girls should be given the choice to be free of the world. An increase in acts of anti-Semitism, the young women. And the law was aimed at protecting formation of “Islamist political parties”, the growing the minds of those girls” (11). popularity of imams with strong fundamentalist Supporters of the ‘veil law’ present some beliefs and the increasing number of Muslim youth convincing arguments for their position. The being arrested for terroristic activities, all indicate practice of secularity is supposed to ensure that that the French government has a serious problem state interests do not influence religious interests on its hands. French Intelligence estimates that out and vice versa. It also protects citizens’ right to of the 300,000 Islamic fundamentalists living in practice their faith without interference from the France, 9,000 are “potentially dangerous” (Moniquet government. However, the French government is 2). French officials hope that this ban on the veil not completely uninvolved in its country’s religious will remove the issue of religious identity from the affairs and it’s policy of ‘laicité’ is described as a classroom and help Muslim youth integrate and see ‘myth’ by Law professor, Jeremy Gunn (Ajbaili themselves as French citizens. (Eisenberg 1; Kramer 2). Some of the french government’s non-secular 4). In her article, “Taking The Veil”, Kramer identifies activities include its ownership of Catholic churches, the French government’s secularist principles behind providing over 80% of funding for private religious the ‘veil law’ and the role that the school environment schools and acknowledging religious holidays as plays in the integration of foreign students; “it begins state holidays . The government has even provided with school, that “France” is an idea of citizenship, funding for the construction of mosques in the Arab an identity forged in the neutral space of its public ‘cités’ (Derakhshan 2; Ajbaili 2). In addition, by schools. ...There is really no place for religious prohibiting students from wearing religious clothing expression or exceptionalism in those public schools” and symbols, the ‘veil law’ contradicts the secularist (2). principles of “freedom of speech, belief and thought” The ‘veil law’ also attempts to address the and “freedom of religion and its expression in society” problems that school administrators encounter with (Derakhshan 2). In recent months, many Muslim girls a growing number of female Muslim students. in France have gone to school wearing head scarves, Some school officials see the veil as symbolic of as a way of protesting the law’s violation of their the oppression that these young girls face at home religious freedom (Richter 3). and in their communities. Due to the increasing The government’s wish to integrate Islamic youth popularity of Islamic fundamentalism, some girls are into French society is also a commendable idea. Many forced to wear the veil by male relatives and male French Arab youth feel excluded from mainstream classmates. Many of these girls are not allowed to French culture and to remove a visible difference study biology or participate in P.E., and will not read like the veil may help increase their interactions with atheist philosophers like Voltaire (Bryant 2; Eisenberg their non Muslim peers. However, the ‘veil law’ 3; Kramer 7). Life is growing more difficult for these could actually have the reverse effect of increasing young women. In the Islamic ghettoes or ‘cités’ the alienation and exclusion felt by many French unveiled young women suffer verbal and physical Arab youth. Even the unofficial nomenclature of the abuse, gang rape and even death at the hands of law, the ‘veil law’ specifically targets Islamic youth Muslim youth in their communities. Women are and highlights their differences from other French not allowed to be examined by male doctors and youth. In this potentially uncomfortable environment, arranged marriages, polygamy and female genital Islamic youth may continue to reject European values mutilation are not uncommon in these ‘cités’ (Kramer and mores and immerse themselves even deeper in 7; Moniquet 1). Many school officials and female the beliefs of Islamic fundamentalism. politicians feel that the ‘veil law’ will give some The law does offer a solution for Muslim girls temporary autonomy to female Islamic students, and who do not want to wear the veil at school. And, liberate them from having to wear this symbol of their in fact, some Muslim feminists and community oppression. It is hoped that the implementation of the leaders support the law (Bryant 2; Eisenberg 3). This ‘veil law’ will send a message that Islamic practices opportunity to remove their scarves can be liberating 102 for the girls who face intense pressures to adhere school wearing a hijab (“Wearing the veil” 1). The to fundamental Islamic practices. However, some Court’s decision recognized that the student “had parents have forbidden their daughters to remove been unfairly excluded from school ...and that her their scarves. These girls are suspended and are forced school had denied her right to practice her religious to leave school. Suspension from school denies these beliefs”, thus allowing her to return to school wearing girls access to education and increases their “social a garment that indicates her religious beliefs (1). exclusion” by confining them to the ‘cités’. Some The law is also being criticized by human rights fathers want their daughters to drop out of school, so activists and some french feminists. The ‘veil law’ is that they can marry them off to North African men, seen as restricting Muslim girls’ freedom of religion eager to gain access to French work permits and visas and beliefs (Landor 2; Kawwas 2). Critics of the (Eisenberg 1; Kramer 9). When this occurs, Islamic law feel that it goes against the policy of religious girls are being doubly oppressed by their families and tolerance that is espoused by the European Union their schools. At home and in the community, they are (Bryant 1). While many feminists support the law, forced to wear the veil and at school, they are forced some French feminists, including female politicians, to remove the veil. Under these conditions these girls feel that the law adds another layer of oppression to are never “free” (Kramer 11). Islamic women who face tremendous pressure in their In France, opponents of this law come from all communities to wear the veil. The law’s potential to sectors of the community. Many Muslim women in deny Muslim girls an education is very real and so France feel that the ‘veil law’ prevents Muslim girls far 36 Muslim girls have been expelled from school from practicing their faith. While it is true that some (Eisenberg 3; Kramer 9). Muslim women are pressured into veiling by male The main criticism of this law is that it fails to family members, many Muslim women’s choice to recognize the French government’s role in creating veil is self motivated and voluntary. These women the problems that plague the Islamic ghettoes or veil because they feel the practice is a necessary ‘cités’ of France. Immigrants from France’s colonies part of their faith and symbolizes their “personal came to Europe in the 1960’s to fill the demand for relationship to God” (Richter 1; Kramer 1). For some cheap and unskilled labor. Most of these immigrants women, veiling is “a personal choice” and the ‘veil were African Muslims from Algiers. These people law’ infringes on their “personal freedom” (Bryant have always experienced discrimination and 2-3). In Eisenberg’s article, “France’s secularism: exclusion in France. Most French Arabs live in an uneasy fit”, an American Muslim woman living government housing projects that are essentially in France feels that the ‘veil law’ ignores the mores slums. Life in these Islamic ghettoes is unbearable. and practices of Islamic women; “I’m upset and High unemployment and crime, lack of higher I’m outraged...I started wearing the veil because I education and a scarcity of social services is a way of thought it was the right thing to do...It serves to cover life in the ‘cités’. In the past the French government my hair and my ears and my neck. The idea is that has done little to help these communities, much a woman’s beauty shouldn’t be available for public less integrate them into French society (Kramer 7; consumption” (2). Moniquet 3).The ostracism and racism that these The ‘veil law’ is indicative of Westerners’ people have encountered in France has created a ignorance and fear of the Islamic religion and cultural fertile environment for Muslim imams (theologians) practices. In France, many people associate the veil who preach Islamic fundamentalism (Moniquet 3). with Islamic fundamentalism and feel that Muslim Young Muslim men born in France, but who see women should not be allowed to wear the veil in no place for them in French society, are attracted public (Bryant 1). Germany’s population of 3.2 million to this fundamental form of Islam. This promotes Muslims has to deal with laws that prohibit veiling practices that tend to seclude and oppress women, in schools, public buildings and hospitals . Muslims like polygamy, arranged marriages, female genital that protest these laws encounter secularist arguments mutilation, female seclusion and the wearing of Hijab similar to the ones that the French Muslims face or head scarves for Muslim women (Kramer 9). (Richter 1-2). The battle to wear the veil is being While the Quran does stipulate that Muslim fought all over Europe with mixed results. The Danish men and women should dress modestly, it does not Supreme Court ruled in favor of a business that fired require women to wear a veil. The practices of veiling a Muslim girl who refused to stop wearing her veil and purdah (female seclusion), were “social habits”, at work (“Okay To Sack” 1). The British High Court borrowed from the patriarchal empires of Byzantium delivered a verdict that contradicts the ‘veil law’, and Persia (Riphenburg 163). So the argument when it ruled that a Muslim student could return to that veiling serves a religious purpose is debatable. 103 However, when one considers that Muslim women integrate the Arab Muslim community or curtail the in Lebanon and more recently Turkey, wear the veil discrimination that they endured in France. Over as an expression of cultural identity and to declaim 5 million Muslims live in France, yet they are very Western Imperialism, one can understand how under represented in the French government (Kramer Muslim women in France may wear the veil as a form 7; Landor 2; Moniquet 3). In a Capitol Hill Hearing of social and political protest (Hijab 48; “Wearing the Testimony concerning the rise in Islamic extremism in veil” 2). In recent months, Islamic girls who usually Europe, Claude Moniquet, the head of the European would not wear the veil have gone to school wearing Strategic Intelligence and Security Center admitted the veil to protest a law that they feel persecutes and that the government’s (lack of) social policies has discriminates against the Arab Muslim community contributed to the rise in Islamic extremism in Europe: in France (Landor 3). The association between “Sadly we must observe that, historical or not , veiling and Islamic extremism is also unfair. The Muslim immigration was not welcomed in Europe. condemnation of Muslims for the kidnaping of French Racism and exclusion were a reality, ...until very journalists by the Islamic Army in Iraq illustrates recently (in fact the nineties) absolutely nothing was how many Muslims oppose acts of terrorism. The done to help them integrate. This is the European kidnapers’ demand for the repeal of the ‘veil law’ in reality and the European shame. We must live with it exchange for the journalists’ release was met with and we are paying for it” (3). disapproval from Muslim leaders in France and the In my examination of this issue, I have come to Middle East, who, despite their opposition to the ‘veil the conclusion that the ‘veil law’ has the potential law’, demanded the immediate release of the hostages to increase rather than decrease the social exclusion (Lerougetel 2-3). of the Islamic community in France. The law The ‘veil law’ violates International and criminalizes the veil and this may increase the European laws concerning freedom of beliefs and prejudice that already exists against French Muslims religion. The European Union’s Court of Human and encourage Muslims to further reject Western Rights and the International Code of Human Rights values in favor of fundamentalist beliefs and practices. both contain laws that guarantee religious freedom. If the government is worried about the increasing A ban on the visible display of religious clothing and trend towards Islamic extremism, it needs to address symbols is contrary to these laws (Bryant 1; Kawwas and redress the social, economic and political 2). The feminists who oppose the law recognize that inequities that the Arab community has endured in expelling Muslim girls from school could increase France. If oppressive cultural practices worry French their social isolation and exclusion, creating a politicians, feminists and school administrators, situation, where even if they wanted to, they would expelling students who wear the veil is going to harm have little choice but to accept cultural practices that young women by denying them education, increasing were oppressive and harmful to women (Derakhshan their chances of being victimized by these practices. 5; Eisenberg 3; Kramer 9). Feminist writer, Claude It seems that the best way to promote integration and Servan-Schreiber was told by many Muslim girls, create a sense of French identity would be a policy of “If you forbid the veil, my parents send me away inclusion that accepts and tolerates Islamic people, to North Africa to be married off” (Kramer 9). their religious beliefs and practices. However, I do Statements like this have convinced many feminists recognize the necessity of protecting Arab girls from to protest the ‘veil law’ which they view as harming the abuses they suffer if they do not wear the veil rather than helping French Islamic girls. and from practices like female genital mutilation and The argument that the government is responsible marriages against their will, but these practices have for the dire conditions that exist in the ‘cités’ and more to do with culture than religion. Hopefully, the subsequent rise in Islamic fundamentalism is as the Arab communities become more absorbed apparent when one looks at the French policies into the European community, they will abandon concerning its African immigrants. These immigrants these harmful practices. The debate about the ‘veil who came to France in the 1960s, were never given the law’ highlights the post-colonial effects of European rights of full citizens, despite their claim to citizenship imperialism and colonization. If this law had been as a result of French colonization. The first groups implemented when the Arabs first came to Europe, of Algerian immigrants were not even allowed to the Muslim community may have been much more bring their families. The ‘cités’ built by the French complacent and resigned to accepting it. However, government confined the Arabs to the outskirts of in these post-colonial times, colonized peoples are French towns and effectively excluded them from using the tools of their oppressors, such as the media, French society. The French government did little to political protest and social activism to demand 104 equality and a recognition that they have earned the same freedoms and rights as everyone else. WORKS CITED Ajbaili, Mustapha. “Speaker Analyzes French, U.S. Landor, Jeremy. “Accessorizing Or Secularizing?” Responses To Secularism At U. Arkansas.” Al-Ahram Weekly. November 13-19, Arkansas Traveler. February 7, 2005. 2003. Google. U.H. Hilo Library. April LexisNexis. U.H. Hilo Library. April 28, 2005. 19, 2005. Derakhshan, Azar. “The Law Forbidding The Veil On Melkonian, Lilya. “French First, Religion Second?” France: A Veil On Reality!” Teen Speak. Google. U.H. Hilo Library. April 21, 2005. 105 d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d Table 1 BMI Levels and corresponding levels of obesity. Weight Source: American Obesity Society, 2003; Chernov, 2003. Discrimination: BMI Level Weight Measurement The Effects of Obesity 20-25 Normal Weight 26-29 Overweight on Employment and 30-39 Obese Promotion 40+ Morbidly Obese Yet what causes or even compounds obesity? by Andrea E. Chernov According to Dr. Allan Chernov, obesity within the United States occurs through an increased caloric Introduction intake and decreased physical activity. Also, certain The concerns over obesity continue to grow in the metabolic conditions2 compound obesity, making it United States, particularly in discrimination. Weight- easier to gain and harder to lose weight. However, based discrimination continues to receive increasing these conditions do not directly cause obesity, only attention, especially in the legal area. The controversy compound it (2003). James G. Frierson concurs, revolves around whether weight-based employment saying that factors such as low metabolism can also discrimination exists. This paper explores this influence obesity (2003). discrimination through its purpose: describing the Obesity is a major health concern and a extent, the reasons, the job placement factors, gender large factor in the contraction of diseases such as related discrimination, and the legal aspects of weight hypertension3, diabetes, and heart disease (Neumark- based discrimination Sztainer, 1999). For example, coronary artery First, this paper examines the definition of disease, medically referred to as atherosclerosis, is obesity, the various ways of illustrating it, and other compounded by obesity through the association of basic information on obesity. Next is how general elevated cholesterol levels in the bloodstream and public opinion provides the basis of discrimination. Type II Diabetes Mellitus (Chernov, 2003). Also, Finally, the paper discusses the actual employment greater weight levels increase stress on the skeleton, discrimination and gender related problems, ending increase the chances of getting or worsening arthritis, with the legal views of weight-based employment and increase the chances of skin irritation and discrimination. infections (Chernov, 2003). Background of Obesity Evidence of Social Discrimination Formally defined, obesity is the condition Social stigmatization of obesity stems from characterized by excessive bodily fat. Obesity is also societal values on body type. This stigmatization can defined as weighing higher than a Body Mass Index1 cause weight-based discrimination in employment weight of 25 kg/m2 in the United States (Campbell, and is not universally illegal. Society has the biggest 1999). BMI values stand on several different levels, influence on discrimination. with specific meaning towards a person’s degree “Children as young as 6 describe silhouettes of obesity. Table 1 presents the different BMI levels of the obese child as ‘lazy’, ‘dirty’, ‘stupid’, ‘ugly’, and their indications. BMI numbers are useful in ‘cheats’, and ‘lies’….children and adults rate the obese assessing a person’s weight because height is taken child as the least likable…”(Stunkard, 1985, pg. 1062). into account, though build is not considered (Chernov, Even the obese find themselves disgusting, thinking 2003). that the rest of society views them in contempt; this feeling has a high occurrence in women and especially adolescent girls (Stunkard, 1985). These views come from an idea that obesity is something people chose by eating too much and not exercising enough (Food, 1995). 107 The terms above are not the only names people associates to be viewed as less than the best of the think of when it comes to the obese. “’incompetent’ main company (1996). and ‘indulgent’” (Crossrow, 2001, pg. 208) are two Employers concern themselves more with the fact more. Joseph Bellizzi and Ronald Hasty found that that customers may not buy products from an ugly obese people have been described as having a weak salesperson than with abilities of the obese applicant will, possessing great amounts of guilt, not worth (Bellizzi, 1998). Many hiring decisions may be based trust, and blamable (1998). Society often has a low on whether the applicant fits a representational image opinion of those who are obese yet a high opinion or specific mental projection of the job (Larkin, 1979). of the thin. People who are thin are come across as How the selling environment is perceived may be good-looking, vigorous, and doers (Frierson, 1993). one of the bigger factors for not hiring obese people Nicole Crossrow et.al found that people with (Bellizzi, 1998). Image is a reason that obese people obesity have a lower likelihood of getting service than are not wanted as employees. thin people. Within the focus group used in the study, there were feelings that salespeople were less likely Insurance Costs and Future Health Conditions to help and waitpersons spoke and assumed before Most often, the public sees the health of obese thinking. The waitperson would ask if the customer people as decreased. Many employers foresee received the light menu or assumed the customer costs associated with the obese: insurance premium wanted Diet Coke (2001). These characterizations increase, increase in absences, and having to pay for of and actions towards the obese provide a basis for special accommodations (Roehling, 1999). In fact, employment discrimination. many employers do not want to hire obese people because of increasing costs of health care (McEvoy, Discussion: Employment Discrimination 1992). Employment provides an outlet for social According to Dr. Chernov, healthcare costs have discrimination. There is evidence that obesity causes risen an estimated 12-15% per year, which is higher discrimination in work settings. With different than the inflation rate in the United States. The higher reasons relating to obesity, employers have specific costs of health insurance could cause employers to ways to avoid hiring obese people. Job placement drop health insurance plans or try to lower health care and promotion are affected by obesity and gender costs by only hiring people with fewer health risks. compounds weight discrimination. This latter reason stands on the logic that the healthier a workforce is, the less health care costs will be. In Why do Employers not hire those who are Obese? many cases, employers will stop covering certain Stereotypes can lead employers not to hire an things like morbid obesity surgery (2003). obese person. People who are obese are seen as “less However, employers assume that obese people desirable employees who, compared with others, are or will become less healthy, thus affecting the are less competent, less productive, not industrious, health care costs. An example from Sharlene A. disorganized, indecisive, inactive, and less McEvoy is the case of State Division of Human Rights on successful..” (Larkin, 1979, pg. 315-316). Employers Complaint of Catherine McDermott v. Xerox Corporation. have three main reasons to not hire an obese person. The Xerox Corporation refused to employ McDermott Employers use store image, insurance costs and future because of the higher likelihood she would have health conditions, and physical limitations as reasons future health impairments. Even though there was not to hire obese people. nothing wrong with McDermott at that moment, she should not be hired because of future health problems Image (1992). Employers may be able to get away with using Yet, one cannot tell who will develop a disease appearance as an excuse because it only becomes a because of obesity and many obese will live a life problem if combined with an already protected class4 without contracting obesity-related diseases (Allison, (Roehling, 1999). The salesperson’s appearance may 2001). Dr. Chernov agrees, saying that a person who have an effect on a store’s image. A study done by has a higher risk of getting certain diseases just means Dennis Clayson et. al shows three student perceptions that he/she has a greater chance of getting these of stores with an obese sales associate. First is that the diseases. It does not mean an obese person will get store was not as successful as other stores. Second, the diseases or that a thin person will not (2003). students perceived store management as having a lower effectiveness compared to other stores. Third, one obese sale associate causes the other sales 108 Physical Limitations an obese person, but place them in a job that required According to Sharlene A. McEvoy, physical less contact with the general public? The answer: yes. limitations of an obese person may be the most A study found that people who were seen as obese legitimate reason not to hire an obese person. were fit for challenging jobs when it involved sales Physical fitness can be pertinent to jobs connected via the telephone (Bellizzi, 1998). Employers would with strenuous physical activity (1992). There are not place obese employees in a place to interact with several examples of these jobs. First, policemen, the general public because of the belief that customers firemen, and military jobs require physical fitness in may not want to do business with ugly obese people order to get through the training regimen required (Bellizzi, 1998). (Chernov, 2003). Another study has found that the perception Dr. Chernov illustrates the second example. Lance of store success and the store’s image are affected Armstrong’s trainer, Chris Carmichael, has calculated negatively by obese employees (Clayson, 1996). Also, the effect of the Tour de France winner gaining the overweight people were rated lower for placement 20 pounds that Lance Armstrong lost during cancer in a job specifically described as sales job but were therapy. If Armstrong gained that weight back, it rated equally for a general position (Roehling, 1999). would take him 3 minutes longer to do one of the Face to face contact causes discrimination in the Hors Category climbs of the Tour. These climbs job placement of obese people. An obese person is are steep, winding, and quite difficult (2003). If less likely to receive a promotion recommendation Armstrong did gain those 20 pounds back, it would and even had less subordinate acceptance and self- cause his job performance to go down. confidence than other candidates for promotion A third example is that of the case Green v. Union (Bordieri, 1997). Pacific Railroad as described by Sharlene McEvoy. James G. Frierson describes the case of Gimello Union Pacific had set certain standards of physical vs. Agency Rent-A-Car systems, which illustrates fitness for the entire Union Pacific system. Each job employer-based promotion discrimination. The category had its own set of medical standards that employee, Gimello, was fired on the excuse that he all applicants must meet. Green applied to transfer was not performing his job. To the contrary, Gimello into the fireman’s job but was denied because he received commendations, raises in pay, a promotion had a weight problem, blood pressure on the verge and was evaluated well. The problem came when a of hypertension, and a spine with advance stages new regional director felt that Gimello should not be of osteoarthritis5. The courts agreed with Union promoted because he was oversized and overweight. Pacific because Green may not be efficient or safe in The director also claimed that Gimello’s weight his present physical condition (2001). Green’s health was problematic and that the employee was slobby might prevent him from doing his job well, so it (1993). Obese employees receive lower evaluations as makes sense for Union Pacific not to hire him. subordinates and are seen as undesirable coworkers However, employers have to be careful about (Roehling, 1999). using physical limitations as an excuse. Mark V. Roehling wrote about two court cases to illustrate Gender and Weight Discrimination this point. In both cases, the obese applicants were Obesity has become a major force in the hiring examined by employer selected doctors. These process. Yet there is a compounding factor in weight- doctors based their recommendations of not hiring based discrimination: gender. Gender may cause on obesity typecasts instead of on the applicants’ more discrimination than weight alone, as women actual job abilities. Also, many employers have denied have the most difficulty with their weight. Women overweight applicants jobs because of the perception with an ideal body type have a weight lower than the that the applicants could not do the job, not on the standard weight for females (Roehling, 1999). fact that they could not actually do the job (1999). In a focus group studying weight stigmatization, Also, employers may view a person’s mental power women reported having more negative experiences and abilities negatively, thus not hire (Bellizzi, 1998). than did men (Crossrow, 2001). Women tend to Employers may be able to use physical limitations as a fluctuate in weight and have a greater chance for reason, but this reason should be backed up. weight change; women also had worse physical functioning according to this weight change Weight, Job Placement, and Promotion (Hemingway, 1998). If an overweight person is hired, there is Women with a high employment factor, such as discrimination when it comes to job placement and being a full-time manager, had a lower possibility for promotion. The question is, would employers hire being obese and lower BMI than women who had a 109 lower employment factor (Ball, 2002). A survey found suspended or fired for weighing too much were flight that “16% of employers surveyed said they would attendants (1992). not hire obese women under any conditions, and an Other factors can show that women have a harder additional 44% would not hire them under certain time with jobs as overweight people. It has been circumstances” (Stunkard, 1985, pg. 1063). Gender shown that women who were even slightly obese itself has an effect because employers were less likely earned much less than non-obese women but there to hire women than men (Dugoni, 1994). was no difference between obese and non-obese men Since the 1970’s, there have been claims of weight- (Roehling, 1999). Another study showed that women based sex discrimination in the airlines (Frierson, who were obese or overweight experienced more 1993). Sharlene McEvoy provides the perfect example discrimination than men who were obese (Dugoni, of this. In the case Laffey v. Northwest Airlines, Inc., 1994). Laffey was a stewardess who claimed that weight restrictions for flight attendants were different for men Legal Decisions on Obesity Discrimination than women. If a female flight attendant exceeded Many cases about obesity discrimination have female weight restrictions, then the attendant would gone to trial. Most have stated that people cannot be either be suspended or fired. It was decided that discriminated against because their obesity constitutes the only reason for the airline to discriminate on the a disability. Yet, what is the definition of a disability? basis of weight would be if the women could not The American Disability Act and Rehabilitation act perform the job; thus in no other way could the airline define a disability as: discriminate against females on the basis of weight “(A) a physical or mental impairment that (1992). substantially limits one or more of the major A second example also comes from McEvoy. life activities6 of such individual; (B) a record American Airlines also placed weight restrictions of such an impairment; or (C) being regarded against female flight attendants, but their pilots had as having such an impairment” (Frierson, no weight restrictions. The airlines claimed that 1993, pg. 290) the sex-based weight limitations were attributable Many state laws agree with this statement, while to airline image and that an overweight flight others do not. Table 2 illustrates which states and U.S. attendant may not be able to perform the flight territories have laws that agree or disagree with the safety procedures. Also, the only ones who could be ADA and Rehabilitation Act disability definition. Table 2 Definitions of a disability and states that hold to those definitions. Adapted from: Frierson, 1993 Disability Definition States Handicapped employment laws that define Delaware, Hawaii, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, disability as the ADA and the Rehabilitation Act Massachusetts, Montana, Nevada, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, West Virginia States that define disability similarly to the ADA Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, Georgia, Idaho, and Rehabilitation Act Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, New Mexico, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Wisconsin States that broadly define a disability Connecticut, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Puerto Rico, Texas, Washington Outlaw handicapped employment Tennessee, Florida discrimination with no definition of disability Restrictive definition of disability South Carolina Law prohibiting employment discrimination California based on physical handicap or medical condition No laws Arkansas, Mississippi 110 In several cases, the plaintiff claimed protection Recommendations under the ADA, saying that obesity is a disability. Further study needs to be done on the According to James Frierson, the courts decided that psychological effects of weight-based discrimination obesity is not a disability because it is a voluntary on obese people and on the psychology of social and act and not caused by a physical problem, deformity, employment discrimination. Research also needs to be or loss of a body part. For obesity to be considered done in order to investigate the full extent of weight- a disability, it must be a disease or compounded by based discrimination. Studies should be done to see if health risks associated with it. The courts claimed other compounding factors, such as race and ethnicity, that obesity is caused by voluntarily overeating compound weight-based discrimination like gender (1993). does. Dr. Allan Chernov is not sure that obesity is Society must actively change the views on voluntary, but will agree that obesity is caused by body laid down in the past. Programs to increase increased calorie intake and a decreased amount of awareness of this discrimination and create positive exercise. He also believes that being morbidly obese body images must be implemented. The citizens of is a disability (2003). Being morbidly obese would the country must change their views and behave with severely limit a life activity, thus being protected acceptance. under the ADA and Rehabilitation Act. Several states need to actively change their laws. Frierson illustrates this with several examples. Legal change must occur in order to minimize the In New York and California, the courts decided that effects of weight-based discrimination in employment obesity was a disability. However, New York courts situations. Also, laws need to be enacted if a legal would not consider obesity as a disability in deciding district does not have any. Social and legal action a case. A New Jersey case defined who is disabled must be taken in order to eliminate weight-based under the ADA and the Rehabilitation Act. Oregon discrimination. Law states that obesity can be a disability if it causes a decline in life activities or if employers perceive it as such. Only two legal jurisdictions outlaw weight- based discrimination directly: Washington, D.C. and Michigan (1993). Conclusion Weight-based discrimination has become a prominent part of employers’ hiring decisions. Store image, rising health insurance costs, and physical limitations are a few of the excuses used by employers. Only the excuse of physical limitations may have any validity, if the job requires extraneous physical activity that the person cannot perform. The excuse about the negative store image is reinforced by the need to place obese people in jobs that require less face-to-face contact with the public. Employers are willing to put them in jobs such that do not require public contact with the employee. Employing obese women also seems to be an image problem for most employers. Unfortunately, there are few states that outlaw weight-based employment discrimination and just as few consider obesity disabling. Most courts and laws hold that obesity is a voluntary act, something the person chooses. Weight-based employment discrimination is a real problem that needs addressing. 111 REFERENCES Allison, D.B. & Heshka, S. (2001). Is Obesity a Food and Nutrition Board, Thomas, P.R. (Ed.). (1995). disease? International Journal of Obesity, 25, Weighing the Options: Criteria for Evaluating 1401-1404. Academic Periodical Search. 1 Weight-Management Programs. Washington, November 2003. D.C.: National Academy Press. American Obesity Association. “What is Obesity?” Frierson, J.G. (1993). Obesity as a Legal Disability November 4, 2003. Clayson, D., Klassen, M.L., & Jasper, C.R. (1996). Neumark-Sztainer, D. (1999). The weight dilemma: Perceived effect of a salesperson’s stigmatized A range of philosophical perspectives. appearance on store image: an experimental International Journal of Obesity, 23 (Suppl. 2), study of students’ perceptions. The S31-S37. Academic Periodical Search. 26 International Review of Retail, Distribution and October 2003. Consumer Research, 6(2), 216-224. Academic Periodical Search. 26 October 2003. Roehling, M. V. (1999). Weight-Based Discrimination in Employment: Psychological and Legal Chernov, Allan. Dugoni, B.L., Pingitore, R., Tindale, R.S., & Spring, B. (1994). Bias Against Overweight Job Applicants in a Simulated Employment Interview. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79(6), 909-917. PsycArticles. 1 November 2003. 112 FOOTNOTES 1 BMI is calculated through the following equation: weight (in kg)/height(in meters)2. To get the BMI in lb/in, the equation (weight (in lbs)/height(in inches)2) *704.5 is used. 2 For example, an underactive thyroid 3 Elevated blood pressure 4For example, gender 5 Degenerative disease of the joints, most especially the joints that bear weight 6 Something that a person without the extra weight could do with ease, such as “walking, standing, seeing, hearing, breathing…” (Frierson, 1993, 295). 113 d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d could become officers. The highest officer position Women’s Role in a woman could hold was that of the director of the women’s division of her particular service. This Combat: position would be temporary, lasting only four years. After her term was up, she would be either demoted, Is Ground Combat the or forced to retire. Women were banned from serving on combat ships and planes. Though it was not Next Front? specifically stated within the law, legislators intended to ban women from being placed near ground combat zones as well. Separate divisions (WAC, WAVES, and Sylvia Wan WAF) were also created to manage the female recruits. The restrictions created by this law might have Women in the United States have not been integrated women into the military, but women were traditionally thought of as combat soldiers. However, also placed within a separate class, without the same they have recently been allowed to serve in more opportunities as their male counterparts. combat positions than in any other time in our Most of these restrictions might sound absurd nation’s history. The only restriction that prevents now, but they were the reality for women up until women from being equal in the military is the ban on the mid-seventies. In 1978, the separate women’s women serving in ground combat positions. Is putting divisions of the services were abolished. The end of women in ground combat units merely the next these divisions signified a higher level of equality step? When asked about women in ground combat, for women in the services. By this time, the only President Bush summed up his policy in four words restriction left from Public Law 80-625 was the 1 “No women in combat.” President Bush’s stand is restriction barring women from serving on combat adamant against women serving in any combat role, ships and planes, as well as the unstated ban from especially ground combat positions. In every war ground combat positions. Due in part to women’s since WWII, presidents have had to tackle the issue of participation in Desert Storm, Congress repealed the women’s role in the military. last shred of Public Law 80-625 by allowing women to Women’s role in combat has been consistently serve in combat positions for the Air Force and Navy. changing from the founding of our country. The This removed the last legal barrier for placing women first role that women played in the military was the in combat. 4 role of volunteer nurses. By the time of the Civil As a result of the danger women encountered War, the presence of female nurses was an accepted while in support positions during Desert Storm, part of the military. In 1901, the Army established President Bush (Sr.) called for the Presidential the Army Nurses Corp, allowing women an official Commission on the Assignment of Women in the 2 position in the military. During WWII, the military Armed Forces (PCAWAF) in order to determine actively recruited women to fill manpower shortages, whether women should be placed in more combat especially in clerical and secretarial work. As is positions. According to the study, women did usually the case for women participating in war not meet the physical requirements of ground efforts, when the war ended, they were demilitarized combat positions, and their presence could also be 3 and returned to traditional civilian roles. detrimental to unit cohesion for a number of reasons. Since then, the major changes for women in The commission also determined that if women were the military came from the Women’s Armed Forces allowed into combat positions, there would no longer Integration Act PL 80-625. This act opened up many be any legal standing to prevent women from being more positions for women in the military. included in the next draft. With a 10 against and 2 In 1948 Public Law 80-625 gave women a abstentions, the commission voted against allowing permanent place, both active and reserves, within women to serve in ground combat positions.5 all four military services. However the law placed The largest portion of the PCAWAF was dedicated restrictions women as well, such as a two percent to testimony and tests that showed that women, as limit on the proportion of women to men allowed a whole, did not meet the requirements for various to enlist, and only ten percent of the female enlisted ground combat positions. These studies tested both 115 men and women who were given the same training dangers without feigning chivalry.”9 The trained and requirements to meet. Within these studies, the solider is accustomed to meager accommodations and women’s physical performances were about 70% that lack of privacy. In the event that women were present of the men’s performance. In response to the evidence in the units, operations and habits did not change. that some women did reach the physical standard, There have already been numerous reports of the PCAWAF stated, “There is little doubt that some sexual harassment and misconduct toward women in women could meet the physical standards for ground the military. However, the levels of sexual harassment combat, but the evidence shows that few women (and any other crime for that matter) in the military possess the necessary physical requirements.”6 Those are far lower than levels of the same crime in the for lifting the ban on combat exclusion say that with civilian sector. On a whole, women actually encounter extra training more women would be able to meet less sexual harassment in the military than in the the same physical requirements. In a study by the civilian sector. According to Miller, a sociologist, a Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, more common way for men showing resentment 78% of the participating women were able to lift 150 of women being in the military is through gender pounds off the ground to a height of fifty-two inches harassment. Constant scrutiny and sabotage are and could jog with 75 pound packs after six months examples of two forms of gender harassment women of physical training.7 The study showed that with endure when entering fields that are not traditional extra training, a large portion of women entering the for them. 10 Both of these methods generally force the military could be brought up to the same physical women to work harder, in order to earn the respect of standards as men. their male peers. 11 There is no way to regulate gender Despite the testimony and tests displaying that harassment because its methods are so subtle. Just as women (with the current levels of basic training) within the civilian world, given enough time, gender could not physically handle ground combat positions, harassment in the military will simply fade away as the damage to unit cohesion was the main reason the more women enter the military and can prove they commission voted for the ground combat exclusion. can work just as hard as their male counterparts. The commission outlined five different areas in The PCAWAF named pregnancy as the last which the presence of women could cause cohesion cohesion problem that could be caused by including problems. One, of women being unable to meet and women in ground combat units. However, birth endure the physical burdens required of each unit control methods have become advanced to such member. Two, awkward situations may arise due a level that a woman simply needs to take a birth to lack of privacy and forced intimacy. Three, the control shot in order to prevent her from being fertile presence of traditional western values that would for six months. The risk of a woman getting pregnant make the men feel it was their duty to protect the while on tour is very slim. According to the American female sex. Four, the forced working environment Civil Liberties Union’s Sara L. Mandelbaum, the could lead to possible dysfunctional relationships average time lost due to pregnancy is actually lower including, but not limited to, incidents of sexual then the average time lost for common male problems harassment. Five, fear of pregnancies that could arise (alcoholism for example).12 According to George from sexual relationships within the unit. Quester in an article for the International Security Group cohesion within combat units is thought journal, women who chose to leave the military to be one of the most important elements in service would not cause any more of a logistical accomplishing military tasks. The disruption of this problem than men who only serve for four years.13 element could mean disaster for the entire unit and According to a report, which focused on the any operation it may be carrying out.8 The lack of Department of Defense’s (DoD) policy on women privacy and forced intimacy is thought to disrupt in the military, compiled by the United States cohesion by causing sexual tension, and any number Accounting Office for the Senate, “about 15 percent of problems resulting from it. Tension may exist, but it of all positions across the armed forces are closed does not have to detract from the effectiveness of the to women because they (1) are in occupations that unit. primarily engage in direct ground combat, (2) In reference to the lack of privacy during the collocate and operate with direct ground combat Persian Gulf War, “… men and women serving side- units, (3) are located on ships where the cost of by-side in the Gulf demonstrated that they were providing appropriate living arrangements is capable of working together as teams; they could be considered prohibitive, or (4) are in units that comrades without “fraternizing”; they could share engage in special operations missions and long- tents without sharing beds; they could share common range reconnaissance.”14 The DOD’s rationale for 116 not including women in such positions is as follows. the combat exclusion state, if women are performing First, there is no need for women in these positions the same job and enduring the same amount of due to the availability of men who can perform danger, they should be able to receive the same the same jobs. Second, there is a lack of public and recognition. A woman’s ability to receive promotions congressional support for women in ground combat is hindered by her inability to participate in combat positions. Third, the involuntary assignment of roles. There should be only one standard for both women into ground combat units is not supported by men and women. If women are to have equal rights, servicewomen today.15 The PCAWAF helped to shape then they should have the equal responsibility to civic the DoD’s perception of public opinion on women in duty, including fighting for their country. Opponents ground combat positions. of the current combat exclusion believe women The PCAWAF’s report on a 1992 survey stated should have the same chance of being considered that only 12% of enlisted women and 10% of female for a combat position (as long as they meet the same noncommissioned officers would consider combat qualifications) so that both men and women have the positions16 lead to the assumption that women do same opportunity for promotions. not want to serve in combat capacities. Instead, they All military personal receive basic combat would rather be in a more comfortable desk job over training; however, some women are now being being in the field. This assumption is in not correct allowed training that was once reserved only for according to a study conducted by the RAND’s men. The counter sniper training is now available National Defense Research Institute. The study to women who are serving as security in protecting found that, “the nature of the work involved in the airbases and planes. According to Ben Dolan, Army occupations does not seem to affect the willingness Guard Sgt. First Class, a former Marine sniper and of women to enter it. Neither the hard physical work the chief instructor for the only US military sniper of the engineering occupations nor the austere living school that accepts women, “women can shoot better, conditions of the air support skills appear to deter by and large, and they’re easier to train because they women from seeking to work in the jobs. Additionally, don’t have the inflated egos that a lot of men bring high-technology occupations that operate in relatively to these programs. Women will ask for help if they more comfortable circumstances do not necessarily need it, and they will tell you what they think.” He draw women in greater numbers.”17 Women choose also believes that women are more mentally suited their line of work for the same reasons men do. Their for being snipers. Women are being trained as counter decision is not necessarily based on the cushiness of snipers due to the rising number of hostile countries the job, but more likely tied to the utilization of their that use women as snipers. 20 The counter sniper abilities. training is typically thought of as combat training; Women today serve in various support and however, these women are not being put in combat supply positions that make it just as likely for them to positions. encounter enemy fire as combat troops. According to With the current Iraq war, more women find Lt. Col. Frels, women have been routinely deployed themselves in combat than in any other war to in peace operations since Desert Storm. Peace date. Because the situation in Iraq is considered a operations, sometimes known as police functions, peacekeeping operation, the use of Military Police are not considered to be ‘wars’ and have no battle (MP) to conduct searches and seizures is very lines. However, military personal can become injured, common. Up until the mid-90’s the combat operations even die, at the hands of insurgents and combat can that the MP took were usually short-lived, they served become necessary. 18 The justification that allows mainly as a support unit for infantrymen. However, for the assignment of women to peace operations the MP’s in Iraq are now performing the exact same can be explained by the social theory held by Helen duties that all-male combat units are performing. 21 Hughes, “the greater the relative importance of The major difference between the infantrymen and actual war fighting (especially ground combat), the the MP units is that the MP units tend to have a larger less the participation of women.” 19 This explains proportion of women. According to Captain Kellie the military’s willingness to put women in possibly MeCoy, of the Army Airborne division, “Our doctrine dangerous positions, as long as the overall action is [on women in combat] was suited for wars with front considered a peace operation. lines. In Iraq, the front line is everywhere. Once you There are women who meet the physical leave the [base] camp, you’re on the front line.”22 Capt requirements, who are interested in the positions from McCoy received the Bronze Star with combat “V” for which they are currently excluded, and are already valor in recognition for shooting her way out of an being put in harms way. Proponents for dissolving ambush. These women are already putting their lives 117 on the line every time they perform a routine patrol then they should also have equal civic responsibility. through Iraq. The Iraq war has seen the most service Porter and Adside reveal the beginnings of this women casualties and injuries, with 35 dead and 271 argument to be “at least as old as the teachings of wounded.23 The woman who are caught in combat, Plato and Aristotle.” 27 Prt. Tracie Sanchez, a mother and fight with valor, should be able to receive the with four children and machine gunner with the same awards and promotional recognition as their MP stated, “It was my turn to serve the country and male unit members and fellow infantrymen whom protect our children.”28 The sentiment she expressed they are supporting. is prevalent with servicewomen currently serving in By officially prohibiting women from serving Iraq. Most would rather there not be a draft; however, in combat roles, even if they defensively serve in a if women are to be treated equally, they should also combat capacity, they are barred from promotions have the same civic responsibilities as their male in which combat experience is key. According to counterparts. Porter and Adside, who were graduate students Due to the high requirements of some combat from the Naval Post Graduate School, attaining a positions, it is quite understandable to assume that top rank position is very difficult without combat only a few women would be able to qualify for those command experience. Various combat positions are positions. According to Lt. Col. Charles King, the the traditional paths into the military’s top leadership limited presence of women in combat positions may positions. 24 This hindrance of promotional status puts lead to the accusation that those positions not being women into a separate category from men; it ensures truly “gender integrated.” He fears this will lead to that women would be unable to serve as chief of staff, the establishment of a female affirmative action that or any other high ranking official, even if they are would actively set up quotas for the Services to meet otherwise qualified. in order to create gender integration.29 Currently there are two different standards for the Because the presence of a certain number of physical fitness test that is given to men and women. women in a unit would be hard to attain, there is The current physical fitness test makes women appear a justifiable fear that gender harassment will be over-weight and more unfit in comparison to the harder and take longer to nullify. However, gender males who have a higher standard to achieve. Having harassment alone would not be a catalyst for a gender two different standards leads people to believe oriented affirmative action within the Services. The women are getting a break and are not as capable opponents of the combat exclusion would not push of performing certain jobs. According to Porter for a gender affirmative action, because it would and Adside’s research, the Army Physical Fitness be contrary to the justifications they use to validate test is often misinterpreted as being an indicator women entering ground combat roles. for determining combat readiness. However, the Whether you are for or against allowing women general physical fitness tests are not the same as the into ground combat roles, the current occupation in physical fitness performance standards needed for Iraq is bringing the issue to light once more. Those specific jobs. Lt. Col. Frels even stated that, “None of who are for the combat exclusion state that women the Services have adequately studied or developed as a whole do not meet the physical requirements, job-specific physical performance standards.”25 and their placement in otherwise all male combat Proponents of allowing women into more combat units would disrupt unit cohesion, and by allowing positions state that the Army (as well as other women in ground combat positions they would services) should establish physical requirements for become eligible for the draft. Those who are against all combat positions, and any others closed to women the combat exclusion argue that ground combat roles currently. These requirements can be used as a non- are essential to certain promotions, physical standards gender specific guide to employ those who meet the need to be specific to each specialty and they should physical requirements necessary for that military be the same for both men and women, and with equal specialty.26 civic responsibility comes equal civic duty. Women The PCAWAF highlighted an important argument have been allowed positions in various combat against placing women in combat roles, which stated positions; the only restriction that prevents women that if women were allowed into combat roles, there from being completely equal in the military is the would no longer be legal justification to prevent them ban on women serving in ground combat positions. from being eligible for the draft. For those who do not Should opening up ground combat positions be the want women to be eligible for the draft, this is a sound next step? Is our society willing to do away with argument. However, there are those that believe that if all gender distinctions within the military? Please women are to receive equal rights within civilian life think the issue through, because the answers to these questions may change the military as we know it. 118 BIBLIOGRAPHY Curl, Joseph and Rowan Scarborough. “Despite Quester, George H. “Women in Combat,” International pressure, Bush vows ‘no women in combat,’’ Security 1, no. 4 (1977): 80-91. The Washington Times, January 12, 2005, sec. A01. Sisk, Richard. “The women of war: In Iraq, death knows no frontline, not gender,” Daily Frels, Mary C. “Women Warriors: Oxymoron or News Washington Bureau. December 14, Reality.” Strategy Research Project, U.S. 2004. Army War College, 1999. U.S. Department Of Air Force Agency Group 09, First General Accounting Office National Security and Women Graduates From Sniper International Affairs Division. Gender Issues: School, April 17, 2001. FDCH Regulatory Information on DOD’s Assignment Policy and Intelligence Database, April 17, 2001. Direct Ground Combat Definition, October 1998. Washington, DC: U.S. GPO, 1998. Worth, Richard. “Do Women have what it takes?” Women in Combat: The Battle for Equality,” Harrell, Margaret C., Megan K. Beckett, Chiaying Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers, Sandy Chien, and Jerry M. Sollinger, The 1999. Status of Gender Integration in the Military: Analysis of Selected Occupations. Rand, 2002. http://www.rand.org/publications/MR/ FOOTNOTES MR1380/ 1 Rowan Scarborough and Joseph Curl. “Despite Holm, Jeanne. Women in the Military: an Unfinished pressure, Bush vows ‘no women in combat,” Revolution, Novato, CA: Presido Press, 1992. The Washington Times, January 12, 2005, sec. A 01. Hughes, Helen MacGill. “Women’s Military Roles Cross nationally: Past Present and Future” 2 Mary C. Frels, “Women Warriors: Oxymoron or Gender and Society Vol. 9 No. 6 (1995): 757-775. Reality.” (Strategy Research Project, U.S. Army War College, 1999), 5. King, Charles. “The Trivialization of Gender and Its Impact on Combat Effectiveness,” Strategy 3 Helen MacGill Hughes, “Women’s Military Roles Research Project, U.S Army War College, 2000. Cross nationally: Past Present and Future” Gender and Society 9, no. 6 (1995): 761. Loeb, Vernon. “Teresa Broadwell Found Herself in the Army—Under Fire, in Iraq” Washington Post, 4 Frels, “Women Warriors,” 7. November 23, 2003, sec. D01. 5 Presidential Commission on the Assignment of Miller, Laura L. “Not Just Weapons of the Weak: Women in the Armed Forces, Report to the Gender Harassment as a Form of Protest President, November 15, 1992 (DC: U.S. for Army Men” Sociology Quarterly 60, no.1 Government Printing Office 1992), 27. (1997): 32-51. 6 Ibid., 24. Moniz, Dave. “More women bear wounds of war,” Honolulu Advertiser, May 1, 2005, sec A 7 Richard Worth, Women in Combat: The Battle for 21-2. Equality, (Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 1999), 68. Presidential Commission on the Assignment of Women in the Armed Forces, Report to the 8 Presidential Commission on the Assignment of President, November 15, 1992. Washington Women in the Armed Forces, Report to the DC: U.S. GPO, 1992. President, 25. Porter, Laurie M. and Rick V. Aside. “Women in 9 Jeanne Holm, Women in the Military: an Unfinished Combat: Attitudes, and Experiences Revolution, (Novato, CA: Presido Press, 1992), of US military Personnel,” MA Thesis, Naval 463. Post Graduate School, 2001. 119 10 Laura L. Miller. “Not Just Weapons of the Weak: 20 U.S. Department Of Air Force Agency Group 09, Gender Harassment as a Form of Protest First Women Graduates From Sniper School, for Army Men” Sociology Quarterly 60, no.1 April 17, 2001 (FDCH Regulatory Intelligence (1997): 37-38. Database, April 17, 2001). 11 Ibid., 39 21 Vernon Loeb, “Teresa Broadwell Found Herself in the Army—Under Fire, in Iraq,” Washington 12 Worth, “Do Women have what it takes?” 59. Post, November 23, 2003, sec. D01. 13 George H. Quester, “Women in Combat,” 22 Richard Sisk, “The women of war: In Iraq, death International Security 1, no. 4 (1977): 89. knows no frontline, not gender,” Daily News Washington Bureau. December 14, 2004. 14 General Accounting Office National Security and International Affairs Division. Gender Issues: 23 Dave Moniz, “More women bear wounds of war,” Information on DOD’s Assignment Policy and Honolulu Advertiser, May 1, 2005,sec. A 21. Direct Ground Combat Definition, October 1998 (Washington DC, 1998), 16. 24Laurie M. Porter and Rick V. Adside, “Women in Combat: Attitudes, and Experiences of US 15 Ibid., 4. military Personnel,” (Thesis, Naval Post Graduate School, 2001), 19. 16 Presidential Commission on the Assignment of Women in the Armed Forces, Report to the 25 Frels, “Women Warriors,” 28. President, 24. 26 Porter and Adside, “Women in Combat,” 17. 17Margaret C. Harrell, and others, The Status of Gender 27 Ibid., 17. Integration in the Military: Analysis of Selected Occupations. Rand 2002. http://www.rand. 28 Vernon Loeb, “Teresa Broadwell”, D01. org/publications/MR/MR1380, xix. 29 Charles King, “The Trivialization of Gender and Its 18 Frels, “Women Warriors,” 9-10. Impact on Combat Effectiveness,” (Strategy Research Project, U.S Army War College, 19 Hughes, “Women’s Military Roles Cross nationally,” 2000), 11. 762. 120 d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d The Hawai‘i Department of Education should work Worms Go To School with local schools and teachers to establish a pilot project for Worms Go To School. After the successful Composting Cafeteria Food Waste in completion of the pilot project, a statewide program Hawaii’s Schools: should be established. For each project, a Principal Investigator (PI) would be hired to oversee the day to day vermicomposting operation, maintain quality An Innovative Approach to Organic controls, coordinate efforts with local and school Waste Disposal officials, file reports, and train school faculty and students. INTRODUCTION Background The State of Hawai‘i is beautiful and diverse. The islands are home to a stunning array of tropical plants, a rich cultural heritage, and a thriving economy. But our beautiful and lush environment is in danger: As the population increases, so does the amount of garbage that is generated in the state. In particular, Hawaii’s urban and rural ecosystems are faced with mounting problems associated with the disposal of by Piper Selden organic waste, estimated at about half of the state’s solid waste stream (“Backyard Composting” 1). This Executive Summary garbage poses a serious threat to the environment- Waste reduction is a growing environmental and -the same environment we would like to leave as a financial concern for Hawai‘i schools. ganicOr legacy for our children. Vermicomposting, a method waste, in particular, makes up one of the largest of feeding food scraps to worms to process organic components of the state’s solid waste stream. Due to waste, is a possible solution. Perhaps we could start our geographic location, Hawai‘i has added incentives in schools to help create a new legacy for our children. to find innovative strategies for waste reduction; it costs us more for garbage disposal. And because of Hawai‘i has just one statewide school district, making our distinction as one of the nation’s largest school it approximately the tenth largest in the United districts, we should incorporate earth-friendly policies States (“About Us” 1-2). Enrollment increases each which supports environmental stewardship. In the year. Sustainable waste management, in schools and great State of Hawai‘i, we have a unique opportunity elsewhere, helps to protect the environment and is to utilize a form of composting; we can divert large achieved by the three Rs of conservation: Reduce, amounts of organic and paper waste from island Reuse, and Recycle. Hawai‘i public schools can help landfills and incinerators with the use of worms. promote and practice sustainable waste management by adding the 3 Rs of conservation (reduce, reuse, Worm composting, also called vermicomposting, and recycle) to the three Rs of education: Reading, offers a wealth of learning opportunities for students, wRiting, and aRithmatic. parents, faculty, and administrators. A broad range of teaching possibilities exist for a new Worms Go A Serious Problem for Hawaii’s Schools To School curriculum. Not only would students Waste disposal rates are rising as Hawaii’s population in Hawai‘i learn more about the environment, but increases statewide. Located in the middle of the money for the school system would be saved. It Pacific Ocean, Hawaii’s geographic isolation makes might even be a source of local fundraisers for the garbage disposal more costly. We aren’t able to district. truck our rubbish to a nearby state without barging it several thousand miles first. Many schools which 121 are already struggling financially face growing waste DISCUSSION disposal costs. Currently, most schools in Hawaii throw cafeteria food waste directly into the garbage. Understanding In one school surveyed, seven of ten large trash bags Worms? generated each day contained cafeteria waste. Two Studies show organic waste in Hawai‘i as half or of the three remaining trash bags were mixed paper more of the state’s solid waste stream (“Backyard (Thatcher). Composting” 1). Composting organics, such as cafeteria waste, could divert a great deal of material Taking Out the Trash from landfills or incinerators and save on waste Not only is waste disposal getting more expensive disposal costs for schools. Composting with worms, in Hawai‘i, but it poses environmental and health specifically, is an economical way to compost food concerns as well. Burying waste in landfills is not a waste. Paper waste from the school can also be long-term sustainable plan for Hawai‘i. Landfill space composted, and used as bedding for the worms is filling up and is costly to maintain. Burning waste (Appelhof, My Garbage 31-32). in incinerators, known as HPOWER in Hawai‘i, is also costly and affects air quality. Both create pollution Composting with worms is called problems of one type or another (Baer 1-2). Clearly, “vermicomposting.” The process uses earthworms we have a serious garbage issue. Over 160,000 tons of to quickly break down organic waste. Many schools garbage was thrown away in Hawai‘i County alone in across the U.S. are composting cafeteria and paper 2000. The amount of solid waste has been increasing waste with worms (“Worm Composting” 1-2) steadily, about 5 percent a year since 1995 (“Update” (“Worms Turn” 1). In addition to being a good waste 16). reduction method, composting with worms provides valuable educational opportunities for students, We need to address the problem of responsible solid school staff, and parents (Appelhof, Our Garbage waste disposal to avoid long-term damage to the Prologue and Introduction). environment and our economy. Let’s start now. Waste is a management issue for state and county Purpose: An Innovative Approach agencies, but it is the responsibility of all who An innovative approach is needed to help contribute to the problem. Composting with worms organizations, like schools, deal with the growing provides a good solution for a difficult problem. waste disposal problem without compromising the Mary Appelhof, famed environmental educator environment. Composting organic waste with worms, and worm enthusiast wrote, “Worms have been also known as vermicomposting, is the best approach. converting organic residues to again usable form for This report will show that vermicomposting is a 300 million years. We bypass this natural recycling proven, environmentally-sound method of recycling process when we flush garbage down the drain, organic wastes, particularly food waste. Not only will incinerate it, or bury it in landfills where it may not waste be reduced in the state’s schools, but children decompose for decades” (Appelhof, Our Garbage will gain a better understanding of earth science, Prologue) ecology, and sustainable living through the study of school worm composting units. Composting with Science and Policy worms is a cost-effective, educational, and Earth- Garbage to Gold friendly method of cafeteria food waste disposal. Solid waste is studied as science and argued as The Department of Education in the state of Hawai‘i policy. Solid waste, commonly called garbage, can be should consider the recommendations in this report grouped into general categories for analysis and does and start a Worms Go To School program to compost not usually include materials that have been diverted organic waste in island schools. by composting or recycling efforts. Scope Figure 1 shows the combined organic and paper waste This report explores responsible waste disposal in South Hilo Landfill at 53.9% in 2001 (“Update” 19). methods for schools in the State of Hawai‘i, particularly organic waste. A general introduction to Schools generate a lot of garbage, including food and the science and methodology of vermicomposting is paper waste. Combined organic and paper waste can also contained in this report. be composted... or thrown into the trash. The choice is ours. Schools have a golden opportunity to help 122 teach future generations more about the environment Traditional Composting and about sustainable ecological responsibility. Another method of organic food waste disposal Why not begin near the source--at school? Several utilizes traditional composting methods. Composting methods for organic waste reduction in Hawaii will recycles organic material, including food waste, be discussed here. and produces a product full of nutrients for the soil (“Backyard Composting”). However, according to METHODS the Composting Handbook prepared by the Natural Resource, Agriculture and Engineering Service Same, Same... (NRAES) Cooperative Extension service, there are Although not the best alternative, we should several disadvantages to traditional composting begin with the easiest: to continue the practice of methods, including space, cost, and foul smells throwing most of our cafeteria food waste into the (“On Farm Composting Handbook” 5). Any of garbage. Rising prices for waste collection, growing these factors could make the traditional composting environmental concerns, and a reduction in landfill method difficult in a school setting. The Cooperative space show that this solution is not the best long- Extension Service from the University of Manoa notes term waste disposal plan. Landfills are expensive to that vermicomposting is, “faster than traditional operate and maintain. Incineration carries hazardous composting methods.” (“Small-Scale” 1). environmental risks (Baer 2). Neither is a good option for the long run. Composting with Worms Composting with worms highlights the three Rs Pig Farmers of conservation: Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle. It Many years ago, Hawai‘i disposed of much of its helps to reduce the amount of organic food and organic food waste, especially from schools, by giving paper waste from Hawaii’s public schools into the it to local pig farmers. Farmers used the food waste waste stream, saving valuable landfill space. The as feedstock for their animals. Sadly, the number of vermicomposting process reuses organic waste as a pig farmers in the state has reached an all time low. feedstock for composting worms, transforming the The decline of pig farming in Hawai‘i in recent years waste into a nutrient-rich compost product. Finally, makes this method of food waste disposal unreliable worm composting adds humus (a stable material or unavailable in many areas of the state (DuPonte). formed in the breakdown of organic materials) to the There are simply too few pig farmers to accommodate soil for healthier plants. (Applehof 110-111) The only the growing number of schools. drawback for this method has been the commercial 123 availability of worm producers. As importing worms into the State of Hawai‘i is illegal, with a fine up to $200,000, local breeders were needed before large- scale composting of this type could occur (“Importing Plants” 1) (“Plant Quarantine: Penalties” 1). Fortunately, supplies of legal composting worms are now commercially available from a variety of sources. The Best Waste Alternative Composting with worms is the most effective and suitable method of organic waste disposal for schools in the State of Hawai‘i. Researched methods and curriculum have been established to ensure proper composting techniques. Units also come in small, medium, and large sizes to accommodate individual school needs. The following figures show different commercial worm composting units and their target populations. Figure 2 is an example of a small unit. It stands just 16 inches high and could easily serve a small home school environment. Figure 3 is a medium size unit and could accommodate a school of medium size. This particular unit is three feet high. Several bins this size could be used to accommodate larger schools. A college or university would best be served with an industrial size unit, like Figure 4. Units like these stand approximately five feet high and range from six feet to forty-eight feet long. Pricing for commercial worm composting units varies by supplier, but building plans are also available. A unit could be constructed in a wood shop or science class. Purchased or handmade, worm composting units accomplish the same task: converting organic school waste into a valuable compost product. A Popular Choice Not only is classroom vermicomposting an efficient method to divert organic waste from the solid waste stream, vermicomposting is fun. It is one of the hottest trends in environmental education. The State of California, in cooperation with the California Integrated Waste Management Board, recently adopted a statewide vermicomposting program as a part of waste management and energy reduction (“The Worm Guide” i). By creating a curriculum for vermicomposting in schools, the state hopes to inspire, inform, and encourage school districts to undertake waste reduction projects, like worm composting. The development of similar Earth- centered projects will help school children, parents, school boards, administrators, and teachers learn more about their environment. 124 Wise waste minimization programs focus on efforts CONCLUSIONS to reduce, reuse, and recycle. While waste cannot be completely eliminated, it can be reduced. Programs Making every day Earth Day at School that encourage recycling and composting help Composting cafeteria food waste in Hawaii’s schools organizations and individual citizens reduce solid would be an innovative approach to divert a waste waste. Worm composting recycles food waste and product, keeping it from a landfill or incinerator. also utilizes a natural scientific process that can be Worm composting is an environmentally-sound studied in the classroom. In fact, a school science and responsible choice for school waste reduction curriculum for worm composting was written by the efforts. In addition, the waste program would help University of Hawai‘i at Manoa (DASH) to study teach school children about the environment and worms and their value in the environment (Thatcher). good stewardship of the land and natural resources. The resulting compost might also benefit the school Worm composting food waste has proven effective district by providing much needed income. More for other organizations throughout the U.S. In 1999, than anything, we waste a valuable resource that the Branchville Correctional Facility in southern could enrich our soil and reduce our solid waste Indiana, successfully processed 21,000 pounds of stream. More than anything, recycling food cardboard, as well as 48,000 pounds of food waste by waste helps reduce human impact on the fragile vermicomposting (“Branchville” 1). Vermicomposting environment. is also widely practiced in public schools in Portland, Oregon, sponsored in part by state funding. Public David Orr, a noted professor of Environmental schools in the Portland area have vermicomposted Studies from Oberlin College once said, “Our goal over 4,500 pounds since 1998 (“Worm Composting” as educators is to present a sense of hopefulness to 1). students, and the competence to act on that hope.” Along those lines, all education is environmental Bringing it Home education; we must have the wisdom to help show In November of 2002, the State of Hawai‘i set a solid students that they are a part of the natural world, not waste management goal to divert 50% of the current apart from it. Students today are the future and hope waste stream to landfills by the year 2008 (“5-Year” of Hawai‘i. 1). At the current rate, we will not reach the statewide goal (“Report Card” 13). We can expect to pay for RECOMMENDATIONS environmental clean up and restoration projects in the form of higher taxes, now or later. The following are recommended to establish a Worms Go To School program to compost organic waste in Supporting an innovative food waste disposal Hawaii’s schools. program, such as worm composting, would help save money, teach future generations the importance of Ø Pilot Project: Initiate a worm composting Hawaiian ecology (relationships between organisms pilot project at a small to medium size school. and the environment), and reinforce state and county Principal Investigator (PI) for the project will efforts to reduce, reuse, and recycle. be a trained professional and responsible for obtaining necessary permits to operate the facility. Another reason to support worm composting in PI will also document the type and quantify schools is the possible financial gain: fundraising. of cafeteria food and paper waste used during Vermicomposting recycles organic and green waste the project. Training materials and curriculum into a valuable soil amendment. Schools might would be ordered and provided for staff and look into a new profit center by selling the compost students to learn about worm farming in the end-product at school fund-raising events. Studies schools. Reports will be made to the Department show that plants treated with compost are stronger of Education for county waste reduction records. and more disease resistant than those that are not PI will also maintain scientific records including (Appelhof, My Garbage 111). Schools could help to composting conditions (temperature, aeration, create a better environment by reducing solid waste moisture, and acidity) and length of composting amounts and creating nutrient-rich compost in its process. Reports will be submitted quarterly place. to the Department of Education, Office of the Superintendent, for review. 125 Ø Statewide Project: After pilot project data is evaluated and approved for statewide use, the Principal Investigator will work with state, county, and local agencies to begin Worms Go To School in all publicly run schools. Ø Seek assistance from the state of Hawaii to help fund the Worms Go To School project. Establishing and supporting programs, such as this food waste recycling program, are sited in the 1999 “Improving Hawaii’s Solid Waste Recycling Rate” recommendations to the Governor (“Report Card” 13). Ø PI will prevent and minimize nuisances, including odor, flies, and possible vandalism to the units. Ø Compost that is produced will be nonpathogenic, free of offensive odors, biologically and chemically stable, and able to sustain plant growth. To demonstrate that the compost is nonpathogenic, routine sampling and testing will be done. Test results will be submitted, along with the approximate weight of material that was diverted from the waste stream. 126 REFERENCES Appelhof, Mary. Worms Eat My Garbage. Hawaii Department of Agriculture. Plant Quarantine: Kalamazoo: Flower Press, 1997 Penalties. GPO, 2005. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources Tamminen, Terry. The Worm Guide: A (CTAHR): Backyard Composting: Recycling a Vermicomposting Guide for Teachers. Natural Product. Honolulu, HI: University of California: California Integrated Waste Hawaii at Manoa, 2002. Management Board, 2004. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources Thatcher, John. Personal Interview. 09 Nov. 05. (CTAHR): Small-Scale Vermicomposting. (Principal, Connections Public Charter Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii at Manoa, School, Hilo, HI.) 2005. “The Branchville Correctional Facility Vermiculture County of Hawii, State of Hawaii. 5-Year Solid Waste Program.” IDEM - OPPTA - Recycling Management Plan Outline. Hilo: GPO, 2002. & Source Reduction. Access Indiana. 17 Hawaii Department of Agriculture. Importing Plants, Animals and Microorganisms to Hawaii. GPO, 2005. 127 Get Published! The Journal of Academic Writing for UH Hilo and Hawaii Community College is seeking submissions for upcoming issues. We feature: • NON-FICTION ACADEMIC WRITING • ESSAYS and REVIEWS • ANALYSIS PAPERS • RESEARCH and TERM PAPERS Great for a Grad School application or Professional Resume! Work is accepted on any subject, in English or Hawaiian, to highlight diversity of our collective student body. Submission forms available online. Check out our website: www.uhh.hawaii.edu/academics/hohonu/ Questions? Contact us via email: [email protected] 129