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Basics of Manufacturing Integrated Circuits

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Basics of Manufacturing Integrated Circuits BASICS OF MANUFACTURING • Fab: Manufacturing plant in which raw silicon wafers are turned into integrated circuits. INTEGRATED CIRCUITS • Gallium: Conductive chemical element (symbol Opportunities for filtration exist for the manufacture Ga). Gallium arsenide and, gallium nitride are of very small electronic components referred to as the primary chemical compounds of gallium semiconductors. This broad category includes devices used in electronics. such as transistors, capacitors, resistors, diodes, LED • Germanium: Conductive chemical element and photocells. The different types of devices can be (symbol Ge). For the first decade of integrated together to form integrated circuits, or semiconductor electronics, everything was VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) devices such as based on germanium. Currently it is used only a microprocessors and random access memory (RAM). fraction (2%) of silicon, mainly for solar cells. As more devices are stacked into a single integrated circuit, the distance between the devices, referred to • HF: Hydrofluoric acid. as line width or geometry, is also reduced. This allows • Integrated Circuit: Compact set of electronic for more rapid functions while reducing the cost circuits on one small plate of semiconductor per chip. The processes used to make these devices material which is typically silicon therefore requires ultrapure water as well as number • LED: Light-emitting diodes potentially hazardous or aggressive chemicals and chemical mixtures, all of which must be highly filter • Moore’s Law: the observation, named after to ensure the quality of the devices and high yield. Gordon E. Moore who was the co-founder of Intel and Fairchild Semiconductor, that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit Definitions has doubled approximately every year. In 1975, he revised the forecast to doubling every two • BOE (Buffered Oxide Etch): etch chemical years which holds true today. composed of ammonium fluoride and hydrofluoric acid. • NOE (Neutral Oxide Etch): Etch chemical composed of ammonium fluoride and ethylene • Chip: Integrated circuit. glycol. • CMP slurry (Chemical Mechanical Polishing/ • Photoresist: A light-sensitive material used Planarization): Slurry of abrasives used to in several industrial processes, such as remove thin layers (angstrom) from a wafer via photolithography to form a patterned coating both grinding and etching. on a surface. Two types: Positive resist is a • Diode: Component with two electrodes called type of photoresist in which the portion of the the anode and the cathode intended to conduct photoresist that is exposed to light becomes electric current in only one direction. soluble to the developer; Negative resist is a • Doping: Introduction of impurities into an type of photoresist in which the portion of the extremely pure semiconductor for the photoresist that is exposed to light becomes purpose electronic properties (increased insoluble to the photoresist developer. conductivity). • Piranha: Stripper chemical composed of • Etching: Chemical process used to remove hydrogen peroxide and sulfuric acid. layers from the surface of a wafer during manufacturing. 1 • ROM (Read Only Memory): Type of mm thick, which are the wafers. SC1 and SC2 are used microprocessor memory that is programmed to remove organics and metals. Using the silica wafer with a permanent collection of pre-set bytes. as the substrate, an insulation layer is created on the • RAM (Random Access Memory): Type of wafer under high microprocessor memory that loses information temperature in the when powered down. presence oxygen to form silicon • RCA Clean: Standard set of cleaning steps for dioxide. Since this wafers using SC1 and SC2. process involves • SC1 (Standard Clean 1): Stripper chemical on gas, there are composed of NH4OH (28%), H2O2 (30%) and no liquid filtration dionized water. opportunities, but • SC2 (Standard Clean 2): Stripper chemical rather specialized composed of HCl (73%), H2O2 (30%), dionized gas filters. water. • Semiconductor: A substance, usually a solid Companies, such as Wacker, SEH, MEMC and chemical element such as silicon that can Hemlock Semiconductor are involved in the conduct electricity under some conditions but manufacture of silicon ingots. Due to the not others, making it a good medium for the temperature and nature of the chemicals in the control of electrical current. process, there are opportunities for Citadel. • Silicon: Conductive chemical element (symbol Si) serves as the base of most integrated Wafer Manufacturing devices. • TOC (Total Organic Carbon): Amount of carbon The wafer serves as the base upon which the integrated bound in an organic compound and is often circuit is built. Wafers have been increasing in diameter used as a non-specific indicator of water quality over the decades as manufacturing technologies have or cleanliness of pharmaceutical manufacturing improved. 150 mm wafers were typical until 1995, equipment. while 200 mm wafers became typical until early 2000 when 300 mm were developed. Today, 450 mm wafers • Transistor: Component with three terminals are being developed. The rationale for larger wafers is used to amplify an electronic signal. that more individual integrated circuits can be built on • VLSI: Very Large Scale Integration. a single wafer as the diameter increases. For instance a • Wafer: Serves as the substrate upon which 200 mm wafer has an area of 31,416 mm2 while a 300 integrated circuits are built. mm wafer has an area of 70,686 mm2. Using the same processes, output can essentially be doubled (2.25X) due to the increased area. Wafer processing involves Silicon Ingot multiple steps with layer upon layer being built on the wafer. Each layer goes through the process of Silicon wafers act as the main substrate for integrated photolithography, baking, developing, etching and circuits. The individual thin waters are cut from an polishing. Each layer ingot that is grown/formed from highly purified will be a different electronics grade silicon (99.9999999%). The ingot design/pattern is started from a seed crystal immersed in a bath from the previous of molten silicon at over 1,000°C and is rotated from the first and and drawn upwards very slowly, increasing in size are interconnected as it is drawn. The process takes many days, yet at various places it is a single crystal. In a single crystal, all of the until the entire atoms are aligned and oriented in one direction. circuit becomes the The outer diameter is ground so that it is circular. And integrated device. then can be sawed (sliced) into thin discs 0.5 to 0.9 There may be 30 or 2 more layers in a single completed wafer, meaning Wet Etch: Etch chemicals, typically hydrofluoric the process of photolithography, baking, developing, acid (HF) or BOE which contains HF, are used to etching and polishing was repeated 30 or more times. etch away regions of the silica layer not protect- ed by the patterned photoresist adhering to the Photolithography wafer. Etching is usually accomplished by im- mersion where the wafers are placed in a holder Photomask: The pattern of each individual layer of referred to as a boat and immersed in a chemical the chip, containing the various devices (transistors, bath. There are also acid spray processors in resistors, etc.), is generated in a magnified size, which wafers are sprayed with the chemical. photographed and reduced in size to match the actual size of a wafer. The image of chips is transferred to a glass plate using electron beam and becomes the master, referred to as the photomask or mask. Photoresist: The image of the pattern must be transferred to the surface of the wafer using photolithography. In this process, wafers are coated with photoresist, a photosensitive chemical which is actuated by UV light. Following the application of the photoresist, the wafers are cured at a low temperature to dry the resist (soft bake) followed by curing at higher temperature (hard bake). • Positive resist: the solubility of resist covering The recirculating wet benches incorporate areas exposed to the light increases and the a pump and a filter per each sink and will resist can be easily rinsed off by the developer contain multiple sinks. Depending chemical solution. This is the most prevalent type. being used, PES membrane from 0.1 – 0.65 • Negative photoresist: exposed resist areas may be utilized. Aggressive chemicals will polymerize (solidify) and remain during the require Citadel Pre-wet. developing step while the non-polymerized chemical washes off. Dry Etch: As line widths have decreased in size, wet Expose and Develop: The dried, resist-coated wafer etching has become a less desirable process due is put into a camera like device which contains the to the inability to highly control the etching. In a photomask and beams UV light the mask at the process referred to as dry etching, ions created by coated wafer, exposing certain areas while others plasma generation, bombard the unmasked surfaces are blocked. The photoresist is now developed, similar of the wafer and create highly reactive gas compound to film. In the case of positive resist, the exposed which is then removed. Similar to the oxidative layer areas can be washed away while with negative resists formation, the process involves only gas and thus unexposed areas wash away. The chemicals used are there are no liquid filtration opportunities, but rather referred as developers specialized gas filters. Stripping: Because photoresist is used to mask the Photoresist and developers must be filtered. surface, it must be removed or stripped prior to In the wafer process, these filters tend to be further processing. There are different types of stripper of a specialized capsule design - standard depending upon the surface. For non-metal surfaces, elements are typically not used. Manufacturers a mixture of sulfuric acid and hydrogen peroxide is of photoresist such as AZ Electronic Materials, used referred to as Piranha. For metal surface, acid Dupont, MacDermid and Sumitomo Chemical cannot be used. In this case, proprietary mixtures will filter in the manufacturing process.
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