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MARINE FISHERIES INFORMATION SERVICE
No. 162 tobei '--r, December 1999
I TECHNICAL ANI <=l c-H EXTENSION SERIES
^'^'M iAi±^ 4-lir^^-Mchl CENTRAL MARINE FISHERIES ar^J^STT^ ^FTFSTPT RESEARCH INSTITUTE chlPclH, ^TRTT COCHIN, INDIA
INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 915 COASTAL ZONE GOVERNANCE: KERALA IN RELATION TO NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL SITUATIONS M. Oevaraj, N.G. Menon, V.K. Pillai and K. Balachandran Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Cochin - 682 014, India
Introduction The CRZ is classified into 4 categories for the prohibition or control of various activities Some of the leading coastal countries like (Table 1 and 2). Subsequently, the Depart Australia, China, France, Israel, Japan. New ment of Ocean Development (DOD) of the Zealand, Oman, Spain, Sri Lanka, Thailand. government of India, after evaluating the cur Turkey, U.K., U.S.A and others have taken rent and future activities in the ocean part of urgent steps for coastal zone management the coastal zone, prepared a declaration for the following the 1992 United Nations Conference extension of the CRZ to the outer limit of ter on Environment and Development (UNCED) to ritorial sea (upto 12 nm from the lowest low meet their commitments to the sustainable water level), as defined under the Maritime development of coastal areas and the marine environment under the national Jurisdiction as Zones Act, 1976 to prohibit and regulate cer per Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 of the above tain activities and processes in conjunction conference. As the coastal zone is generally with the existing acts, rules and notifications. busy with many economic activities like The draft ORZ (Ocean Regulation Zone) docu agriculture, forestry, fisheries, transport and ment recognizes three zones (ORZ. I, II and III) manufacturing industries, it is necessary to similar to the CRZ. The landward boundary of accord priority to the conservation of the the ORZ including the enclosed seas, estuar natural resources and the coastal ecosystem ies and backwaters is not mentioned in the to ensure their sustainable development. ORZ draft report (Table 3 and 4). Therefore, many coastal countries have evolved TABLE 1. Classification of coastal regulation Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) zone in India (as per thel991 Notification) plans. In many countries the coastal zone extends from the territorial limit (the wet side) Category of Description to the tidally influenced habitat (the dry side). CRZ This entire zone comprising the wetside and dry side is treated as a single unit where the Category I (i) Areas that are ecologically landward boundaries vary depending on the sensitive and important, such objectives and needs of the issues. Both the as national parks / marine wet side and the dry side of this zone are parks, sanctuaries, reserved generally managed and governed by a single forests, wild life habitats, agency. India too has initiated actions to mangroves, corals / coral reefs, exercise powers under Section 3(1) and 3(2) (v) areas close to breeding and of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 spawning grounds of fish and through a legal instrument called the Coastal other marine life, areas of Regulation Zone Notification issued in 1991 by outstanding natural beauty - the Ministry of Environment and Forests historical / heritage areas, (MOEF). This zone extends from the low tide areas rich in genetic diversity. Line (LTL) to a distance of 500 m and the land (11) Areas between the Low Tide ward side (including the estuaries and back Line and the High Tide Line. waters) influenced by the tidal action. In this zone as many as 13 activities and processes Category II The areas that have already are proposed to be prohibited and 4 of them been developed, within the regulated through the provisions of the CRZ municipal limits or in other le Notification. gally designated urban areas up to or close to the shore line. mal power stations.
Category III Areas that are relatively undis 8. Land reclamation, building or disturbing turbed and those which do not the natural course of seawater with simi belong to either category I or lar obstructions, except those required II. These will include coastal for control of coastal erosion and main zone in the rural areas (devel tenance or clearing of waterways, chan oped and undeveloped) and nels ports, for prevention of sandbars. also areas within Municipal limits or in other legally desig 9. Mining of sand, rocks and other sub nated urban areas, which are strata materials, except those rare min not substantially built up. erals not available outside the CRZ ar eas. Category IV Coastal stretches in the Andaman and Nicobar, Laksha- 10. Harvesting or drawal of groundwater and dweep and small islands except construction of mechanisms therefore those designated as CRZ I, II. within 200 m of HTL; In the 200-500 m zone it shall be permitted only when done TABLE 2. Prohibited activities in the Indian CRZ manually through ordinary wells for (as per the 1991 Notification) drinking, horticulture, agriculture and fisheries. 1. Setting up of new industries and expansion of existing industries. 11. Construction activities in ecologically sensitive areas. Manufacture or handling or storage or disposal of hazardous substances. 12. Any construction activity between the low tide line and high tide line except facili Setting up and expansion offish process ties for carrying treated effluents and ing units including warehousing (exclud waste water discharges into the sea, fa ing hatchery and natural fish drying in cilities for carrying seawater for cooling permitted areas). purposes, oil, gas and similar pipelines Setting up and expansion of units / and facilities essential for activities mechanisms for disposal of waste and ef permitted under this Notification; and fluents, except facilities required for dis 13. Dressing or altering of sand dunes, hills, charging treated effluents into the water natural features including landscape course with approval under the Water changes for beautification, recreational (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, and other such purposes, except as per 1974. missible under this Notification. 5. Discharge of untreated wastes and efflu ents from industries, cities or towns and The coastal zone has the highest biologi other human settlement. cal diversity, but as a common property, it is easily accessible to the various users. There Dumping of city or town waste for the fore, the ongoing and prospective threats to purpose of land filling or otherwise; the the coastal life support systems need to be existing practice, if any, shall be phased regulated through appropriate acts including out within a reasonable time not exceed the proposed biodiversity act. India, as a party ing three years from the date of this No to the International Convention on Biological tification. Diversity (enforced in 1993), has recently Dumping of ash or any wastes from ther- drafted a Biological Diversity Act for the pur- pose of conserving the biological resources, Category 111 Territorial sea areas adjacent to both indigenously occurring and naturalised, coastal areas which are yet to be to sustain their use and share their benefits used for developmental purposes equitably. {not used for activities mentioned under Category 11 (ORZ II) and TABLE 3. Classification of the proposed draft which have been used for ocean regulation zone developmental purposes to a limited extent (construction of Category of Description fishing harbours and navigation al ORZ channel) and also the sea areas be Category I Territorial sea areas adjacent to tween two developed areas. the main land and Andaman & Nlcobar and Lakshadweep islands TABLE 4. Prohibited activities in the proposed that are ecologically sensitive and ORZ important such as national parks 1. Reclamation of sea for human settlement, /marine parks / marine depen construction of artificial Islands for other dent wild life sanctuaries, habitats commercial purpose is prohibited all of endangered estuarine and ma along the coastline of the country. rine species, marine environment of mangroves, corals, corals reefs, 2. Dumping of solid wastes, including areas close to breeding and spawn plastic wastes arising from municipal. ing grounds of fish and other ma Industrial and all the other sources in rine life, areas of outstanding cluding from the ship breaking Indus natural beauty / historical / cul tries. tural / heritage areas, areas rich in genetic diversity and such other 3. Dumping of toxic wastes (as listed under areas as may be declared by the EPA 1986) is prohibited in ORZ I, 11, and Central / State governments un III areas. der relevant Acts like Wildlife (Pro 4. Construction of civil and other manmade tection) Act, 1972. structures and breakwaters, OTEC plants, floating Industries/structures/ Category II Territorial sea areas adjacent to Single Buoy Mooring Stations, lightening the coastal areas that have already operations, laying of pipelines for trans been used for development such as port of oil, establishment of artificial Is (1) construction of berths, wharf, lands, reefs, exploration and exploitation navigational channel etc. in major of oil and natural gas, reclamation of sea and minor ports, (ii) sea off coastal and Its bed and sea bed mining in the industries, power plants, refineries critical habitats which are Ecologically and other industries which use sea Sensitive. However, such constructions for waste disposal through creeks, /establishments will be permitted at a canals and pipelines, (ill) reclaimed no-impact distance from the outer limits areas, oil and gas transfer facili of these habitats. ties, (iv) Corporation, Municipal limits of cities and towns, (v) sea 5. Ship breaking activities are prohibited In off coastal areas being used for the critical habitats. However, such ac ship building and ship breaking tivities will be permitted beyond the no- activities, (vi) sea off beach resorts, impact distance from the outer limit of marinas etc.. the critical habitats. 6. Discharge of untreated and treated do economic factors, significant to Kerala state, mestic, industrial, aquaculture wastes, through several discussions and literature re nuclear and thermal plants, dredged views. materials, and operational discharges are prohibited in the critical habitat areas. Kerala coastal zone
Note : 9 other activities in ORZ I, 11, and III. An attempt is made here to review the issues relating to coastal zone governance in Guidelines in this regard will be presented by Kerala in the context of the Environmental DOD/CPCB/DAC Protection Act, and the draft Biodiversity Act. Kerala which has only a mean width of 67 km, Proposed ocean regulation zone is bordered by the Arabian Sea on the west The Department of Ocean Development (590 km long coastline) and the Western Ghats of the government of India prepared a draft on the east. notification containing the details of regulatory The land area of 38,828 km^ is almost and preventive measures relevant to the equal to the continental shelf of 40,000 km^. coastal zone (ocean part) in exercise of the Coastal Kerala supports a population of 0.64 powers conferred under sections 3(1) and 3 x 10^ fisherfolk. There are 41 west flowing (2) (v) of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 rivers, which discharge into 30 estuaries, and clause (d) of subrule 3 of rule 5 of the opening into the sea through perennial or Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986, This seasonal outlets across the barmouths (Fig. 1). draft notification was circulated to all the state The estuarine bed level is around 1.5 to 1.8 m governments for seeking the views of all below the mean sea level. The estuaries re concerned with the sustained use of the Indian main separated from the sea by a narrow strip seas. Coastal areas which serve as breeding of land which is only 0.4 to 12 km in width. and nursery grounds of various species of The estuaries and the backwaters which once finfish and shellfish, areas of high genetic di occupied an area of 2,426 km^, have now versity, mudbanks, mussel beds, estuaries and shrunken to 652 km^ due to serious alterations mangroves are likely to fall under the purview during the past 150 years through reclama of the proposed Ocean Regulation Zone Notifi tion for agriculture and human settlement. All cation (ORZ I) as far as Kerala is concerned. The government of Kerala has constituted a committe to seek the opinion of the marine biologists and fisheries experts before a deci sion on the draft notification is taken. Karinsote •stuary NileahwHr backwstnr Kavvayl back>v«t«r Dharmapattanam backwater IVIannoyed attuary An interdepartmental committee (task Mahe asiuary Kotta backwater Korapuzha cKuary force) was constituted by the government of Payyoll backtvatar Elathur backwater Kallal backwater Kerala to formulate the strategies for the Beypora actuary Kadalundl aatuary Furaparamba backwater coastal zone management (land and ocean part) Ponnani backwater Chettuve backwater Axhcekode estuary and advise the government on all matters and KodunKallaor backwater Cochin actuary Vembanadu backwater issues arising out of the 1991 Coastal Zone Kayamkulam backwater Aehtamudl eetuary Parur backwater Regulation Notification of the government of Bdava nadayara backwater Anchuthengu backwater Kadlnamkulam back^vater India. After a preliminary meeting on the 27th Veil lake backwater May 1997, the task force constituted a sub Poonthura backwater / Paovar beck*vater committee of experts from various disciplines Akathumurl lake comprising environment, fisheries and ocean ^ OHX I ography, which prepared a draft report based on various ecological, geographical and socio Fig.l. Map of Kerala showing estuaries and backwaters. the major estuaries are intertwined with ur districts over an area of about 1000 km^ There ban agglomerations of high population density. fore, this belt may be considered sensitive, which however, should not preclude any tra The intertidal belt is either sandy or rocky ditional activities, which are governed by vari and the shorelines are In a constant state of ous other environment protection rules and flux. Shore erosion or accretion Is imper regulations of the state. ceptible along many locations, while in places like Quilon, Cochin and Calicut erosion is caus ii) Coastal fisheries ing severe damages, especially during the southwest monsoon season. Coastal area uses The coastal waters of Kerala are subjected have tended to accelerate, accentuate and even to high fishing pressure by the mechanised (46 adversely affect the shorelines and the associ % of total catch) and motorlsed (50 % of total ated ecosystems. Breakwaters and seawalls catch) sectors, mostly in the depths of 0 to 50 have been constructed over great stretches m, covering an area of 12,560 km^ which is along the sandy shores, often masking the sce only 7 % of the all India area within the 0 to nic beauty of the sandy beaches. 50 m depth. The marine fisheries sector in Kerala generated a revenue of about Rs. 1,000 Territorial sea crore from the internal market and about Rs. 800 crores through foreign exchange from the i) General characteristics export market per year currently through a The territorial sea (upto 12 nautical miles catch of about 5.50,000 tonnes, which is 24 from the baseline) of Kerala with an area of per cent of the all India catch. The territorial 13,000 km^ Is characterised by sandy or muddy sea (approximately 0 to 30-m depth) produced sea bottom, and rocky or coral patches in some 62 % of the total catch of 5,70,000 tonnes in 1997. The entire catch of the outboard trawler locations. Except for the sedentary groups of fleet is caught from this depth belt, whereas organisms found in the rocky intertidal belt, 80 % of the outboard ringseiner fleet, 92 % of most of the organisms in the coastal waters the non-mechanised fleet, 63 % of the outboard exhibit seasonal movements or migrations, gillnetter fleet and 43 % of the trawler fleet depending on the behaviour of the species and catches are contributed by the territorial sea. the prevailing climatic and hydrographic The territorial waters yielded 72 % of the total conditions. Therefore, none of these species prawn catches of Kerala, 88 % of oil sardine, could be considered as specific to any small 71 % of whitebait and 82 % of mackerel catch definable area or pocket along the coast. Many in 1997. About 73 % of the territorial sea catch tropical finflshes and shelflshes have extended belongs to the pelagics and 27 % to the spawning periods linked with their genetic demersals (of which 13 % Is of prawns, lobsters characteristics and Influenced by the and cephalopods). The annual catch per km^ hydrographic conditions caused by the area In the coastal waters (0 to 50m depth) of monsoons and the seasonal coastal drifts and Kerala is 41t whereas it is only 121 for all India. currents. As most of the breeding takes place Bottom trawling is estimated to destroy about In the shallow waters, the entire coastal area 13,000 t of benthic organisms per year In acts as nursery ground for one species or the Kerala, causing thereby great loss to the other, depending on their preference of the benthic biodiversity and habital degradation. substratum, the sea depth and food. The The existing or proposed fisheries regulations penaeld prawn, Parapenaopsis stylifera (called should ensure sustained growth in fisheries karikadi in Malayalam) which affords has a rich as well as protection to the ecosystem, espe fishery in the Kerala Inshore waters, plays a cially the benthic system. vital role in the economy of the state, and iii) Mudbank (soft) ecosystem breeds within the shallow 20 to 30 m deep grounds off Quilon, Alleppy and Ernakulam The mudbanks which are 1 to 3 m thick patches of calm, turbid waters with a high load cause of the rheological behaviour of the bot of suspended sediment and a clayey bottom, tom sediment, from which the suspended sedi appear close to the shore in a stretch of 2 to 5 mentary material Is derived. Shear thinning km length parallel to the coast and 1.5 to 4 behaviour releases the dense suspenion of mud km across (width) the coast of Kerala (Fig. 2). from the bottom. The Newtonian and shear- They appear with the onset of the southwest thickening behaviour of the suspension under monsoon (May & June) and disappear with the low shear stress might be responsible for main withdrawal of the southwest monsoon in Sep taining it as a discrete unit. tember & October. The mudbanks are formed Monsoon waves as high as 2 to 3 m out due to the periodic stress from the waves over side the mudbank get reduced to 0.5 m near a muddy bottom, resulting in bed erosion, gen the mudbank within a distance of 1.1 km. eration of fluid mud and wave attenuation. The Wave-induced oscillation of fluid mud causes combined action of the waves and the currents wave energy dissipation, particularly in the transports the fluid mud en masse to the seaward periphery of the mudbank. This wave nearshore and the localisation of the dampening process in the mudbank facilitates mudbanks Is attributed to wave energy con safe anchorage and smooth fishing for the vergence. The fine bottom sediment is gener traditional fishermen during the monsoon ally transported from offshore. Along shore, season, which is generally unsafe outside the extension of the mudbanks is due to the waves mudbank for fishing due to climatic forcing from outside the mudbank area and the limitations. The importance of the mudbanks prevailing coastal currents of the southwest to coastline stability and protection and to the monsoon. The mudbanks usually from in the sociocultural and economic wellbeing of the same place each year and after brief existence traditional fisherfolks is well known. A project (generally 1.5 months) the fluid mud exhibits mode investigation carried out by a multi-dis downslide movement, dissipating the mudbank. ciplinary team of subject matter specialists of Year to year shifting of the mudbanks, if any, CMFR Institute has brought to light the physi Is attributed to the variations in the bathymet- cal, chemical and biological characte-ristics of ric conditions which decide the magnitude of mud banks south of Alleppy way back in sev energy convergence. The mudbanks exist be- enties.
The mudbank sediment consists of highly cohesive and flocculated clay. The most dominant textural class is silty or clayey with ,.. • • a good amount of sand, silt and clay. The mud density ranges from 1,080 kg to 1,300 kg/m^
^M»ai.«THUil '"'1 and the dispersed particle size between 0.5 and ^[. "^ '••• V* 3 pm. The clay which is 66 % of the sediment, consists of montmorillonite and kaolinite. The -> heavy minerals include opaque, hornblende, \ ^ ^^ sillimanite, muscovite, pyroxenes, epidote, zir
• »• Tat'**'*'*
The sediments of the mudbank carry rich 4000 : loads of organic matter (5 %). About 90 to 95 % of the benthic fauna in the mudbank con sist of polychaetes and molluscs. The former is more abundant in the shallow sea and the 1966 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 latter in the deeper areas. The meiobenthos consists mainly of the foraminifera, nematodes, ostracods, polychaetes, copepods and Flg.3. Annual fish catch from mudbanks. amphipods. The calm sea together with high (Source: CMFRI. Bull.31) productivity, favours fish and shellfish migration to the mudbanks and therefore, of the total fish catch of the state. This area yields high catches. Fish production from the supports the livelihood of 0.67 million mudbank and nonmudbank areas during the fisherfolk and employs about 1,00,000 active fishermen. All the existing regulations under 1966-'75 period for 3 months (June to Aug.) the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 and any other shows that the production in the mudbanks is prohibition/ regulations deemed necessary in 56 % higher than in the nonmudbank areas the course of future fisheries and allied activi (Fig. 3). The catch consists of 50 species of ties should be strictly enforced and imple fish and 6 species of prawns. M. dobsoni, oil mented for sustainable marine fisheries devel sardine, silverbellies, flatfishes and anchovies opment and management. form the bulk of the landings. vi) Mussel beds iv) Hard bank ecosystem The green mussel beds {Perna viridis.) The highly productive Quilon bank of occurring in the rocky intertldal areas up to hard, rocky bottom located within Lat.8''30' N and 9°30' N and Long. 75''25' E and 760l5'E, -^ I with a total area of 3,300 km^ is a rich fishing ground for demersal fishes, shrimps and lob \: sters. Another small, hard bank (the Chettuva >v» bank) located off Trichur within Lat. 100.31'N10°.33' N and Long. 75o.09'E and <
viii) Prospective mariculture and sea - farming sites Many areas along the intertidal, coastal and estuarine waters are suitable grounds for seafarming of about 20 species of finfishes, 29
7«' 5' 10' IS' »' 25' JO' »'
Fig.5. Coastal zone map of Kerala 2. Kovilthottam Ernakulam. Fig.6. Coastal zone map of Kerala 3. Ernakulain-Tanur. Fig.7. Coastal zone map of Kerala 4. Tanur - Azhlkode. Fig.8. Coastal zone map of Kerala 5. Azhlkode-Uppala. crustaceans, 17 molluscs and 7 seaweeds. consider the entire coastal and ocean zones as Aquaculture of mussels, pearl oysters and a a single economic unit. Priorities may be fixed few cultivable species of finfishes has good based on the imperatives of long-term potential in certain sites spread along the protection to the critical habitats identified in coastal water as well as in the lower gradients this document. These habitats are considered of the adjoining estuaries of Trivandrum, to be highly vulnerable to overexploitation, Quilon, Ernakulam, Calicut and Cannanore pollution and various other manmade physical, districts. These coastal, estuarine and sea chemical and biological threats. The critical sites should be permitted for installing perma habitats faUing within the proposed ORZ along nent, semipermanent or temporary structures the Kerala coast are demarcated with their for aquaculture (rafts, racks, longlines, cages boundaries in Figs. 4 to 8. etc.) either through free access or licensing, even if such areas may come under the sensi Estuarine ecosystem tive categories within the existing CRZ or pro 1} General characteristics posed ORZ. Other groups of potential seafarming candidates include the crabs, lob As the estuaries are " partially enclosed sters and groupers in the coastal zone. water connected with the ocean and characterised by the mixing of freshwater and The productivity of all these areas could seawater because of runoff and tidal ingress", be enhanced through searanching of overex- these waterbodies may qualify to be treated ploited stocks by seeds produced in the hatch under the proposed ORZ. Of the 41 rivers flow eries. The government may initiate steps to ing into the sea bordering Kerala, 30 have ei provide farm sites, training and subsidies or ther permanently or seasonally open estuar soft loans for investment in seafarming and ies or backwaters with a total waterspread area searanching through individual as well as co of 500 km^ (within the total brackishwater area operative efforts. of 4,226 km*), which forms about 20 % of the While formulating various development total backwater areas in India. Reclamation programmes in the coastal or ocean zone of for.various purposes has reduced the Kerala high biological diversity, it is important to bracklshwaters area form 4,226 km* to 652 km* at present. Most of the brackishwater, from the borders of the urban areas of Quilon, 12000 AUeppy. Ernakulam, Calicut and Cannanore districts. Fishing activities in the backwaters 10000 support the livelihood of about 0.2 million fish ermen and provide employment for about BOOO 50,000 active fishermen. All the estuaries are highly productive and form nursery grounds 6000 < for a variety of commercially important penaeid prawns, clams, edible oyster, crabs, mullets, 4000 pearlspot, catfishes, perches and others. The annual average (1992-'93) catch from the 2000 Kerala estuarine ecosystem is 24,024 t with
the maximum contribution from Ernakulam TRV QUI ALL ERN TRI MAL KOZ CNR KSR district followed by Alleppy and Quilon districts (Fig. 9). Fig. 9. Estuarine fish catch In the coastal districts of Kerala The backwaters are used for transport during 1992-'93. of oil, chemicals, toxic materials by barges, conditions prevail resulting in low diversity pipes etc., public transport, mining, waste dis index for zooplankton and benthos. There are posal, mariculture, recreation, reclamation for over 200 medium and large scale Industries agriculture and residential development. Do and about 2,000 small scale industries dis mestic and industrial effluents discharged from charging their effluents into the estuaries, be the urban habitations and industries have led sides a discharge of about 650 t of organic to instances offish kills, degradation of benthic matter per day from 14 municipal bodies. Hot- biota and a general decline in the natural car spots of industrial pollution have been Identi rying capacity of the system. fied and demarcated in the estuaries of Calicut. There is a total area of 1,671 ha of man Cochin, and Trivandrum. The heavy traffic of groves, either discontinuous or patchy, distrib mechanised and motorlsed fishing vessels and uted in the lower reaches of the estuaries in cargo ships also contributes significantly to Cannanore (755 ha), Calicut (263 ha) and marine pollution which is very intense in the Ernakulam (260 ha) districts. This habitat Azhikode to Alleppy and Quilon to Kollengode which is nursery for many shellfishes (mainly belts. shrimps and prawns) and finfishes if vulner The State Pollution Control Board (SPCB) able to overfishing. monitor various forms of coastal pollution Although edible oysters occur in all the which is co-ordinated by the Central Pollution estuaries, they grow abundantly in Ashtamudi, Control Board (CPCB). A recent report of the Vembanad, Mahi, Valapatnam and Neeles- Department of Science, Technology and waram backwaters and estuaries. Edible oys Environment (DSTE), government of Kerala, ter culture has been found to be ecofriendly states that "the waterbodies in the coastal zone and quite viable. The clam beds of Ashtamudi are susceptible to pollution mainly due to the and Vembanad lakes provide good clam fish effluent discharged from Industries; domestic eries. The high saline zones of these lakes close and community sewage drainage from agricul to the sea In the Malabar region are ideal for tural lands (containing fertilisers, pesticides, green mussel and pearl culture. However, fungicides etc.), coconut husk retting areas and many locations in the middle and upper spillage of oil and kerosene in the vicinity of stretches of the estuaries serve as retting major commercial and fishing harbours also grounds, where extremely poor environmental contribute to pollution of waterbodies. Some 10 of the major industries that discharge waste of the unique resource use patterns, materials into the coastal zone are Western urbanisation, population concentration, low India Plywood, Mavoor Rayons, FACT, Cochin per capita land availability, development needs Refineries, Lakshmi Starch Factory, Hindustan in the domestic power and industrial sectors, Insecticides, Indian Rare Earths and TTP. Long and excellent prospects of estuarine tourism, term monitoring of the pollution of the coastal there is great potential for conflicts between waters is being carried out under COMAP conservation and development in the state. project in which, CESS and NIO study Kerala Therefore, only the major estuaries in the ur Coastal Zone. This study indicates that the ban areas of Qullon (Ashtamudl) district and threshold volumes exceeded nowhere in Kerala. Ernakulam - Alleppy (Vembanad) districts, to However, if precautions are not taken, pollu gether forming about 237 km^ should be tion can reach dangerous levels at several lo brought under ORZ II. The landward extent cations." in each estuary has to be decided by the local authorities taking into consideration the envi The inclusion of the estuarine habitats ronmental, social, economic and development under the proposed ORZ may help safeguard needs and on a case to case basis. All the other this "buffer strip" against the hazards of pol estuaries and backwaters may be categorised lution and reclamation. The estuaries in Kerala under ORZ I (263 km^). maintain exceptionally high levels of biologi cal productivity. They play such important eco ii) Cochin backwater: A case study logical roles as (a) nutrient and organic mate rial transport through tidal circulation, (b) fish The Cochin backwater popularly known ing grounds, (c) nursery grounds for many spe as the Vembanad Lake extends across the cies of marine shrimps, crabs and fishes and Alleppy and Ernakulam districts with two sea sonal openings and one permanent opening (d) breeding grounds for the freshwater into the Arabian Sea. Six rivers discharge into carldian prawns. The berried population of the this backwater lake. Fishing takes place in fresh water prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) this lake round the year. Due to reclamation, migrates downstream the Cochin backwaters the lake area of 36,500 ha as estimated in 1834 during September - December for hatching and has reduced to 12,700 ha in 1983. The lake is the completion of larval metamorphosis. Out inhabited by 150 species of flnflshes, 7 species of 23.4 of downstream migrating berried popu of penaeid prawns. 6 species of palaemonidae lation, only 30.2 % reaches the spawning and 2 species of clams, and is characterised grounds while the remaining 69.8 % is lost due to by very high primary, secondary and benthic fishing. production. The estimated annual fisheries The landward extent of the ORZ in the production Is around 7,200 t (penaeid prawns various estuaries/backwaters of Kerala may be 48.6%, flnflshes 45.8 %, crabs 13.8 % and fixed at the point of high water tidal Influx (5 palaemonid prawns 1.8 %) while the black clam ppt. salinity), which varies from place to place production Is more than 7,000 t per year. depending on the coastal physiography, slope / gradient, seasons and river discharge intensity Species diversity Index (H) for polycha- and pattern. Therefore, this point should be etes and crustaceans In the Cochin backwa decided on a case to case basis and also by ters determined in 1978 revealed a gradual the magnitude of stress caused by activities. reduction from the bar mouth towards the As the landward part of the ORZ comprises higher gradients, where the stress due to pol more private properties with a variety of hu lution was very high. The species diversity of man activities, fixing a common boundary for bryozoans ranged from 0.42 during the all the activities together might lead to wide monsoon season of oligohallne conditions to spread objections and protests and hence re 1.82 during the premonsoon season for a sta tard development in the coastal sector. In view tion within a radius of 1 km from the II barmouth. The upper reaches of the estuary CRZ Notification (dt. 19/2/91), the Kerala gov indicated low diversity. This reduced diversity ernment has prepared the draft Coastal Zone index could be due to the changes that have Management Plan (CZMP) in December 1995 taken place in the water quality of the Cochin and recommended it for approval by the gov backwaters. The bryozoans are excellent ernment of India. The task force constituted indicators of aquatic pollution. to examine the draft CZMP of Kerala after de tailed discussions, took the following decisions. The industrial effluent (ammonia, ammo niac nitrogen, fluorides, mercury, DDT, acidic 1. Though the criteria used by the Kerala chemicals and suspended solids) discharged government for identifying the high tide from the Eloor- Edayar industrial belt into the line (HTL) were acceptable to the Periyar river (which Joins the Cochin government, it was advised to get the HTL backwaters) is estimated to be over 200 mil certified by the Chief Hydrographer (CH), lion litres/day. A recent report on the status Dehradun for the sake of maintaining of pollution in the Periyar river has quantified uniformity at the all-India level. the annual load of mercury (2,000 kg), zinc (10,095 kg), copper (327 kg) fluorides (250 t) 2. Because of the special features and cir and iron (30 t) dumped into this river (The cumstances of Kerala like the limited land Hindu, dt. 29-6-'98). availability and high population density it was decided that the distance from the Mass mortality of fish due to industrial HTL along the creeks, rivers and backwa pollution has been reported from the upper ters shall be kept as 100 m or the width of reaches of Cochin backwaters at Chitrapuzha the creek, river or backwater, whichever and Champakara. Ammonia load of 432 to 560 is less for the purpose of regulation. ppm, along with acids and suspended solids, has been found to be deleterious to fish in this 3. Areas of outstanding natural beauty, heri backwater lake. Mercury concentration ranged tages and historical sites identified in the from 0.15 to 1.10 ppm, in the monsoon season plan were agreed to and the Kerala gov in the sediments while at the effluent dicharge ernment has been asked to demarcate the point, it recorded 5.5 to 11.5 ppm. Indiscrimi spatial extent of these areas in the coastal nate application of about 10 types of pesticides maps under the CRZ -I category. to the tune of 480 t/year in the Periyar catch Whereever necessary, CRZ -I areas have ment area has led to the occurrence of DDT In to be categorised or demarcated to the clams and organochlorine in the black clams extent possible as CRZ -1 within CRZ -II and fishes in the Cochin backwaters. High or III. concentration of coliform bacteria has been de tected in fish and bivalves from Cochin back 4. All the mudflats, the marshy surround waters. About 40 ha of saline mudflat within ings and the mangrove ecosystem have the Cochin backwaters is being used for coco been classified as CRZ -I. A buffer zone of nut husk retting. This has resulted in anoxic 50-m distance belt around them will be conditions and hydrogen sulphide accumula maintained even if the width of the creek, tion, rendering the area unsuitable for almost backwater and river is less than 50 m. any type of life. An ElA study conducted in the Cochin backwaters during 1994-'95 has 5. The HTL position as on February 1991 has revealed low benthic population in the to be taken into consideration for demarcating the CRZ areas. Reclamation Udyogamandal canal and a general decline in is not permitted, nor shall there be any fish production. construction on lands reclaimed after Kerala's coastal zone management plan February 1991. In response to the government of India 6. Dredging is allowed, but the land formed
12 as a result of dumping of the dredged ing less than Rs. 10 lakh, the environmental materials should not be used for develop implication will be assessed by the concerned ment activities. departments following the guidelines issued by the committee and the departments will be 7. Dredging material not be allowed to be responsible for safeguarding the purity and dumped in the CRZ areas. stability of the environment. With the above 8. Only rare minerals not available outside conditions, the departments could proceed with the CRZ areas will be permitted for mining the projects without referring to the commit while the others shall not be permitted for tee (Kerala Gazette No. 6. DT 2/2/78-part I). mining in the CRZ areas. The national scenario 9. The Ministry of Forests and Environment India is the major subcontinent in the (MoEF) of the government of India will take Indian Ocean brim countries with a coast of up the issue of mining of rare earth with 8,129 km length which is traversed by a net the Department of Atomic Energy (DoAE) work of inland waterbodies in the form of riv to ascertain their mining plans so that ers, estuaries, lagoons, backwaters and erosion is minimised. brackishwater impoundments and mangroves. 10. All uninhabited islands will be classified This coastal zone is vibrant with fishing ac under the CRZ category. tivities operating from 2,251 fish landing cen tres, yielding a current annual catch of 2.7 11. Quilandy has been classified as CRZ-III. million tonnes (1997-'98) by a fleet of 160,000 traditional, 32,000 motorised and 47,000 12. No reclamation of kayals (backwaters) will mechanised fishing craft. This zone comprises be permitted within the CRZ areas. diverse habitats which are subjected to mul 13. No coastal roads or railways are permis tiple uses in a variety of complex, mutually sible within CRZ -1 areas, except for ac competing or contradicting issues resulting tivities permissible under the 1991 from habitation, population density, land use Notification. pattern, agriculture, aquaculture, availability of per capita land, power and various indus The CZMP was recommended for approval trial activities. In order to resolve these, there by the government of India subject to the above is a countrjrwide polarisation between natural conditions and suggestions. The programme resource protection interests and economic de emphasises potential government actions, both velopment interests. This situation has con preventive and remedial management mea siderably increased the responsibilities of the sures. However, the agenda and the plan government in meeting the challenges of both change from place to place to meet the local these tasks to make the economic activities needs and circumstances. The government of globally competitive and economically sustain Kerala insisted that the EIA (Environment able. The Environment (Protection) Act 1986 to Impact Assessment) for projects costing Rs. 10 gether with its CRZ Notification and the draft lakhs and above should be referred to the State ORZ regulations and the draft National Committee on Environmental Planning and Co Biodiversity Legislation are being relied upon ordination for review and assessment of envi innocuously nowadays. ronmental implications and the clearance of this committee will be required before the Coastal zone management in India poses projects are sanctioned. For projects costing several problems owing to the extent and di Rs 25 lakhs and above, comprehensive EIA versity of the habitats, development needs, statement by experts will be furnished while population pressure, urbanisation, conflicting referring to the committee. For projects cost user interests, seasonal natural disasters, di-
13 verse sociocultural habits, socioeconomic sta transport, shore protection work, port tus of coastal communities especially of the development and mining. The coastal waters fisherlolks and the economic and political together with an extensive interconnected agenda of each maritime state. The surveys network of estuaries and backwaters are conducted by the International Ocean Institute used primarily for fishing, sea transport, (India) have identified 17 problems that dumping, shell mining and to a limited threaten the management and sustainable extent for aquaculture and tourism. All development of the Indian coastal zone. The these activities in the coastal zone have GIS (Geographical Information System), which resulted In a wide array of problems for the has been widely accepted as a tool for the sen various resource users and the local govern sitivity mapping of coastal areas for natural ment. The uses of and the threats to the processes, fishing impacts, other manmade various coastal habitats are presented in the hazards like pollution, tourism etc., could be Tables 5 and 6. used for identifying and mapping these threats. The GIS allows the user to integrate and TABLE 5. Coastal zone uses synthesise data from different disciplines into Land a single system. Its application helps to con Habitations (urban and rural housholds, beach duct modelling exercises for any given input/ resorts) stress management plan. Remote sensing Agricultural practices technology also provides valuable Information Agriculture/fishery related traditional and on the quality and changing pattern of coastal small scale industries Agriculture and fishery zones. The GIS and remotesensing together related trade could provide most of the data required for the Fish processing, storage, ice plants, boat ICZM. Based on these Inputs, the ICZM plan building and repairing yards could attempt to resolve the following issues: Infrastructure amenities for port development 1) regulation and management of all hazard ous coastal activities, 2) input/output regula Transport activities tion and management for coastal resources Waterfront expansion for recreation and conservation, 3) rehabilitation of degraded eco tourism systems, 4) establishment of protected areas, Mining 5) enhancement of coastal production through Industries (heavy and medium) searanching, 6) promoting indigenous and Coastal mangrove deforestation community practices and 7) encouraging Water seafarming and domestication of coastal habi Fishing tats. Aquaculture Coastal zone uses Artificial reefs (fish habitats) The coastal zone is being intensively used Shipping / transport for a number of activities, ranging from fishing Mining of minerals, corals and fossil shells to high-tech industrial activities which have from the sea resulted in manifold problems both of short - Clay and sand mining from estuaries/ term and long-term implications. For example, backwaters the Kerala coast is thickly populated with 21.9 million people In the nine coastal districts. It Dumping is immediately clear, therefore, that the Port development predominant use of this zone Is human Recreation and tourism settlement. This is naturally followed by Water use for industries agriculture, fisheries, trade, industry, land Nearshore drilling for oil
14 TABLE 6. Coastal zone threats These parts however, require detailed Natural sensitivity mapping of the coastal zone before categorising it into various regulated or Coastal erosion protected areas. Seawater ingress Global warming and sea level rise (i) Coral reefs: The coral reefs found in Natural disaster from floods, storms, the Indian mainland seas and in the hurricanes and cyclones Lakshadweep and Andaman groups of islands Outbreak of diseases include the sensitive fringing reef ecosystems Sedimentation in the Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, Gulf of Kutch Manmade and the atolls of the Lakshadweep group of islands and the continental island reefs of Andaman and Nicobar, all covering an Population pressure and urbanisation estimated area of about 1,217 km^. The In Land use changes including reclamation and dian coral reef ecosystems are estimated to be construction capable of a fish production potential of 1.8 to Shore protection works such as seawalls, 2.7 lakh tonnes per year. The taxonomic and groins and bulkheads ecological studies on the coral reef fauna, initiated in the sixties, have revealed the Overfishing and inshore aquaculture occurrence of 199 species of scleractinian Destruction of habitats and biodiversity corals under 37 genera from the reefs of India. including mangroves, coral reefs and benthos Their diversity is high in the Andaman and Mining Nicobar group of islands (135 species) and the Impact of ports Marine transport Lakshadweep islands (105 species). The Uncontrolled tourism biocomposition of these reefs includes 180 spe cies of benthic algae, 14 species of seaweeds, 12 Manufacturing and processing industries species of seagrass, 4 species of lobsters, 108 Domestic, industrial and agricultural species of sponges, 103 species of echinoderms, discharges 600 species of finfishes in the Lakshadweep and Andaman & Nicobar group of islands and Sensitive coastal habitats many species of crabs, bivalves, gastropods The Indian coastal zone is characterised and cephalopods. The productivity of the reefs by various natural resource systems. The is estimated at 9.1 g C/m^/day in the Minicoy habitats and species are sensitive if they are Island, 7.3 g C/m^/day in the Gulf of Manner (i) fragile and susceptible to pollution, (ii) long and 3.9 g C/m^/day in the Andamans. lived and recruit poorly and (ili) slow to reach maturity, or poor recruitment larval dispersal Besides natural processes like global or no larval stage or unable to move away. warming, cyclones, erosion, siltatlon, diseases, Although no attempt has been made so far to pests (boring sponges & bivalves), algal blooms map the sensitivity of coastal areas, the gross (Noctiluca, Trichodesmium, Alexandrium etc), sensitivity could be determined by the Indiscriminate exploitation of corals and the magnitude of different impacts and activities associated flora and fauna, dredging, reclama in the land-sea interface and in the coastal tion and pollution have further threatened the waters. Accordingly the following habitats have reef ecosystem. Recent rise in sea surface tem been identified as sensitive in the coastal zone. perature by 2 to 3''C has caused bleaching of
15 corals (30 to 80 %) in different parts of the aquaculture and industrial activities. Remote world. sensing and GIS for assessing and monitoring the health of the mangrove ecosystem are very The Gulf of Kutch Marine Park, the essential for formulating appropriate manage Wandoor National Marine Park and the Gulf of ment strategies for their conservation. Mannar Marine Park are basically of coral reefs. Many reef organisms have been brought (iv) Coastal beaches: The beaches con under the CITES. The biological, chemical and stitute the interface between the land and the pharmacological characteristics of all the reef sea, where the natural physical processes are biota and their products need to be evaluated dynamic and intense; the shorelines are in a for evolving various development and manage state of flux and seasonally subjected to ero ment options. Knowledge of the toxicological sion and accretion. Long sandy beaches with qualities of the reef biota, their taxonomy, dis dunes are found along the east coast, whereas tribution and abundance in space and time and the west coast presents sandy pockets, rocky their areawise cataloguing are vital for any di clefts and sprits, creek, bays and headland. saster management In the ecosystem relating The seasonal and annual longshore and on to human poisoning either direct or through shore-offshore sediment transport modifies the food chain. An integrated reef ecosystem con beach profile. Natural processes and human servation and management concept is impera activities increasingly stress the beaches. In tive for evolving a national reef conservation tegrated management plan Is necessary to policy. safeguard the beaches from undue human ac tivities. (ii) Seagrass habitat: Tropical seagrass meadows extend from the intertide to a depth (v) Estuarine habitats: The estuaries oc of about 10 m. There are altogether 14 species cupy an area of 1.25 x 10^ ha along the Indian (7 genera) of seagrasses in the Gulf of Mannar, coast spread over nine maritime states and the Palk Bay, Mandovi estuary, Lakashadeep Island Andaman & Nicobar Islands. About 52 % of lagoons and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. the total backwaters are in Orissa and West High-energy storms, grazing, predation, pests, Bengal and 19.7 % in Kerala. Problems posed diseases and human activities cause destruc by industrial growth along the banks of estu- tion of seagrass meadows. Studies conducted aries and upstream impoundment(e.g. on the Indian seagrass habitats reveal consid Thanneermukkom bund in Vembanad Lake in erable habitat loss and degradation at many Kerala) can be addressed through an integrated places. Five to ten kg of seagrass and seaweeds approach to coastal zone management. per boat per day are removed from the Palk Coastal biodiversity Bay while fishing for Penaeus semisulcatus. The coastal biodiversity occupies different (Hi) Mangrove habitat: About 45 species habitats ranging from sandy, rocky, coral or of mangroves are available in India. In the mudflat intertidal to the shelf edge, each with peninsular India mangroves occupy only a lim characteristic flora and fauna. The uses and ited 380 km long coast covering an area of applications of biodiversity knowledge are ethi about 3,55,500 ha, of which 82 % is along the cal, aesthetic, direct economic and Indirect east coast and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands economic. Several coastal plants and animals and 18 % along, the west. Large stretches of contribute to our food, many constitute the mangrove vegetation have been removed and food of other marine organisms and birds, some the land reclaimed for housing, agriculture, of them yield valuable drugs, a few others form 16 the raw material for industrial extraction, degradation; (3) to conserve habitats and spe about 50 species are cultivable at present, a cies and (4) to assess and monitor the natural wide spectrum of coastal biota are used a ma carrying capacity continually. The coastal zone rine curios, many of them are candidates for extends inland and seaward to a variable ex marine aquaria, while the general marine tent, depending on political, administrative, ecosystem itself together with its facinatlng legal and ecological considerations of wide- biodiversity, is a magnificent object of recreation. ranging Issues. In many countries the coastal Although the fisheries resources are exploited zone extends from the territorial limits (wet for human consumption, a large number of side) to the tldally influenced habitats (dry side) species get destroyed in the process of exploi as the zone can be affected by remote activi tation. The biodiversity of sensitive coastal ties (Annexures 1 to 6). Many nations have ecosystems (beaches, mangroves, estuaries, adopted a coastal regulation zone management coral reefs, seagrass beds, and spawning and through appropriate administrative and legal nursery grounds) face many ainthropogenlc measures, wherein the "wet" and "dry" areas threats. The most common manmade threats within the zone are treated as a single unit. include the land use changes, conversion of Invariably, the boundaries, especially on the natural areas, overexploitatlon of food species, "dry" side, vary depending on the objectives destruction of nontarget biota, habitat degra and needs of the Issues. dation and destruction, domestic and indus trial discharges, oil spills, waste dumping, For a country like India, with diverse coastal mining etc. The impacts of such hu social, cultural and economic background of man Interventions need to be monitored, care the coastal zone user population, physiogra fully and assessed periodically for the phy, development needs, foreshore traversing mainteancince and use of the coastal zone. The national highways and urban concentrations existing Wildlife (Protection) Act, Environment around a narrow estuary, a common regulation (Protection) Act, the 1991 CRZ Notification, the for the different maritime states might not be proposed ORZ Notification and the proposed realistic or desirable. Uniform adoption of a Biodiversity Act provide the necessary legal coastal buffer zone of 500 m throughout the framework to safeguard the marine habitats country under the CRZ has already caused and their biodiversity from manmade threats. serious social problems, sometimes even International status leading to litigation from many parts of the coastal states. Each maritime state has certain Many European and some Asian coun characteristic physiography, coastal sea and tries have already recognised the coastal zone land use patterns. Therefore the limits to the as a priority area for holistic management, tak boundaries of the regulated zone, especially of ing into consideration the multiple user inter the landward boundaries, should be demarcated ests and conflicts, the seaward and landward after a thorough study on all the possible im boundaries, the legal framework and the so- pacts, both natural and anthropogenic, devel ciocultural and economic scenarios and the opment needs etc. on the coastal zone of the coastal population. It is widely felt that an concerned state. The regulations should be Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) suitably restructured on a case to case basis approach is imperative: (1) to facilitate sus tainable economic growth based on coastal liv as regards the boundaries that should be de ing and nonliving resources, tourism etc.; (2) cided after a thorough examination of the mer to control pollution, habitat alteration and its of the concerned activities.
17 Postscript For India, it would be more appropriate to formulate a common CRZ, rather than sepa In response to Decision 1/20 of the rate regulations for the coastal zone and ocean UNCED Preparatory Committee, many nations zone, wherein both the territorial waters and have initiated actions on the: 1) development the landward extent of the ocean (estuciries / of coastal and national maritime areas and 2) backwaters) should be covered and governed protection and rehabilitation of the marine by a single agency (Ministry) through the living resources and their habitats, and evolved promulgation of necessary policies, regulations suitable Coastal Zone Regulations for and acts. For this purpose, the existing CRZ multisector management, involving all stake- could be suitably amended to include the ocean netholders and affected agencies, with public part in the regulation/acts etc., so that the support. All the countries relied on an Inte coastal areas could be managed as a single unit grated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) ap and by integrating all management processes proach and regulated the activities in the sea with appropriate feconomic sectors (fishing, ward and landward extent under the same shipping, mining, transport, power, industry, management program, which is governed by a housing, tourism etc.). single agency (Ministry).
Cp.«NTl^|.5S|;1^ '4,GtJ.^ %^ •f^'.ill. Remarks wet side Pry Side •,' 3 4 1. USA-'. Coastal Zone Management Acl To the outeflinut of the territorial To the extent necesssrjitqconfroMorelamj, the >\ -• "••" -pn'"''- ^,., . ' ih-''' ,'|';, ' ^, MfiJiOBM a direct si|m|i3^j|[npjbnqcM '•;-'^'% ^.''•>j- -'*w*-- ^^. i'l.|i||^\v waters, kgislation deliberately ^vopfixedf • ;|,^daries le« to,fndivi(JM||tales; liktly to A vtity,ftc«td4g'lp|q||idlfM^aphy..and j •k 'i'-;, "•^^,), . „ ,demogniphiceonstWi(iri,Wy&'(tu%bc.sever5l L. ' • . l.^ii'lJll^iTi? ^1« in land from the coastline. 4<^5'' ' Shores Act 1988 Sea shore and coastal water inlets, Hundred to two hundred meters territorial and inland water 3. Mm- I*).:.';: Tenitoria] sea, to a distantftot^Ste'' I'Hondied m ftomH.W. mark sometimes'^iptdM k^5i ;r ' • --I ,v- miles out to sea' '%} 4. Australia Coastal Protection Act 1972 Three Q m. from mean L.W.S tide llundred ra above M H W S tide level level 5. UKy_„ Jer^ti r-Sea Act 1987 .^f nitoiial Sea to 12 n,?v;|;;; V,'; i|ff^f lassification fotllft intertidal zone, it is iriore [t |.,'*^.> •4;.^)i.,iiS){ibq|iv.fwS^ 6. France Hundred m from H.W. mark No construction Two hundred m from H.W mark No new mles
,7 H9W?y-.i|. 1KI*»-, HSi, ,„,i>^; .u,ui)disliiiiilll'»i&*flJiM •i; 'NoconslnictionS:^^ 8 Italy Three hundred m from H.W. mark No construction .P.sJfiieew - -l.'*!."'i,l^'^ Five hundred m ftomH-W. mark -'1,^1.1 Strict cpptrols « i' 10 Denmark Three thousand m from H W. marrk j No summer house 11. USSR Threelun ii' I .^lack'sea .^^i'^'iiiiA^, '••111 U.^fhiBpphies C5ntinenf8lWf - V Jjo.^reas wlteres?ft w^&r'jntnjil^,;, (estnanes, backwater) r'
Annexure 1. Coastal Zone Management Act in differect countries Source: Ocean & coastal management. Vol. 22 No.l/1994-MAlN LAND AND SEA. Note: There is no universally accepted legal definition of the coastal/ocean zone. The coastal zone embraces the region of inter face between the land and the sea, the boundary in either direction varies according to the purpose of legislation and the geographical limits of jurisdiction of the relevant authorities. But invariably the outer limit on the wet side Is the territorial sea of the country - which extents from 3 to 12n.m-by the Territorial Sea Act 1987. 18 Annexure-2: Extent of government control in the management of marine and coastal resources and environments. Source : Sourensen and McCreary (1990).
Territorial control Total or near total control by the government Predominant Extensive Less extensive Least govt, by the coastal ofthe coastal nation govt control govt. govt. control & nation control control the most Control by the Private sector The International Exclusive Economic Zone area ** (to maximum extent of 200 n.m)
Territorial Sea~^ (The oceanward boundary varies among nations)
Shorelands Coastal uplands
Abyssal plain Plain Continenta Continental shelf -rise slope <— Continental margin * In a number of places, the continental margin extends oceanward beyond 200 nautical miles. In these situations, the oceanward boundary ofthe national jurisdictional claim can be the outer edge ofthe continental margin. ** The international area is a seabed and ocean waters beyond either continental margin or the exclusive economic zone (whichever is greater). Under the 1982 Law ofthe Sea Convention, the international seabed authority has some management authority, particularly with respect to marine mining. CB- The coastal baseline is a series of straight lines that interconnect coastal headlands and promontories. The CB is the reference point used to map the oceanward boudary of both the territorial sea and the exclusive economic zone. MHT- MEAN HIGH TIDE; MLT- MEAN LOW TIDE AnnexiiTe-3: Legislative administration of the coastal evironment of New Zealand. Source : Sourensen and McCreary (1990).
-Mining Act 1971 . (mining resources) Petroleum Act 1937 - (petroleum) Coal Mines Act 1925 .Iron and Steel Industry Act 1959 (mining of iron sands) 3 miles inland -HarbourdAct 1950 (habours reclamation) -Timber Floating Act 1954- N.Z. Ports Authority Act 1968 Land Drainage Act 1908 _ - Continental Shelf Act 1964 - River Board^ct 1908 - • (mineral fesourccs) (a. 8(2) regulations) -4 Marine Pollution Act 1974 -N Swamp Drainjge Act 1915 (watei Pollution control, includes internal waters) (wetlands- rivfcrs- streams) Water and Soil Conjervation Act 1967 (natural(water) Soil Conservation and Hivers Control Act 1941- I (Reclamation) (natural water and soil control) Town and Country Planning Act 1953 to (some territorial L.A boundaries extend past o Municipal Corpo^^ation Act 1954 ountries Act 1958 and Countries Amendment Act 1961 (a 167 reserve) Land Act 1948- -Marine Famiing Act 1971 - Sand Drift Act 1908 (fauna includes!internal waters) (within any specified area) Marine Reserves Act 1971 Reserves and Domaine Act 1963- (includes internal jwater flora, fauna) (scenic and flora reserves) .^.Whaling Industry —•?<- National Par^s Act 1962 Act 1936 ((scenic, fldra, fauna) - Wild Life Kct 1953 (tftuna, include« ^' internal ^ivaters) -TJie KOTCSI, A.C1 ^Vorlcs A.ct 192S _
1908 Caea^mrel
Suntl dunes - l^J^Adcrlatid OcpiU or 200n Fisliing. zone tU naxitical mi Fortisliorti o» '1 Ida) ds (includes mud flats •> Jntcrnal Mvatc Annexure-4: Existing and potential boundaries of coastal zone programmes and ocean man agement programmes. (Source : Sourensen and McCreary (1990))
Waahlngton Stat* CZ PTannIng Ar«a
U.S. Coastal Managamvnt A^t
Srt Lanka Oc»»n Sri Canka Manag«nnttnt Prociram CZ Program Brazil Oc*ati Brazil Coastal Mana9«fTi«nt - Managamont Program
^^^^^^^^ , Inland ; Lbnll of MI.T MHT Cltmatlc I Inftuanca bilana Boundary t t of Local Ocoan Boundary I Arbitrary Oeaan- I of tha Tarrltorlal I ward Olalanca I Qovarnm
Annexure-S: Options for delineating the ocean and inland bounda ries of a coastal zone or an ocean management area (Source: Sorensen and McCreary (1990))
In many cases the bound Infreasin g jurisdictional areas 1 • ary between a coastal state (or province) and \ Oceanward Mean low tide Arbitrary Boundary between Ocean boundary of Oceaitedgeof Ocean boundary the territorial sea' the oftheeiclusive the national jurisdiction \ Boundary (MLT) oceanward provincial or state is the same as the terri economic zone \ Options or mean high distance (s) from jurisdiction and (usually between 3 continental torial sea boundary line. Inlind \ tide (MHT) a tidal mark national and 12 n.m, from margin or (EEZ)++ In a number of places the Boundary \ jurisdiction* CB)+ shel^* continental margin ex tends oceanward beyond Options \ —j 200 nautical miles. ••* The inland boundary of Arbitrary distance (s) Costa Rica Srilanka California (from Spain Grejt Barrier Srilanka, local government's juris from a tidal niari((sucli (MLT) Brazil 1972tol976) ReelMarine Netherlands and diction often extends fur fart Sweden ocean ther inland than the lands V, as 200 meters from low Israel a management on which adverse impacts V tide) AulDority u may be generated. a program 1 The coastal baseline (CB) « c Inland boundary of local Western State of J is a series of straight lines 'Z government's Australia Washingfon that inter connect coastal V (for planning) islands, headlands and ••4 jurisdiction"' (MHT) promontories. It is used to (A Inland limits of lands on . U.S. Coastal k map the oceanward 3 Zone Management '^ which adverse impacts 1 boundary of territorial sea SI Act c may be generated and the exclusive eco *» n nomic zone. « k .California The EEZ extends 200 u c (since 1976) n.m. or to the ocean ward M Inland limit of climatic hmit of the continental margin, whichever is influence greater.
21 3500
3000 3000 3000
E. 2500 e _c o k. o 2000 HI E
o1.. •*•D- 1500 > jcO _c 1 o e o u o c 1000 « n cflOO 100 100 80 50 50 50 50 33 30 E 20 20 20 12 8 CO s (U S IS IS IS CB CD CD ca »0. i ;-. gs s ^H u S i c •o o • 5 w o O IS e « • « t o o a: a c <^ ~ S a a '' n 1 cs c C ^ SI O o o Q- ,. 45 3 _o m E N 11116 N S « E IS CO c c 3 1 o "co E « •a 3 u. ? E " " 6 s S Q- g I o D » o e o M' o N O If O ^ 1 o 7: S «U O sis o z a. o X o c > E e > "g o t o