Zuhur / Tadros: Egypt’s Conspiracy Discourse

Egypt’s Conspiracy Discourse: Liberals, Copts and Islamists Sherifa Zuhur and Marlyn Tadros

Dr. Zuhur, a visiting scholar at the Center for Middle Eastern Studies, University of California, Berkeley, was a research professor of national security at the Strategic Studies Institute at the U.S. Army War College from 2004 to 2009. Dr. Tadros is a research affiliate at the Middle East Center of Northeastern University and professor of Web Development and Interactive Media at the Arts Institute of New England.

dward Said’s concept of oriental- dered behavior not necessarily present in a ism was developed from his per- society like Egypt? Or might it ameliorate ception of the role of scholarship Western ills: anomie, materialism, lack of in the West’s exploitation of the compassion, a quest to control valuable EEast for the purpose of conquest and the resources and militarism? maintenance of political power. It was not Ian Buruma and Avishai Margalit have simply a construct of Eastern inferiority defined occidentalism as anti-Westernism, versus Western superiority. Hassan Hanafi, anti-modernism and anti-colonialism, trac- chair of philosophy at Cairo University, ing it to scholars of the Romantic Group first encouraged a “science of occidental- or the Buddhist Hegelian Kyoto school ism” to counter orientalist studies.1 How- meeting in 1942.3 There are many similari- ever, as Syrian philosopher Sadiq al-Azm ties between this Asian political antipathy has suggested, one must heed Said’s to the West and types emerging in Egypt. warning to the subjects and victims of However, occidentalism, like orientalism, orientalism against the dangers of apply- is also a means of rendering the Other as ing the readily available structures, styles exotic, desirable and permeable. It may not and ontological biases of orientalism upon always be part of a political agenda. Robert themselves and others.2 That would result Woltering has also described occidentalism in orientalism in reverse, or the internaliz- in Egypt primarily in terms of responses to ing of orientalist political intentions. colonialism, equating the “West” with the Is occidentalism a means of perceiv- term4 and concerning himself with the con- ing the West as territory for ideological or nections between discourse about the West political conquest, since it is the source and power. Following the 2014 onslaught of Eastern domination? Can it be free of on Gaza, there was a new call for an occi- neocolonialist underpinnings, given a dentalist news service, linked to increasing discourse of romanticized logic and or- global support of Palestinian grievances,

© 2015, The Authors Middle East Policy © 2015, Middle East Policy Council

109

Zuhur and Tadros.indd 109 8/28/2015 1:33:37 PM Middle East Policy, Vol. XXII, No. 3, Fall 2015

that could counter the anti-Arab, anti-Mus- tian body politic. The Muslim Brotherhood lim media effort of the U.S.-based MEM- constructed itself as an alternative to a RI5 by exposing the actions and attitudes monolithic and imperialist West. Decades of Israel and the United States.6 beyond its founding, according to its inter- We will focus, in the context of nal charter, a woman or a Christian could Egypt’s policies, on some examples of not serve as president, and women were the conspiracism that developed during barred from the Brotherhood’s leadership, and after the January 25, 2011 revolution. as part of its interpretation of shariah.7 Diverse religious and political movements Yet the movement also expressed Oc- used rhetorical devices and conspiracy cidentalism as part of a strategy to oppose theories to mobilize people during elec- the “Islamophobia” of the government tions in Egypt and thereafter. This reso- and the military, reflected in propaganda nated widely due to social media. against the group in the Nasser era. Due to Conspiracist discourse in the media the Brotherhood’s attempt to assassinate solidified public support for the Egyptian President Gamal Abdul Nasser and his government when it was challenged by subsequent imprisonment of their leaders, Western and opposition media, particu- movement figures hated him and reviled larly after July 3, 2013, when President his policies, especially his support for the Mohamed Morsi was deposed. Attacks “communist” Eastern bloc. The deal struck were also waged by certain actors on civil between the movement and President society, terming its members “Western Anwar Sadat in 1971 to counterbalance pawns;” civil society itself used the same his leftist and Nasserist critics involved concept in the initial stages of the January the Brothers’ promise to forgo violence 25 Revolution. Throughout, occidentalism and the pursuit of a full-blown political and orientalism-in-reverse reverberated party. Following Sadat’s assassination by in popular discourse, revealing uncertain- radical Islamists of the Islamic Jihad, the ties in the self-image and worldview of movement began to pursue parliamentary Egyptians. positions in defiance of that agreement, but only as part of coalitions with other SOME ORIGINS OF opposition parties or by running individu- OCCIDENTALISM als as independents. The political aspira- Al-Ikhwan al-Muslimin tions of the movement were obvious, but The Muslim Brotherhood movement — were dashed by repressive regime tactics al-Ikhwan al-Muslimin — was established in 2005. by Hassan al-Banna in 1928 to counter the pervasive influence of Western thought Liberal Occidentalism and ideas, particularly on youth. It wielded Liberalism evolved in Egypt between anti-Western rhetoric, decrying “Western” the state’s partial independence in 1919 concepts of democracy and, eventually, the and the coup known as the Revolution of rule of secular law. Instead, it promoted 1952. The movement embraced rational- the concept of shura (consultation) and the ist scientific thought while dusting off and implementation of shariah to the degree elevating indigenous architectural, artistic tolerable by the Western-influenced Egyp- and craft forms. What was Egyptian was

110

Zuhur and Tadros.indd 110 8/28/2015 1:33:37 PM Zuhur / Tadros: Egypt’s Conspiracy Discourse

prized, idealized and given value, some- Soviets, leading to the eventual assassina- times alongside Western practices, fashions tion of Sadat in 1981. and customs. In part, state sponsorship of Since 1972, Copts have been attacked the arts, literature and television influenced with some regularity by Egyptian Mus- this process.8 lims, and the Egyptian state has failed to Intellectual versions of liberalism were protect them. The infamous al-Khanka in- affected by Arabism (one of us was taught cident of 1972, in which a dispute over the and hired to teach “Arab history” and to transformation of a building into the prem- define Arab anthropology, Arab cultural ises of the Holy Bible Organization turned studies and Arab political theory). Not all into a full-blown sectarian clash, resulted of these ideas or themes were inimical to in the formation of a fact-finding mission the West; rather, they were portrayed as commissioned by Sadat to pinpoint causes alternatives. Some parts of liberal occi- of such strife. The mission’s Oteifi Report dentalism were also influenced by Islamic said it was investigating, among other history, themes and idealizations without things, “how far [such incidents] threaten necessarily promoting a state governed by national unity under the current sensitive religious law. circumstances that we are passing through, in our fight against the Zionist enemy and ANTAGONISMS international imperialism.”9 The report For over three decades, the Muslim outlined three primary sources of sectarian Brotherhood had antagonistic relations to strife: the licensing for building churches, some degree with Egypt’s Copts and with Christian missionary work and, finally, the liberals who fit into two of the conspiracy spread of Islamic religious books attack- theories we explore. ing Christianity and vice versa. The report Egypt’s Coptic minority has, paradoxi- recommended that the church present the cally (since Copts are not Western, but the government with an annual plan for build- original Egyptians), been intertwined with ing churches, in order to acquire immedi- occidentalism in various conspiracy theo- ate licensing whenever possible and gave ries and tensions with the Muslim Broth- a set of recommendations to avoid such erhood. Upon coming to power in 1970, incidents in the future. However, none of Sadat immediately released the Brother- the report’s recommendations were ad- hood members who had been imprisoned opted, and problems continued to escalate. during the previous regime. Many of them Indeed, Sadat, ten years later, in a 1981 returned from exile, having fled during speech, accused Pope Shenouda of “want- Nasser’s rule to affluent Arab countries, ing to be a leader for personal gains” and amassing enough wealth to later have a of inciting strife. He was removed from strong impact on Egypt’s economy. On the office, and a committee was appointed to other hand, Sadat arrested and imprisoned handle the affairs of the church.10 both leftists and Nasserists. Even though, The pope was tried before a panel or perhaps because of, Sadat’s Western established in 1980 by Sadat known as the orientation, the resurgence of the Brother- Morals Court, under the Law Protecting hood coincided with a rise in conservatism Morality from Shameful Actions. Con- and fundamentalism vehemently opposed sisting of judges and public figures, the to the West, no less than it had been to the “court” was more political than legislative.

111

Zuhur and Tadros.indd 111 8/28/2015 1:33:37 PM Middle East Policy, Vol. XXII, No. 3, Fall 2015

It condemned the pope and exiled him to against tourists. His policy backfired; when the Wadi al-Natrun monastery. Soon after news of the dialogue and his compromis- Sadat’s assassination in 1981, the Morals ing actions reached the press, he was fired Court itself was abolished and the pope from his position. reinstated after a prolonged legal battle Several assassination attempts oc- with the state. curred against government ministers of President Mubarak, on the other hand, the interior and information officials and alternated between a laissez-faire attitude journalists.11 Most notable of the sectar- toward the security of the Copts and a ian incidents was al-Kosheh in 2000; not heavy-handed approach towards the op- unlike previous sectarian attacks, it began position. Incidents targeting the Copts, with minor incidents and grew exponen- from the very subtle to the outright violent, tially as rumors led to an eruption. went unpunished. The year 1992 alone The January 25 Revolution was pre- witnessed 37 attacks. In that same year, ceded by several alarming incidents. In fundamentalists assassinated the Muslim 2010, there was a Christmas shooting and secularist murder of writer Farag Despite cracking down on the seven Copts; Foda for fundamentalists [and] at times even on New his satires destroying entire villages and taking Year’s Eve directed at 2011, a car them and his their families hostage, the Mubarak bomb killed sympathy for government pursued a concurrent policy 23 Copts in the Copts’ of Islamizing the state. the Saints’ plight. Church in Despite cracking down on the funda- Alexandria. Massive salafi demonstrations mentalists of the Gamaa Islamiyya and were held in 2010 against Pope Shenouda. Islamic Jihad, at times even destroying They were unusual in that no one had ever entire villages and taking their families cursed the pope so openly in public, and hostage, the Mubarak government pursued they occurred in Cairo proper rather than a concurrent policy of Islamizing the state. on its outskirts or in villages. The heavy- The media utilized Islamic rhetoric, which handed approach of the Mubarak regime at times was provocative to the Copts, towards the people, in general, and the especially when a prominent religious Islamists, in particular, created even more television “star,” Shaykh Shaarawi, at- resentment against Christians; Islamists tacked Coptic beliefs. Religious program- viewed the government as appeasing them. ming consumed a large portion of airtime. Amid rumors regarding conversion of Simultaneously, on the political front, the Muslims by Christians and the kidnapping government constantly chose inefficient of Muslim women, tensions were rising. ministers of interior. One of them, Abdel The escalation continued after the revolu- Halim Moussa, was not only sympathetic tion took place. to the Islamist extremists, he entered into As sociologist Saad Eddin Ibrahim, what he called “dialogue” with them, al- jailed for several years by the Mubarak lowing them certain freedoms and ignoring regime, points out, the atmosphere that crimes in return for their ceasing attacks causes people to believe these rumors and

112

Zuhur and Tadros.indd 112 8/28/2015 1:33:37 PM Zuhur / Tadros: Egypt’s Conspiracy Discourse

then act violently upon them is exacer- non-Muslim authors, like Maxime Ro- bated by the media: dinson’s Muhammad, which cost a young French-Egyptian professor at the American Whether the official media, which University in Cairo his job; critical works remained for five decades a monopoly about Egypt, Islamism, Palestine and Saudi broadcasting one message in one Arabia; and some about feminism or sex. direction, or the [private] one, which Dr. Mehrez was threatened with deporta- doubled in the last ten years and has tion for using the novel al-Khubz al-Hafi adopted the habit of stirring people [up], spreading the culture of con- in her course. The media published an at- spiracy, labeling whoever disagrees tack, characterizing the book as corrupting with it in opinion, in race or in gender, “youth.” The university banned it, a par- or in religion, traitors or disbelievers. liamentary committee reviewed it, and one This type of media is a completion to of her colleagues referred to Mehrez and bad education. Flattening the mind others from the 1960s in Liberaliyun min makes it easy to believe rumors and to nawin khass.15 In 2000, Islamist students 12 be violent. rioted over a book by Syrian author Hay- dar Haydar, Banquet of Seaweed, because Other liberals, like the literature of its allusions to the Quran from a secu- scholar Samia Mehrez, saw that disputes larist/atheist perspective. Some years later, related to occidentalism were “culture the Islamist organization Lawyers Without 13 wars.” Ideas identified with the West — Shackles went to court to ban an edition such as secularism and feminism — were of 1001 Nights that had been published by viewed pejoratively. Some intellectuals Gamal Ghitani. were attacked in addition to Farag Foda Outside the cultural arena, conflicts and Nobel Prize winner Naguib Mahfouz, over occidentalism cropped up with regard who was stabbed in the neck in 1994, also to women’s rights. In 1994, when civil by Islamists. In 1993, a scholar of Islam, society NGOs and some state actors at- Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd, was taken to court tempted to set rules and laws regarding by Islamists and accused of apostasy for female genital mutilation (FGM), Islamists some of his writings. An Islamist lawyer vehemently opposed the measures. When a had filed a lawsuit to separate him from his film of the mutilation of a child was aired wife, because a Muslim woman cannot be on CNN during the UN International Con- married to a non-Muslim (as an apostate ference on Population and Development in is considered). The couple chose exile; the Cairo, the state itself reacted angrily and Mubarak government did not intervene in described it as a Western attempt to de- 14 the case. fame Egypt. Islamists vehemently opposed Certain ideas received far more the ban, stating that, while FGM was not a criticism than others as the Mubarak sunna (based on Muhammad’s words and government attempted to out-Islamize the deeds), it was a “preferred action” to en- Islamists and tightly limit the potential sure women’s morality. However, follow- for media exposés on offensive books or ing further NGO pressure, as well as the people by censoring them. More than 500 support of the grand mufti of al-Azhar at titles were then on a “Not for Circulation” the time, regulations were enacted to limit list: they included books about Islam by FGM to clinics.

113

Zuhur and Tadros.indd 113 8/28/2015 1:33:37 PM Middle East Policy, Vol. XXII, No. 3, Fall 2015

When the state acted in 1979 and 2000 continued to eschew the values of secular- to improve women’s rights in family law, ism and use anti-Western tropes. At the Islamists protested and vowed to rescind same time, occidentalism was important or appeal the reforms. Meanwhile, more as part of a construct of the movement’s ground was lost as sexual harassment bur- perceived enemies. geoned and expectations grew that women At this time, another conspiracy theory would wear modern-style Islamic dress. arose: the left charged the salafists and the Conflicts increased over other issues such Muslim Brotherhood with furthering the as apostasy, “insults to religion” and free- process of Westernized neoliberalism. This dom of speech, as the salafist movement discourse circulated inside and outside of increased in strength. Egypt and had much to do with raising Nevertheless, a segment of the left expectations of (and mythologizing) the provided legal defense to the Muslim proletarian revolutions as elaborated on by Brotherhood (via the Hisham Mubarak the left for decades — since the revolution Legal Center and the Egyptian Initiative in Egypt clearly diverged from this model. for Personal Rights), linking the cause of Islamists with democratic aspirations and CONSPIRACY 1 to protest violations by the regime of the The liberals are western agents. Brothers’ human rights. There were many other political play- ers on the Egyptian scene in addition to THE REVOLUTION liberals and the Muslim Brotherhood, As the January 25, 2011 upheaval including those who supported Ahmad began, the Muslim Brotherhood, with the Shafiq in his bid for the presidency and exception of smaller youth movements, others who are referred to as feloul, rem- stayed out of the streets. Members of nants of the old regime. different opposition groups and activists Suspicions about the true actors behind protesting the death of Khalid Said on the the revolution of January 25, 2011 were Police Day holiday escalated their de- expressed in court cases against various mands to include the end of the regime, as U.S. and Egyptian NGOs, and similar had occurred, surprisingly, in Tunisia. Af- ideas later emerged in legal charges filed ter President Hosni Mubarak was forced to against former President Mohammad step down and the Supreme Committee of Morsi. Liberals demonstrating in the the Armed Forces (SCAF) took control, the streets and using social media to outwit movement broke the promises of its senior security forces were accused of being leadership by forming a political party, the agents of the West. According to this sce- Freedom and Justice party (FJP), and run- nario, the United States wanted an end to ning a candidate for president. The Muslim Mubarak’s rule and prior to the revolution Brotherhood’s senior all-male leader- had met with representatives of the Mus- ship remained in place, directing the FJP lim Brotherhood as well as secular figures behind the scenes. The FJP downplayed its like Mohammad ElBaradei. Washington anti-Western stances, and by virtue of its had invited activists to the United States tighter organization, along with its allies, it to study nonviolent methods of regime proposed a commitment to madani (civil) change, and foreign NGOs were allegedly values. Its salafist and other Islamist allies promoting sedition against Egypt.

114

Zuhur and Tadros.indd 114 8/28/2015 1:33:37 PM Zuhur / Tadros: Egypt’s Conspiracy Discourse

Human-rights NGOs have been the Affiliation with the West is perceived targets of such accusations since their as eroding Egypt’s social and cultural au- inception. However, despite being mar- tonomy. The youth themselves played into ginalized and limited to their offices, they the perception that the revolutionaries were indeed operated with strong connections middle-class, English-speaking, tech-savvy to the West. This was used as a weapon elites who would further Western-style against them following the fall of the democracy and ideals. In turn, this funded Mubarak regime. In addition, court cases were filed against the International Repub- the international media’s propensity — lican Insti- especially strong in the BBC and CNN tute (IRI), — for find- ing what the National Yet the liberals themselves were also expressing anti-Western attitudes, it lusts to Democratic find is on Institute attempting to distance themselves from prominent (NDI), Free- the West, while simultaneously seeking its display dom House as they and the Kon- support for the revolution. seek out rad Adenauer protest- Foundation in December 2011 in a case ers in Cairo and elsewhere who speak launched by former minister Fayza Aboul English, are middle-class profession- Nega. The charges: operating without a als, and wax eloquent with admira- tion for the West. Having found this license and distributing millions of dol- “evidence” the media then extrapolate lars to Egyptian NGOs. The Americans from what must be regarded as a rather escaped charges; the Egyptians did not. small sample and declare that Ameri- The 16 Americans in the case escaped cans are watching “We the people” after sheltering in the U.S. embassy and movements on the Arab streets.17 posting a hefty bail; some of the Egyptians were put on trial. NDI bitterly charged Affiliation with the West is also per- Egypt with lacking any sense of justice16 ceived as encouraging anti-Islamic and or rule of law and called for U.S. military immoral behavior. Youth (and others) in aid to be suspended. Some of the other Tahrir Square were attacked as immoral protagonists wrote in The Atlantic and and accused in the media of lewd behavior. other Washington publications, following As youth did not try to dispel such ac- the June 30, 2013 regime change, this time cusations, they were seen by the general in defense of the Morsi government, the populace as dismissive, arrogant, rude, Muslim Brotherhood and al-Jazeera jour- Westernized and anarchic, behaving in an nalists. According to this case, the revolu- alien and alienating manner. tion that toppled Mubarak owed much to Yet the liberals themselves were also the funding activities of these groups. In expressing anti-Western attitudes, attempt- fact, the revolution attracted wider sup- ing to distance themselves from the West, port, but the power of the conspiracy while simultaneously seeking its support theory only grew when certain factions for the revolution. One of the slogans of the of liberals supported the Muslim Brother- revolution was “O Obama, there are still hood some months later. a million Osamas!” The United States had

115

Zuhur and Tadros.indd 115 8/28/2015 1:33:37 PM Middle East Policy, Vol. XXII, No. 3, Fall 2015

long supported Mubarak, but at the same of war crimes,” she added in reference time, there were limits to its power, hav- to the controversial writer. ing been unable to stem Islamic terrorism. During a question-and-answer session, Egyptians also shouted: “Obama, stop sup- Friedman faced the ire of Youssef El- porting terror, stop supporting Mubarak!” Korma, a member of AUC’s student Not long after the revolution began, leftist movement. “You can’t come protestors attacked the Israeli embassy, here with a smile and preach to us an emblem of U.S. support for Israel in on democracy when you’ve been the heart of Egypt. They also attacked demeaning Arabs and supporting the downtown buildings of the American war crimes in Gaza and Iraq,” said University in Cairo (AUC), believing there El-Korma. “We don’t welcome you 21 were snipers on its rooftops. On September here.” 15, they removed the American flag from the university’s rooftop because of what More recently, fueling the attacks on they termed “disrespect.” As it appeared liberals is the state’s security apparatus, in one tweet: “Lisa [Anderson, the AUC which uses the media to spread incit- president] failed to apply the principles ing rhetoric against them. In particular, a she claimed that this university represents. program, aptly named al-Sunduq al-Aswad Thus, we took down the flag and handed (the Black Box), leaked tapes of record- it over to her office.”18 At the same time, ings among activists with, for the most SCAF’s Facebook administrator an- part, innocent telephone conversations nounced that AUC is an American tool in- that appeared to be a grand conspiracy, tended to bring about the “fall of Egypt.”19 mentioning funding, travel and external The revolutionaries also denounced U.S. coordinators, in some cases. Every revo- intervention, especially in the initial stages, lutionary leader has been recorded and all when Washington continued to express the conversations have been broadcast, support for the Mubarak regime.20 “incriminating” them in the court of public When journalist Thomas Friedman, a opinion. They were all, including Muham- supporter of pro-Israel U.S. policy, went to mad ElBaradei, accused of being U.S. and Cairo’s Tahrir Square in 2012, the crowd “Zionist” tools of destruction and of delib- met him with jeers and anti-U.S. chants. erately creating chaos, not only in Egypt When he gave a speech at AUC, but in the entire region. In some cases, Freemasonry conspiracy was added to the Some students in attendance vocally charges. protested Friedman’s presence at the university, holding signs aloft ask- CONSPIRACY 2 A ing, “Why a war crimes supporter at The Muslim Brotherhood strikes secret AUC?” “Our protest isn’t just against deals. Friedman — it’s against the policies The Muslim Brotherhood and the Free- of our university, which were closely dom and Justice party were, along with the associated with the former regime,” salafists, the victors in the 2012 elections, said Roqaya Tbeileh, president of the although the results were and continue to university’s Quds Club, who took part in a small protest against Friedman’s be disputed. At first, Hazem Salah Abu visit. “And now they bring a supporter Ismail, a salafi attorney who intended to

116

Zuhur and Tadros.indd 116 8/28/2015 1:33:37 PM Zuhur / Tadros: Egypt’s Conspiracy Discourse

force women to wear the veil and cancel role of unveiled feminists in Egypt’s his- the Camp David treaties, was the Islamists’ tory, and announced an intent to ban ballet leading presidential candidate. He was (the Higher Institute of Ballet was estab- disqualified when it was asserted his lished in 1966) and Islamize other arts. At mother held a U.S. passport (he claimed a demonstration on what became known as she only had a Green Card). Mohammad “Qandahar Friday,” Islamists flew only the Morsi, a Muslim Brotherhood leader who black al-Qaeda flag and the Brotherhood’s headed the FJP after he had escaped from green banners, rather than Egypt’s national prison (see below), was then chosen by flag, and shouted, “O Obama, there are still his party to run for president, although a million Osamas!” he was also criticized for the fact that his Morsi appointed many Islamists as sons hold U.S. citizenship.22 According governors, including former leaders of to some observers, such as Saad Eddin the Gamaa Islamiyya, which had terror- Ibrahim, Shafiq won the election by 30,000 ized Upper Egypt. His government and votes and there were many irregularities. security officials failed to respond to However, the SCAF recognized Morsi as many attacks on Christians or to prevent a president; according to some, due to pres- public lynching of Shia Egyptians.23 Morsi sure by the United States. severed relations with Syria in June 2013 With Islamists now controlling the and expressed support for Syria’s revolu- government, multiple groups grew anxious tionaries by “Egypt and its military” at an about Egypt’s new political direction — the Islamist-organized conference in Cairo.24 expansion of Islamization and the sup- These were just some of many actions that pression of Egypt’s secular and civil-law triggered opposition to Morsi. traditions. Numerous events and policies Qatar played a role in fostering the indicated that President Morsi was allow- interests of the Muslim Brotherhood in ing this to take place by arguing that the Egypt, Hamas in Gaza and the West Bank, majority dictates in a democracy. Although the Muslim Brotherhood and numerous the various factions were not by any means Islamist groups in Syria and Libya; the entirely or even mostly pro-Western, small Gulf nation gave over $10 million to Morsi’s allies among extremist Islamists, militias to fight Qaddafi’s forces and allies. for example, portrayed them as such. For Qatar also reportedly gave $4 billion to example, Tarek al-Zomor, a leader of the President Morsi, adding to Egypt’s cash Gamaa Islamiyya and one of those convict- reserves. One rumor concerned Qatar’s ef- ed of planning Anwar Sadat’s 1981 assas- forts to acquire the Suez Canal; Egyptians sination, said, when liberals demonstrated heatedly questioned the Qatari prime min- in front of the U.S. embassy: “Demonstra- ister about his country’s influence when he tors in front of the American embassy were visited Egypt in January 2013.25 Foreign hired to embarrass the regime.” influence by an Islamizing, Muslim coun- The Islamist aspects of the 2012 try was thus as suspect as overt Western constitution created under Morsi’s aus- influence. pices were the result of a large committee Another point of contention has been dominated by Islamists and judges. Morsi the role of al-Jazeera, the media outlet in appointees took actions in the ministries of which many Muslim Brotherhood affiliates education and culture, such as denying the are still found. Al-Jazeera’s reportage gave

117

Zuhur and Tadros.indd 117 8/28/2015 1:33:37 PM Middle East Policy, Vol. XXII, No. 3, Fall 2015

the impression of success by revolutionaries the European Union made demands that and inflated the role of Islamists in Egypt former President Morsi and other Islamists and other countries of the Arab Spring. be freed or returned to government. In Egypt, both al-Jazeera and al-Jazeera The government closed al-Jazeera, Mubashir Misr were unabashedly support- however several journalists continued ive of Morsi’s government, attacking his operating, as they were uninformed by al- liberal critics, particularly when the presi- Jazeera that it lacked permits. Accused by dent acted in defiance of the constitution state security as the “Marriot Cell,” they by declaring his decisions “immune from were tried and received harsh sentences. judicial review.”26 This dominance of such The Egyptian government banned the an important media voice in the Arab world Muslim Brotherhood and declared it a ter- created even more of a crisis when the rorist group at the behest of the public. The Tamarrod (Rebel) movement gathered more government actually hesitated for some than 22,000 signatures by June 29, 2013, time to implement this policy in the fall calling for President Morsi to step down. of 2013. Given these dramatic events, the The resulting enormous demonstra- initial U.S. response seemed, to Egyptians, tions in Egypt were downplayed by al- to be immensely supportive of the Muslim Jazeera. The Muslim Brotherhood hoped Brotherhood. They were startled by the to spark civil disobedience and bring down seeming hypocrisy of the U.S. insistence the new government headed by interim that democracy must mean Muslim accep- President Mansour and established by Abd tance of Islamist rulers and principles, and al-Fattah al-Sisi with the support of the by the many virulent media attacks calling military. for an end to U.S. economic and military aid to Egypt. CONSPIRACY 2 B One reason for the attempted interven- The West (particularly the United tions and the “tone-deafness” of the West States) aims to Islamize Egypt and the to Egypt’s intent to rid itself of an Islamist region. government in the United States was the The Muslim Brotherhood, al-Jazeera Muslim Brothers’ strong representation and nearly the entire Western press corps in community organizations, such as the supported ousted President Morsi, the Council on American Islamic Relations, Muslim Brotherhood and its salafi af- and longtime linkages with groups like the filiates, whereas a majority of Egyptians, Islamic Society of North America and on utterly fed up with the Brotherhood, university campuses and have influenced supported the election of President Abd many political think tanks to support them al-Fattah al-Sisi as the best pathway to as “moderate Muslims” who supposedly stability. However, fears grew that a counter groups like al-Qaeda. Numerous counter-counterrevolution was possible articles appeared in the Egyptian press and given the Brotherhood’s armed opposi- on social media with information about tion, its use of saboteurs and the support such links. An example is the International of other armed extremist allies fighting the Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT, associ- government in the Sinai. Emissaries from ated with the Muslim Brotherhood in this the United States, acting on their own or article, but also with Hamas and Islamic with others, and Lady Catherine Ashton of Jihad).27 The IIIT, which had been devoted

118

Zuhur and Tadros.indd 118 8/28/2015 1:33:38 PM Zuhur / Tadros: Egypt’s Conspiracy Discourse

to the Islamization-of-knowledge project, that appear to verify parts of these conspir- had a large center and graduate program in acy theories (or actual malfeasance). Virginia (closed by the FBI) and a uni- Some media personalities have gone versity in Malaysia, where some scholars much further, attacking Western machina- in the field of MENA and Islamic studies tions in Egypt outright or attacking other have been supported. Egyptian perspectives without necessar- In the UK, the Netherlands, Belgium, ily explaining what the “truth” is. Among Austria and Germany, and to some degree them are Tawfiq Okasha, the above-men- in Italy and France, the Muslim Brother- tioned show, the Black Box, and others. hood is even stronger and better ensconced Dancer/actress Sama el-Masry hosted a in seemingly independent community show on the Feloul channel. She had built organizations. The UK government carried an audience with YouTube videos lam- out an investigation into terror activities pooning figures like Hazim Ismail, Morsi alleged by the Muslim Brotherhood after and the Muslim Brotherhood and then receiving information from important moved on to President Obama, Muham- figures formerly associated with the group mad ElBaradei and Bassam Youssef (for but declared in early August 2014 that the his criticism of the al-Sisi government).29 Brotherhood was not “terrorist” and that Sentiment ran so high against perceived England is a haven for Egyptian Brother- threats to Egypt that the xenophobic tones hood families who fled. of the private or state-media’s casting of these issues reverberated and solidified CONSPIRACY 2 C public support for the government. The Brotherhood engaged in treason, colluded with Hamas and the U.S. CONSPIRACY 3 Several lawsuits were filed against The Copts are Western agents. President Morsi, including alleged evi- Traditionally, the Coptic leadership has dence of further conspiracies and treason. leaned towards stability and has not sup- Hamas, an offspring of the Muslim Broth- ported or even become involved in Egypt’s erhood, is accused, along with bedouin as- political opposition. They believe the secu- sistants, of aiding Morsi and other Muslim rity of the Copts as a minority lies in being Brotherhood figures to escape prison in close to the government, given that the 2011. The movement and the president sup- state could indeed make their lives difficult ported Hamas while in power, as hundreds should it choose to. Following the Janu- of tunnels to Gaza were constructed, and ary 25 Revolution, in which many Coptic Palestinians moved into Egypt without con- youth participated, the sense of unity that sequence. Most shocking to ordinary Egyp- the nation has enjoyed at brief moments tians were claims that Morsi, with U.S. in history was at its peak. With the fall of urging, intended to give areas of the Sinai Mubarak, the church supported the revolu- Peninsula to Palestinians who could be set- tion, albeit warily; it issued a statement tled there. According to some sources, the that paid special tribute to the SCAF and same idea had previously been floated by expressed its support of a democratic the United States to President Mubarak.28 Egypt through free and fair elections. Egyptian state media, as well as private Nevertheless, the relationship between channels, have responded to news items the army and the church was strained. The

119

Zuhur and Tadros.indd 119 8/28/2015 1:33:38 PM Middle East Policy, Vol. XXII, No. 3, Fall 2015

church was unable to rein in its youth, message to Egyptians that the Maspero and the SCAF was not taking any serious attack was a grand conspiracy perpetrated steps to investigate the aforementioned by SCAF with the aim of creating more Alexandria church bombing. Following the chaos so that SCAF could maintain power, burning of a licensed church in Aswan in a claim that holds to this day. Islamist-ex- 2011, many Copts demonstrated in Cairo, tremist preacher-in-exile Wagdi Ghoneim protesting not only the arson, but also the called the Copts “traitor crusader pigs”32 Aswan gover- and gave nor’s declara- When news circulated that Copts his distorted tions that the version of church did would definitely vote for [their secular what alleg- not have a opponent], the Muslim Brotherhood’s edly occurred license, hence members in different governorates at Maspero. in a sense threatened them, preventing many Copts Islamists justifying the posted “warn- crime. People from voting or even leaving their homes ings” about congregated on election day. the “traitor in front of Copts” who the Radio and Television Broadcasting were killing soldiers, claiming they had Building, also known as Maspero. Clashes amassed large weapons caches in churches began when the army tried to disperse the and would emerge en masse after a call by protesters, resulting in the Maspero Mas- “[Pope] Shenouda, the criminal U.S. and sacre; 25 Copts were killed and more than Israeli spy,” to “attack all Muslims as they 300 injured. The army sent in armored prayed on a Friday so that they kill at least trucks and attacked the peaceful protest- one million Muslims” and “summon West- ers. Its plain-clothes thugs, carrying guns, ern infidels to eliminate Muslims.”33 Such knives and other weapons, pursued some absurd claims spread around social media of them inside buildings, where they tried sites and in leaflets distributed in different to hide from the onslaught. Meanwhile, governorates. officers searched for Copts and checked When Copts chanted near Maspero identity cards, looking for Christian that they wanted “international protec- names.30 Mohammed Gohar, head of the tion,” this accusation was reinforced, and Tahrir 25 private channel, whose offices they were immediately called traitors.34 were close to Maspero, decided to hide the Recognizing the danger of such demands, Copts in lavatories. The assault continued Pope Shenouda rejected the international for over two hours, with Egyptian televi- protection concept in a public statement, sion inciting violence against the Copts after which the SCAF’s General Tantawi through long tirades claiming the Copts thanked him.35 were firing at the army and putting the As explained above, the final stage blame solely on them.31 of the presidential elections gave the Reactions on the street varied depend- public a choice between a former regime ing on affiliation. Former general Omar member, Ahmed Shafiq, and Mohammed Afifi, who fled to the United States while Morsi. During the campaign, the Muslim Mubarak was in power, claimed in a video Brotherhood used religious propaganda to

120

Zuhur and Tadros.indd 120 8/28/2015 1:33:38 PM Zuhur / Tadros: Egypt’s Conspiracy Discourse

discredit any opposing party or candidate. prayed upon in their temples, as a plan by It was also used during the parliamentary him to bring the downfall of the state, and elections that followed. This was done to turn masses of people against their Islamist ensure the election of an Islamist president president who believes in one God.”40 and a majority of Islamists in parliament. Copts were also repeatedly accused Not surprisingly, Copts wanted a of normalizing relations with Israel; some candidate who would protect their rights. claimed there were flights transferring hun- While many became members of the dreds of them to Israel under the pretext of secular-liberal al-Kotla party, when the “visiting holy places,” whereas in fact they choice came down to Morsi or Shafiq, the were just spies.41 majority of Copts chose the latter. As a A prominent Islamist scholar, Selim result, they were accused of being anti-rev- al-Awwa, announced that churches were olutionary traitors. When news circulated full of weapons and that it was a Mus- that Copts would definitely vote for Shafiq, lim’s duty to free the kidnapped Muslim the Muslim Brotherhood’s members in women inside them, adding that churches different governorates threatened them, and monasteries need to be inspected preventing many Copts from voting or because they were “preparing for a war” even leaving their homes on election day,36 against Muslims.42 Al-Awwa later re- a fact corroborated by the Ibn Khaldun canted and apologized, but the damage Center, which monitored the elections.37 was done.43 Having planted that seed in In 2012, a trailer for a film created by a people’s minds, it continued to germinate. Copt in self-exile in the United States sur- Al-Qaeda’s Ayman al-Zawahiri issued a faced on YouTube, attacking the Prophet statement claiming the “crusader” Copts Mohammed. Massive demonstrations by and Pope Tawadros were seeking to bring Islamists began in front of the U.S. em- down Morsi and form a Coptic state south bassy in Cairo. An Islamist called for the of Egypt. According to him, Copts did not closure of the embassy and withdrawal of want a Muslim president but a secular one the Egyptian ambassador from Washing- who would continue to use U.S. money for ton.38 In response to the offending film, an their Zionist conspiracy to divide Egypt as Islamist tore the Bible, spat on it, and told they divided the Sudan. He also claimed people to stomp and urinate on it — in that the United States had planned the fall front of the U.S. embassy.39 This incident of Morsi and called on the Muslim Broth- rhetorically joined both the Copts and the erhood to immediately apply shariah.44 United States in a conspiracy to attack On August 14, 2013, when the army Islam. decided to break up two Muslim Brother- Following the July 30 uprising and the hood sit-ins, resulting in many deaths, the fall of the Muslim Brotherhood in 2013, an Brotherhood and their supporters went on Islamist preacher, Khaled Harby, head of a three-day rampage across Egypt. They al-Marsad al-Islami (Islamic Watch), stated wrote graffiti on church fences and doors that the water in bottles being distributed and, for the first time in Egyptian history, to people by the police in Tahrir Square torched approximately 60 churches and was “Coptic water which [Pope] Tawadros church-affiliated establishments including filled in bottles.” This water, according to orphanages.45 In addition, many homes and Harby, was “full of witchcraft and sorcery, businesses belonging to Copts were looted

121

Zuhur and Tadros.indd 121 8/28/2015 1:33:38 PM Middle East Policy, Vol. XXII, No. 3, Fall 2015

and torched. Also for the first time in re- CONSPIRACY 4 cent history, the Islamists marked Christian Salafis, clients of Saudi Arabia, could homes, businesses and establishments with subvert the “Revolution of 2013.” an “x” in preparation for attacking them.46 Salafism has burgeoned in Egypt over Graffiti on the walls called the Copts and the last 20 years (the Brotherhood is also their pope Zionist crusaders. The FJP’s a salafi organization). Salafism has had a Helwan branch asserted, “The Church par- profound effect on Egyptians, continuing ticipated in the removal of the first elected the conservative Islamizing attitudes of the Islamic President — Pope accuses Islamic Mubarak era, in spreading intolerance to Sharia of being backward and regressive Christians, Jews and other minorities and — Pope supports the Black Bloc group to non-conservative or Shia Muslims. At the spread chaos and surround mosques and same time, it has succeeded in leveraging storm them.”47 itself as a social and political movement, The Coptic Church issued a statement having thrown its support to the military supporting the army and asking the West and then to the transitional Mansour gov- to “read objectively the facts of events, and ernment in July 2013. It walks a fine line, not give international and political cover to supporting implementation of shariah, yet these terrorist and bloody groups.”48 declaring itself not to be a religious politi- Prominent Coptic figures were also cal party (like the Muslim Brotherhood). targeted. In 2012, during the Muslim A frequently heard conspiracy theory is Brotherhood regime, some extremist As- that the salafis have prospered due to Saudi wan physicians decided to mount an attack Arabia’s support. They seek to emulate a against renowned Coptic surgeon Sir Mag- society like Saudi Arabia, where Islamic di Yacoub, who had opened a pro-bono law is strictly and narrowly interpreted. heart-surgery center in Aswan. The physi- They are therefore linked with Saudi cians warned people not to go to the center Arabia’s support for the current Egyptian because it was using pigs in creating heart government, even though the neo-salafists valves.49 This was construed as a deliberate in Saudi Arabia have proven quite a head- attempt by Yacoub to place forbidden pig ache for that government. This conspiracy parts into Muslims. Such claims caused a theory is popular with leftists, liberals and furor and extensive media debates, forcing other critics of the current Egyptian gov- the center to defend its practices. ernment. It also resounds with the Muslim More recently, pro-Sisi newspapers Brotherhood, whose bitterness at the per- posted an interview with an economist fidy of their former salafi allies is palpable. who claimed that Yacoub was a spy or a Certain salafis close to the Brother- mole. He said that Yacoub’s center was hood, who played a leading role in the a cover for UK-Israeli collaboration to Morsi government, were incarcerated in divide Egypt into north and south.50 He August 2013. A large group of extrem- even stated that the music for the com- ist salafis has engaged in violent actions mercials about the center was deliberately against Egypt’s military, police and civil- taken from the movie Schindler’s List, ians accused of giving information about which portrays Jews being saved during them. The Ansar Bayt al-Maqdis, operating World War II. Such claims were similar to in the Sinai, beheaded seven people in Au- Islamist claims made about the Copts. gust 2014 and is responsible for many at-

122

Zuhur and Tadros.indd 122 8/28/2015 1:33:38 PM Zuhur / Tadros: Egypt’s Conspiracy Discourse

tacks over the last year, as are other groups Muslim Brotherhood within Saudi Arabia referred to as ansar Morsi (Morsi’s sup- and called on Qatar to do so as well. King porters). Their ultra- or neo-salafist views Abdullah traveled to Egypt for a visit in are similar to those of Saudi Arabian and June 2014. With the ascension of King Yemeni actors like al-Qaeda in the Arabian Salman, the relationship with Egypt is still Peninsula, to which they may have ties, but close. not Saudi Arabia’s government. According to the claims of Muslim The al-Nour party, however, estab- Brotherhood supporters, the salafis cannot lished by the Dawah Salafiyya, supported challenge President al-Sisi because they the transitional government of 2013 and are supported by Saudi Arabia. According the candidacy of Field Marshal al-Sisi. to other anti-Saudi (but anti-Brotherhood) Nour had regarded Article 219 of the 2012 proponents, Saudi Arabia aims to control constitution as a great victory and was Egypt, but for its own purposes, as part disappointed at its excision from the 2013 of a regional battle to maintain a political document, but its leaders had rejected balance against Iran, and will use salafis Morsi for taking on extraordinary powers. to Islamize Egypt. In response to such Nour’s detractors claim that the party was accusations, which arose even before the creation of Saudi intelligence services President Morsi’s year in office, Prince or that it has been woefully naïve in agree- Talal bin Abdel Aziz responded that, while ing to cooperate with the Muslim Brother’s he personally supports moderate salafism, enemies,51 or that having a political party any financial support to Egypt’s salafists is is less important than the survival of the coming from individual salafists in Saudi movement. Some of the party’s leaders set Arabia and not the government.52 up a new party, Watan and Hazem. Abu Ismail created the al-Raya party. CONCLUSION Although the salafis are not unified, How can Egyptians find their way be- they are important to the current govern- tween the contradictory elements of these ment. However, the dilemma for support- various conspiracy theories? Many cannot, ers of the military, liberals, secularists, or reject parts of one or another conspiracy, Copts and others opposed to the Brother- or allow their attitudes toward important hood is that the salafis also support imple- national or regional issues to be influenced mentation of shariah and many of the com- by these perceptions of antagonisms. Each mon goals of Islamists. While they profess conspiracy that we examined can be said allegiance to a civil (madani) state, their to support some aspect of occidentalism commitment to the Islamization of society (except perhaps for Conspiracy 4 regarding is obvious. In this, too, they are likened to the salafists and Saudi Arabia). Saudi Arabia, with its public’s support of Attributing events to the actions of ex- fairly strict Islamic law. ternal powers rather than blaming internal Saudi Arabia has supported the cur- forces in Egypt is, rather obviously, a form rent Egyptian government, most notably of scapegoating and an antidote to power- in grants of aid that shored it up: $5 billion lessness. Belief in such conspiracies pre- immediately following the July 3, 2013, dates the January 25 Revolution and may announcement of a new government and be a learned behavior, extremely difficult more later in the year. It also banned the to relinquish and replace with a sense of

123

Zuhur and Tadros.indd 123 8/28/2015 1:33:38 PM Middle East Policy, Vol. XXII, No. 3, Fall 2015

power and responsibility. Hundreds of con- absolve the stork of espionage to satisfy spiracy theories have arisen from Egypt’s public concerns. A youth activist known as tense relationship with Israel, despite the the “Spyder” started a bizarre conspiracy peace treaty and security cooperation in theory involving Abla Fahita, a puppet the Sinai. Other triggers for conspiracy in an ad for Vodaphone, which he said theories may go back to the Nasser era. involved a potential attack that would be Egyptians are able to laugh at certain perpetrated by the Muslim Brotherhood. 53 instances of conspiracism: in August 2013, Nonetheless, the conspiracy theories a stork was discovered in Egypt bearing a we discussed at length in this article were metallic device; it was accused of spy- linked to certain kernels of truth. We must ing (though the device turned out to be a not take instances of conspiracism as mere wildlife tracker used by French scientists). paranoia. They reflect very important However, the military was obliged to power struggles over Egypt’s future.

1 Sadiq J. Al Azm, “Orientalism, Occidentalism, and Islamism: Keynote Address to ‘Orientalism and Funda- mentalism in Islamic and Judaic Critique: A Conference Honoring Sadik Al-Azm.’” 2 Sadiq J. Al-Azm, “Orientalism and Orientalism in Reverse,” October 1980. 3 Ian Buruma and Avishai Margalit, Occidentalism: The West in the Eyes of Its Enemies. (Penguin, 2004), 1-6. The book goes on to describe antipathy to urbanization and the values of the city (which has definitely been a theme in Egypt’s literary and cinema culture), to rational or scientific thought, those outside Asian religions (infidels), and to the bourgeoisie. 4 Robert Woltering, Occidentalisms in the Arab World: Ideology and Images of the West in the Egyptian Media (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), xiii. 5 MEMRI, the Middle East Media Research Institute, founded by Yigal Carmon, is a Washington, DC-based group that also uses YouTube to expose anti-Semitism, barbaric jihadi-salafi views and hypocrisy in Arab and Muslim groups and governments. In the past, it has been used uncritically as a source of information by many in the U.S. government or the general public, perhaps indicating the strong role of Orientalism in terrorism studies and its sub-industries. MEMRI has also highlighted instances of what it deems positive messages to nations and the Arab or Islamic world, such as a recent speech by Egypt’s President al-Sisi calling for reform of retrograde and extremist thought in Islam, delivered at al-Azhar on January 1, 2015. MEMRI has also usefully revealed statements by the Muslim Brotherhood and allied organizations that threaten Egypt or the West. 6 Muhammad al-Mashawi, “Furs yakhlaquha al-adwan al-Isra’iliyya,” al-Shuruq. August 8, 2014, http://bit. ly/1nefvhe. 7 Although women were permitted to run for office in the Freedom and Justice party (below male candidates) and some served in President Morsi’s government only as advisors. 8 Sherifa Zuhur, Colors of Enchantment: Theater, Dance, Music and Visual Arts of the Middle East (American University in Cairo Press, 2001), 7-8, 10, 12, 14-15. 9 “The Oteifi Report, 1972” Translated from Arabic by Marlyn Tadros, in The Copts of Egypt, from the “For- gotten” Minority to the “Happiest” Minority (Virtual Activism, 2007). 10 Sadat’s speech before the People’s Assembly and the Shura Council, September 5, 1981. Translated from Arabic by Marlyn Tadros, in The Copts of Egypt, from the “Forgotten” Minority to the “Happiest” Minority. 11 These reverberate in the current assassinations, as of the chief prosecutor, Hisham Barakat, in June 2015, and efforts to kill other officials, police and military. 12 Saad Eddin Ibrahim, “The Road of Thorns from Al-Khanka 1972 to Al-Kosheh 2000.” Translated from the original by Arab-West Report, http://www.arabwestreport.info/year-2000/week-7/21-road-thorns-al-khanka- 1972-al-kosheh-2000.

124

Zuhur and Tadros.indd 124 8/28/2015 1:33:38 PM Zuhur / Tadros: Egypt’s Conspiracy Discourse

13 Samia Mehrez, Egypt’s Culture Wars: Politics and Practice (American University in Cairo Press, 2010). 14 The government’s non-intervention encouraged the same Islamist attorney to file a similar divorce case against feminist Nawal al-Saadawi, ostensibly for remarks she made about the custom of kissing the black stone in Mecca. A similar case was filed against Toujan al-Faisal in Jordan as “culture wars” expanded across the region. 15 Mehrez, 312. 16 Various news stories related to the court case are linked on the National Democratic Institute’s website, https://www.ndi.org/node/18650. 17 Michael Scheuer Tunisia, Egypt, and Yemen: Moving toward Islam and away from the West. January 30, 2011, http://non-intervention.com/827/tunisia-egypt-and-yemen-moving-toward-islam-and-away-from- the-west/. Scheuer, a CIA operative, opposed the Bush administration’s policies in Iraq and U.S. support of “Islamofascism,” Saudi Arabia and Israel and did not accept the notion that the Arab Spring had democratic potential. 18 Https://twitter.com/virtualactivism/statuses/114364371513253888. 19 “Al-Gamaa al Amrikiyya zara Washington li asqat masr” [The American University is Washington’s arm to bring about the downfall of Egypt], al-Masry al-Youm, Feb 9, 2012, http://www.almasryalyoum.com/news/ details/150558. 20 Joseph Biden, for example, stated: “Mubarak has been an ally of ours in a number of things. And he’s been very responsible relative to geopolitical interest in the region, the Middle East peace efforts; the actions Egypt has taken relative to normalizing [the] relationship — with Israel. ... I would not refer to him as a dictator.” In “Obama-Biden Support Mubarak, the Dictator,” Huffington Post, 2011, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/ richard-grenell/obamabiden-support-mubara_b_815426.html. 21 “Thomas Friedman Talks Revolution, Islamism and Democracy in Cairo,” Al-Ahram, 2012 http://english. ahram.org.eg/News/31284.aspx. 22 After an inflammatory trailer of a documentary film on the Prophet provoked riots, some asked Morsi and his sons to relinquish their American nationality, http://www.almasryalyoum.com/news/details/163700. 23 Sherifa Zuhur, “Claiming Space for Minorities in Egypt after the Arab Spring,” in Moha Ennaji, ed., Multi- culturalism and Democracy in North Africa. (Routledge, 2014). 24 “Egypt’s Morsi Severs Ties with Syria: Warns of ‘Counter-Revolution’ Violence,” AhramOnline, June 15, 2013, http://english.ahram.org.eg/News/74082.aspx. 25 Muhammad Hisham Abeih, “Qatar on Defense over Meddling in Egypt” (in translation), Al Monitor, Janu- ary 10, 2013, http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/politics/2013/01/qatars-media-and-political-influence-over- egypt.html#. 26 Ibid. 27 “Washington Times: Ikhwan khattu li-tasallal ila al-jama`at wa-hukumah al-Amrikiyya,” Al-Mogaz, May 18, 2013, http://almogaz.com/news/politics/2013/05/18/913329. 28 Abdul Sattar Hatita, “Mubarak Resisted U.S. Pressure to Give Up the Sinai: Secret Files,” Asharq al-Awsat, August 24, 2014, http://www.aawsat.net/2014/08/article55335803. More details of the claims, which are by no means necessarily false (even though we are discussing them as conspiracy theories), are here: Azza Sedky, “What Construes Betrayal?” October 11, 2013, http://azzasedky.typepad.com/egypt/2013/10/what- construes-betrayal.html. 29 “Hips Don’t Lie: Egypt [sic] Belly Dancer Seeks to Shake Rising Islamists,” Al Arabiya, November 12, 2013, http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/11/14/249595.html; Sherifa Zuhur, “Breaking Bad: Sama al-Masry, Subversive Muallima of Egypt’s June 30, 2013 Transition,” Paper presented at the Middle East Studies Association meetings, Washington, DC, November 2014; and as a chapter in Bad Girls of the Arab Spring, edited by N. Yacoub, in process. 30 Eyewitness accounts inside Maspero Building and in particular the account of Mohammed Gohar, head of Channel January 25, who later fled to Canada,https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kb7ubXaG1Co. 31 Https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E7m08JJdxao. 32 Https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u5Zh8SysDe8. 33 “Baraat al-jaysh min dam al-aqbat” [Army is absolved of the blood of the Copts], Anti-Christianization Watch, October 13, 2011, http://www.tanseerel.com/main/articles.aspx?selected_article_no=31129. 34 Https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X5UIHlHn28I.

125

Zuhur and Tadros.indd 125 8/28/2015 1:33:38 PM Middle East Policy, Vol. XXII, No. 3, Fall 2015

35 “Tantawi yashkur al-Baba li-‘adam tadwil qadayat Maspero” [Tantawi thanks the Pope for not internation- alizing the Maspero incident], Al Mashhad, October 24, 2011, http://bit.ly/1pRgbxI. 36 George Ishak, “George Ishak: Mana al-aqbat min al taswit amr haqiqi” [George Ishak says pre- venting Copts from voting is a fact], June 2012, http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_ embedded&v=gfbD0Db6KpM. 37 F. Ali, “Ibn Khaldun lil-dirasat: rasadna mana aqbat al said min al-tasiet” [Ibn Khaldun Center for Stud- ies: we monitored cases of preventing Copts from voting in election reruns], Al-Balad, June 24, 2012, http:// www.el-balad.com/200272. 38 “Hazimun li-Morsi: Ighliq al-sifarah al-Amrikiyya wa-ishab al-safir al-Masri” [Hazemoon to Morsi: close U.S. Embassy and withdraw the Egyptian ambassador], Al Mogaz, September 14, 2012, http://almogaz.com/ politics/news/2012/09/14/393359. 39 Https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0-s4r93JOMM. 40 “Al-Marsad al-Islami: al miyah allati wazatha al-shurta fi-l-Tahrir miyah qabtiya sala alayha al-baba li- tahyig al-gamahir,” Al Fajr, May 7, 2013, http://new.elfagr.org/Detail.aspx?secid=1&nwsId=376485&vid=2. 41 “Tatbian mubashiran maal ihtilal el sohyooni: jisr gawi lenakl mi’at min al-Aqbat eia Israel” [Direct nor- malization with the Zionist occupation], Al Mokhatasar, April 14, 2014, http://bit.ly/1qed5nw. 42 S. Mamdouh, “Al Awwa yatabara men tahridhu al sarih ala al-unf iban tafgir kanisat al-Iskandariyya” [Al Awwa denies his clear incitation for violence following the Alexandria Church explosion], Masreat, January 3, 2011, http://bit.ly/FOju1g. 43 Ibid. 44 Http://bit.ly/1rGlG4K. 45 Marlyn Tadros, Ikhwan et al’s One Day Rampage. “Hakawi from the East: A Commentary on Insanity,” August 15, 2013, http://hakawi.wordpress.com/2013/08/15/ikhwans-et-al-one-day-ramapage/. 46 Al-Masri Al-Youm, “X kalimat al-sirr fi istihdaf manazil al masihiyin wal-shurta tutalibhum bi-himayat anfushum” [x is the secret letter for targeting Christian homes and police asked them to protect themselves], August 19, 2013, http://www.almasryalyoum.com/node/2046306. 47 Http://hakawi.files.wordpress.com/2013/08/ikhwanlies.jpg. 48 “Egypt’s Coptic Church Announces Support for Army, Police,” Al Arabiya, 2013, http://bit.ly/1B573ZN. 49 Http://bit.ly/Y1BlyL. 50 “Abu Arayis: Markaz Magdi Ya qub yahdaf li-azl al-nuba an misr,” Moheet.com, July 1, 2014, http://bit. ly/1sRDDcy. 51 Jonathan A.C. Brown, “The Rise and Fall of the Salafi al-Nour Party in Egypt,” Jadaliyya, November 14, 2013 (an attack on the ‘naïve’ Nour party for adhering to its alliance with the Mansour governemnts), http:// www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/15113/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-salafi-al-nour-party-in-e. 52 “Saudi Prince: Saudi Arabia Would Never Support Egypt’s Salafis,” Egypt Independent, January 23, 2012, http://www.egyptindependent.com//news/saudi-prince-saudi-arabia-would-never-support-egypts-salafis. 53 Mahmud El Shafey, “Egypt: Conspiracy Theories Grow Around Puppet Abla Fahita,” Al-Sharq al-Awsat, January 3, 2014, http://www.aawsat.net/2014/01/article55326461.

126

Zuhur and Tadros.indd 126 8/28/2015 1:33:38 PM