C Yber O Rient, Vol

yber

C yberO rient Online Journal of the Virtual Middle East

Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

ISSN 1804-3194 CyberOrient

Online Journal of the Virtual Middle East

CyberOrient is a peer-reviewed online journal published by the American Anthropological Association in collaboration with the Faculty of Arts of Charles University in Prague.

Editor-in-Chief: Daniel Martin Varisco Managing Editor: Vit Sisler

ISSN 1804-3194 http://www.cyberorient.net Vit Sisler,Vit Review Reviews Page 110 Guerrero Arturo Enterría Page 90 Change inIran Mohammad Hadi Sohrabi-Haghighat Page 63 Women’s Profiles OnlineMatchmaking Anna Piela Page 37 and inEgypt Mobilization Tunisia Johanne Kuebler Page 4 Ideologies? Mona Abdel-Fadil Articles Index Page 131 Cyberspace yber – Beyond the Traditional-Modern Faith inMuslim andIdentity Binary: – theDigitalDivide: Overcoming and The Internet Political – The Islam-OnlineCrisis: A Battle of vs.Wasatiyya Salafi C – Islam DotCom: IslamicDiscoursesin Contemporary yber – e-Islam: the Spanish Public Virtual Sphere – e-Islam: Public Virtual theSpanish O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. – New Media and Social-political – New Mediaand Social-political 1, 2011

3 Introduction Islam authority, dawah, websites, conflict, aspects, social Keywords: the IOL-Crisis. during drawn on were authority of types what on with reflections Iconclude the crisis. of developments in with tact new explanations, to alternate shift gradually the crisis about narratives how I illustrate crisis-narratives that draw on Islam Online’s institutional narrative. Moreover, through producing the of crisis sense team made the social Ioutline how team. the social by experienced – as the crisis after and during, before, the time about detail ethnographic rich provides article This team IOL-Arabic. of with the social fieldwork conducting Iwas communities(Campbell 2007). the crisis, of the At time are play in religious online at authority of layers multiple whether exploring for asuitable case is This IOL-Crisis’. ‘the as to come be known has which crisis, in 1997. founded it was amajor in However, March 2010 suffered Online Islam websites stable since Islamic and the most of prominent one been has Online Islam Abstract: Mona Abdel-Fadil vs. Ideologies? Salafi The Islam-OnlineCrisis: ABattleof Wasatiyya the history of IOL, but also in the history of Islamic and religious websites, religious and of Islamic history the of in IOL, but history also the 2010.event in The March in IOLvital amajor isa crisis IOL-Crisis suffered websites since founded it 1997. whenin was by surprise were taken Many (IOL) one Online been of most has Islam prominent the stable and Islamic wasatiyya (...) asalafi that worry they their jobs. risk losing all IOL- the They server. accessing from employees Monday were restrained Cairo Last the a yber shar’i type of website. type outlook and that IOL will basically become basically IOL that outlook and will C yber O rient, Vol. perspective will replace their their replace will perspective (Field diary, March 22, 2010). 22, March diary, (Field 5, Iss. 1, 2011 , pp. 4–36

4 Corresponding author: Mona Abdel-Fadil, University of Oslo, Postboks 1010 Blindern, 0315 Oslo, Norway. E-mail: [email protected] all areas’ (El-Nawawy and Khamis 2009:15,11). Khamis (El-Nawawy and areas’ Fromall outset IOL the was in times with modern up keeps that lively Islam and promoting ‘a unified IOL da’wa to dedicated ‘spreading was websiteThe field,The methodologyand ethics on IOL Iprovide some my and fieldwork. background detail, empirical into Before delving crisis. the upon during called are authority religious howcrisis-narratives[4]. I IOL’soutline Third, traditional with a ties producing of IOL-Crisis, on made sense the I focus how ST through the Second, of up how of crisis. brought it the build the was into play during IOL’s (corporate analysis ideology) narrative an and identity institutional threefold[3]. are of Iprovide areconstruction article of this First, aims the Morecase. precisely, aspecific through authority aboutquestions religious Campbell’s examine to of IOLthe opportunity offers aspects’ and ‘invisible My about IOL-Crisis data the sheds light on counselling. social and Team (ST) of IOL producers the of IOL’s Arabic, output on society, family, Social the with fieldwork conducting of IOL-Crisis, the Iwas time At the of producers for studies valid fieldwork scenes, the is required[2].equally is argument view, In this my communication behind as such communities, religious of online aspects’ (2005:11-2) Krüger vein, ‘invisible order in that to analyse similar argues users with interviews offline and research online (2007, Campbell questions, 2010) these combines exploring In community?’ leaders? (...) religious ofpower traditional of Is it ideology the corporate the Is the affected. it is authority of religious type form or what specific ‘identify to on researchers (2007:2) Campbell text’. calls and ideology structure, hierarchy, of terms ‘in authority layers of religious different between distinguish they nor substantiated, do sufficiently rarely are claims such authority[1]. religious (2007:2) Campbell points as of out, traditional Still, Internet for the is a space that negotiation contestation and tend to argue websites of religious studies attention. Previous scholarly warrants thus and yber C yber O rient, Vol. of religious websites, as in the present the case. in websites, as of religious , (propagation at of faith)’ aimed and 5, Iss. 1, 2011 of religious websites. a In of religious

5 Mona Abdel-Fadil The Setting The 2010:2). (Abdel-Baky sources Qatari and Saudi since 1997. primarily from been has Funding board head of Qatari the the been has Al-Qaradawi of administers. board Qatari Doha /the in donations by private society to Al-Balagh funded was location and contributed fame IOL IOL to way the support, financed. was simply and lent Al-Qaradawi’s that IOLsymbolic It is likely credibility. role (2008:2), his was to Gräf according although, to Al-Qaradawi, ties impact. a IOLglobal close with enjoyed – authority religious of offline topics,represents a moderate is a prominent and voice figure on certain Al-Qaradawi Economist2010). (The UK US and the entering from Still, banned been he for has and these considered are ‘extremist’ Palestine, in bombings endorsing suicide as such However, some views, of his is considered (Gräf founder 2009). to the be of idea of the wasatiyya[5] Qatar, in based scholar Islamic Egyptian an society. Yusef Al-Qaradawi, adaptation and to contemporary praxis Islamic correct advocates wasatiyya (2008:14) website. to Høigilt According IOL promoted awasatiyya as itself Ideology online’. transported are that of or set values convictions aparticular reinforcing and cohesion identity communal build or (...)affirm from comes Identity to life’the where internet‘serves religious for affirming ‘technology about framing use technology, as groups IOLreligious described is best of (2005:18) discourses Campbell’s Employing were outsourced. typology Ana channel counselling satellite the IOL launched subpages. also to numerous include specialized new came and IOL recent in expanded years Particularly services. counselling and fatwas news, as such scripture. The site rangeservices of a offered versions of religious digitalized much more than providing multifaceted, The office building is striking with modern blue glass windows and a glass glass a and windows glass with modern blue striking is building The office IOL’sOctober of Sixth City, outside were inCairo.located offices of main yber C yber O rient, Vol. , to which anumber of, to web-employees which 5, Iss. 1, 2011

6 Mona Abdel-Fadil Ethical Considerations Ethical Arabic[11]. Egyptian colloquial Translations my own. into are English took in place Nvivo[10]. my in coded data article to this referred in Dialogues Moreover, thematically Ihave transcribed. been have interview-quotes and problemsrespond to IOL-users’ (8). marital were audio-recorded, Interviews to contracted ST-members,the counsellors the with Iconducted interviews with addition to In interviews interviewer. and into participant-observer interpretations[9]. my own than hit IOL, my role crisis Once the changed rather dialogues, of and episodes my notes observations consist of logging (1995), notes meeting. Emerson Following throughout the et al. observation amini-laptop with took and meetings editorial were held weekly. Iattended all and structure set arelatively had meetings Editorial period. this during tasks ST-member’s each observed work- Ialso ceased. meetings regular editorial the and erupted to mid-March crisis the 2010, up until 2009 December from basis 2007:82),observer’,[8] Atkinson and on aregular (Hammersley end of the June 2010[7].until a‘complete as meetings Iattended editorial 2009 DecemberST, theof I conducted with fieldwork thebeginning from Methodology held and aBA degree. thirties, their thein Most were members female. of was ST the The leader of were male. content[6].editorial two of whom nine ST countedmembers, only The of whomconsisted worked on of 350 thirds roughly employees –two awebsite. IOL-Cairo’s staff running tool organization of main an the IT-equipment.that computersare considering perhaps is surprising, This relatively old the is Egypt in office an being may point that to this aspect only The was gender no segregation. there open-spaceand offices, shared manythe of world. in corners resemble offices Most modern employees The IOL themselves offices courtyard. Islamic an resembling hall, large the is the building of impressive The roof most feature afar. from visible I simply use A, B, C etc. in order of utterance, rather than employing employing than order C etc. rather in B, ofI simply A, utterance, use quotes observations. and of all topics, Ianonymise tosensitivity the Due yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

7 Mona Abdel-Fadil of ST or IOL at large as an ‘IOL family’. ‘The be to IOL ‘IOL ‘The of orappears house’ family’. an IOL ST as at large manyfieldwork-episodes first of the episode is This that involvedescriptions to IOL. We leave the meeting and head to the large hall: to IOL. We head tolarge and the meeting leavethe of employees the Ana from return the and channel celebration of Ana the door. on the knock It head of to is the us IOL the join in He asks Arabic. therelaughter.and is a concerns, moves to more The editorial meeting followed by shared sweets, eating and bicycles riding children excited ‘an IOL family’ ( IOL‘an family’ IOL references to being Eid celebration. asuccessful Several reminiscing are ST attend the 6, I isDecember when on meeting editorial first The ST. by the is understood message’ how ‘the clarify further Interview-extracts message’. ‘the and ‘family’ is founded identity tropes on the institutional how IOL’s I identify, of on basis section my the observations, this In IOL’s Narrative Institutional what. who said assess the know those who even for it episode, is difficult each ST-membersin to A with out afresh not Byout Iwas there. conversations starting many if as a‘completewhere as my presence was carried my and informants observer’, meetings editorial true of particularly This is conflict. the what during said IOL’swithin offices. However,attention Cairo drawwant I do not towho to of how IOL-Crisis from descriptions’ perceived the was ‘thick provide rare data my amajorcrisis, Since fieldwork Ihappened to conducting be during decision. an ethical is This episode. Afor new each with Istart pseudonyms. assembled to listen. is big’.those amongstlaughter is by followed thatspreads This to IOL ‘welcome back the I hear IOL the house, Ana. house to seems to be welcome whogist to worked those back for (...)around. audible. are barely (...)speeches The general The passed chocolatesEmployees are welcomed and back are yber ahl C yber ) are made amidst exchanging funny anecdotes of anecdotes funny exchanging made amidst ) are O rient, Vol. (Field notes, December 6, 2009). notes, 6, December (Field 5, Iss. 1, 2011

8 Mona Abdel-Fadil representative: A’s interviews. is in answer message?’ is the ‘what asked I explicitly fieldwork, upFollowing during on frequent references message’ to ‘the component important an of IOL’salso narrative. identity institutional ( message’ ‘the my In analysis, dialogues. various in featured identity of organizational by narratives how often fieldwork struck was I my theDuring for IOLST context. valid be insightsto These appear its and members’.identities for institution to the current create both remembering that use and past remember their institutions that way shape ‘the particularly tellers’ across and time repeatable through are them’.to tell Moreover, (2003:4) Linde that contends ‘narratives that must know, reasons appropriate and the everyone times which institution stories about the that learning ‘involves a member institution of an organization’san identity. to (2001:3) Linde According becoming of isreproducing a means narrative institutional other words,In an to: serve and knowledge tacit social constitute narratives institutional core ofthe IOL’s to (2003:1) Linde According narrative. institutional metaphor. of same the metaphora variation is myat In view, family the sleep. (...)the message. is This you to go up until it that you from encompasses wake all with is life, Islam view our In Islam. You departmentalize cannot of Islam. is part this partner, or how a life to choose children, on how counsel we to nurture people. When with interacting and of It life fasting. prayer and is (also) parts about all is not just about Islam worship, religion. is aholistic Islam memory. institutional an of maintenance reproduce and and creation its by the identity to create narrative uses institution an way the as this understand its and members (...) of institution identity the the We may create members, new induct of institution, the structures power the reproduce orreproduce challenge institution, the yber C yber O rient, Vol. (Interview, March 21, March 2010).(Interview, 5, Iss. 1, 2011 al risala ) is is )

9 Mona Abdel-Fadil came to understand, that belief in ‘the message’ can at times be equated be at times can message’ ‘the in belief that to understand, came my fieldwork message’. toI ‘the spread During call idealistic an is also for ajob: IOL sentiment working the more that it than underlines is far identity. group asalient It also constructing to seems in be ‘IOL family’ an being of acommon The in significance united of cause. being image employees resemble that kinship[14]. an as to seems function It also between ties interpersonal close metaphorto signify appears family The IOL’s identity narrative can thus be reconstructed as follows:IOL’s as reconstructed be thus can narrative identity dirt’[12]. the head in our sticking than why aphenomenon discussing about in rather But came believe we with. topicsdisagree we maydiscuss limits. of topics.also is off Nothing We sorts E’s In all may deem controversial. opinion:Muslims ‘We discuss topics some that is discussing awareness of creating parcel and Part manner. aconstructive in behaviour alter empowermentand can that patterns’. emphasis the is on awareness developing sum, In behavioural develop’. and lives their end positive is producing D simply ‘the says And tools the to manage with C’s attempt words, ‘we to individuals equip ahappy, acceptance’. to in live people ‘how is to life in assist In good For aim to Bthe responses. according the in example, variations slight are there is held to for achieve, message’ As what ‘the perspectives. and Moreover, ‘balanced’ being emphasis message’ an is on often there ‘the society. modern in living and Islam between forge alink explicitly they Islam’,’ message’.Islam elaborations is alived their In is life’, ‘it and ST-members the message?’ to is the ‘what response In ‘lived highlight wasat users across the across globeusers message’ potential has the ‘The to improve the livesmany of IOL- topics. ofcontroversial include may discussion andthus society Islam’ and relates to modern on‘lived focused It is populations. balanced andaims at creating Arab awareness and empowering message’ is Islam, a message. wasatiyya on is founded ‘The We are an‘IOL family’, united namely to in one cause, deliver yber (middle-ground), drawing on both Islamic and non-Islamic and on Islamic both (middle-ground), drawing C yber O [13] rient, Vol. . 5, Iss. 1, 2011

10 Mona Abdel-Fadil explicit references to organizational discontent made: are references to organizational explicit context, this In one resigned. of founders of the IOL, having Hagri, butwrong, Ido what. There not is mention understand Mariam of being of indication something is an dialogue previous the that I realize matters. the meeting, middle editorial of to the turn Towards then They server: to is mention the there of of meeting, changes the beginning the my from field notes are 2010). section (7 this in February, At extracts aprominent as The theme. featuring discontent’ note of ‘organizational take time I first the 7 is of corner.meeting the February editorial The just around of being major no amajor signs display eventsand crisis without pass and December January in meetings editorial ST The Before Crisis: the Tensions Rise crisis. the up to fieldwork episodes building Ioutline section next of ST. made sense by the the In how IOL-Crisis eventually the was IOL’s for understanding is important narrative identity institutional 2005:13-4). lifestyle (Campbell, religious affirming as framed of internet being the into feeds discourse the narrative Moreover,outlets. institutional the employed if by other media than less paid or long being hours working the take form of tocan sacrifice[15]. This willingness to and dedication ask why because I do not know the answer]. Ido not why the ask because know [* undertone: do My not is an there interpretation is that laughter, comic relief. and smiling, atmosphere of table, but usual the is the there around comments.frustration seems There be to similar make and change, theserver membersSome confirm of other ST the But, to want understand... we A: B: Let’s not why*... question the ask Why? technical? Is something it changed. has server The A: yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

11 Mona Abdel-Fadil a new board of administers of Qatar: IOL, in of administers board a new is related to discontent the that Iobserved Ilearn of meeting the course the by 250 IOL-employees. signed and During IOL, sentin to Al-Qaradawi changes toseems a reference be to of a letter concern about organizational also ST-members.the to dialogue one ofthis significance In retrospect, role was (Gräf Yet, Al-Qaradawi’s 2008:2). that suggest data my empirical alliance astrategic as role downplayed been his has as Yusef’, is interesting, ‘Sheikh as manner a familiar such in and The Al-Qaradawi, mention of not help us understand the context. not the help understand us will apart is much greater. understanding context Sometimes the decision the because understand cannot C: we Sometimes understood. (of context the because change) is not within from killed a revolution. But, hope No, is not the A: I am suggesting notbe a revolution will C:... There level... management the even thaton crazy, me Yes,A: driving is what is This (Cairo) anything. who management knows anyonethe in There is notbarely level. at our B: Certainly not whattransparency. is happening. There is know no we do Because, of reaction. There is possibility no of change. there is no hope like differently. I feel things ItA: I take seems response]. laughin all andironic statement latter be to *[The appears for be better. the For good. it will sure all (laughter) etc. (laughs again). Fordirection server it’s the sure D: Yes, inshaallah Kheir inshaallah inshaallah good be C: change) It will (the organizational employees. harm not will.... organization the in B: He changes is promising that (...) Yusef called? Sheikh that Did you (Al-Qaradawi) hear A: yber ) C yber O rient, Vol. , all the indicators point in this indicators point this the in , all 5, Iss. 1, 2011 ( kheir kheir

12 Mona Abdel-Fadil possible that this was deliberate. Yet, it seems equally likely that it was an an it that was Yet, deliberate. likely was this possible that it equally seems It informed. ismy without being usual than held been had earlier meeting editorial at 14, IOL regular the that on I discover February I arrive When down. closed it actually channel, Ana thecelebration after of that shortly means due of This ago to funding’. lack month ‘Ana one that ahalf down and closed she explains meeting, the after When I closing.probe G Ana of I time hear first the It is also expressed. is in Qatar discontentboard the new with organizational time overt first the is meeting This answer. of its aclear intentions, receiving without board the new asked repeatedly about having talk also ST The purpose. the ( committee of a mysterious talk also There is was more of a heart to heart ( to heart more ofwas aheart F: (to of ameeting. It example agood me) not was really this interestinterest of country. the (...) of job. the the It is against the interest It of work. the the is against is against this Imean A: adecision. make then and understanding C: Wait accept –no. and We gain can we so to have wait, accept? it? heads? Just made over Wait sit our being take and and decisions what do? we should are And Just while sit wait and is done!A: thing a third and is written, a second then thing and E: Yes, told you are something, And is no there knowledge. one (...) of whomtwo, resigned has new,exceptall for one is in go.board The new administers the whole of board switched have they time D: It first is the (in Qatar). old the board. administers with It this wasn’t like of board new the have with come differences C: These else. more everywhere as it Ifeel same is the from organizations. other thedifferent longer Istay,Yet, the to puppets? be (...) expected we Are A: IOL to be used (...) picture. greater the help see us context, the help understand us will parts, many or understanding server, the like B: Yes, a part, but understanding sometimes yber C yber O rient, Vol. fadfadah 5, Iss. lagna ). ). 1, 2011 ) of which no one knows no) of one which knows

13 Mona Abdel-Fadil editorial control: editorial and funding to noturns longer conversation The consider it her ‘family’. she will IOL of sentiment if the that expression changes, Perhaps is an this previously. toShe referred IOL is one who frequently of ST ‘family’ the as attempt herself. to an in convince mother father’. this and Asays Ibelieve not should ‘your be of how organization the Atalks It that is interesting conversation The continues: board. ST’s Qatari new ‘concern’ the with the 2010). with dealt meeting the me that A who informs up I catch with my from field (February 14, notes are section this in oversight. Extracts who one day are pro a certain leader, and the next day against. against. day leader, next the and who pro one acertain are day Egypt, in media We other journalistic not like are journalism. You on amessage. based or do how write dictate we cannot We leave. work People job. do A: is our cannot Our will details? to dictate start they what happens if And M: may ... dissolve. wasat the that and (editorial)interfere with details to may start board Qatari the that Now is aworry there A: It is just aworkplace. not should mother father (laughingly). and your be organization The one organization. to not should the too get attached Yes,A: organization, the for As doing it exactly. within website? anew for start example Like M: do it somewhere else. me and it with take ItIcan about idea. and the idea, is agood not a choice. have Iam worried to Iwill leave. choose I can for idea. the worry versus Well, itA: Personal worry depends. repeat) not (I M: you So, worried? are at present it not has (...) happened. But problems have that. with peopleinterference. will Many editorial an be WeA: will there whether must assess dictates? M[16]: of editorial about possibility the you worried Are yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011 ground ground

14 Mona Abdel-Fadil when the clash between IOL Cairo and the Qatari board is irrefutable. board Qatari IOL the and Cairo between clash when the work ‘normal’[18]. I is as attend on meeting editorial March, 14 The next ST’s to the determination topics, illustrates which of editorial discussion and engaged consistsan active theof The rest meeting of escalate. board Qatari the with ‘message’, disagreements website their case for in spreading a new secure to 2010). measures thatsequence shows taking IOL This was 28, notes, February (Field to have we work contrary, the On well’ work. about our careless are we not that does mean website ‘this project. Csays partners[17] Saudi isshared: fundnew a semi-official, agreed to albeit have news, good which after elsewhere’ funding find interested IOL, can we in is not Qatar ‘If from Qatar. as a says B ‘complaintsidentified committee’ is mentionednow The committee is assembled. previously mysterious ameeting some confusion, meeting. After editorial an be will there 28,whether knows no one IOL-offices at the on Iarrive February When rights. They will allegedly receive a settlement if they resign. However, resign. they if settlement a receive allegedly will They rights. and workers’ solidarity of resignation, talk ST The followed suit. has Cairo and IOL- conflict, the to handle employed have board alawyer Qatari the ( humorous to buy comment abeans-vender-cart husband is looking ‘My B’s in comic as relief, is projected via Distress about insecurities. brings which flourishing, IOL-Cairo are down to close wanting board Qatari work-contracts[19]. their review and Qaradawi, of the rumours Also, to 250 employees letter Al- the the who signed to interview a pretext been ‘committee of having the complaints’ is interpreted as instance, For weeks. two past 2010), the happened in much has that suggest and from my field notesextracts are March, section this (14 in dialogues The IOLThe Crisis Begins ‘arbiyet ful message is important. message (...)message. We our that must everyone continue showing idea for You 10 this developing been years. just lose the cannot work. our determines have We This amessage. conveying it on and principles is based work on values, is based Our yber ), and Mr. C is looking to rent at taxi’. It to that ), rent becomes evident Mr. and at Cis looking taxi’. C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

15 Mona Abdel-Fadil narrative can be reconstructed as follows: as reconstructed be can narrative thedispute and an ideological as framed is of IOL-Crisis.crisis the The understanding their in mid-MarchIn ST-members uniform strikingly are Emerges the Crisis of Narrative The Ideological time. in of what I consider parts important are and E with A dialogue or ‘overin out’. and expressed sentiments The 21,March connotes 2010). context ‘goodbye’ this in ‘Alsalamu’alikum’ we-alsalamu’alikumsaid theKoran Prophet said, is ‘The salafi-approach a view our ‘In me: tells E jokingly salafis. how Edescribes with in accordance is description This scripture. and on rules focusing website into defined a more transformed be narrowly IOL that fear will message’. ‘the right to the Moreover, own a them not give she expresses does funding board’s Qatari she the segment Dstates that feels this In me what on: is going tell can they if Iask meeting of it? Towards a part be ST the end the of the when? will - and launched, website a new if is ambiguities: its own comes with to resign But refusing on. most staying to appropriate, the action be advocate for and collectively ST consider The collective lawyer. board’s Qatari the do notthey trust right to own the message of IOL. message the right to own the them gives do we not is that Crisis, Qatar’s feel funding come. (...) will IOL- the say that youthis could Iguess that D: No, ... not indications but yet, are expect we there guidelines? editorial new given you have been And, M: in peopletwoprotest who resigned are editors. There (...)and of of huge cuts journalists D: No, not rumours but yet, are there anyone let go? been has And, M: You Islam? got do that with has What know? section? why IOL should social the and produceasking: news are Web, They into Koran. Islam and you know, rules only IOL want to transfer administration D: new It the that seems yber C yber O rient, Vol. the IOL-Crisis narrative at this point point this at narrative IOL-Crisis 5, Iss. 1, 2011 ’’ (Interview, (Interview, ’’

16 Mona Abdel-Fadil indications that IOL’s that blow.indications asevere served was identity institutional also By place. developments are mid-March, there take adapted when further is crisis-narrative the illustrated, be will As one narrative. of ideological the part is bond. This ‘family’ the strengthens thereby and message wasatiyya the of spreading the importance about IOL-Cairo. It affirms narrative andinstitutional thereproduce strengthen both to serve may actually salafism and wasatiyya between abattle as crisis the framing message’. my In analysis, of ‘the importance identity, and the memory underlines and institutional on draws IOL’s narrative 2009). The ideological Hamam, and (Field Egypt in ground gaining salafism of Gulf to fears addition it In speaks is highlighted. context Egyptian an in family’ of ‘the uniqueness the Also, funding. than valid of sense of idea’ ‘ownership is astrong more the there being narrative, this In importance of seeing IOL as ‘just an organization’ rather than ‘mother and than rather organization’ an IOL of seeing ‘just as importance to theaboutme talked quoteperson who thepreviously fromsame stemsThis 14, notes, March (Field 2010):March on meeting thefromeditorial 14 extracts are dialogues The following family’ of ‘the fall the and message’ of ‘the Fragility new to Egypt, but it is new to new it but IOL. is tonew Egypt, content being may controlled it not funding. is new be to by IOL, This toused autonomy with regards We to produce. we what are not to used We the message. theidea. own We idea, we are because the owners were line. salafi funding means own that do not We the Qatari believe they administration Qatari wants The IOL to followmore a conservative, perspective on oneself, one’s on oneself, career. and life perspective a new get to some get distance, it thing is a good Maybe, apart. falling yourself you find happens toorganization the someone.when then something to iconize And organization, the to idealize to IOL. opportunity It an was married was (for of crisis the for Part us) myself, A: or let we, me is that talk yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

17 Mona Abdel-Fadil response from H: from response message’. the the concern is in up followed by following This faith regain to have help her all we message, the in concerned about faith Blosing am ‘I a phone. out stepped to B has answer G says: life. own his from examples He uses you can. that on, go but you cannot that realizing thinking and of aloved losing one abad dream’. on Ftalks hopingI keep all it was hoping and for my better. eyes on the closing Ikeep it way to the was. afollow-upAs is for ‘All to Dsays: Iwant back go IOL organization the about IOL. She explains: outsidea meeting of IOL, where she met someone enthusiastic who was IOL in and to BRefers itself. message’ ‘the both in faith loosing are they how relating meeting. Some ST, members are the this amongst during disillusionment of signs are others to There let family’. ofgo herself ‘the to convince Ais attempting that father’. it likely seems light of crisis, In the am thinking is it not better to spread the seeds, rather than than rather is it seeds, not to the spread better thinking am now I And, elsewhere. develop and spread can we that seeds now and IOL have we rose, that our just may that, be thinking freezer...am in a am I but seed, I my want take I to flowers. new grow can and replanted, be can that seeds spreads seeds, has on etc. But,of also rose it stamped the death endured, overlook us Let what type but life. itlovely ashort smell, has a has and of you know. arose, It is beautiful thinking I am * [Seems administration] to areference be Qatari to the story... is another of Islam, version into it narrow a turn to some That people* trying are or not? wonderful something Is Islam organization. the from You Try idea. idea the the must in not to separate lose faith message. the dream, the in believing in united C: We all are of message[20]. the dream the in everything, in faith losing I remembered... then I am And in. Ah, are we that crisis forgot passionately about Ialmost the and talking B: Iwas yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

18 Mona Abdel-Fadil outbreak of an acute conflict was akin to dropping a bombshell on the ST.thedropping bombshell a on to akin was acute of conflict outbreak an the believe I conflict. into erupts afull-blown before day crisis the place the takes over. meeting take This Qatari since the by 50% dropped having made to IOL-audience are claims meeting the orderin to continue. During hope (and empowerment), thus instigating yet frustration, acknowledging perspective, acounselling is distinctively this my In reading, disguise. in IOL-crisis is ablessing perhaps the that to saying be Happears Essentially the Cairo offices will be shut down are important escalations of the crisis. the of escalations are important be shutwill down offices Cairo the told and that server to the access denied Being Asays. unclear’, It is still this. (of majority the that be votes board) against the also could ‘It board. the restthe of of the support need will Al-Qaradawi that adding this, affirms for ask and members responsible her comment.board for crisis, A the the Qatari fire he would stating about Iread Al-Qaradawi Athat I tell development. 21, words: me about her In my own this on visit March Atells prohibited IOL-server. the are During employees accessing Cairo from in some 350with employees[21].that is direction IOL- this in step first The IOL the Cairo in down offices close will they stated have that administers board of TheQatari into The conflict. erupted severe IOL-Crisis a has dramatically. changed later, have aday Only on 15, Monday things March Ideological the and CrisisThe Erupts Narrative Evolves Everyone joins in the laughter. the joinsEveryone in laughingly).E: and spontaneously Ilove you! (exclaims IOL? in stay able to publish anything on IOL’sable to publish anything webpage. not are we so usernames, and took passwords and our server the tookout down they of 15) Qatar. Monday On (March publish and close IOLdown only want to Cairo, Qataris The yber C yber O rient, Vol. (Field notes, March 21, notes, March 2010).(Field 5, Iss. 1, 2011

19 Mona Abdel-Fadil the number of Palestinians killed by Israelis. The removal of the latter latter the of The removal by Israelis. killed number ofthe Palestinians Holocaust’,‘Palestine’s illustrated that acontinuously updated news-story also message’.for mention‘the There is of to sacrifice a willingness suggesting workers’ rights, than deemed more are important cause’ ‘the and family’ ‘the is induced. Indeed, message’ of ‘the about importance the memory Institutional turn. of asalafist evidence is mentioned further as of ‘un-Islamic’discussion topics.20’s andof The removal Islamayoon[22] for their targeted been having as ST by depicting is substantiated claim of ideologies. This abattle as framed is still crisis the two, part In such: as reconstructed be can and events, one. It adaptation order in is an to part recent in incorporate established been on adds to already what has narrative of ideological the two Part - Part Two Narrative The Ideological of IOL-Crisis the narrative. evolving the thatpoints contribute to turning narrative as function also incidents These will IOL bring back to us. theyto did have hijack IOL?Why We are hoping Al-Qaradawi purelywebsite, salafi couldn’twhy website? another just start they important thing the is message. to us If they wanted a to make Webelieve in. are not mainly fightingrights. The mostour for message. We want to continue doing we andwhat love we what are not able job. to our do We want to continue working with the removedwere too. the are Now we IOL-server, blocked from and access to us denied the subpagesIslamyoon server.20’s The Al and theremoved IOL from website, the administration Qatari after amongst‘Palestine’swas first the This items Holocaust’. to be photographs (IOL’s) andour ofunveiled women news-story called counselling disliked in general.IOL They publishing services Valentine’sobjected They relations. our to Day, and sexual (ST’s) us of writing disapproved (ST) about They and too open-minded. us of publishing ‘un-Islamic’accused thingsQataris The were that yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

20 Mona Abdel-Fadil 21, 2010). 21, notes, March (Field advantage’ to our expertise to our use trying are we and people, media are ‘we when stating to B seems right onbe sense, target this of IOL-Crisis[25]. the narrative ideological on In the draw News-stories IOL’. media. international and Arab up by picked The swiftly IOL-Crisis is Twitter, through about crisis, the Facebook, YouTube blog the and ‘Voice of narrative their media-players, spreading IOL-Cairo active employees are revisited. be will and IOL?’ hijack website, why they is intriguing, did salafi a purely wanted to make administration the Qatari ‘if question: The saviour whoperceived is be the to character order.third a includes social story The media. On March 21: March On media. social via transmitted then on protests, site.and are mostly protests These sit-ins daily 15, IOL-Cairo employees arranging Since March been have Significance Al-Qaradawi’s about hero a a story is this one say that could perspective, anarrative Employing events around. the turn ablebe to will influence and standing his through Al-Qaradawi that The is hope Arabia. to Saudi trip due to for ahealth commentary unavailable and board, head of Qatari the the formally still on Al-Qaradawi, is riding that much hope reveals also narrative to The Israel. ties close their US and state[23] story, told Qatari the Iwas that to is reluctant upset the particular of disapproved this board why Qatari ST the the Iasked ideologies. When of Islamic aclash than rather discrepancies, regional-political indicates The energy is tense. minutes The energy watching of (...)several After about IOL-Crisis. the tomedia the talk lawyer board’s Qatari ST-membersfew one assemble computer around to the watch (such on of display IOL Islamyoon).subpages as also are (...) A Print-outsand media. of organizations different from articles and newspaper- support of display letters whiteboards The entrance. by the placed to way whiteboards the Blead A and (Al-Qaradawi) and who can potentially reinstate social order[24]. reinstate social potentially who and can (Al-Qaradawi) yber (IOL unfit Cairo) the and C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. (Qatari board) who transgresses (Qatari who board) transgresses 1, 2011

21 Mona Abdel-Fadil an attempt ‘IOL toan the save family’. statement interpreted as be can message’. of ‘the owners Al-Qaradawi’s the are family’ ‘the Moreover, that statement his crisis-narrative to in the feeds IOL-Cairo staff. the metaphormemory, to signify family the employing on IOL’s2010)[26]. draws also Al-Qaradawi institutional Intriguingly, (Al-Qaradawi, to its’responsible. family’ He ‘IOL added: must return those suspend resolutions and board new reverse he by the would that Jazeera on Al announced, Al-Qaradawi 22, March On alliance. a strategic more It representing than points to him of Al-Qaradawi. support the ST-members this like acrisis in It expect that and need is interesting meeting. After the meeting, A greetings me with: Agreetings meeting, the meeting. After at IOL-employees IOL 24, a plenary in on are March I arrive When Narratives Dooms-day Shifting and in response. developments?’ about know the latest he CDoes office?nods not just his him, contact with direct is any us? Is there support and us call ‘why doesn’t Al-Qaradawi Bexclaims: silence, in phone. B expresses a similar sentiment. asimilar phone. Bexpresses A is on the to Bwhile talk Istep aside and acall, A receives (...) unprotected. little a who is to And protect now? on us him. Weof hope riding feel Yes,A: is quite a blow and a lot had we as not it was expected it. believe Icannot ItM: is true? ItA: is true. administers. theof fromboard sacked was Al-Qaradawi That M: you read? did What A: but unconfirmed. it was Qaradawi, Al- about sheikh morning this online something Iread M: Did you news? latest here the A. yber C yber O rient, Vol. (Field notes March 21, notes(Field March 2010). 5, Iss. 1, 2011 ,

22 Mona Abdel-Fadil new and multiple and versionsnew of crisis-narrative[27]. the facilitates end of the narrative the Knowing is now known. crisis-narrative the thusend point.the andThe outcome of crisis the of turning narrative hero a tragedy into IOL-Crisis the narrative transformed eradication Al-Qaradawi’s perspective, Islam. Fromnarrative a within differences ideological than Now, rather politics, macro emphasis the narrative. is on Qatari US and crisis- previous the from A’s of perspective represent ashift answers be shut offices would family’.down. to IOLits be would not able to ‘return of IOL Cairo battle lost‘doomsday’. had the the It and they meant that out spelled blow It asevere to my was basically informants. doubt this that There is no eradicated. was of Al-Qaradawi events, twist unexpected an In 24, the ST no longer uniformly frame the crisis as an ideological battle, battle, ideological an as crisis the frame no longer ST uniformly the 24, March 2010). quo’ (Al-Ansari following status want weeks nine they the In visionsabout IOL’ ‘different concerns ‘Weandadds: want to develop IOL, Jazeera generation[28] Al tells board, appointed recently and head of Qatari the of new the scholar Islamic an Al-Ansari, Ibrahim 24, March On Narratives Multiply in restoring social order. Al-Qaradawi’s removal is thus an important important an is thus removal order. social Al-Qaradawi’s restoring in terrorism, you know. you terrorism, of asupporter being related to about accusations Al-Qaradawi related tobe IOL’s It be on could Palestine. reporting active It may to remove Al-Qaradawi. America from pressure under state was Qatari It the that seems himself. Qaradawi after to were wonder they if It WeA: is quite ashock. starting are A. my conversationI resume with of problems the (...). origins the were that two reinstated the and Qaradawi sacked involved, gone. Wegovernmentgot found night. out Qatari The last now and this -Qaradawi, on Al hanging been hope has B: All that the crisis is not related to crisis ideology. the dispute that the that He says yber the tragic is (re)casted the as . Al-Qaradawi C yber O rient, Vol. (Field notes, March 24, 2010). 24, notes, March (Field 5, Iss. 1, 2011 the , who the to is unable assist

23 Mona Abdel-Fadil I turn to narratives that focus on internal factors. on focus internal that to narratives I turn US and/or by the Next Israel. pressured most plausible was Qatar is that ST-members explanation the the take-over. Still, find Qatari the with donors dissatisfied being Arabian to Saudi latter the and enterprise, Arabia[31]. Saudi and The former relates to influential an IOL being or Qatar and Egypt, Qatar between influence of regional relate struggles versions no it so longer common fly’. can political Less organization, the of wings of IOLthe off take-over to ‘cutting Qatari the likens lives’. tools their in He people equip with and awareness create we movement, asocial essentially are ‘we Bsays tool. on Commenting this IOL a dangerous as reading is seen this In necessary. was eradication his and list’ on a terrorism due to ‘being a target, was himself Qaradawi Moreover,Al- of Israel-Palestine the covering Conflict. their in critical and become depicts political too IOLhaving narrative The factors: political emphasisethat external, versions narrative they provide Instead, wasatiyya. and salafi between A number of ST-members abattle as of crisis the framing abandon the Political Narratives ideology. onthat focused IOL-Crisisnarrative first the with dialogue in are versions’, they asbecause ‘narrative classified are These surface. crisis, reasons motivationsthe orthe management as inefficientfor political follow suit[29]. media highlight Arab versions,and which narrative New with Israel andcannot to afford upset its allies. illness. hosts Qatar agreements trade aUS military base andhas prohibited respondingAl-Qaradawi while was he from to due Palestine put Israel in light. abad aplot It to was get of rid pressures Israel[30]. US Congress and/or from IOL-coverage of theremoved IOL-website. from state Qatari The gave into item to that be the for this is it first was evidence The crisis. Holocaust ofPalestine’ one ofthe‘The is main reasons ofthe yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

24 Mona Abdel-Fadil of ‘the message’: ‘the of significance the emphasizes and employees consider one ‘family’ another of IOL’sanalysis identity. (2010) Elawady how institutional describes IT. my of her IOL-Cairo’s In description affirms Elawady reactions, or updating salaries spent been on have increasing could that investments IOL’s left they financial implied also Expansion suffering. core pages because Cairo-management, of by the IOL, initiated expansions the with what from it intended IOL tothat be’. dissatisfied ‘diverted is board The for da’wa IOL organization an to as run wants board Qatari the that IOL maintains Elawady of be. should organization about what type 2010)[32]. She is aformer employee adispute as of IOL crisis the sees and (Elawady, Elawady’s 24 blog Nadia is in of March narrative this across came I time first The faults. intra-organizational on focuses narrative This Inefficient Management Narratives Management Inefficient defending the message. the defending are they their jobs; are not defending only They on strike. positionthe currently workers of many explain helps This amoderate Islam. portraying in is playing IslamOnline the rolein believe strongly they in are because it They environment. working comfortable or the stable salary the for in aren’tit necessarily all They upper management. the and employees many show organization to the loyalty to the added also is not ajob;has it’s This IslamOnline amessage. to mentionIt’s important to IslamOnliners, many that also escalatedthe to crisis this magnitude. why onboth is stubbornness sidesThis so the conflict got personal. ofintention there Qatar’s ofclarity alack was from And, was side. But there adispute IOL how Itchannel. about was should be run. subpages Islamyoon Al like andthe launchingnumerous ofAna management ofIOL (Cairo). IOL too with much, expanded is a questionpoor of It wasati. not It aquestionvs. is ofsalafi yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011 and believe believe and

25 Mona Abdel-Fadil Fusing Narrative Versions Narrative Fusing core of IOL[36]. outside the proposed by individuals are they that in ‘outsider narratives’ are Yes,down? do that’,narratives she These can butadds. owner the house the it to ashame tear ‘Is it to down. tear deciding then and millions, house for many fancy alarge of building adeveloper analogy the She uses money. the had that’. thoughts. Qatar the had have they to respect They IOL, because owned they side to Cairo think the from professionalism ‘itof lack Dr. angleis abyis provided C who different says A slightly B’s words: own Dr.Dr.of Qatar’s In A. Shethan role is critical more conflict. the describe to of Qatar, amother Egypt afather in and in Dr. analogy the B. provides discontinued. be suddenly could funding the as unsure, projectsnew was when IOL’s of on donations. based income her In viability opinion, was the Dr. vein, (Cairo) the Bquestions management’ssimilar decision to expand he says[34]. for fault is ‘It our not expertise’, ondemise. our focusing a In on its own’. IOL’s that He believes of cause its the was constant expansion moving parts body ‘a it with dinosaur, that became unfocused and large so interviews[33]. in ofcounsellors IOL For becoming Dr. Atalks instance, by some of IOL- the were put forward narratives Similar personalized’. about how one ‘got Cairo IOLDoha and that run, should be and ugly IOL-Crisis between the is a power-struggle believes Elawady sum, In narrative to be heard amongst ST and in news-coverage. The lack of lack The news-coverage. in and ST amongst to heard be narrative only the was narrative ideological the of crisis the days early the In Qatari administration chose the latter strategy. latter the chose administration Qatari she The and is out house, streets. on their the and children the take simply state he will no dialogue, with and, brutal he maya divorce, leaveher kindness[35], in or he may be wants decide he can the father dayOne knowledge. hand first father may opinions have without distant the while children, the lives of day every the of the details all knows The mother yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011 crisis-

26 Mona Abdel-Fadil the list of essays dealing with marital problems from a counselling problems acounselling from marital with dealing of essays list the Interestingly, counselling. of of eradication exception interactive the the with unaltered, surprisingly are pages social The take-over? Qatari the on afterIOL turn to IOL-users. Yet, of asalafist evidence any is there visible of crisis the sign indirect is an were removed, which Islamiyoon, Al of as IOL, subpages such Popular pages. homepage social or the on IOL’s about crisis information the is no there explicit 24, March On Webpage IOL’s crisis. the after and website during made IOL to the changes abrief look at actual Before Itake concluding, IOL-offices. thenight andin day neither of whom conflict counsellors, the breathed and ex-employeewere Elawady narrative whoversionsThose this provided of ofmanagement. inefficient to noteinteresting none that talked of ST the inefficientmanagement.and It is differences of ideological both result as crisis the see some of counsellors the Also, not and too political’. too social IOL2010). is to not transform into goal awebsite the ‘is that that Asays led ‘Qatari-hijack to of the IOL’ Zionist pressures and May2, (Interview, US-Congress of topics, ST’s believes unsuitable and discussion but also message’ of disapproved ‘the administration Qatari the that A maintains versions into one. narrative ideological and political the fuses A elegantly For of crisis. the instance, framing ideological abandoned have an not all motivation. of Yet, ideological denial adamant to Al-Ansari’s a response plausible.be may This no narrative consider longer could ideological the no. a number it ofand that ST- With becomes evident time, members yes is answer The Did it simply disappear? narrative? ideological to the What happened intofused one. were narratives managementinefficient and political times, of management. inefficient At talked also Counsellors media[37].Arab indicates latter IOL The Cairo’s media-proficiency. in and ST the version amongst narrative dominant the as surfaced narratives political crisis, the following weeks the in and developed, silence’. interpretations represents a‘narrative Yetalternative events as yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

27 Mona Abdel-Fadil witnessing a generational shift of religious authority. of religious shift a generational witnessing may we be that indicates replacement his and by Al-Ansari, board of IOL’. ‘hijack Qatari the from elimination Al-Qaradawi’s Indeed, to the immunity not them did ensure Al-Qaradawi authority religious IOL finally, theties offline to Cairo’sclose And, crisis. the frame they toseem reproduce IOL of Cairo’s how ‘corporate ideology’, regardless management) play. to in seem be crisis-narratives Yet, all intriguingly, inefficient of tensions range (ideological, political, contradictory perhaps core and ofthe IOL-Crisis. the Rather, of aset intersecting atof authority may not there conflict that asingle indicate data be my power. Still, financial and more have latter formal the that in is hierarchical, board Qatari IOL the and Cairo between struggle multi-layered. being about The authority argument Campbell’s about IOL forefront. to the Moreover, IOL-Crisis supports the case 2005) (Krüger knowledge brought Ihave ‘invisible’ crisis-narratives, ideologies. By on IOL’s focusing various and narrative institutional or refashioned todifferent needs fit or dismantled be abruptly can websites religious well-established even that The indicates IOL-Crisis Conclusion incomplete. or was goal, the notwas either direction IOL the website asalafi remodelling in website[38]. removedbeen the from that suggest observations These produced old posts by the IOL-ST (myrelations. All informants) have marital with deal of which two posts, counselling’ ‘social three only by mid-October are there Still, again. counselling’ now ‘social provides Most notably prior crisis. to IOL the displayed to those similar headings now presentpages content, new with contentsocial The place. taken has Bya website of transition. mid-August in layout refashioning and atotal IOL to be to appeared in August, well and crisis the During direction. content the do not of posts the point one in Still, clear dated posts. By added. May, are No posts new older IOL layout and retrieved has for items. not reason only removing was the topicality unsuitable that relations) means This to seems intact. be sexual (including perspective yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

28 Mona Abdel-Fadil Campbell, Heidi 2005. Spirtualising the Internet: Uncovering Discourses and and Discourses Uncovering Internet: the Spirtualising 2005. Heidi Campbell, Press. Pluto London, environments, Islamic cyber and fatwas online e-jihad, age: digital the in Islam 2003. Gary Bunt, Press. University Indiana Jon (eds.), Indiana, & Anderson, Dale Eickelman, World, the Muslim and Media New Publics, Muslim Redefining Jon 2003. Anderson, 2010. 24, November accessed YouTube,watching. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=95TLsTGvA-o, IOL employees with Clip IOL Crisis on the Yusef Comment 2010. Al-Qaradawi, 2010. 24, November accessed youtube.com/watch?v=VBb-ESx1Pf8, YouTube, IOL-Crisis, the about Statement 2010. http://www. Ibrahim Al-Ansari, http://www.almasryalyoum.com/node/22762. 2010, al-Youm, March, Al-Masry 24 of Al-Qaradawi]. Dismissal the Website aNew After to Create aCampain Launching are Online Islam at [The Workers Al-Qardawi iqalit ba’d jadeed mawqa’ linshaa hamla yatlaqoon b-islamonline ‘Amaloon Al 2010. Omar Hesham Halim, Abdel 2011. 22, February accessed www.diigo.com/list/ahmedikhwan/islamonline-strike-news-, http:// news, strike Islamonline List: Abd-elfatah’s Ahmed 2010. Ahmed Abd-elfatah, 2010. November, 23 accessed weekly.ahram.org.eg/2010/992/eg6.htm, 2010, http:// April 1-7 Weekly, Al-Ahram Off-line, 2010. Mohammed Abdel-Baky, References University). Van (Loughborough Zoonen of Liesbet Oslo, and University at of the mine of colleagues both whom are Vogt, Kari and Jurkiewicz Sarah article: of this drafts on earlier feedback constructive for providing scholars following the to thank like I would Acknowledgements yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

29 Mona Abdel-Fadil Mufti: The Phenomenon of Yusuf al-Qardawi, Gräf, Bettina & Skovgaard Petersen, Petersen, Skovgaard & Bettina Gräf, al-Qardawi, of Phenomenon The Yusuf Mufti: Global the al-Qaradawi, in Work of Yusuf wasatiyya of Concept The 2009. Bettina Gräf, 2010. 24, November accessed http://www.arabmediasociety.org/index.php?article=576&p=1&printarticle, Society, and Media Arab popular, interactive, independent, IslamOnline.net: 2008. Bettina Gräf, 2010. 24, November accessed http://www.arabmediasociety.com/?article=712, 2009, Spring & Society Media Arab Egypt, in TV satellite Salafi 2009. Hamam Ahmed and Nathan Field, Press. of Chicago University Chicago, fieldnotes, ethnographic 1995. Shaw Writing Linda and Fretz Rachel with Robert, Emerson, 27, 2010. March accessed islamonline%e2%80%99s-crisis/, http://nadiaelawady.wordpress.com/2010/03/27/trying-to-understand- My Mind, of workings Inner Crisis: IslamOnline’s to Understand Trying 2010. Nadia Elawady, York, New Palgrave-Macmillan. cyberspace, in discourses Islamic contemporary com: dot Islam 2009. Khamis Sahar and Mohammed El-Nawawy, 2010. 24, November accessed http://www.economist.com/node/15868367?story_id=15868367, 2010, 8 April Economist The air. the in rivalry religious web: Bitter the on 2010.Islam Economist The Routledge. London, Media, New Meets Religion When 2010. Heidi Campbell, 2010. 24, November accessed de/volltextserver/frontdoor.php?source_opus=5824&la=de, http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg. 12, Communication, of Computer- Mediated Journal Internet. the and Authority Power? Religious the Got Who’s 2007. Heidi Campbell, 2010. 24, November accessed opus=5824&la=de, Internet 1,the http://archiv.ub.uniheidelberg.de/volltextserver/frontdoor.php?source_ on of Religions Journal -Heidelberg Online Usage, Internet of Religious Narratives yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

30 Mona Abdel-Fadil pdf/Larsson3a.pdf, accessed January 24, 2011. 24, January accessed pdf/Larsson3a.pdf, Volume 1, http://archiv.ub.uniheidelberg.de/volltextserver/volltexte/2005/5825/ 1, Issue Internet, on the of Religions Journal -Heidelberg Online Net, on the Religion Analysing in and Methods Issues Group: Discussion Muslim of A Virtual Death The 2005. Göran Larsson, 2010. 28, November article/viewFile/385/360accessed Volume 1, http://archiv.ub.uniheidelberg.de/ojs/index.php/religions/ 1, Issue Internet, on the of Religions Journal - Heidelberg Online Internet, on the Religion Searching of Aspects Methodological Internet: Invisible the Discovering 2005. Oliver Krüger, http://www.islamonline.net. 2010. Online.net Islam Longman. London, (eds.), Bengt. Per &Nordberg, Linell, Britt-Louise, Gunnarsson, Discourse, Professional of Construction The drama, as narrative 1997.institutional The Lars-Christer Hydén, Oslo. of University Thesis, PhD Egypt, contemporary in ideology and rhetoric Islamism: Writing 2008. Jacob Høigilt, 2010). 24, November accessed IPG3_2005/07HOFHEINZ.PDF, http://www.fes.de/ipg/ 78-96, Gesellschaft und Politik Internationale Liberalisation, for Political Playground Arab World: the in Internet The 2005. Albrecht Hofheinz, 2010. 25, November accessed com/article.aspx?ArticleID=8962, 2010, http://www.egypttoday. April 1-7 Weekly Al-Ahram Off-line, 2010. Lamia Hassan, accessed November 25,articles/hart.htm, 2010). http://www.acjournal.org/holdings/vol6/iss2/ 2, Volume Issue 6, Journal Communication American Terrain, the Charting Orienteering: Organizational Joy 2003. Hart, Routledge. London, practice, in principles Ethnography: 2007. Atkinson Paul and Martyn Hammersley, &Company. (eds.) Hurst Jakob London: yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

31 Mona Abdel-Fadil [3] Providing a comprehensive review of news-articles that analyse the IOL-Crisis is is IOL-Crisis the analyse that of news-articles review acomprehensive [3] Providing (2004:61).Lövheim and (2005:2) Larsson for instance See religion. of online scholars other by recommended is surveys, oronline interviews, ethnography, with research online [2] Combining 2002. Mandaville 2005, Hofheinz 2003, Bunt 2003, [1] Anderson for example, See Notes 2011. 22, February accessed http://yalally.blogspot.com/2010/03/blog-post_1740.html, outlets) media in protests Online Islam on the published was of what (Most al a’lam wasil fih islamonline i’tisam ‘an nashr ma 2010 Aghlab Blogspot.com Yalally http//:www.onislam.net. 2010. Islam.net On Routledge. London, umma, the reimagining politics: Muslim Transnational Peter 2002. Mandaville, Routledge. (eds.), York, New Douglas &Cowan, Lorne Dawson, Internet, on the Faith Finding Online: Religion Internet, the and Identity, Young Religious People, 2004. Mia Lövheim, 2010. 24, November accessed pdf, http://ti.arc.nasa.gov/static/asanicms/pubarchive/archive/Narrative%20in%20Institutions. Publishing, Heidi (eds.). Blackwell Hamilton, & Deborah Tannen, Deborah, Schiffrin, Analysis, Discourse of Handbook The Institutions, in Narrative 2003. Charlotte Linde, 2010. 24, November accessed htm?articleid=883733&show=abstract, Volume 5, Issue11, http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals. Management of Knowledge Journal Tacit Knowledge, Social and Narrative 2001. Charlotte Linde, Press. 1928-1942,Movement Ithica Mass Islamic an of rise The Egypt: in Brothers the Muslim of Society The 1998. Brynjar Lia, yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

32 Mona Abdel-Fadil ST-members on May 23, 2010, May 30, 2010, May 2, 2010, April 11, 2010. April 2010, 2, May 2010, 30, ST-members May 2010, 23, on May with conducted interviews from are reference) of order (in section this [12]in citations The Arabic. Standard [11] of Modern influx the With analysis. data for qualitative [10] Software observation. to the sequence direct in use, for further notes the systematizing hours many Ispent extracts. the *in with marked are and notes my ethnographic in ‘interpretations’ as marked clearly are These interpretations. immediate elicited segments certain [9] Still, meetings. these during questions ask to start did I up, built crisis the as Only notes. field typed and observed quietly, sat I where meetings, editorial the in role to my applied This aparticipant-observer. than rather observer asilent being entails [8] observer’ ‘Complete 2009. IOL May in and to Cairo visit my during arranged was ST Arabic the amongst fieldwork to conduct [7] agreement Prior individuals. 1500 over on is IOL draws that writers and scholars international of network entire the that (2001:31) estimates Campbell content. editorial with work of whom 150 350 employees, had IOL Cairo to one of my informants, According http://yalally.blogspot.com/2010/03/blog-post_1740.html and, news-, on http://www.diigo.com/list/ahmedikhwan/islamonline-strike- collected news-reports in vary Numbers 250-350. between be to reported is employees [6]regular of number The Egypt. in Brotherhood Muslim of the member aformer also is [5] Al-Qaradawi ST. to the level management the from down trickled was of information type on what light some sheds article this Nevertheless, level. at this of communication picture accurate an draw Icannot level. management the topat was crisis, the during Cairo, and Doha between [4]communication The to fieldwork-episodes. relevant is this where on news-articles draw only Iwill Here, article. of this scope the beyond yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

33 Mona Abdel-Fadil about Islamist movements and ideology. and movements Islamist about asubpage was Islamayoon and twenties, their in youth targeting [22] asubpage was 20’s [21] 6. footnote See namely: Arabic, in said was of what translation adirect is this translation, [20] of abetter For lack to Al-Qaradawi. statement the signed who employees 250 the questioned Qatar from committee investigative an (2010:1) that [19] mentions who Hassan for instance See erupted. crisis the before aweek about ST-members with upuntil tasks work [18] to observe able also Iwas board. Qatari to the donations IOL through to funding contributed previously that sources same the entails partners’ to ‘Saudi reference that it clear is However, partners’. ‘Saudi or funders’ ‘Saudi beyond specified never is [17]funding of question The [16] for my voice. Mis Egypt. in Botherhood Muslim of the years formative the with dealing when component to sacrifice’ ‘willingness [15] (1998:69) of asimilar Lia writes 2003:2). (Hart, narratives organizational many in metaphor acommon is family Moreover, father’. and mother IOL ‘their or considering to IOL’ married of ‘being spoke informants mentioned, explicitly relations kinship heard have I times The fieldwork. during or‘sisters’ ‘brothers’ as other ST-members to each refer heard Inever as case, the to be this not believe Ido do. However, Brotherhood Muslim of the members for example as manner same the in sisters’ and ‘brothers as one another considering IOL-staff signifying as metaphor family the [14] to interpret possible It also is notes. field and interviews as such data, other from them distinguish to in order italics with marked are narratives Reconstructed interviews. and notes of field totality of the basis on the constructed are article this in narratives [13] reconstructed All Hilm al risala al Hilm yber . C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

34 Mona Abdel-Fadil [31] On a few occasions I also heard mention of political motivation related to IOL’s related motivation alleged of political mention heard [31] Ialso occasions afew On orIsrael. US saying than common less is but this Zionists Lobby, Jewish US the of CIA, mention is there [30] Sometimes blogspot.com/2010/03/blog-post_1740.html http://yalally. and, http://www.diigo.com/list/ahmedikhwan/islamonline-strike-news-, websites: two on collected are articles The crisis. the with deal that and 24 March after dated articles newspaper reviewing on based is [29]argument This Al-Qaradawi. than younger [28] years 40 some He is by Hydén (1998).inspired is [27]analysis This on YouTube posted was and applause IOL’s and their page. Facebook by followed statement, Al-Qardawi’s watching staff the IOL-Cairo of clip [26]is a This directly. it reference I text, the in to referred is article specific content of a lists). website’s If two (not on these articles of additional acouple yielding list, the to supplement English and Arabic both in of ‘IOL-Crisis’ searches online I ran addition, In cross-references. some contain sites two The articles. international and Gulf) and (Egyptian Arab both contains list the and English, and Arabic both in are articles The blogspot.com/2010/03/blog-post_1740.html http://yalally. and, http://www.diigo.com/list/ahmedikhwan/islamonline-strike-news-, websites: on two collected crisis the with dealing articles newspaper the of most through reading on based is argument [25] This by Hydén (1998).inspired is [24]reading This (2010). Halim (2010) Abdel and Hassan example for See news-coverage. with accordance in intervening Affairs of Foreign Ministry Qatari the of mention is there sometimes but further, not specified is [23] this Often yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

35 Mona Abdel-Fadil On Islam. On on found to be now are counselling, interactive and essays as such IOL posts, pre-crisis the of anumber Also, crisis. to the to IOL prior similar is of topics categorization and layout The website. new a via ‘message’ their spreading of continuation the in succeeded have staff IOL-Cairo previous The running. upand is funding, of Saudi assistance the with created staff IOL-Cairo previous the that website offshoot the [38] OnIslam.net, 2010, By August sources. 25 for footnote See 2010. 24, March after written articles the to refers [37]argument This 12. May 9and May 15, May of 2010 appearance): (in order in dates following the on conducted counselors with interviews from selected are section [36]this in quotes The kindness’. ‘in divorcing about Qu’ran the of 2:229 verse to a reference be a to likely [35]is This particular. in services counselling the and section, social the is IOL’s[34] view his In ‘expertise’ ST. the by so’ and so ‘Dr. as addressed were counsellors quoted of the ST-members. All the 2. and them between 1.reasons. distinguish two To for counsellors the ‘Dr.’ to [33]added is prefix The IOL-employee. isa former the author that in and management), inefficient to content (internal regards with both 25) footnote (see the IOL-Crisis about articles newspaper from [32]differs blog This article. this of scope the beyond is angle This rare. was but this Brotherhood, Muslim to the ties yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

36 Mona Abdel-Fadil according to her “helped pierce the concrete and concertina wire of the wire pierce concrete concertina to the and heraccording “helped which pamphlets, of small distribution the mirrors online speech Bloc, she how evoked Eastern non-violent the in dictatorships political oppression the censorship of Internet of in the with dissent current Clinton. Comparing Rodham Hillary as such politicians by American of freedom expression to and information access free to guarantee means promoted been toInternet the has uncensoredaccess aSince then, as actions. avenue of and political for freedom organisation the unlimited of Internetaspace a point the as to Internetwho praise enthusiasts, “Twitter revolution,” so-called to the conceded have appears Iran, in of use ofInternetThe protest tools 2009 summer the for in political activism sphere, public democracy, conflict, Tunisia, Egypt, Keywords: the on street. power into actual discussion ofacquired space the newly to online and transform resultsoperate discussions of helping to to sphere, the general a public bridge as the serve press can as such media traditional how shows Egypt of the case Instead, awhole. as the society transform to radically notto be sufficient appears such as the However, Internet in public. said be thecan realm what of expanding and be avitalwindows factorcan in opening space arelative free as the Internet how in Tunisia, shows and article this Egypt in mobilization political for use Internet of the patterns Comparing repression. and censorship by marked to environment in an get message medium their across new this with interact creatively countries in authoritarian the protest movements Indeed, regimes. authoritarian by controlled media the traditional by are marginalized that actors political empower will information of sources alternative of availability that the mere is narrative the most frequent East, in the Middle Particularly alike. politicians and scientists tool intrigues apolitical as the of Internet potential The Abstract: Kuebler Johanne and inEgypt TunisiaPolitical Mobilization theDigitalDivide:Overcoming and The Internet yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011 , pp. 37–62

37 Corresponding author: Johanne Kuebler, European University Institute, I-50014 San Domenico di Fiesole, Italy. E-mail: [email protected] attempt to give an appearance of democratic processes while actual actual while of processes democratic appearance attempt an to give since 1981 1987 charge and regimes in been both have and respectively, Ben Ali former Abidine the El Zine and Presidents, Hosni Mubarak unemployment educated countries’ rising ratesthe among Both youth. and poverty resource of acontext relative in regimes political rigid Tunisia and feature both Egypt liberalisation, of models political as 2010). presented often are countries both Most importantly, although form of to latter repression.(Reporters borders without the resorts solely Egypt while numerous sentenced “cyberactivists,” has and to jail for reasons: Borders, albeit different theInternet censors heavily Tunisia without considered both by ‘enemies Reporters are of Internet’ the cases selectedtwo The design. study case of Internet amostuse similar in the activists’ of political impact for of political evidence the examination Tunisia, and asystematic in Egypt countries, Arab Internet two in the of potential political the address will article this call, to this Responding question. in of country context it the into concrete the putting political of phenomenon vision the asystematic acquire instead by and wisdom of to suited conventional avoidbest danger the opinion their in is method 2003). Boas comparative and The (Kalathil investigation in-depth further without agent of Internet is the an change that toconventional wisdom in the giving fashion, impressionistic and anecdotal an in treated been often has rule Internet on authoritarian Taylor and of deplore the impact Boas C. the that Kalathil Shanthi of Internet enthusiasts, mantra the with breaking study afirst In content. of undesired control of Internet filtering by the the state power, enhance tight notably the through also can contrary the state power, but quite traditional on destabilising thereby cyberspace, in for discussions new Internet not does solely represent opportunities the that due were moderated to realisation over time the expectations These rule. foundations the of in authoritarian fissures in result will transformation digital voiced have the hopes that scholars countries, by developing communication technologies rapid adoption of digital of context the In line. asimilar taken have East Middle Internet the in of of the impact the Clinton 2010) (Rodham Analyses Iron Curtain.” yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

38 Johanne Kuebler Twitter are being combined to give way to actual political mobilisations. political Twitter combined to way being actual to are give Internet Facebook applications as interactive such recently, popular More actors. political new introduced and of discussion space novel a up opened2010). which advent the of blogging, witnessed Internet has The Tunisia with case (Richter Egyptian the comparing in her argument induced me has to verify of Egypt tocase movement the theory social of public sphere of the theories with Dieter Rucht’sapplying linkage Richter by Carola For arecent media. article this, traditional to the public sphere, its and relation into Habermascian the aspect lost social the Internet’s for the and potential reinserting space, free inherently an of Internet as the imaginary contributed have Internet that to asocial of the features technical the examine will article the part, theoretical afirst In observations. on as online well as or Europe, in countries Tunisian and bloggers and Egyptian with interviews on semi-directive is based study This frameworkThe of study this manipulation. technical by simple circumvented easily be it because can explanation sufficient it to question, Tunisia the is notcensorship in of answer a the is part online Internet. While over the of wave protests organised a first Tunisia’s witnessed that it of is Egypt terms connectivity, in advance Tunisia 33 Despitewhile percent of online. its features even population 21 roughly Internet percent access, of with itsfeatures population Egypt countries. both in steadily grown number of has Internet users foreignThe investments. hope of the in attracting infrastructure Tunisia and Internet in heavily invested Egypt have dissent. online for potential ahigher entail should Interneta higher connectivity Western politicians, several by Internet and enthusiasts is claimed agent it of as Internet an democratisation is the indeed theory, if In authoritarianism? of context political the in activism generate political of Internetcondition asufficient the to accessibility to is the what extent structures, of few. hands the in authoritarian Given remains these power yber C yber O Facebook rient, Vol. activists living in their respective respective their in living activists 5, Iss. 1, 2011 and and

39 Johanne Kuebler users, especially by those whose spread information that is usually hard to hard is usually that whose information spread by those especially users, Internet of current part of a substantial into integrated dialogue been the has imaginary social control 2006:362). corporate government and This (Boas accommodates largely Internet nowadays the reality in although features, its “control-frustrating” stresses that of web the imaginary a social created has Internet early, anarchic the of relatively inherent The flexibility interaction. social amendable,and ready to accommodate new forms of flexible inherently routes it.” around (Elmer-Dewitt 1993) beto Internetpresumed was The and quoted statement, damage Net censorship as interprets “the that Internet induced pioneer the oft- also John to his Gilmore features [governments] us.” to seek impose 1996) (Barlow Itstyrannies technical independent of the to naturally be building are we space social global of “the state support institutions: development the not does that require Barlow it saw arevolutionary John as Perry adopters Early like 2002) of Internet. (Tuomi the users early and of developers worldview the libertarian the rootedin ofvision but Western is firmly rather politicians, a of Internet power is the more than transformative the concerning why optimism the explaining in aspect its endpoints important -is an theandInternet of the design and the construction in reflected -as users Internet of all equality to content add new hypothetical to it, this and manner. It is a priori hierarchical Web not ordered are any various in resources between connections the as insofar Internetof the is particular communication, a means society. As emblem become Internet the has the that of fact postmodern the in result representations - emphasis on ‘textual’ its clear -together with of life spheres all its into and penetration almost technology new of this rise The life. of everyday part Westthe integral become Internet an has the communication tool, for and people of many democratisation in this the assisted have we decade, last to the men In novel addicted technologies. to Western limited fashion, young atemporary more than nothing was of Internet use the the that whenForgotten one assume days could the are Playground as Internet The of “Netizens” the yber C yber O rient, Vol. technology open to anyone wishing open to anyone wishing technology 5, Iss. 1, 2011

40 Johanne Kuebler 2001:47). In its exclusive character, the early Internet is actually close close Internet is actually early 2001:47). the character, its In exclusive (Dahlgren elitist considered public was new to space highly be this capital,”therefore and cultural of high degree a with males affluent by a“strong toward bias it to characterised ago be used world, ten years Western the in widespread become Internet increasingly has the While countries. developing in especially bias, elitarian astrong has still Internet the that fact the with Internet struggle enthusiasts Furthermore, Internet mass-media content post often publishers (Cavanagh 2007:62). consumption habits media the of because its users changing radically from Internet is the far addition, In 2005). (Cheeseman Day et al. tends to dependent be economic on the education ethnicity situation, and access because discussions, unrestricted and access of terms universal in of pointed Internet, have mainly the toHowever, shortcomings studies of public sphere. the characteristic debate-loving citizens rational, the are that Internet users media, thatthe mass of than different is radically theInternet’s that assumption the audienceon rests 2001).claim This (Norris dialogue critical direct, in engage individuals that meaning public sphere, into Habermas’ aspect lost social the reinsert can medium interactive inherently Internet an the as that argued be it can practice, in problematic to Internet remains the access ofquestion the universal While 2001:102). (Habermas citizens” to all is guaranteed formed. Access be opinion can public approaching something which in life social of our it is “a realm public to sphere, which according of Habermascian Internet terms the in Fenton and station (Downey TV the 2003:185). approaches feature This one’s apublisher be or manage can own everybody theory in because case It more this is even in so participation. onwhose productioncitizen relies media or community grassroots other non-mass alternative, as such media resemble webzines blogs and sense, this In skills. managerial particular nor capital up much ablog seed neither requires professionals. Setting to media world, over the of agenda-setting notably the entrustment the all media mass of current to remedy dilemmas ata few least argued blogs are Webcome by, countries. applications as such authoritarian for in example yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

41 Johanne Kuebler For example, after having called for of aboycott Twitter, called having VenezuelanFor the after example, reactions. to but leads erratic sometimes regimes, by authoritarian ignored betheInternet cannot of movements. dynamism The institutionalised that of morethan greater is much often outreach virtual Their dynamic. websites audience, but develop a proper an to these reach instrument an as organisations for existing not useful only are networks social Therefore, rapidlyonline framed. well expand are concerns when their can formation whose the fellowship interest of groups, hoc ad facilitate to ability of their because attention scholars the of media attracted have Facebook like public sphere.sites network social Fast-growing ‘official’ non-conforming the from actors to discard aim openly regimes while adoption amassive of Internet use witnessed have countries Developing Contentious Politics Media the and 2003:47; (Anderson 1992). Eickelman structures authority of established outside beliefs their to aplatform express with Internet them provides the led to emergence world the has of and actors new elsewhere Muslim and the contemporary educationof in massification positions, the political to their clings countries Arab authoritarian in class” “new middle praised Web[1] on the history own document their 2010). (Morozov once the If to to ‘wikis’ use started Brothers recently have Muslim the example, For how Internet purposes. to for the use well their very know Islamists radical positions as anti-liberal such with groups debate, nowadays rational in abelief and tolerance, anti-authoritarianism materialism, individuality, ideals, libertarian as such points to values Katz while avant-garde However, an more might as even be accurate. of netizen the conception Western the in countries, than elite to an moreeven restricted is countries developing in tools. Internet Since access the participative and Internet’s the using interactive communities online involved in actively and aware politically 1997). is Internetof users category (Katz This vanguard intellectual to an is synonymous and to universal supposed be is not citizenry” “online an as temporary, conceptions life of online supposedly model are Habermas’ in for limitations participation while public sphere. of bourgeois However, the prototype Habermasian to the yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

42 Johanne Kuebler can attract the media’s attention and coverage. In authoritarian countries, a countries, media’s the authoritarian In attention coverage. and attract can online actor’s an activities presence and societies, society. democratic In of the portion alarger to reach is necessary outlets media traditional the in resonance countries, authoritarian of many freedom assembly in the to of restrictions audiences because inaccessible usually to reach strategy 1985:343). communication a first be InternetRaschke the can While 1996:22; movement (Downing place” not does is not take that reported “a asense In supporters. movements to and acquire followers to mobilise social of “life-blood” indicator. an for publicthe The battle opinion is movement as seen be can asocial and aregime confrontations between to reaction their population, the in credibility thereforeand lack often regimes authoritarian in controlled tightly are media most traditional Even though democracies. than degree topublic alesser albeit legitimacy, of to confer on aminimum them newspapers as such media on traditional depend regimes Authoritarian its success. movement is crucial media the in social of a of astruggle reflection the that observations Rucht to adds these 2004). (Wiktorowicz movement activity social potential favouring of opportunity, windows provide contexts political audience. certain addition, In alarger with “resonate” that movements claims develop social number of supporters, increasing an order In mobilisation. to resource attract and organisation but spontaneous movements rely on rarely careful are social contrary, the to outside situations control. react On their emotionally when masses movements occur movements social that to assumption beyond go has the of social study the (Rucht that 1994). stresses movement theory Social movement theory social of public sphere the theories with attempt to link an in media movement traditional the in asocial and regime the between the struggle of of reflection Dieter the Rucht points importance to the sociologist To street. on German power the the puzzle, solveactual this into of space discussion acquired newly the transform and whole society the influence can online of how discussions results remains question the discussion, space of Internet voices elitist rather offers the new a if 2010). medium” this in (Carroll order tothe fight battle “in However, aTwitter acquired President account now has himself Hugo Chavez yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

43 Johanne Kuebler numbers (33numbers has 21 percent that versus it percent latter Egypt), is in the by official Tunisiaalthough Egypt to Internet connected the than is better anymore. However, minority tiny Internet limit use to a notdoes effectively reducednet considerably been have economic the at least that argument so Tunisia, and the ofcost the accessing Egypt like development. countries In economic for communication technologies of and their information importance emphasised the and Internet in infrastructure heavily invested have developments. Tunisia countries different Both and triggered has Egypt like countries advent The theInternet semi-authoritarian in of aTool as Internet The for Resistance Oppressive to Regimes Facebook as such tools online using networks social to tap into existing Internet activists and publicrecentspheres, attempts of in restricted benefits of blogging the examine first will article For of the conciseness, fell. sake the regimes before Tunisia in respective visible the Internet in activism Egypt and trends might elucidate certain article This movements to assessed. be remains the supporting in arole played protest,have the significance but in their Internet Facebook tools as such Twitter of and Hosni Mubarak. rule the to end millions in streets the taken to have Egyptians out and of office, Ali 2011, aprotest movement forced Tunisian president Ben Abidine El Zine dominated its of that public silence sphere. January In to pierce wall the Tunisia in public sealed sphere the remained despite while efforts streets, Egyptian protests the in public new sphere actual in of this translation the witnessed had 2010, July in however, Egypt only article of this writing the Up tomoment the countries. their of in regimes authoritarian the contesting increasingly and right of to freedom speech their defending ‘blogospheres’ development the and of vivid years last Internet over the in use increase amassive witnessed have countries Both structures. opportunity different Tunisia, in and in resulted have which Egypt in press the state towards the the approachesoutcomes of distinct of examines analysis The following attention. attract and Internet to the form using coalitions actors new for structure opportunity provide an can sector of media the liberalisation yber . C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

44 Johanne Kuebler slogan. Egypt’s best known blogger, Wael known best considered Abbas, one of Egypt’s the slogan. into averitable cited often intention turned is the has word” which the self-censorship to attention public. the To of awider journalists’ “spread state censorship or due to media actual by traditional ignored usually issues to bring and their voice toopinion party a political with affiliated not necessarily citizens ordinary permitted have Blogs Egypt in scale. small on a albeit politics, on Egyptian impact an had has blogging activist and blogosphere East, Middle is one the documented in Egypt’s of best the Blogging for space the -Enlarging political debate to on tighten its its society. grip Tunisian the of freedom expression, continued regime led to acertain has which years, last these liberalisation limited permitted has Egypt While public sphere. general voices the in alternative allotted have governments the respective the space to linked directly is paradox apparent This anti-Mubarak ever.demonstrations first the prominence of blogosphere beyond the bloggers increased an and witnessed Fig. 1. Development of the number of Internet users per 100 inhabitants. Since 2007, 2007, Since inhabitants. 100 per users Internet of number the of Development 1. Fig. yber Tunisia (red) is largely ahead of Egypt. (Data: ITU) (Data: Egypt. of ahead largely is Tunisia (red) C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

45 Johanne Kuebler united by the wish to prevent cementing wish President from by the united Hosni Mubarak youth movement formation to the all-encompassing contributing of an thereby movements to political organise, of existing ability the extending in central been also have bloggers opposition Technology-savvy politics. Egyptian classical independently from campaigns to help organise skills their blogosphere, used have bloggers and attention toEgyptian the movement popular new the given core with has bloggers early Egypt’s symbiosisbetween natural This posters. of Mubarak burning the and down tearing the protesters’ the anger, featuring demonstrations expressing ever anti-Mubarak first the organising in its It events. a landmark set organise theInternet used to that actively movementin Egypt social first the as 2005 momentum in for gained Arabic “enough”), which (Egyptian the Kefaya with tied up is in Egypt advent The of blogging Coffeehouse Virtual -The Egypt the to Takes Street 2007). (Lynch citizens Arab by politics engagement with anew in lead the is tobloggers taken have of achievement political main the discourse, of rational-critical ideals blogosphere up the to Habermascian live cannot While discourse. rational of vision to Habermas’ is contrary which some inhibitions, people lose their show how Internet makes the online insults gross other, occasional and Tunisia, and different Egypt “generations”each have opposed of bloggers in Both free. conflict being from is far space new this time, same At the venue become the for itself form of anew protest also activism. has and but events, Internet the unpublicised of otherwise coverage their through journalism traditional challenged have of that bloggers examples Atef are and Abbas Egypt. in abuses rights about human awareness spreading and Tatheeb fi Masr ( blog demonstrators.or Torture Noha pro Mubarak Atef’s Egypt in demonstrators peaceful violence police against and fraud election exposing sit-ins published videos and Egypt, workers in strikes, and for change calling Awareness) n.d.). (Abbas, covered demonstrations also (Egyptian Abbas custody his on blog Digital atMisr of abuse people official in revealing videos the publishedby has BBC, 2006 theyear PeopleMostin Influential yber ) is another example of a website aiming at documenting at documenting of awebsite example ) is another aiming C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011 movement movement Al-

46 Johanne Kuebler presented by Egypt’s state-run media. On the other hand, communications other hand, the On media. state-run presented by Egypt’s narrative the of official topics. sensitive Thereby,visibility challenge bloggers Wael NohaMostafa, and Atef Abbas contributed have augmented to an Malek like bloggers and torture, accounts harassment of of firsthand of blogosphere.the the publication Through part integral an themselves are therefore and issues, or personal papers about the in write easily cannot they about blogs issues to use write Some journalists bloggers. and journalists overlap blogosphere of 2010). (Richter a been significant also has There of Egyptian space the outside limited the become known has and press of printed the liberalisation atimid conjunction in with importance in grown phenomenon has of blogging points Egyptian out, Richter the Carola As whole toyouth’s the actions. the population alerting role in important an played have newspapers as such media traditional protest addition itself, to in online into Egypt, In protests streets. on the protest or is transformed when online crossed, army) are (religion, the lines red whencertain intervenes to away letas offHowever,the steam. regime blogging government tolerates political 2008:4). Egyptian It the that seems to blog (Isherwood before information starting to political spread listserv Wael long-term are email leaders for hosted an Abbas example activists; 2006:316).for Lazarsfeld and lower-endopinion- These (Katz users media content of media meaning who the interpret users media active are they that means which sense, opinion-leaders are Lazarsfeldian they the in citizen, the average than influential more and politically activists be tend to also therefore field. chosen bloggers therefore to their committed Political are and considerablemovement. activity invest into bloggers their time fact, In Kefaya the under activists became blogosphere, quickly but they Egyptian Brotherhood asub-sphere developed Muslim bloggers of the hierarchies. age traditional prominent upending thereby and uncensored platform youth a the Brotherhood Muslim by giving the like organisations political established debate within internal driven also have Bloggers movement. Solidarity Poland’s Revolution and Orange to Ukraine’s linked trends political of diverse umbrellas similar successor, his son paralleling as his installing and rule his yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

47 Johanne Kuebler bridge from an elitist medium to the general public sphere and their impact impact public sphere their and to general the medium elitist an from bridge Tunisia in the blogging lacks activities, their to report media governmental non- national count on sensationalist can Egypt in Internet activists While Government aFrightened and Society by aRepressive Thwarted Tunisia Community Online -An concept. Tunisian aware asimilar using bloggers of internationally example is aclear of hosted Government Tunisia by (WSIS) the Society November in 2005, occasion on of the World launched Ben Ali!) Information on the Summit region.The the (Enough Yezzi is enough, Tunisian campaign Ali! Fock Ben in to other countries transported been has of Egypt story success relative the language, Arabic shared the and networking active a community. to this Due Voices, Global form world and over the associate like all from bloggers organisations rights human international In outlets. media international and organisations rights human to international access empowered through movement, Kefaya further the been have conjunction bloggers In 2008). with Digital self-censor, would some Waelnewspapers and as blogs such Misr Abbas’ stories to publicise bloggers information enabling flows of co-operations and army.the or been There have sex, religion, “red lines”, specifically known one to publishit it of because crosses the refuses newspaper own when their to bloggers pictures and to information slip not uncommon for journalists Therefore, is it charges. editors defamation since fear difficult, remains stories certain whole, on the covering journalism led to more investigative has landscape media of Egyptian the diversity increased 2010). this While copies (McGrath 200,000 independent than less entire together prints press Al-Ahram since of terms distribution, in newspapers governmental-owned traditional the but challenge broadsheets new cannot the licenses, local granted been have independent over newspapers adozen Since 2004 Egypt. in media independent development the of so-called encouraged the has 2000s early the The liberalisation contact to activists. direct tothefrom benefit of the press in and bloggers with to work parallel in journalists allowed have technologies have become must-reads for bloggers and journalists alike (Radsch (Radsch alike become have must-reads for journalists and bloggers yber , for example, circulates up to one million copies aday, up the to one million while circulates , for example, C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

48 Johanne Kuebler freer spaces such as foreign publications and the Internet, since at least there Internet, foreign since there at publications the as least and such spaces freer profession properly their cannot Tunisia in exercise to therefore and resort who journalists for quality example high he is an such, As Paris. published in founderthe of Jeune Afrique Banker African African New as such forcontinued to magazines write 2010). L’Expression from (Mekki Since dismissal but to not differently” economics, promising to limited news present “the of editor L’Expression chief and in of Kapitalis former correspondent of Jeune magazine Afrique founded online Kalima The development most prominentexample this of a place for as is Radio refuge. to adopt cyberspace the independent forced have journalists media established truly set to up the impossibility and sheer situation difficult consequence, the a sponsored by foreign As as governments. do not initiatives condemn these they if at best, cyberactivism ignore and coverage organisations governmental independentand non- deny oppositionmedia parties governmental The public sphere is locked. general the audience to concerns because a wider their communicate cannot they that fact the with struggle bloggers Furthermore, blogs. blogger on by afellow their posted “sensitive” commentaries to delete choose bloggers and is banned politics national discussing that stipulate of Tunisian usually charters forums such, As bloggers. and forums of administrators of Internet cafés, managers Providers, Internet Service ATI, Tunisian telecommunication agency national the including levels, is over spread multiple for published what online and is consulted liability legal websites, that due tofact the popular on the discussed rarely are politics Tunisia, in popular national very websites are social and discussions online flow information completely. the butof bloggers, it disrupt cannot Although at discouraging aims and anuisance constitutes it certainly ease, relative with circumvented be of Since censorship can use proxies. the websites through their that access thefrom fact only can readers suffer since they Tunisian occupation of world Tunisian main bloggers, is the real the in and political online censorship fightagainst The government. the brought with line in are media traditional and censored highly Internet The is limited. remains yber , led by Human rights activist Sihem Bensedrine, but also the newly newly the but also Sihem Bensedrine, activist rights , led by Human , and will start to write for to write start will , and C yber O , Béchir Ben Yahmed. All these publications are publications are these Ben Yahmed. All , Béchir rient, Vol. , Ridha Kéfi, a news portal specialised in, in, specialised portal a news Kéfi, , Ridha 5, Iss. recently launched by by launched recently Revue La 1, 2011 in 2008, Ridha Kéfi has has Kéfi Ridha 2008, in , and Business and African

49 Johanne Kuebler stations, similar stories in Tunisia stories in untold. astatement remain stations, similar In in issued at police citizens of ordinary mistreatment and of torture videos alarming mention the newspapers some Egyptian independent local Whereas Refuge as for Internet The Political Dissent Réalités Tunisian like outlets media most liberal mass Tunisian the it in it even censorship is tacit, impossible is nearly to discuss that given touch, and they domain whatever place, not does take policies blogosphere, by the oflaunched Tunisian apublic discussion government of revelations amplifier an as serve media liberalised where afreshly Egypt, in situation to the up presence aweb for built at Contrary least 10has years. Tunisnews blogs, while Tunisians many that of not critical assume aware are in the state. is amplified censorshipTherefore can by through we this Tunisia net and the through browsing upon while them stumbles Internet rarely user an average The bias. thatproblem ideological is of an general of in blogs of Tunisnews team the since Furthermore, elite. intellectual “converted” already beyond an reach Tunisnews published through communiqués that it is doubtful quietism, atmosphere favours and an of fear encourages regime the that fact Given the out printed country. inside spread the and is actually listserv published on this (Tunisnews –FAQ 2010).extent what to material tomeasure It is difficult idea of about scope [their] the no clear “have website they audience” that Tunisia of volunteers by ateam since late 1999, on their themselves admit topublic in the deemed relevant are that information and analysis articles, now and awebsite re-publishes list that Internet news, a former mailing prominent Tunisian the are in media web. governmental through misinformation For rampant websitesthe information countering example, impact. their assess to difficult problematic it as becomes increasingly insofar voicestheInternet in to critical of migration is growing Tunisia The sphere. public general of Internet the space and the elitist the between abridge as serve cannot they Internet to that indicates the ofretreat independent journalists However, the amagazine. to launch visa alegal to acquire is no necessity yber C yber consists of many exiled Islamists, some accuse them them some accuse Islamists, consists of exiled many O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011 . Tunisnews ,

50 Johanne Kuebler of percent over 12 of Tunisian the on population Tunisians and The presence effect. due to network the number of Egyptians agrowing attract networks of social to blogs reach poor because remedy the sites network promised advent The approach tosocial of Internet blockage. visitors Tunisian is reduced by the of occasional sheer possibility since the Tunisia in more bylimited far itswas voicesyoung, impact to heard, be new,allowed it often cases both in and While in Egypt Tunisia. effect different very a had has situation, blogging initial different very Given this online. or newspapers public sphere, mere the it be of in voicing the in dissent it not does allow repressions, subtle but Tunisia government press. these the practices also by co-ordinated campaigns smear and journalists, of targeted arrest the of dissidents, of families harassment the as such dissent, to punish ways prior censorship. it subtle Instead exercises uses it and rarely newspapers shuts down rarely Egypt media. traditional towards stance to their similar Internet toward sites is attitude regimes’ both control.under asense, In better journalism tool online to bring this use state will the that fear others Union, to Tunisian represented and be the in accreditation Journalist official an to acquire journalists enable online it because will initiative this some applaud While journalism. online regulating introduce legislation to government seeks his that indicated recently has Moreover, Ben Ali computers. without those to reach satellite to broadcast via later expanded independent an It Internet-based therefore as established was site, but news toKalima permission publish official the to unable obtain was intended independent to an be newspaper, but Bensedrine originally was is is toInternet. The the development most to prominentexample this migrate for TunisianTunisian liberal journalists pushing in succeeded government has is hazardous[2] the (Hunt 2009). fact, In journalism investigative pursuing Tunisian the to show examples that 2009). government sets Occasionally (Arfaoui propaganda” a“tool media,” as who of acted totalitarian backward and stagnant implemented “unilateral, established authorities had by the Tunisia measures in the Press the that and of Expression proclaimed for Defence the of Committee National Freedom the 2009, December Radio Kalima Radio yber , led by Human rights activist Sihem Bensedrine. Kalima Sihem Bensedrine. activist rights , led by Human C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011 Facebook promised to be in Tunisia. in

51 Johanne Kuebler virtuelle” (real protest for virtual freedom), 2010, for May 22, scheduled protest (real for virtual virtuelle” via of protest organised aspect point weakest to the online offreedom expression ademonstration Tunisia and in 2008 for 6, of April strike solidarity the other hand, by blogs. the On reached is usually that audience than a wider Facebook Protest at Potential Fingertips the –The of Facebook Activism Faris puts it, As “April users. network 6 spherebeyond the of social websites resonance network created for overpotential social mobilisation the thatgovernment showed the Egyptian of The reaction 2008). Singer and attempts (Makary to acts” incite such all against and establishments of public running the or attempt roadany traffic to demonstrate, disrupt against measures firm and of Interior “immediate the threatened Minister Facebook the started 27-year the Fattah, Abdel Esraa and old who originally Ishak, George like activists key arresting by reacted regime The Egyptian 2008). (Slackman therefore publicised and widely newsworthy was of Cairo” streets teeming of normally emptiness the eerie “the and Egypt, in users Facebook active 800,000 only when are there at atime weeks of two a span members in 70,000 more than accumulated rapidly had Mahalla in A protest over Facebook organising that shown already had experience to want tap, Egyptian since the activists which a resource is bound to bear individual cost. individual tois bound bear activism that showing example an setting thereby of strike, the organisers on the down cracked regime Egyptian the absence of elaborate frames, addition to In the attention declined. media the goals, their supporting to propose acoherentfailed or personalities to agenda present outstanding the movement 6movementBecause April proved effective. to much less be emerging subsequently the of its because exceptionality, coverage media substantial received strike However, 2008). solidarity (Faris the horizon” if elements enough were strong to that regime’s on form storm the clouds to create reality (Web toll 2.0) met political when day organising the Facebook Facebook yber has provided an unprecedented opportunity for activists to reach to reach for activists unprecedented an provided opportunity has Egyptian the 2008 5 April On rally. of planned the ahead group group calling for a general strike in solidarity with the workers the with solidarity in strike for ageneral calling group . The initiative of “une manifestation réelle pour une liberté liberté une pour réelle of manifestation “une initiative . The C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011 can be highly effective. effective. highly be can th was was

52 Johanne Kuebler indiscriminate censorship affecting a great number of bloggers andgreat notnumber of a bloggers censorship affecting indiscriminate However, politics. recent in of the wave to engage too scared still are of contention mass people so not reached, has been critical yet the might that be explanation Another 2006). (Hibou other countries in available programmes assistance most extra-governmental eclipsed have and country the of in repression reign that related to mechanisms the may be why Tunisians more Egyptians apparently risk-averse seem than The reason approval. form of proclaiming on a button easy is an clicking commitment of Facebook Tunisia in low the to rally at stay makes asked home, aborted only the people were because riskless and effortless proved to relatively be Egypt in strike general the foreseen. While frequented people by much less than were events actual the networks, of social characteristics the tools with these While lowrather commitment of participants. of Facebook 2010).challenge the main indicates episode This Press (Associated to prevent attempt any streets to rally surrounding and Avenue Bourguiba crisscrossing was home,stay guard areinforced police and of Interior. To Ministry to the deception of the protestors, Tunisians to chose weresummoned the off whendemonstration Tunisorganisers in called was sites However, censored. of the all of reopening Internet the censorship and the soleabolition the was demand and or association, party political any independent eventthewas that of declared The organisers Montreal. and York New Bonn, Brussels, Paris, in protests Tunis, were planned solidarity 7,777 11,457 and addition todemonstration respectively. In followers the in gathered control Tunisians filtering) electronic ten and thousand against al-hajb” (Petition wa of Eliktroniyya al- riqaba al- tonisi dhid alaaf ‘ashar “ of and My image Country) the Not damages seriously Found” ’Aridha li de Mon Pays” (The “404 Not“Le “404 nuit Found” gravement àl’image website. its of demonstration, like By own groups the time the establishing on Facebook started me alone”) “leave meaning dialect, in curse Tunisian (traditional Saleh” “Seyyeb called Tunisia. campaign, The protest onto of attempttheonline streets to first bring May 2010, the was and April during blogs banned number of critical increasing to an a reaction yber Facebook features useful tools to organise an event and combines event and an tools to organise useful features C yber O users for public turnout evident. Eventually, Eventually, evident. for turnout public users rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011 and Twitter and before activism, namely namely activism,

53 Johanne Kuebler for for Ben professorMehenna, Lina at Tunisia’s writer and 9 University April censorship touches more before. Web to ever According tools than 2.0 mobilisation. political facilitating contribute to can aclimate create media traditional attention of increased but as such of other factors organisation, means It is thereforeis therefore not not asufficient its without challenges. use The of Facebook Tunis, (Interview, 13, 2009). July anonymity their who to seek preserve “ other their of among person anew background the investigate anxiously agentsthe by state, many of infiltrated activists is supposedly Tunisian Facebook As person. in know do not ofgroup they followers necessarily friends, Facebook of ‘offline’ a network Facebook protest is deemed to risky. be While form minor of this even as considered be insofar asuccess already unprecedentedan in can form resulted of protest,has which This Jadid Jadid al- Attariq online weekly the authorised) and blog “Friends of Attariq” Ettajdid opposition the party with line in 2010, 23, before. Tunisia platforms Since both April than blocking was websites were touched more even mainstream time this blockages, of increased waves to previous before. Contrary now echo than greater find advocates a of proposed by freedom speech why frames reason the Tunisian the mightthecensorship shaken be Web.indiscriminate This websites blogs and has political and dissent very the targeting anymore Facebook Global VoicesGlobal (The New New (The Way). as Flickr websitesof such the with blocking But arts and theatre. (Dbara 2010) (Dbara theatre. and arts with dealing those even websites, and websites, cooking photo, music and including video, sharing politics, with it now to has moved todo websites nothing have that websites, but news and at political directed mainly was blocking the as activists rights and by politicians elite sponsored censorship were mainly against Past campaigns yber friends.” This is particularly true for activists like Liopatra like for activists true particularly is friends.” This , C yber as a tool for mobilisation in authoritarian regimes regimes atool as for authoritarian in mobilisation O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. activists usually attract a large alarge attract usually activists (former party, communist was intended to reproduce reproduce to intended was 1, 2011 ,

54 Johanne Kuebler a short period of curiosity for this new way of political dissent, result in in result dissent, of way new political for this of curiosity period a short after sphere invasion of private the could, this concerned that are Hassem Ben Selim as such Activists politics. with space private the invading of increasingly point risks to the some activists time, same At the great. discontent websites.of The temptation youth is reservoir intotapto this number of blocked increasing an confronted with themselves who see users, apolitical even apparently anger time mightcensorship in obvious This unlikely. very broken links other, each making with linked automatically websites inside Facebook since all cyberspace, general tocompared the Facebook inside censorship Furthermore, entirely. cut be of cannot information ‘newsfeed,’ dissemination the the in and selected While even it. of censoring Tunisia blocks difficulty blogs the resides in consequences. Yet,negative of amajor Facebook advantage monitored be could entail and online agroup joining that might fear Tunisians costly. remains Ordinary by Tunisian cyberactivism authorities, monitoring of web the light of extensive in the Furthermore, Palestine. touch Tunisian when they not for initiatives and, example, politics political number of Facebook the like total figures note take general of itsmedia significance, Tunisian about speculate and of group the conspicuously notenewspapers growth the Egyptian While about change. bring could ElBaradei hope that their and unprecedented state indicator of current discontent the of youth with the number, This an however,become has campaigning. further in to engage aprominent and reform, is going advocate for aconstitutional (IAEA) Agency Atomic of International Energy the General former Director of ElBaradei, supporters online 230,000 how ofseen roughly many the to It be remains online. albeit protest accepted action, an making mass, acritical achieved has cyberactivism notoriety. It Egyptian that seems acertain acquired has phenomenon the frames, clear-cut of cyberactivism of lack anddissent a frominternal movements these suffered Although movement country. a considerable the received have in echo media 6 April the and Kefaya like initiatives Egyptian Tunisia, to Contrary “We Use is Whatever Medium Available Us” to yber Facebook sites, the activities of the blocked person or group remain or remain person group of blocked the sites, activities the C users, warn of possible dangers to society and ignore ignore and to society of possible dangers warn users, yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011 is particularly obvious obvious is particularly as opposed to opposed as are are

55 Johanne Kuebler potential to provide a space for opinion exchange between young, well- young, between to for provide a space potential opinion exchange the has medium Internet, the the through emergencethe of challengers to governments prevent despite attemptsIndeed, of the authoritarian modernisation. of political driver as other media with line Internet in is seen the regimes, of context authoritarian the In intervention. governmental promote of emergence the free of of a space Internet expression the will of accessibility the hopes that high Internet nourished have enthusiasts Conclusion opposition toregime. discontent the to virulent quiet from anger Tunisianthe their capable to was transform population power, that in shown has years 23 after of President Ben Ali, overthrow The recent cause. successful to tools disposition push the their at their all using protest, creatively political organise eventually and arguments, their anger, voicetheir sharpen first can Internet where the in outlet they an find and the regime with dissatisfied people young are societies, apolitical to what be In said is often oppressive regime. increasingly to an resist oppositionof an want Tunisian movement by headed ElBaradei, activists building the in share contribute their activists young Egyptian While 2008). Tunisia in so (Radsch increasingly and well as commonplace Egypt, in become has The them. phenomenon be marginal, used to of which blogs, formerly information to inaccessible to acquire citizens ordinary allowed Internet the has engagement, political of costs their the bearing risk organisers While groups. assemble large to legally of impossibility the context the in space, free despite arelatively its attempts reach, to limit avenue of as it protests for chosen been organisation because is, the has The Internet regimes. for by authoritarian ayouth suffocated air fresh Tunisia censorship in of need the indicates against clearly campaign Yezzi 6, unprecedented the April and Internet Kefaya, as such Campaigns issues. political general not does and address aone-issue as campaign framed was anti-censorship the campaign users, Tunisian Internet ‘apolitical’ 18, 2010)April usually order In to attract Paris, (Interview, population. of general the alienation and retreat a further yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

56 Johanne Kuebler public attention to politics in order to create opportunity structures. structures. public attention order in to to politics opportunity create of increased of public periods coupled the with grievances with resonating movement to needs provide frames Asocial more accessible media. print traditional, the and medium elitist of representatives a relative the between media, online and print between interaction important an witnessed we Egypt, In campaign. movements awell-organised more need than social of However, events. organisation the to successful, be facilitate thatof tools variety a features also Internet The task. for this qualify movement “netizens” and acore actors, of around key A political revolves public. in said be of what can realm the expanding and windows opening in factor complementary important an be can aspace such although successful, of space debate to be movement a virtual to seems social more need than a more to have we complex assume medium, relationship. A successful this through organised action political Internet and use increased between correlation is no there direct As period. same the during rose Internet users number of the although 2008 and 2005 between adecline witnessed mobilisation other on hand, the and, Internet had access population the of portion took small when place arelative Egypt in mobilisations as accessible Internet of is not freely insofar condition asufficient availability Tunisia Internet over while the not.organised had However, mere the mobilisations mass witnessed Internet, to has the uncensored access usually a featuring the statement, since Egypt, to seem confirm studies case sight, first the At to differentiated. be has for democracy struggle the theInternet of encourages uncensoredthe accessibility that assumption The Tunisia. and Egypt for cases, both is true but this risky, remains activism ease. relative Political tocontrol with avoid official ways but find it not can to does voice desirous since deter they those dissent, content, unwanted from away users of average mass the to channel serves websites to certain access Blocking activists. society opposition civil and among co-ordination communication and to strengthen ofuse technology and increasing the to prevent dissent expression online of the able to stifle not have governments concern, of issue been great an censorship remains While realm. political the from excluded often educated who are actors, yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

57 Johanne Kuebler Boas, Taylor 2006. Weaving the Authoritarian Web: The Control of Internet Use in in Use Internet Web: of Control The Authoritarian the Weaving TaylorBoas, 2006. Switzerland. Davos, 8. February Declaration. Independence A Cyberspace 1996. Perry John Barlow, 23. en l’oeuf May Tunisie. dans étouffée d’internautes Une 2010. manifestation Press Associated 2010. 23, May accessed xhtml1/fr/features/awi/features/2009/12/23/feature-03, http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/ 23. December professionnelle. l’éthique de et presse la de liberté la de baisse une craignent tunisiens journalistes Les 2009. Jamel Arfaoui, Press. University Indiana Bloomington: eds. J. Anderson, and D. Eickelman sphere. public emerging :the world In Interpreters. New Islam’s and Internet The Jon 2003. Anderson, al-Masri Wael Al-Wa’i N.d. Abbas, References media. the in struggle of their withoutreflection a cause their to join more citizens tosufficient encourage mass acritical to beyond Internet attain users resonating aframe create to of dead Tunisian might Mohamed the needed Bouzizi have campaign the experience, However, light of Egyptian in the become pervasive. has censorship because echo agreater created campaign offreedom expression the recent by provided frame The to perceived high. be are activism political with associated risks enough the and publicto were not the powerful proposed frames the because paper of this writing the until support greater to gain failed had mobilisation public sphere. Online constrained highly Tunisian the In Internet censorship is amere of symptom agenerally case, movement momentum outside Internet context. the the to give is necessary channels television and newspapers as such media “classical” the of movement government in the the with of struggle the areflection supporters, to and attract message their To transport further yber C yber O rient, Vol. . http://misrdigital.blogspirit.com/, accessed May 15, 2010 15, May accessed . http://misrdigital.blogspirit.com/, 5, Iss. 1, 2011 New media in the Muslim Muslim the in media New

58 Johanne Kuebler Communication. Communication. and Space, Structure, Net: the and Sphere Public The Peter 2001. Dahlgren, 2010. 20, May accessed www.census.gov/prod/2005pubs/p23-208.pdf, 2003. States: United the in use Internet and Computer 2005. Davis Jessica and Janus Alex with Day, Jennifer, Cheeseman Press. University Hill/Open McGraw Maidenhead: Internet. of the age the in Sociology 2007. Allison Cavanagh, 28. April Guardian, The ‘conspiracy’. Twitter online to fight embraces Chávez Hugo 2010. Rory Carroll, Books. Business Stanford Stanford: eds. Newman, A. In Regimes. Nondemocratic the Egyptian Blogosphere. Arab Media&Society (6). Media&Society Arab Blogosphere. Egyptian the and Theory, Facebook, Network Revolutionaries? without Revolutions 2008. David Faris, 6. December magazine, Time Cyberspace. in Nation 1993. First Philip Elmer-Dewitt, 19 (4):643-655. Ethnologist American societies. Arab contemporary in imagination religious the and education higher Mass 1992. Dale Eickelman, Sage. 1980-95: and Hungary, Poland Russia, in media on reflections culture: power, transition, theory: media Internationalizing 1996. D.H. John Downing, 5(2):185-202. &Society Media New sphere. public the and publicity counter media, New Fenton 2003. Natalie and John, Downey, 2010. 24, May accessed www.rnw.nl/africa/article/virtual-protests-tunisia-against-web-censorship-1, 10. http:// May censorship, web Tunisia in against protests Virtual 2010. Ismail Dbara, Press. University Cambridge UK: Cambridge, eds. Entman, M. R. and Bennett yber In Mediated politics: Communication in the future of democracy, W. of democracy, L. future the in Communication politics: Mediated C yber How revolutionary was the digital revolution. J. Zysman and and J. Zysman revolution. digital the was revolutionary How O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

59 Johanne Kuebler Morozov, Evgeny 2010. Muslim Brotherhood’s mysterious Wikis. February 24. http:// 24. February Wikis. mysterious Brotherhood’s Muslim 2010. Evgeny Morozov, 2010. 23, May accessed html, www.tekiano.com/kult/n-c/6-0-2005/tunisie-ridha-kefi-ou-le-k-de-la-presse-en-ligne. http:// April 7. ligne, en presse la de leK ou Kéfi, 2010.Ridha : Thameur Tunisie Mekki, 14. February Service, Press Inter Fettered. Freer, but Still Press 2010. Cam McGrath, 18, 2010. May accessed html, July. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2008/04/200861505834116599. 20 net, AlJazeera. nation’s mood. mirrors town Textile 2008. Singer Michaela and Adam, Makary, 1(1). Media&Society Arab Public. Arab New the Blogging 2007. Marc Lynch, 5 Wired (12):68-82. Citizen. 1997.Digital Jonathan The Katz, Publishers. N.J.: Transaction Brunswick, New ed. 2nd communications. mass of flow the in people by played part the : influence Personal 2006. Lazarsfeld Felix Paul and Elihu, Katz, Endowment. D.C.: Carnegie Washington rule. on authoritarian Internet of the impact the regimes: closed networks, Open Taylor 2003. and Boas Shanthi, Kalathil, (6). Media&Society Arab Egypt. in blogging Political same? of the or more direction Anew Tom 2008. Isherwood, 2010. 7, May accessed http://www.freemedia.at/singleview/4633/, 2. December Institute, Press To Tunisia. International in Sentenced Prison Yet Journalist 2009. Another Naomi Hunt, Découverte. La Tunisie. Paris: en répression la de politique économie l’obéissance: de force La 2006. Béatrice Hibou, Blackwell. Pp.102-107. eds. D. Wiley- Kellner, and Malden: Durham G. M. keyworks, studies: cultural In article. encyclopedia An 2001[1989]. sphere: Jürgen public The Habermas, yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011 Media and Media and

60 Johanne Kuebler Bloomington: Indiana University Press. University Indiana Bloomington: approach. theory movement Asocial activism: Islamic 2004. Quentin Wiktorowicz, Press. University Oxford UK: Oxford, Internet. of the age the in meaning and :change of innovation Networks 2002. Tuomi, Ilkka Tunisnews 7. April Times, York New crackdown. strike in 200 over arrest police Egyptian 2008. Michael Slackman, Verlag.Westdeutscher Opladen: ed. Neidhardt, F. Bewegungen, soziale Meinung, öffentliche Öffentlichkeit, In Bewegungen. soziale für Mobilisierungsfaktor als Öffentlichkeit 1994. Dieter Rucht, DC. 21, Washington, January Freedom. on Internet Remarks 2010. Hillary Clinton, Rodham 51 (1):16-24.Orient Egypt. in Activism and Political Internet The Mobilisation: Virtual 2010. Carola Richter, 23, 2010. 18.March http://en.rsf.org/web-2-0-versus-control-2-0-18-03-2010,36697, May accessed Borders, without Reporters 2.0. Control Web versus 2010. 2.0 borders without Reporters Campus. Main: am Frankfurt Grundriss. historisch-systematischer Ein Bewegungen. 1985. Soziale ed. Joachim, Raschke, (6). Media&Society Arab blogosphere. Egypt’s of evolution The to Commonplace: Core 2008. C. Courtney Radsch, Press University Cambridge UK: Cambridge, Internet. the and poverty, information engagement, Civic divide: Digital 2001. Pippa Norris, accessed May 23, 2010. neteffect.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2010/02/24/muslim_brotherhoods_mysterious_wikis, yber - FAQ 2010. http://www.tunisnews.net/faq.htm, accessed May 21, May 2010. accessed -FAQ http://www.tunisnews.net/faq.htm, 2010. C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

61 Johanne Kuebler pollution in the industrial area of Nabeul in northeast Tunisia. northeast in of Nabeul area industrial the in pollution environmental about documentary investigative an doing was Makhlouf consent. without interview adamaging for publishing prison in months to three Online, Essabil website news and Al-Maoukif Party Progressive Democratic of the organ and newspaper opposition of the editor Makhlouf, Zouhair sentenced aTunisian court 2009, [2] December In pages. web of interlinked editing and creation collective the [1] allows are Wikis Notes yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

62 Johanne Kuebler online matchmaking in specific national or cultural contexts recognize the recognize contexts cultural or national specific in matchmaking online of Most decade. studies aproduct of last the is largely contexts, religious or secular in whether matchmaking, online possibly because fragmentary, is very matchmaking 1997). online onDonnenwerth Muslim Literature (Petersen positioning and education faith and class, depend onboth age, and competing are sexuality and on marriage perspectives traditional Traditional non- and 2000). (Dwyer settings diasporic postcolonial in evolving gender roles note relations and are gender ideals, that Researchers partner. non-traditional/own and choice of marriage traditional/arranged binary: disputed of often context inevitably, the the in are, posed of Muslims lives the in about role matchmaking the Questions of online Introduction matchmaking aspects, social Muslim women, identity, technology, communication and information websites, Keywords: in the analysis. that emerge identity and faith, of themes ethnicity broad sites matchmaking online discusses and using Muslim women young of profiles of anumber examines paper This required. self-representation and is identities the religious online of the specificity of study comprehensive more amuch context, in the matchmaking its associations and headscarf the of topic the ever-popular on sites Muslim matchmaking of to tend focus studies As websites Muslim are women. among becoming increasingly especially common matchmaking religious the time, At same networks. to kinship search within their wanting not or those unable especially Muslims, young increasingly for challenging proves settings non-diasporic and in both diasporic Finding asuitable partner Abstract: Piela Anna Profiles inMuslim Women’sIdentity OnlineMatchmaking Beyond the Traditional-Modern Faith and Binary: yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011 , pp. 63–89

63 Corresponding author: Anna Piela, University of York, York, YO10 5DD, UK. E-mail: [email protected] demonstrates that a marriage may be both Islamic and non-traditional and (not Islamic both may be amarriage demonstrates that as it of is marriage[2]. interaction is the significant This purpose the and observed long (permissible) halal as as are practices matchmaking, online not authorities against are Islamic principle, notes in that, Bunt further Bunt writes: users. out pool of of entire service candidates the selecting regarding decision-making in members who participate family out by carried be it as may still practices, may reinforce traditional online executed matchmaking fact, norms. In cultural and by religious overarched strongly and practicality flexibility indicates that is apractice matchmaking locations). different in that online Buntexample, Forargues (2009:104) conducted conclusionsare questioned by studies These (admittedly other of use technology. the with hand in hand go values religious abandonment and of ties’ family from ‘detachment of individualism, concepts the that indicates matchmaking online and by families organized matchmaking and traditional Adesina Ayodele contrast in which way The inter-tribal inter-religious and through marriages. unity Nigerian national the to strengthen capacity it the that has suggest they as matchmaking, on online conclusions introduce amore perspective their they positive in otherpornography, forms However, of and ‘cyber-carnality.’ paedophilia gambling, refer area They of concern’, to as with it ‘an online along family’. Nigerian to ‘contemporary it the poses of challenge terms the in Ayodele and Adesina (2004:104,110) matchmaking online discuss general[1] in context but not Nigerian on the just Muslims focusing While offers. technology that opportunities matchmaking of evaluation the in However, tend partner. to they differ suitable marriage a phenomenonthis of the selecting of process in significance increasing Islamic core. Islamic deep-rooted implicit, familiar, an technology. retain They adjusted compensated and by challenged, –are betrothal relationships – including female male- with concepts associated Inherent cultural-religious yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. purdah 1, 2011 , engagement, and and , engagement,

64 Anna Piela (Imtoual and Hussein 2009:28). Imtoual and Hussein note that difficulties note Hussein difficulties and Imtoual that 2009:28). Hussein and (Imtoual to honor the threat of family a potential the as perceived time same at the but unattractive as women Single communities. may ridiculed be Muslim forharsher are womenin unmarried consequencesThe of remaining to him. to get know dating not personal did to have through go she that to out seek a husband Internet on relieved and the opportunity the to had have glad she and was suitable spouses, to suggest refused parents her because specifically ‘dysfunctional’ as her family described study the in One participant children’s marriages. their intoarranging effort investing not interested are parents where in the cases many are decisions, there individual influence always almost that networks and families Muslim knit of tightly- stereotype to pervasive the Secondly, support. contrary kinship without spouse findharder may find They Muslim to it a much diaspora. the in for orphans, example families, without (2009), other Muslims and pointed Aziz out and by Lo also as converts, particular in network, family without a Muslim existing are thereMuslims option: firstly, auseful may be matchmaking why reasons online two highlighted my in study Participants women. of Muslim lives choice the in one related to of issues partner the as matchmaking online Iaddressed 2009) (Piela research myIn PhD 2003). (Galal marriage may not in result may or which romantic partners potential with meetings denotes online dating of online for purpose the exist that sites by Muslims used also them), are there between order in about amarriage to bring parties two matchmaking term the use and oriented’ ‘marriage as themselves of define many them While use. they terminology the in lies permissibility and It of websites’ indication such is the possible purpose that 2009:106).(Bunt, nohave applies to same objections. The me’ ‘she [the about her parents her informed decision. They bride] already has writes, groom the As vows. marriage suitable make for other and are each they that other’, each ‘spot andestablish countries cultures different from people young cited by and Bunt, two published by MuslimMatch.com members) one In stories of success time. the by family same at the arranged yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011 (mediating between (mediating between ; this ; this

65 Anna Piela (2009:17) by saying: conclude comparison the forindependently. spouses Aziz looking and singles Lo attracts type third ads), (i.e. who networks it parents put is the matrimonial the up the kinship involves entire the matchmaking where types two to first opposed the As with pictures. profile personal extensive an to build opportunity an give other members but which with messages membership to exchange purchase websites where one dating to versions ofhas Muslim general websites are that commercially-driven indicatorare there of compatibility. main the Finally, as information demographicuse They websites devoted to matchmaking. of ISNA their sections have like organizations Islamic ones, where national organization-based together; them matching literally forand spouses looking those lists of keeping by the matchmaker of function the fulfill where imams communities, small relatively mosques in around ones, based local online: found be can that services matchmaking of Muslim types three list Aziz and Lo partners. potential their and themselves in both related to women’s finding the emphasis stronger not on religiosity explain do but Qur’an, they by the amate in is required religiosity genders because forof desirable both Muslims is highly conclude religiosity that Tiemann and Badahdah discussion, 2009:84). their In Tiemann, and (Badahdah men’ were the than religious as themselves to describe were more likely sought amate they they in and acharacteristic as religiosity men listed greaterpercentage ‘a of womenthan Significantly, 2005). Tiemann, and topat the listed (Badahdah was religiosity U.S. among Muslims, spouses future in were most desirable traits which investigated that to research persona’. digital Unsurprisingly, marketable according and a desirable to construct which with awhole language new requires medium new ‘the (2006:381) Chelariu write: and Zwick husband. aMuslim order to attract identities in online women new by many who their create comfortably is considered aconvenient solution problem matchmaking to this Online 2009). Aziz and (Lo Muslims of faithful is expected marriage as unease with in Islam celibacy,by astate is defined regarded adulthood their as desires sexual unfulfilled to with cope women having in Muslim widowed anddivorced unmarried, suitable a for result many husband finding in yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

66 Anna Piela type 3 of the matchmaking services described above. described services 3of matchmaking the type websites, commercially-driven populating profiles concentrates on personal it religion, and on marriage perspectives their including self-expression, women’s of Muslim diversity the to online explore aims paper this As similarly: (2006:381) Chelariu argue and Zwick mainly targeted Muslims. targeted mainly websites other religions), that and two Buddhists selected Ihave Sikhs, Hindus, but excluding Jews, and Christians, comprising Muslims, a group ‘People the amongst of Book’, the tobelievers the limited men are Muslim men and Muslim only to marry women expected are Muslim that fact to join of (despite religion any believers websites the allow matchmaking many Muslim profiles were Whilst open-access)(which withoutan account. me to the read of terms design) allowed in adapted and to of needs Muslims platform the and engine, (independently search a sophisticated ads, posted criteria the necessary all fulfilled that two ablewebsites. to Iwas identify matchmaking Muslim of commercially-driven There is a multitude websites matchmaking The method and Data spouse searching rather than adherence to cultural conventions. to adherence cultural than rather searching spouse site 3] [of promotesmatchmaking type efficient effective and the online theself, of competition, commodification and needs, and of wants pursuit individualistic an By encouraging values. dating Muslim traditional sites harbour that bono pro Islamic or those in system, intermediary traditional the in or allowed not available often of choices is range this Expressing ambitions feelings. and concerns, issues, personal their to express opportunity and ability the of percentage participants, overwhelming up women, the who make especially users, It gives yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

67 Anna Piela and living arrangements, as well as level of level education, as occupation and well as arrangements, living and citizenship, of origin, or country websitesBoth on questions include ethnicity U.K. the in based mostly werepaper this of theand selected forpurpose I browsed profiles the thus computers); (detecting of numbers users’ IP branches visitors to national either. Website its Finally, transfers B automatically not ‘Married’ include -but it does ‘Anulled’ and separated’ by Websitegiven ‘Legally it lists A, state addition three to –in the marital on the choice ofa wider answers for Website aspouse. search the Boffers (or streamlining thus otherwise), prayer the perform always and halal, keep always a hijab or a beard, wear religious, very who are to only candidates search the set One accept. can can they on religion whose views to candidates searches their toothers narrow allows of detail (‘Always’, degree ‘Sometimes’, This ‘Never’). ‘Usually’, How Salaah[5]? do often you perform home do not only’, halal’); ‘I keep at halal keep ‘I halal’, keep usually ‘I halal’, keep always (‘I about Halal?’ not ‘Are to say’); you arevert[4] (‘yes’, you to are Islam?’ ‘no’); strict ‘How (‘yes’, ‘no’, ‘Hijab’ to say’); (‘yes’, ‘prefer ‘no’, not ‘Beard’ to say’); ‘prefer religious’, ‘religious’,(‘very ‘somewhat religious’, ‘not religious’, ‘prefer not questions:‘Religiousness’ seven contains section ‘Religion’ The is required. WebsiteOn is more signup process Bthe complex more and information fact. this signalling from wife or a fourth for third, a second, men looking married already precluding or ‘Divorced’, ‘Widowed’, married’, ‘Never state are related marital to the options The notonly mentioned are versions option of an at Islam as all. unorthodox or Sufi, Salafi, the as such one groups, category. Muslim Other combined are together in other religions and unacknowledged are Shiism madhabs Sunni on different is clearly - Shia’,‘Muslim and ‘Other’. The emphasis Maliki’, - - Shafi’,‘Muslim ‘Muslim -Hanafi’, ‘Muslim -Hanbali’, aMuslim’, ‘Just answers: ‘Muslim religion-related only the question presents 7 possible is straightforward; category. The sign-up is adefault search process ‘any country’ and of origin of country any people’. selection ‘serious it that allows in scope It in is global Website website’ for A[3] marriage Muslim a‘serious as itself markets yber C yber O rient, Vol. (sects) of Islam, while divisions in in (sects) divisions while of Islam, 5, Iss. 1, 2011

68 Anna Piela analysis; secondly, it enables the researcher to assign codes to fragments to codes fragments secondly, to assign it researcher enablesanalysis; the of process manual the of much more than data handling the it allows for ti anumber of reasons: firstly, to Atlas Idecided of use data. fragments present and but relevant computer helpsthe manipulate not does calculate, that in analysis considerably quantitative form differs research qualitative Computer-assisted in organisation. and analysis coding data in to aid designed acomputer ti, package of use Atlas by the facilitated was 2000), (Hine ethnography virtual through obtained data, the of analysis The process analysis The 3% (1) and of alevel faith. religious’ not did specify ‘religious’, as (18) 54% themselves ‘somewhat religious’, 6% (2), ‘not very (4) religious’, (8) 12% 24% faith were ‘very Islamic defined they indicated of of level jobs. terms In the worked managerial but in they indicated status educational 6% (2)completed their while school, not high did reveal Some 15%15% (5) a non-degreehave (5) professionallist qualification. 58% (19) Masters; as degree highest aBachelor’s have afurther degree; achievements: 6% (2) educational indicate their list participants Many the is and48. oldest is 35-45. group 21 age the in participant The youngest 18-24: group age the in are 67% (11) 25-34:, group age the in (9) 27% are sample is 32; (3) the 6% in 9% and (2) age Mean USA. the in of participants 3% (1) UK, the 6% (2) Singapore, in Indonesia, 3% in (1) Seychelles, the in in based (27) are 84% married; 63% never while divorced follows: 36% are as is thedataparticipants on of aphoto Statistical profile. adeveloped and the presence were forcriteria selection The above. only websites described sampleA random two of 33 women’sthefrom selected been has profiles Profiles Western countries. most in age marriage of 18 members age as legal –the minimum the set etc.) spouse, the in websites Both also qualities desired qualities, personal websites (age, by matchmaking/dating included questions other ‘standard’ yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

69 Anna Piela perceived as an act that would literally bring them back on the path of path on Islam: the back them bring literally would that act an as perceived is Muslim to aknowledgeable marriage Sometimes husbands. future their with to share like would they is one activities of of key Islam the knowledge mention often developing that participants and process dynamic a very as comes across Religion marriage. husband and of aperfect expectations their defining in as well as interests, and convictions qualities, own their in describing one’s to referred religion to construct profile. Participants the concept is employed in which of religion ways the as do cases, the in differs of profiles rolein construction a leading plays religion extent to which The Religion themes Emerging problematic. contributions ethically may be participants’ (2004:153) rewriting that Markham with I agree decision, as aconscious was errors, its typographical with form of data, the original the mine. Preserving mentionedthat emphasiswas where Ispecifically exceptions a few with emphases, and errors typographical all maintained andhave I form, their original in are profiles quotes participants’ from All and 2004:64). (Joffe Yardley interpretations of for data counterevidence it the alternative helps to assess finally, and of data; comparison systematic to facilitate visually displayed and linked be quotes and can since codes process analysis the in relevant of tocontext aquote is the access which quick itsegments; thirdly, allows relevant of control deal acceleration of to and process great retrieving the a giving thus code, to the according later be retrieved can which of text and learn more eachother. from UK) learn (Asma, and my knowleage to share like will comes along Right Mr When aday. to pray 5times more about my try deen and learning I am UK) H, (Fazila Inshallah. muslim. a me as betters of process Ihope marriage the deen as their (...) want] - [I touch most with in someone important and with yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

70 Anna Piela candidate: of ideal the belonging) sect and knowledge practices, of faith, (strength positioning the religious of description around a detailed were built profiles a define the rarely cases ‘good Muslim’,althoughin a few Participants her actions: to justify Qur’an the most be appropriate would that for One them. of quoted them candidate a responsible for are selecting they that claim participants the contrary, dating. the On online in participating of individuals characteristic for noted (2010) ahusband, by Hanvey searching acommon as online independentthedue to or awkwardness There is no embarrassment 2001:932) (Hassouneh-Phillips of faith’ the ‘half as of marriage praise Prophet reports Muhammad’s that refer to ahadith completion of act an as understood is also commitment Marriage and to Islam. faith of level their to raise intention an of participants many suggests further ‘somewhat as religious’ self-assessment of of participants 54% the religious the with in conjunction act, as a religious perception of marriage This someone that is an American Revert. (Alia, United States) United (Alia, Revert. someone American is an that prefer Iwould Musjid. to the pray in Also wife his allow will purely.day, a that times He to needs and praybe aman five of profit the sunnah follow the and heart the from Muslim passionatebe a has to He tasfiir. itrecite with qua’ran knowing can and iman, high has that of taqwa, Full deen. is on his that brother togood a Muslim find words: looking myIn own Iam UK) (Lei10, state [themselves]. their do not change 11] Ar-Ra’d: [Quran: condition the of long not people they as as change will Allah UK) (Sania, someone with special. my life my share deen and Now test. for its Ifeel each time me tome complete through for helping Allah to Ithank me and is important My religion yber of one’s faith, a crowning of of one’s one’s some and women path, a crowning Islamic faith, C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

71 Anna Piela ethnicity and status: and ethnicity is a“good man the of is that Muslim”, religious as regardless themselves However, women most frequent amongst the requirement who define com): website at www.marryaconvert. matchmaking (there aspecialized is even ‘born Muslims’ andsome frequentamongst converts is other profile, Alia’s in expressed arevert, preference for religious Another marrying 2005:56). 37% (Jamal women as high amongst ismosque as attendance population, Detroit Muslim active politically the like somein places, to attend jum’ah prayer (the prayer). Friday congregational However, required men are only interpretations, to most according religious that the fact be may these proportions One affecting of factors up the 78%. to contrast men U.S. in who mosques, in make 15% praying of those Perl Froehles (2001) and who found women that accounted for only by Bagby, of study context the the in understood better be mosque can thein praying Alia not object to will the that husband expectation The personality. (Sameera, Singapore) (Sameera, personality. & brother of character long good he is apractising as As Muslim. or aborn It brother the not is arevert does if matter UK) (Sayeeda, 4amuslim!!! lookin im and amuslim hubby!!! IM Pakistani for atraditional not Im and looking Pakistani no atraditional in way I am UK) (Naseema, issue job, money....not status, cast, for amuslim, looking I am an UK) together at (StarryEyes, pace. asteady Islam learn can we so myself like It to nice meet be arevert would Seychelles) (MissLovely, to islam. who reverted have brothers to know interested getting in particularly I am yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

72 Anna Piela groups. This is a commonly expressed view in Muslim women’sin view Muslim online expressed is acommonly This groups. cultural by these espoused interpretations of Islam with merged have that and religion dominant is the Islam which in groups of ethnic traditions denotedcustomsand profiles. usually It connotations analyzed the in negative very had participants, by the frequently very used aterm ‘Culture’, backgrounds ethnic and ‘Culture’ a‘good be Muslim’. still and contract, her in marriage so stating to avoid, may woman wish for by of a Muslim example relationship that (according comes across atype as to participants) analysis this in polygamy on women’s 2011), (Piela research on polygamy my in previous As views preferenceQur’an), wife: only for personal the but is the being there rather by the (as some in circumstances it is not is permitted challenged polygamy is not suitable for However, of them. of institution the marriage type this concluded relationships have that polygamous in experiences previous their about who Those speak do aco-wife. interest being in an expressed womennone profile, whoAmongst made areference their in to polygamy UK) best..(Afsoon, knows allah and permit, circumstances 2 do if right the ahusband has is something a2nd/3rd/4th wife take option the to inshala and ofbrother reason simplicity 4the asingle prefer iwould to marry aco-wife, of issue being the no ihave problems although best. with knows allah factors, not did situations work the out times dueboth to external aco-wife, as times both twice, married been previously I have Singapore) (Sameera, my weakness. Allah(swa) forgive him. May share to difficult find it would end I so very the till my heart all with person to love this wish ireally idea as the with uncomfortable iam a woman Polygamy but not as i am against aMuslim As aco-wife. as or going butI do not to becoming not lie in iam keen wish yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

73 Anna Piela Muslim community: Muslim prejudices common Asian and the in mechanisms as see whatfrom they 1971).Goldschmidt tend off to themselves cut participants the addition, In and (Michaelson Pakistan and India including cultures patriarchal many in holds mothers that aphenomenon late into their and adulthood, present men bond strong between the regarding scorn and her opposition to ‘culture’ LL70 made reference by to sarcastic apronjii’s The ‘mama suggests strings’ of Islam: teachings with them sentiments contrasting opposition their to mere ‘cultural’ express strongly Accordingly, 2006). participants the interpretations (Barlas culture-based outcome of specific unfortunate an been have sources applications of Islamic patriarchal that who argue feminists Muslim for among of example Islam, repertoire[7] nature on the interpretative discussions prevalent Muslim in very is a narrative culture’ vs. ‘Islam This beliefs. and practices of Islamic 2004:139). for blamed Consequently,(Ramadan contamination are these considered Islamic as customs to many mistakenly be causing what is ‘cultural’, of what is Islamic[6] understanding an and achieve to failed have Muslims 2009:184) many that (Ramadan Muslims amongst discussions general in 2011),debates (Piela and ‘cyber-environments’ 2009) (Bunt other Islamic most Asian families do. (Razia, UK) do. (Razia, families most Asian don’t someone whose family like play politics to marry like I’d nonsense. (LL70, UK) cultural notme. Im said interested the in contact DONT please guys, seriously then or practice, values no have Islamic and culture and onto apron jiis mama strings are] you [If hanging for abackbone filling. lacking box of culture achocolate in boywrapped ribbon amummies NOT after Im United States) (Alia, my from heart. straight comes aMuslim being and religion, with I don’t culture mix UK) me (Aleesha, don’t well Deen, of emailing our bother &don’t importance the more know you into are culture If your yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

74 Anna Piela divisions socially and creating ‘convert communities’. creating and socially divisions racial overcoming converts in resulted African-American) white and (both suspicion converts contexts towards Muslim Asian predominantly in that (2008:142) community. Karim reported Muslim American the within contribute that factors emergence to enforcement the and of divisions the (2008), who explored by Karim discussed been has Muslims among discrimination post-conversion. face the latter Racial difficulties social in result some in communities converts prejudice against racist and 2007), non-Muslim and (Gorak-Sosnowska contexts 2005:5) majority (Zeleza Muslim traditionally both in evidences, common literature as consciousness, the groupsin ethnic particular with of association Islam contemporary The expects her future relationship to be built on this principle: on relationship this to built be her future expects she and marriage in equality in sheto suitors that believes her potential hadith to the referred relationship One work. participant the to make themselves like a spouse women’s reflected they they self-perceptionsneed that andown aconviction noteducation women were listed because aleader or needed Rather, a‘rock’. and manners good intelligence, independence, maturity, respectfulness, gentleness, as such traits Positive varied. defined it was which in ways the although profiles, concept all in important an was Compatibility marriage. Islamic perceptions an of in gender their formulated roles responsibilities and clearly have thatparticipants suggesting profiles, the in delineated carefully very are profiles the in husband expressed future the regarding Expectations partnership and compatibility Empowerment, wife home (LL70,wife UK) you took you if awhite disown would whose parents No guys suggests that women expect partnership relations: partnership women that expect suggests acompanion, friend, abest be would man’ ‘ideal the A hope that UK) right beside you. (Jameelah99, are below you,they notWomen you,or above are rib,they mans the made from are yber C idea of creation of the woman from a man’s rib to signal idea of aman’s from of woman creation the to signal rib yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

75 Anna Piela face-to-face dating that might be impossible due to religious beliefs, here many face-to-face here many might impossible beliefs, be that due to dating religious to (2003), alternative dating an where as some people young wentonline online of Egyptian study Galal’s in participants Unlike married. unless unavailable sexually as identity their construct controlled, not socially are whereby they spouse a Internet, women anon-traditional the that mode of using finding 2009:27-8). important Hussein and (Imtoual It especially promiscuity is thus of impious alabel and stigma contacts social face sexual free maintaining women unmarried addition, in Islam; in not relationships allowed are marital Extra- friend. or a not a boyfriend a husband, spouse, to a legitimate find websites matchmaking to online subscribe they that clear very are Participants women: many by of arelationship is shared understanding adynamic Such progress. mutual encourage and to support together develop and opportunity butin, aperfect is not astate remain as to seen passively Marriage Islamically. and personally grow also to compatible women be they that in with expected Men are with and grow with. (StarryEyes, UK) (StarryEyes, with. grow and with at life’s miracles amazed be with, cry Someone to with, laugh UK) (StarryEyes, to myself. nature in similar to earth, down and too, mature to help me Islam in someone knowledgeable who prays, soul, apositive me, in out best the bring someone who will Someone Idon’t me, acompanion, older than abeard, mind one’. (Sassy, UK) who‘the is in determining criteria is no there sure-fire that conditions; I do I realise said not want That set strict to nature. for someone looking to compliment easy-going I am my UK) (Razia, friend. best be my will who Aman flame. twin their equal, their me as compatible. are Someone who souls sees two just a number if preferably aged 38-50 partner for but is age alife looking I am yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

76 Anna Piela citizenship either. citizenship just for their do not to they married want be to country; another relocating not women do the only not reversed; consider and is challenged parents the of country native to the ahusband in or a forced marriage arranged of an United or United the the States.in set-up The Kingdom a visa to obtaining aspringboard as status spouse’s order in to their citizenship use enter amarriage whowant may to individuals of foreign wary extremely are participants The communicators: cut men’sshort also through online They them attempts befriend to not and to intending marry: dating just seeking individuals discourage meant to disclaimer include a profiles Visa applications to stay in this country!* Razia, UK) Razia, Visa country!* applications to this in stay London.from I’m not interested helping in one their out with you are and Citizen a British contact you are me only if *Please WARNED! youon been (Deen789, have that United States) time do for notis desperate bored your and friends waste actually idon’tOnce again, ahomie, need or amate or abuddy who is UK) (LL70, prevent marriage from that them or hangups issues with No guys UK) (Jameela99, allah, Inshaa or arelationship,, for here only Iam marriage girlfriend for I don’t looking brothers of islam to with bothered want be you :o) UK) (Sayeeda, don’t I’m you know for too good my time, waste far respond and involvedandor please players, men, note, married afinal On Seychelles) (MissLovely, about marriage. serious are who brothers insh’Allah to know interested getting only in I am yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

77 Anna Piela quality, physical attraction was listed as significant by fifteen participants. fifteen by significant as listed was attraction physical quality, most important the as not was regarded attractiveness physical Whilst didwish be contactedto not by or They unfit men whowereshort. looks. suitors’ potential of judging chance asimilar have should they of themselves, have provided thatthey photographssince argued The women profiles. on their to contact but them photographs without tended to disapprove of men trying concerned men’s afrequent disclaimer photographs.Finally, Participants beings: complement,sought he can that so human not complete individual as them is aand husband empowered; fulfilled as feeling come They across networks. strong within operate already they indicate They families. and friends, references contain socializing, profiles to all for almost ahusband or friends; neitherWomen need to desperate in keen are point out they that also are practices leisure through of femininity boundaries traditional the Pushing gentleness, caring responsibilities and home-based hobbies is not common common not is hobbies home-based and responsibilities caring gentleness, by concepts of obedience, framed femininity, Traditionally constructed myself and my life as it as UK) (Sayeeda, is. my and life myself content Iam complex”! with a“divorced I don’t with myself see find one :-)(LL70, UK) to even or struggle too guy Im old, ayounger need by assuming one afast on me to pull dont too please so try quite sharp Im Singapore) (Sameera, idea. the pls drop then me, by marrying Singapore in life better a to find looking uare if So mothersingle who is underpaid. for a no to in anyone situation iam provide visa as iam Btw US) (Alia, Idont as please!! my to only time. want waste citizen UK/USA yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

78 Anna Piela through activities such as hiking, jogging and weight lifting at the gym. gym. at the weight and lifting jogging hiking, as such activities through and fit active were physically they that emphasized participants Many spouse: of her future class social preferred the and class social indicators of as her serve occupation may of also her prestigious a disclosure her long-term. with emphasis coupled interests, elite on rather An such with connoisseur, prove thus more and compatible art an her as recognise tastes, her acquired share will spouse future that a used to ensure code, a specific may constitute art in trends and names The career. mentionartists’ of successful as complementing art her about her interest fine in talked One participant not suitors. conceited to to as come potential across or dull order possibly in achievements, their and to themselves ofamount distance agreat display they time, same At the spouses. forwomen similar looking independent andsocially of financially image an creating interests, acquired education, unusual/ and about occupation, their at length talk participants women Internet. on The amongst the who spouses independently seek my first love, French Impressionist painters. (Sayeeda, UK) love, myImpressionist French first painters. (Sayeeda, to back drifting myself but finding Dali to appreciate surrealist trying galleries art around wandering be can found of office I the not confines the London. in in When I’m working lawyer, aCity doing. UK) (Jasmine, I love which event organiser a charity am on sideand the I also by night... amusician and by day Investment Banker an I am anyone??? UK) ideas (Razia, any abusiness of starting thinking stable...hehe. actually Iwas NHS is ajob the in astable Ihave job but NHS. again, the then in working currently manager old Informatics year a25 I am UK) nerdin a big -even bigger nerdy job! fledged :D (Zahra, a fully gone have and to be to anerd. be I used Inow it have writing in yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

79 Anna Piela that Aisha, a role model for many contemporary Muslim women, arole fought Muslim model for contemporary Aisha, many that Fasting 2003:52-54). and (Walseth strong’ to ‘keep reported It is also orders Muslims Qur’an the and to run Aisha encouraged Muhammad Prophet it the as is documented that sports, in women to participate encourage does interpretations. Islam and history help the of Islamic with choices lifestyle feminine’ ‘untraditionally their interested framing in more be would study women that this in consumer society, it is likely of preferences context apostmodern, such the problematized in Jagger Whilst gender binaries. traditional escaping to as represent themselves where she men women and both concludedadvertisements that preferred (1998) Jagger’s in study also evident courage) was on dating stamina, attributes (strength, masculine This emphasis strong traditionally on sports: Some of embraced them extreme football: and Women categories. cars feminine with to fascination confessed into stereotypically fell rarely participants by the hobbiesand described Interests husbands. their to do with now would like they which to travel, opportunity an had Nine not women having mentioned regretted they that great fun. (Jasmine, UK) (Jasmine, fun. great been have which lessons up flying taken recently also I have too. (LL70, UK) at paintballing acrack snorkel, and fancy swim Ican a while, for am] [I not abit travelled of biking, atomboy quad too, like UK) (Sameera, Bliss! comeand home to utd a match of telly.on Manchester the shopping the all to carry acar around, to drive car Afast want. shopping. and agirl more can What cars Ilove football, well UK) (Asma, Cricket. and Boxing F1, Football, Ilove my sport also cars & performance I’m motor atotal ilove head when prestige as it comes to cars yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

80 Anna Piela remarked: For non-Muslims, by many Zahra not permitted. are example, fun as considered contacts, sexual illicit and gambling drinking, as such activities way. halal – the of Islam Therefore, limits the within however, always lives, to enjoy their claimed fun-lovers; as they themselves women described of the half Over dataset. the across aconcept cutting was strongly Fun uneducated. most importantly, religiously and, politics, science and in on uninterested fashion, focused squeamish, as to seen be shebreath refuses one In snails. and frogs snakes, worms, not rats, does and mind Islamically’ [is] History, and Archaeology, issues, current read quite well becoming she Scientist, New that prefers to ‘NatGeo, read least’, stating the instead foron sayend, to tedious hours shopping stuff or for designer clothes, she that is ‘not of afan claims one of participants time, the same At the enjoyable: inherently are enjoyed they are because ‘roots’, –which to opposed other activities as feminine to their participants the connects that activity an as deliberately side’.‘feminine her that shoppingseems It is mentionedreflecting housework pastimes and as cooking listed shopping. one participant Only usually pastimes, feminine someout references with to more traditionally long accounts profiles, sport-relatedof the In interests tend be balanced to 2003:33). 656 (Phillips, AD in of Camel the Battle the in of back on acamel the there’s much else to do - i mean we’re hardly going to all go go there’s to to we’re going all much do else -imean hardly out! it lets -cos face you’reEating ,if Idon’t aMuslim, think UK) (Asma, out shopping time less but don’t awoman! fooled be i’m still ispend most of at bit work my time gym....a Currently and UK) shopping. to roots, Ilike my (Jasmine, female true ,staying however career; passion astrong forI have asuccessful yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

81 Anna Piela Asian women by Parmar (1995). women by Parmar Asian Britsh among observed spaces isolation public from exclusion leisure and the do not reflect narratives study.this by However,participants’ confirmed is partly this family, and and Singleton centre upon community the (2006) by Green and women, discussed Asian by South safe as seen spaces Leisure U.K. the in Mirza Shazia as stand-up such female comedians, Muslim (Van of Iraq Ayatollah Sistani Nieuwkerk 2008:173). even are There comedy the show Allah Grand Me Made by the Funny issued regarding halal be can fun observe, participants however, these as literature, the in to ‘fun’ linked is rarely Islam and aspirations amongst Muslim women West. the in Muslim amongst aspirations and gender lifestyles, relationships, positions, evolving personal-political beliefs, religious juxtaposing and of of balancing ways a snapshot of variety the gives article This unstudied. remain lives Muslim of ‘ordinary’ areas many topics terrorism) and code (mostly dress certain to apreoccupation with US. Due and Europe in Muslims amongst related to marriage expectations or marriages, on literature Muslim There is not sociological much independently. spouses potential to find Muslims enabling through marriage idea ofthe Islamic a halal promote they matchmaking, family-facilitated to traditional, alternative websites an constitute discussed the Whilst philosophies. or personal religions in choices grounded choices; it rather facilitates related to lifestyle priorities dictate hardly can itself found technology that has study this institution, an as marriage undermines matchmaking online that (2004) Ayodele’s and to Adesina Contrary argument of marriage. institution the in andrelation to generally life some in offers insights into their priorities profiles into women’s glimpse Muslim brief matchmaking This online Conclusions for a bit of fam-o time - successfully! (Zahra, UK) (Zahra, for abit -successfully! of fam-o time together my family all bring can that activity THE generally out, that’s eating Iluuurve we? So pubout are hit the and yber C yber O , which has been confirmed by a positive fatwa positive fatwa by a confirmed been has , which rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

82 Anna Piela women run the risk of being categorized as desperate and somehow and desperate as categorized of being risk the women run marriage, by idealizing arelationship;by entering other on hand, the tocategory leavethe choose subsequently and way apositive in singleness construct to convincingly for state it women, they is difficult as category’ a‘troubled as singleness describe Wetherell and (2004) Reynolds teaching. to Islamic not contrary did act they husband, right to the her divorce woman the gives Islam As proceedings. divorce ones the who were the initiated they that suggested marriages of previous accounts their and were mydivorced career”. to build Others hard working much patience whilst with approached topicI have the that of marriage to work-related admit “I said: commitments. One of participants the possibly due Somethem married, were of never finance. and accounting science, management, nursing, as such areas in or professional careers education higher either pursue study this in participants all behaviour; of halal boundaries thempersonal set to allows also authority This choices. other and religious regarding responsibility comes with which authority able religious to are exercise they concerned, are lives personal their as far ‘good is appropriate.as Muslim’, Thus, of level religiosity i.e. his whether able is example, a are, candidate for a whether to judge They selection. the dent make and ablecriteria to are these set they searching spouse indepen- Through attraction. physical and friendship partnership, equality, on concepts built of compatibility, usually are visions Such relationships. future visions their of well-defined displaying thus qualities, undesirable his regarding reservations their express also They spouse. of ideal the looks the and character the regarding out expectations spelled carefully women the have relation to in religion, high bar the setting from Aside not aleader or process, as head of family. learning this in supporter and apartner as Ahusband is seen Muslims. as spiritually and intellectually to themselves develop willingness their and Muslims, as shortcomings their consciousness their of lives, their in of religion significance the Women sitesnumber of rules. match-making emphasize often on these not by aset concept does astatic as come constricted Religion across yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

83 Anna Piela as entirely ‘tomboyish career women’ – they mention activities associated associated women’ mention career ‘tomboyish –they activities entirely as self-representation their they do notto construct offer.time, thesame At public sphere the has of opportunities advantage take homethe actively and their movements do not thesphere they confine to of participants, female Singleton’s Green and Unlike of femininity. Asian British boundaries the push cars), actively they repairing planes, flying shooting, (paintball of men domain the as perceived traditionally activities in Engaging suitable’ partner. for only a‘Islamically ‘single category’ consider whoout woman thesingle would asatisfied of moving as herself category, spinster’ she but notthat does portrays represent ‘desperate the signals clearly Shesuitable, ME!’ for tosomeone find Islamically trying not shot, one by aloooooog desperate As just of women ‘Im the writes: research. Wetherell’s to and compared women (2004) as Reynolds in study women troubled for this less in Muslim the category singleness the out and in of may render moving matchmaking online through candidate a to select ability the choice, and areligious as of marriage construction one) Islamic from the to them, that among separate divorces suggests a husband (and, it of proportion as by self-instigated high is indicated find to participants of many willingness choices. The lifestyle similar and of education comparable levels with providers’, prefer but partners also study.this in by profiles evidenced Womenwish‘visa do be to notalso is from overseas candidates to marry reluctance roles (2009:28). This of gender incompatibleas of terms education in understanding and partners consider often ‘imported’ girls very these addition, in 2009:28); Hussein, and (Imtoual sons’ therefore wives and to their unsuitable be inappropriately as Westernised parents considered Muslim by many are girls second- third-generationis because notand This least Muslim outside of marriage. whilst desires it is possible sexual to suppress female of happy celibate’, the ‘myth that the to have abelief enact they networks, immediate their in partners ofFaced appropriate alack marriage with outside desires of marriage. sexual their release to unable legitimately are Wetherell’s and women study, Reynolds they in as tocontrast secular positively,singleness in toconstruct womendifficult find Muslim it thatsingle many and report deficient (2009) Imtoual Hussein spinsters. yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

84 Anna Piela Minority Affairs 29(1): 83-90. Affairs Minority of Muslim Journal Muslims. among of Preferences Study ACase Cyberspace: through Selection Mate and Religion 2009. Tiemann A. Katherine and M. Abdallah Badahdah, 26:432-440. Behavior Human and Evolution America. in living Muslims among criteria selection Mate 2005. Tiemann A. Katherine and M. Abdallah Badahdah, 8(2):103-135. Review Sociological African Institution. Family Nigerian Contemporary for the A Challenge for Matchmaking/Dating: Internet the Shaping 2004. Ayodele Olabisi Wale and Adesina, References paper. of this draft early comments for on helpful the Migdał Magda and Joseph Covey Samuels, Feldman, Professor Professor Shelley Geoffrey to thank like I would Acknowledgements hijab of concept the through moment at mostly the lives, represented research in contribute would of to their a more complex experiences understanding and women’s of exploration Muslim research ‘non-orthodox’ interests Further concepts. distant of seemingly juxtapositions these exemplifying thus twist’, atraditional with a‘proud girl amodern was Muslim, British she said non-Muslim and Muslim One participant environments. values, between in in between, Bhabha from -aspace (1994), space’ drawing ‘third Muslim the called (2000), Khan what occupy They extremes. and stereotypes nor religious the understood basis of be on neithergender willing are womenThese out other the somewhat balance impression. X-factor the or watching shopping, that as crafts, such femininity, with yber , and the grim phenomena of forced marriages and honor and phenomena killings. of grim forced the , and marriages C yber Islamism and Orientalism, traditional and secular secular and traditional Orientalism, and Islamism O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

85 Anna Piela com/34/02/3402359.html, accessed October 23, 2010. 23, October accessed com/34/02/3402359.html, Center. http://gradworks.umi. Research and School Graduate Saybrook thesis, Ph.D. Unpublished Dating. Online of Experience Lived The 2010. Eugene Janaka Hanvey, 853-871. 40(5): Sociology Place. and Space Negotiating Young Women at Leisure: Bodies Risky 2006. Singleton Carrie and Eileen Green, 60(1): 75-84. Studies) of Oriental (Annual Orientalistyczny Rocznik Textbooks. Polish in of Islam Misperception and Perception 2007. Katarzyna Górak-Sosnowska, 14, 2010. November accessed edu/cca/gmj/fa03/graduatefa03/gmj-fa03-galal.htm, 2(3). lass.calumet.purdue. Journal Media Global Egypt. in Dating Online 2003. Injy Galal, 23(4): Forum 475-486. International Women’swomen. Studies Muslim Asian South Young British identities: diasporic Negotiating 2000. Claire Dwyer, Press. Carolina North of NC: University Hill, Chapel of Islam. House the Rewiring iMuslims: 2009. Gary Bunt, Routledge. London: of Culture. Location The 1994. Homi Bhabha, 2010. 19, November accessed meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/4/0/7/3/3/p407335_index.html, http://www.allacademic.com/ 24. May IL, Chicago Association, Society and Law The of the meeting annual at the presented Paper Online. Sharia of the Interpretation the Websites and Religious Messenger? Instant over Married IGet Can 2010. Hussin Iza and Jessica Beyer, of Texas Press. University Austin: Qur’an. the of Interpretations Patriarchal Unreading Women” Islam: in “Believing 2006. Asma Barlas, 2010. 22, November accessed pdf, http://higginsctc.org/terrorism/Masjid_Study_Project_2000_Report. Relations. Islamic on American- D.C.: Council Washington Project. Study aMosque from AReport Portrait. A National America: in Mosque The T. 2001. Froehle Bryan Perl and M. Paul Bagby, Ihsan, yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

86 Anna Piela among Peasants. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 27(4): 330-352. of Anthropology Journal Southwestern Peasants. among Dominance Male and 1971. Roles Female Walter Goldschmidt and Evalyn Michaelson, 131-145. Pp. eds. Jon G. Hall, and Chen York: S. New Peter Lang. Ling Sensitivity. of Context AMatter Ethnographies: Online in Representation 2004. Anette Markham, www.usask.ca/relst/jrpc/art21(3)-MuslimMarriage.html, accessed November 11, 2010. 21(3). Culture, http:// Popular and of Religion Journal Muslims. American by Matchmaking Internet of Use The Online: Goes Marriage Muslim 2009. Taimoor Aziz and Mbaye Lo, Press of Florida University FL: Gainesville, Identity. American aNorth Women: Crafting Muslim 2000. Shahnaz Khan, Press Women. York: New NYU Muslim American 2008. Jamillah Karim, Sage. London: 56-68. Pp. Yardley,eds. Lucy and F. David Marks Psychology, Health and for Clinical In analysis. thematic and Content 2004. Lucy and Yardley Hélène Joffe, 1(1): Women’s East Studies of Middle 53-78. Journal Muslims. American Arab among Differences Gender and Identity, Collective Muslim 2005. Amaney Jamal, 32(4): 795-814. Sociology Society. Consumer aPost Modern, in Dating Other: an Buying Self, the Marketing 1998. Elizabeth Jagger, 3(1): Islam 25-39. Contemporary relationships. contemporary negotiating women Muslim celibate: happy of the myth the Challenging 2009. Hussein Shakira and Alia Imtoual, Sage. London: Ethnography. Virtual 2000. Christine Hine, 927-946. 7(8): Women Against Violence Muslims. American Among Abuse Spousal and Marriage Allah”: Fear is Rest the and of Faith Half is “Marriage 2001. Sadaat Dena Hassouneh-Phillips, yber In Online Social Research: Methods, Issues, and Ethics. Mark D. Johns, Shing- D. Johns, Mark Ethics. and Issues, Methods, Research: Social Online C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011 Research Methods Methods Research

87 Anna Piela accessed July 19, July 2010. accessed http://www.codesria.org/IMG/pdf/zeleza.pdf, Maputo. Africa, in Research Science of Social Development for the Council of the Assembly 11th at the General presented Paper History. of African Globalization Towards the Silences: the Banishing 2005. Tiymbe Paul Zeleza, 38(1): of Sport 45-60. Sociology for the Review International Islam. Women Interpreting Egyptian Sport: and Activity on Physical View Islam’s 2003. Fasting Kari and Kristin Walseth, 2(3): 169-176. Islam Contemporary Introduction. An Entertainment: and Leisure of Art, Notions Contested Sphere: Cultural Islamic an Creating 2009. Karin Van Nieuwkerk, 489-510. 13(4): Psychology and Feminism Identity. for Women’s of aSingle Negotiation Consequences the Singleness: of Climate Discursive The 2003. Wetherell Margaret and Jill Reynolds, Press. University Oxford Oxford: Liberation. and Ethics Islamic Reform: Radical Tariq 2009. Ramadan, Press. University Oxford Oxford: of Islam. Future the and Muslims Western Tariq 2004. Ramadan, Routledge World. London: Virtual the in Identity and Faith Women Online: 2011. Muslim Anna Piela, of York. University for Women’s Studies, Centre thesis, Ph.D. Unpublished Discussions. Women’s Muslim Online 2009. Anna Piela, Group. York: Publishing New Rosen of Iraq. Atlas AHistorical 2003. Larissa Phillips, Forces 75(3): 1071-1088. Social Sex. Premarital about on Beliefs Religion of Influence the and 1997. V. Secularization Gregory Donnenwerth and R. Larry Petersen, 152-160. FNSpon. Eand London: Pp. eds. Tomlinson, Alan and Peter Braham Crichter, Chas AReader. of Leisure: Sociology to Youth In Work Practice. Challenge the Power: and 1995. Race Gender, Pratibha Parmar, yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

88 Anna Piela by familiar clichés, anecdotes and tropes’. and anecdotes clichés, familiar by distinguished often talk people’s in found evaluations and descriptions of arguments, routines [7] ‘recognizable as repertoires interpretative Wetherell and (2003:7) describe Reynolds (2009:183-206). Ramadan see intellectual, Muslim aprominent by thought Islamic in of role culture of the discussion For informed an interpretations. and sources of other validity on the no agreement is there of Islam, source main the as Qur’an the acknowledge Muslims all that fact the except course, and of Islam’, ‘true on debate extensive the [6] up opens This day. a times five performed be to expected prayer ritual [5] The religion. a different adopting Islam is in fact fact in is Islam adopting that believed it widely is as to Islam, to converts to refer used term acommon is [4] Revert websites. of the names real or the pseudonyms their not I do use participants of the [3] identity the to protect order In 2010). Hussin and (Beyer parties interested the by signed is documentation necessary the all as long as proxy’ by ‘marriage as treated is marriage ‘online’ Such permissibility. of Islamic bounds the within remain still and chat video as such services Internet by facilitated be may of marriage act the [2] Similarly, numbers. in equaling almost Christians and Muslims with state amulti-faith being (78 million), Africa in population Muslim largest second the has Nigeria that fact the to due paper this in [1]addressed is study This Notes 380-395. 5(4): Behaviour of Consumer Website. Journal of aMatchmaking Context the in Negotiation Identity Islamic Hijab: the Mobilizing 2006. Chelariu Cristian and Detlev Zwick, yber C returning yber O rient, Vol. to the original religion, as opposed to merely to merely opposed as religion, original to the 5, Iss. 1, 2011 switching to to

89 Anna Piela (McKenzie and Wajcman and (McKenzie 1999). advent With the of Internet the in the shaped socially is technologies other like Internet The 1983; 2000). Castells conception (see 1973; of societies modern for Bell example Baudrillard the roleindispensable in an informationand play technologies The media Communication technologies social and change democracy digital divide, censorship, aspects, social Iran, activism, technology, communication and information Keywords: Movement’. the Green of radicalization ‘the and divide’ in light the ‘digital of technologies communication new of the effects analyze stance and acritical take we Finally regime. the Iranian for conservative ongoing an concern of been source have the of satellite impacts which channels cultural and the at social looks also article This the globe. across Iranians for sphere aglobal of public the emergence for the way paved have media that new suggest we Secondly, information. of monopoly government’s challenge the opposition the political and citizens ordinary helped has media new We firstly, that, suggest period. in it the on took post election functions political and the social and media the at role the new of look we changes.In article this political profound produce not do clicks’ alone that ‘mouse showed however, developments, change Later in Iran. democratic about to bring media new of the capacity on rose the ‘Twitter Expectations called was Revolution’. sites, in what networking onto including social online, uploaded repression were and brutality police of videos and News opposition. the political by effectively utilized was the Internet which in election the of presidential in the aftermath upheaval apolitical Iran witnessed In 2009 in comparison. small unfortunately is countries theliterature developing on the and societies Western at democratic looked have Most studies these technologies. of implications political and economic interest in the social, agrowing attracted has life into everyday technologies communication new of penetration increasing The Abstract: Mohammad Sohrabi-Haghighat Hadi Change inIran New MediaandSocial-political yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011 , pp. 90–109

90 Corresponding author: M. Sohrabi-Haghighat, Swinburne University, Hawthorn, Victoria 3122, Australia. E-mail: [email protected] by 48 percentby 48 ( annually increased Internet usage From since then. to 2009 2001 growth exponential experienced in andhas Iran 1993 in introduced Internet was The New mediaits and politics Iran in Iran. in channels of Internet satellite and the history at the looking by We discussion our period. election post the begin in channels satellite of Internet and the functions political and on social focus the we article 2010). this hopes(Esfandiari In of these doubtcast realization on the However, followed events that the Iran. in hopes for change progressive rise to gave and attention global election attracted presidential 2009 The technologies. ofshed these light on some aspects uncovered can particularities, political and its social with Iran, like country Eastern of context aMiddle the 2001). within of media new We study the that believe Terranova 2006; 1998; Pickerill Internet (see Sikkink and for Keck example of the on Western focused experience has societies’ research existing the society. For most part the Iranian in changes socio-political generating in the role investigate communication of aims technologies to new article This Internet enters the contexts into. andsocial political existing the theof decisiveness Wu reveals This 2006). (Goldsmith China in and seen be what can like not purposes, democratic for economic regimes and of become authoritarian a tool hands the can in in information it countries, flowing Western of a source free is arguably Internet the While 2004). Wellman 2002; Haythornthwaite and (Wellman context social preexisting the blends and into with people’s life everyday 2001). Internet is the incorporated that shown has More recent research solution problems for Wright and major a miraculous (Fisher as social Internet the emerged extolling anumber of1990s utopian discourses has implemented national plans to develop the infrastructure and has also also has and implemented infrastructure tohas the develop plans national population the2009). of around(CINA third The government one at figure ( of population the to percent 43.2 amounting Iran in Internet users 33 million more than are yber OpenNet Initiative OpenNet C Internet world stats 2010). the report sources Domestic yber O rient, Vol. 2009). Recent statistics indicate there there indicate 2009). Recent statistics 5, Iss. 1, 2011

91 Mohammad Hadi Sohrabi-Haghighat to minimize its socio-political effects. One recent survey indicates that indicates One recentsurvey effects. its socio-political to minimize communications technology, attempted web in it simultaneously sums has vast government invested the While 2007). (Khiabany to media the regards with policy and ideological pragmatic between government The fluctuates Focus 2010). percent (Iran 40 number at around the estimate others (Wordpress while population the 2008) it to half be estimate Some sources is not television known. satellite people watching Jam TV Press government like Iranian by the run number of channels and America commentary. Voice political and of commercials music,include movies, programs US. Their the in particularly stationed outsideare country the most of and them inside from Iran accessed are Farsi channels satellite Tens Iran. in media of new the of part another are channels Satellite 2010). (Shirazi Iran in visited widely still butblocked are are Rooz and News Gooya websites system)like news and a credit through pages web the popular tomost website helps find Persian users 2.0 in which web (a Facebook popular sites Balatarin like and 2010). networking Social (Alexa most websites visited Iran the in are sites MihanBlog and Blogfa Yahoo, and Google after blognumber shows of that the and hits provider websites by tracks Alexa.com website The 2008). Etling and (Kelly Iran in updated routinely blogs are 2010) 60,000 (Sreberny that and Khiabany and bloggers Iranian about 700,000 are there that indicate world.the Reports in one rates of has of highest blogging the Iran that fact by the indicated popular particularly 2009). Blogs are (CIMA used widely are Wikipedia Twitter, sites like networking Facebook, blogs, YouTube, and Flicker, is commonplace;social purposes theInternet use The of forsocial life. everyday of integration Internet into the the facilitated drastically has graduates and students to improve university Internetnumber literacy.of increased The organizations governmental and schools in out programs educational carried , nearly all satellite channels are anti-regime. The precise anti-regime. number The of precise are channels satellite all , nearly Farsi1 yber ( VOA for its entertaining movies and serials. Apart from a small asmall from Apart serials. and movies for its entertaining are popular for their political programs programs political for their popular BBC) and are Persian C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011 Jame Jame and

92 Mohammad Hadi Sohrabi-Haghighat unable to maintain a façade of afaçade control. tounable maintain Yet jailed. and was regime the were arrested thousands and were killed people Many protesters attacked. were violently street and tortured and overnight websites opposition were shut Many were arrested leaders down. and opposition and newspapers were forced country toreporters leavethe Foreign media crackdown. with a repressive responded 2009). The regime void and (Simpson null declared be should election the that and occurred had fraud Tehran. in large-scale that Protesters believed particularly cities, big the in rallies followed by mass was president, Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud incumbentthe for victory announcement landslide of a The shocking for a democratic change. role hopes boosted of media new dramatic the and of election the wake the in opened doors for new resurgence unprecedented dissidents. The political development the Ironically, of telecommunicationregime. infrastructure foundations of the very to the is athreat now and as perceived technologies to communication meaning However, new gave election. election the presidential 2009 the before its of thefor influence period a upheavals curb action to direct andtaken threat as a the media new viewed had The regime point Presidential 2009 The election: aturning the worldin Internet ( filterers is one of leading the Iran installations (Perry 2008; Sanati 2006). Sanati 2008; (Perry installations rate satellite of the residential halting in unsuccessful been have campaigns dishes offroof satellite tops these but collects sporadically government The condemnation international ( strong received has this and tosatellites the signals jamming government continues to sending the society. To threat, perceived the Islamic Iranian neutralize against forceamoral as acorrupting channels thesatellite views government The ( death anti-regime sentencedproducing content even and to targeted been have ( constantunder scrutiny are internet cafes and blocked 2009). Opposition systematically websites are Reporters without Borders 2010;Reporters Tehrani 2010). yber C yber O Radio Liberty Radio rient, Vol. 2007; Wired 2007; 5, Iss. 1, 2011 2001). Cyber activists 2001). activists Cyber 2010). WelleDeutsche 2010). OpenNet Initiative OpenNet

93 Mohammad Hadi Sohrabi-Haghighat a uprising the commentators that extent to the were high were calling force (Sohrabi-Haghighat 2010). political Mansouri and Hopes a powerful as potential its revealed well aftermath theelection Internet The in 2010; Nasr 2009). Shirky 2010; Hermida 2009; Eltham and people’s protest (Burns right to peaceful Iranian the respect states made statements Ahmadinejad many requesting world the condemned around groups rights violence and the Human caught the media.theattention global of successfully story.images These VOA BBC and Persian for like source up-to-the channels Satellite minute news. first theon were shared theInternet andsoonbecame Facebook links The 2009). (Nasr streets on the unfolding events out showing by day day came of numbers YouTube Large online. published them and brutality videos mobile phones photosProtesters their of used police to videos take and climate that is the post-election is the that period. climate more the repressive within change political and totelevision generate social theandInternet satellite of capacity the examines further section The next flow information. the of to curb used are tools internet more surveillance and invasive activists cyber against enacted been has legislation before. ever Harsher Internet over more the reach than its extended government has the and palpable outcomeelection is still the anger at The changed. a ‘revolution’, scene fundamentally political the 2010; Weaver Abadi 2010). protests not the 2009; did come to While of protests the (Schectman days early the during aired utopianthe views doubtscast sphere.on control This of political regained the eventually (Foster 2009). The protests continuedmonths the but regime on forseveral inside and outside Iran. Social networking sites like Facebook, Balatarin Facebook, Balatarin sites like networking Social outsideinside and Iran. activists between existed that gap deep the helped bridge has media New emergenceThe of aglobal public sphere Twitter Revolution played a large part in collating the photos intothe a news videos and collating in part a large played yber C ( yber The The Revolution Washington Facebook and Times 2009) O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

94 Mohammad Hadi Sohrabi-Haghighat and detained in large numbers. In brief, no political activity against the the against activity brief, In no numbers. political large in detained and were silenced activists student university most Iran, outspoken in group Traditionally the of arrest. risk the of dissidents ran gatherings Even small no be longer tolerated. thewill thatopposition signaled clearly The regime scene fundamentally. the protests changed mass ensuing point the and turning a was election presidential disputed2009 The to survive. harder opposition more the even and repressive found sphere it became political the election presidential 2005 the in of Ahmadinejad victory With the abroad. living activists and Iran in reformists political between atmosphere an of mistrust was this of world. isolation rest Iran’s the the in from to Added resulted increasing policies foreign regime’saggressive Iranian the period this Throughout since 1979. diaspora produced the in music pop theme in literature and acommon been has this and (Ghorashi 2009) Boersma of and emigrants generation first the at least amongst home’ prevalent been have a ‘lost as Monitor ( Christina by 4million people and by some sources academic to 2million million a half between be abroad to estimated is living The Iranians number of 2007). (McAuliffe seeking refugee and emigration large-scale in resulted of dissidents) repression war, persecution its and (Iran-Iraq repercussions (Ghorashitens of 2009). thousands Boersma The and 1979 revolutionand the Before in 1979 only the abroad was revolution number of the Iranians diaspora Iranian The diaspora. Iranian the of identity placement political and social the examine next we trend this To ideas. to as exchange understand well as better coverage news latest the for world come the together online can around Iranians government, the by taken measures the Despite all Iran. in of viewers millions have Europe US and the in based mainly 2010). are (Shirazi which channels Satellite filters to bypass successfully proxies use Iranians that implying inside Iran by Iranians mostly visited are outside from Iran managed and established globe. Websites the together across Iranians Twitterand bringing are yber C yber Radio Farda Radio O rient, Vol. 2010). memories Iran of The nostalgic 5, Iss. 1, 2011

95 Mohammad Hadi Sohrabi-Haghighat the ruling group. Regardless of the capacity of these technologies, the the technologies, of these of capacity the group. Regardless ruling the aprofound among fear manifests media new to the Regime’s sensitivity 2010). (Nouri sensitivity government’s and by the response gauged be can of opposition significance their however websites is unclear, Tech CNN 2009; 2010). (Aljazeera The reach activities monitor online the ‘internetpolice’ to the called unit a launched new also 2009).police The Telecommunication (Tait its Company tocontrol extend over cyberspace (the major of army) bought the section a 51 national the in percent stake ( sphere public online the to unable been colonize has regime the and spaces mediated protests moved Street have to to media. new part due large in survived the opposition, the Green Movement made has to stifle efforts Despite all Challenging monopoly the of information machinery. of influence the under its propaganda public sphere the to keep regime’s the ability undermined have information 2010). (Briel and of communication channels its Persian service These to News Euro launch inspired audience that at home. success It their was viewer the with were hugely successful which issues on current discussions VOA BBC US based and based Persian UK regime. the of policies opposition was toauthoritarian the collectivity theme of this movement’s the identity.abroad in to share The collective overarching Iranians the fabric Green of diverse Movementallowed politically The regime. Islamic on the pressure Iran’sa say in exert and domestic politics able found to themselves have diaspora of isolation, Iranian decades the Green Movement. After opposition, called so the for political support the in demonstrations and rallies organized globe successfully the across Iranians the world to news stage. spreading in part large a played diaspora Iranian The information. and news circulating in contact and in activists dissidents and role keeping in Internet avital played the channels, media on traditional 2010). Dehghan down With clamp the (Kamali banned was newspapers in Even mention to permitted. of opposition be the was names leaders’ regime yber VOA News News VOA C yber 2010). After the election, the Revolutionary Guard Guard 2010). Revolutionary the election, the After O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011 aired roundtable roundtable aired

96 Mohammad Hadi Sohrabi-Haghighat and Farsi MBC and like Channels channels. entertainment the also are there VOA and Persian (Saberi BBC 2010). like apart channels Besides families breaking and promoting promiscuity beliefs, religious force undermining a corrupting as channel satellite government view by the supported views Conservative impact Satellite socio-cultural channels their and voices. their project and gatekeepers traditional the to them bypass roots allowing for grass tool a surveillance as functions how 2010) media new Rajanews illustrates incident This ( officers. police by the of duty dereliction the respond were forced to public, the to who accept do police, not the usually 2010) event and (Mehrnews the to investigate heldParliament ameeting criticized. of scene were harshly the sites bystanders and police where the networking social on an outcry videosparked This victim’sto death. the were present for scene action at but the 45 not leading did minutes, take Two anyone to approach help victim. and the officers police allowing wife) andhis notwas who with (whoman affair he thought an had had another who stabbed had aman published Internet on showing the was them and onpublish media official the YouTube. video a case, recent In a photos of not events videos take and covered by citizens 2009). Ordinary (Goode producers, aphenomenon news journalism’ to ‘citizen referred as peopleturned into has media the official in censorship pervasive The world. the in isolation of Iran growing and economicof coming hardships the aworld-power, as Iran other warns the One portrays television. satellite on and other online the and agencies government news and television one of state-owned the exist; events of political narratives two that people realized have Indeed, news. of routine of the official become part consequences of has severe activists online warning and claims their (Thomas 1923).the oppositionto theInternet, Responding denying on consequencestheir in situationsbecome they real whenreal defined government’s yber perception , which are a concern for the political ideas they promote, they ideas for aconcern political the are , which C yber of the capacity would have actual effects because because effects actual have would of capacity the O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011 2010; Iranian 2010;

97 Mohammad Hadi Sohrabi-Haghighat Digital divide Green Movement.the of its and role radicalization the in divide of digital lenses the the through provide acritique we section this In contexts. economic political and social, within technology but to analyze choose determinism, technological in It noted be should do we not Iran. that in believe change political and to produceand social capacity its have we looked at media new far Thus Discussion Farsi1 like channels satellite of entertainment impacts socio-cultural the with the demonstrate theprofound state views of unhappiness These Farsi1 analyses Guards, Revolutionary the 2010). 2010; 2010;to Aslan Sinaiee (Erdbrink leaders Awebsite affiliated concerned government has state which television the from viewers drawn dubbinghave their low quality 2010).with soap operas channel’s The (Filkins audience’ Iranian ‘toned for but US, the down are amoreand conservative Colombia Korea, from family. It dramas and comedies broadcasts Afghani Farsi1 growing. number is rapidly the and Farsi subtitles. Farsi1 recently more do not have access to the Internet or satellite television. This might be This do toInternet not television. or the access satellite have population the half more that it stated, than is estimated previously As was established by Rupert Murdoch’s News Corporation and an an and Corporation News Murdoch’s by Rupert established was 2010). 2010). News (Fars society of Iranian aunited of disintegration the aprerequisite as family of Iranian the disintegration the views family. It Islamic the revolution toIslamic targets the attack tensions, now amore political complex softer and creating and economic sanctions, attacks, military unsuccessful After yber Farsi1 C yber , broadcast movies and serials dubbed in Farsi dubbed in or with serials and , broadcast movies has attracted millions of viewers in just one year just one in year of viewers millions attracted has O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. in a report and concludes: and areport in 1, 2011 .

98 Mohammad Hadi Sohrabi-Haghighat news sources could sources news to other access context this Within television. state-owned mainly media, official one-sided the from information biased with bombarded and are of and information sources do to notgroups alternative access have lower socio-economic point the is that Our attitudes. simply their alter will technology the We people with merely providing that do not suggest 2010). (Mousavi world’ who to don’t those virtual to the access have ‘knowledge the to them extend Day he to asked onletter students Student International movement workers’ to ( and ‘school teachers the of extending necessity the stressing Mousavi, Houssein leader, Mir Green Movement’s the with argument Opposition accept this leaders beyond (Ghazian big 2010). cities reach geographic and its horizontal movement the that not could extend maintains Ghazian classes, social through expansion vertical the from Apart areas. urban in groups interest of the low-income to attract programs and produce slogans to unable been movementhas the that of Green Movement the argues analysis his in Ghazian, sociologist, Iranian An upper classes. and middle Green Movement the by that the mostly it to is supported suggest is safe ofa source debate 2010). 2010; 2010; (Behdad Maljoo WSWS However, for Green Movement support other on is the and the hand regime the and position the oneon the social between The relationship increases. regime for of amount the support the lower to classes, the upper classes the from and tovillages the cities from moving When for regime. support the and to media new access having between It is acorrelation there that seems Initiative Internet ( speed to high access have users 250,000 only access, Tehran. in hour per about internet have $0.5 does that of Out group the month per ( dollars 20 second per is about kilobytes of 128 aspeed with for price ADSL average The dollars. about costs to 100 dish 120 a satellite Installing or skill. knowledge of lack panic or affordability, moral due of to issues financial yber 2009). 2009). C influence the political views of these groups. these of views political the influence yber Iran Iran 2010) it Internet costs at cafe an while O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011 2010). News Aftab his In OpenNet OpenNet

99 Mohammad Hadi Sohrabi-Haghighat movement: implications its borders for of and negative geographic the transcendence election), the the in highlights candidates were reformist Mousavi with together (Karroubi election presidential 2009 the in advisor Karroubi’s (2010), Abdi Abbas Mehdi who was analyst, political known A well He wrote: goals. not farfetched them to encourage asking abroad’ (2009),opposition to Sahabi open ‘Iranians sent letter leader, an Ezatollah attainable tosuitable reach means Politics concern. of Green Movement, is about is areal the choosing this Taking into structure leadership loose account the available. opportunities political light of actual hopesin the false creating abroad are activists Iranian concerned that are Some leaders may reformist be. they unrealistic however changes fundamental and abroad push for radical activists Iranian abroad and emerged. have inside Iran of activists expectations the between voice, tensions the newfound With help this the of media. new with politics domestic influence can diaspora Iranian the decades, three After of Movement radicalization The Green the between the actual conditions in Iran and the slogans and and slogans the and conditions Iran in actual the between gap a witness big we Thus limitations. do not these have conditions but political] [social and people outside real of their restrictions the within speak and think Iran in people who live The problem bordersthat of the Iran. is transcended has which communication revolution the was but not was noticed well problem happened movement to the which A more critical expectations... of levels encounters, rising and irrational and emotional processes, to expediting might leading become impatient ‘hasty’... and to come back like would and compatriots land who love their Moreover, many about domestic‘subjective’ circumstances. people to abroad,become to leading of living nature to the more due susceptible, are outside whoCompatriots live Iran yber C yber O rient, Vol. ends. A veteran political reformist and an an and reformist political ends. Aveteran 5, Iss. 1, 2011

100 Mohammad Hadi Sohrabi-Haghighat which can lead to political deadlock within the opposition. the within deadlock to lead political can which publicsphere the online to circumstances andsocial political differing their theglobe bring across living Iranians outsideinside and country. Thus, the people by taken and strategies aims divergence of the exemplify views These important point considering the loose leadership structure and grassroots grassroots and structure leadership loose point the considering important an is This for direction. movement’s the to hurdles new create future is likely outside inside and Iran activists amongst Divergence obstacles. institutional political and of deeply rooted social into realities account the do not which take diaspora of Iranian the expectations political high the by radicalized be the thatmovement will potential the There is media. new through domestic politics in found have leverage decades three after abroad living We Iranians that changes. profound suggested political about bringing in We media of new looked into the limitations the also public sphere. emerging this dismantling in unsuccessful been attempts to control internet content, has some it had impact, has while Government system. political ideological foundationsthe of ahighly voices shaking thereby to suppress dissenting its and capacity machine regime’s the propaganda is undermining media New sphere for Iranians. for way emergence the independent the of public an prepared global has and boundaries Green Movement the assisted geographical to transcend 2010). (Sohrabi-Haghigah Mansouri media and new media New through were realized way, for this In political new activists election. opportunities presidential of 2009 the aftermath protests the in street organize and coordinate, way dissidents for to effective mobilize, an Internet became regime’s the monopoly on The information. challenge channels satellite internet and the ways society. the We of discussed context Iranian the within of media new functions the investigated we article this In Conclusion encounters impasse. encounters impasse. [the then abit goes ... gap movement] ago forward this years even ago,ten years 30-40 did exist gapnot This aired. ideas yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

101 Mohammad Hadi Sohrabi-Haghighat news/middleeast/2009/07/2009720132832678525.html, accessed November 23, 2010. 23, November accessed news/middleeast/2009/07/2009720132832678525.html, http://english.aljazeera.net/ 20. July Suspicion. Sparks Law Internet Iran 2009. Aljazeera 2010. 24, November accessed http://www.alexa.com/topsites/countries/IR, Top 2010. Iran. in Sites Alexa 2010. 23, November accessed vdcdns0n.yt0956a22y.html, http://www.aftabnews.ir/ 16. March Irreversible. Is Movement The 2010. News Aftab article/0,,5243706,00.html, accessed November 23, 2010. http://www.dw-world.de/dw/ Welle. Deutsche with Interview 2010. Abbas Abdi, 2010. 23, November accessed revolution, http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2010/02/12/irans_failed_facebook_ 12. February Policy, Foreign Activism. of Online Limits the and Facebook Iran, 2010. Cameron Abadi, References used. and is developed technology conditions way shaping the in political and social preexisting of the significance approaches stress These of media. new study to the approaches of more critical surfacing the now we witness technologies, on communication new of utopian stage the discourses passed Having change. socio-political generating in of media new limitations and aimed to contributethe debateto capabilities the on article This villages. and towns small in peoplesocio-economic and who groups live of lower of is underrepresentation the politics there the loud clear, and are class middle voices the of urban the While change. socio-political generating in of media new limitations the exposing regime, the against for support and with correlates divides digital the that in its importance manifests public sphere. This emerging this in dialogue the in part takes wholimits divide digital The channels. sphere satellite and online the through only circumstances of Iran’s image together an political piecing in of movement. the internet powerbase Moreover, caution taken be should yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

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103 Mohammad Hadi Sohrabi-Haghighat http://www.rahesabz.net/story/15844/, accessed November 20, 2010. 20, November accessed http://www.rahesabz.net/story/15844/, 25. May Rahesabz. Movement. Green of the Review ACritical 2010. Hussein Ghazian, 2010. 20, November accessed http://technology.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/tech_and_web/article6497569.ece, 14. Revolution’. June to ‘Facebook End Moves State Election: Iran 2009. Foster, Patrick 2010. 20, November accessed at http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol6/issue2/fisher.html, 6(2), viewed Communication of Computer-Mediated Journal internet. the Surrounding Discourse of the Understanding Toward an Dystopias: and Utopias On MWright 2001. Larry and R, Dana Fisher, r=3&partner=rss&emc=rss, accessed November 20, 2010. 19.November http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/20/world/middleeast/20afghan.html?_ New Times, Iran. York in Threats, and Viewers, Draws Channel TV 2010. Dexter Filkins, 2010. 20, November accessed http://www.farsnews.com/newstext.php?nn=8812220333, 13. February family’, Iranian for the of Farsi1 implications cultural and ‘A 2010, threats to the News look Fars 2010. 20, November accessed foreignpolicy.com/articles/2010/06/07/the_twitter_revolution_that_wasnt, June Policy. Foreign Devolution. The 7. 2010. http://www. Golnaz Twitter Esfandiari, 2010. 20, November accessed http://www.lebanonwire.com/1006MLN/10062608WP.asp, Wire. Lebanon channel. TV Farsi1 Murdoch’s Rupert On And -- In Is What’s Forbidden Iran, 2010.In Thomas Erdbrink, 20, 2010. November accessed http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,5377813,00.html, 22. March ‘Unacceptable’’, as Signals of Satellite Jamming Iran’s Slams EU 2010. Welle Deutsche 2010. 20, November accessed force?_s=PM:TECH, cnn.com/2010-06-16/tech/iran.internet.police_1_internet-semi-official-fars-news-agency- 16. http://articles. June Says’, Chief Security Police, Internet to Create TechCNN Iran 2010. yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

104 Mohammad Hadi Sohrabi-Haghighat accessed November 20, 2010. 20, November accessed http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/aug/23/iran-censorship-ban-opposition-leaders, 23. August Press. in Leaders of Opposition Mention Bans Iran 2010. Saeed Dehghan, Kamali 2010. 20, November accessed khabaronline.ir/news-74886.aspx, http://www. 23. of SCCR’, November Leader Supreme of the Demands 2010. Khabaronline 27, November 2010. accessed iran.ir/10151, at http://www.iran- 21, viewed November Speed. For Internet its Ranked Iran 2010. Iran Iran 2010. 20, November accessed main/2010/oct/swimming-instructor-beats-kids, http://www.iranian.com/ 6. October Kids. Beats Instructor Swimming 2010. Iranian 2010. 20, November accessed down-in-iran-capital&catid=4:iran-general&Itemid=26, com/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=20687:satellite-tv-channels- 11. June http://www.iranfocus. Capital. Iran in Down Channels TV Satellite 2010. Focus Iran 2010. 20, November accessed http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats5.htm, 30. June Statistics. Population and Usage Internet East Middle 2010. stats world Internet 2010. 20, November accessed article/viewArticle/220, 13(2). http://journal.media-culture.org.au/index.php/mcjournal/ Journal M/C Journalism. Ambient Became News to Twitter: HowAmbient From 2010. TV Alfred Hermida, Press. MIT The Cambridge: Society. of Bourgeois aCategory into Inquiry An Sphere: Public the of Transformation 1989.Structural The Jurgen Habermas, 11(8):287-1305.Society and Media New Democracy. and Journalism Citizen News, Social 2009. Luke Goode, Press. University World. York: New Oxford of aBorderless Illusions Internet? the Controls Who Wu 2006. Tim and Jack, Goldsmith, 40(4):667-691. Change and Development Help. to Humanitarian Action From Political Media: New the and Diaspora’ ‘Iranian The 2009. Boersma Kees and Hlleh, Ghorashi, yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

105 Mohammad Hadi Sohrabi-Haghighat Nouri, Khashayar 2010. Cyber Wars in Iran, Peyvan Iran News. July 28. http://www. 28. July News. Iran Peyvan Iran, in Wars Cyber 2010. Khashayar Nouri, 2010. 20, November accessed mahmoud-ahmadinejad-supporters?_s=PM:WORLD, http://articles.cnn.com/2009-06-14/world/iran.protests.twitter_1_facebook-president- 15. June Online. Protests Take Their Twitter: Iranians Tear and Gas 2009. Octavia Nasr, 2010. 20, November accessed opennet.net/files/ONI_Iran_2009.pdf, 16. http://opennet.net/sites/ June Iran. in Filtering Internet 2009. Initiative OpenNet 23, 2010. November accessed mousavi?v=wall#!/note.php?note_id=455486737605&id=45061919453, Day. http://www.facebook.com/ Student for the Statement 2010. Hussein Mir Mousavi, 2010. 20, November accessed 11. http://www.mehrnews.com/fa/newsdetail.aspx?NewsID=1189437, November for Clarifications. Waiting Opinion Public Incident: Square Kaj the Reviewing 2010. Mehrnews Press. University Open Bukingham: technology. of shaping Wajcman1999. Judy social The and A, Donald McKenzie, 7(3):307-327. Networks Global Diaspora. Iranian the in Relations and Transnational Identity 2007.Religious A Home Away? Claus Far McAuliffe, 2010. 20, November accessed www.merip.org/mero/mero062610.html, http:// 26. June Hand. Invisible an Movement Awaits Green The 2010. Mohammad Maljoo, Associates. Erlbaum Lawrence Jersey: New 283-305. Pp. ed. Ward David of liberalization. era an in continuity and change policy: public Television and In Control. and Expansion Change, and Continuity Iran: in of Broadcasting The 2007. Politics Gholam Khiabany, University. Harvard Society, and internet for Centre Berkman The Blogosphere. Persian the in Culture and Politics Public: Online Iran’s Mapping 2008. Etling Bruce and John, Kelly, Press. University York: New Cornell Borders. Beyond Activists Sikkink1998. Kathryn and E, Margaret Keck, yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

106 Mohammad Hadi Sohrabi-Haghighat Sanati, Kimia 2006. Crackdown on Satellite TV Taken Stoically. IPS. August 21. http:// August IPS. Taken Stoically. TV on Satellite Crackdown 2006. Kimia Sanati, 2010. 20, November accessed klm-7220, http://www.kaleme.com/1388/10/13/ abroad. to Iranians Letter 2009. Ezatollah Sahabi. 2010. 20, November accessed aspx?MagazineNumberID=4726&id=37789, Howzah. July 31. http://www.hawzah.net/Hawzah/Magazines/MagArt. (Satellites). Youth Deviating in Media Mass Role of The 2010. Elham Saberi, 2010. 20, November continues-15-10-2010,38549.html, accessed 15. http://en.rsf.org/iran-persecution-of-bloggers- October Sentences. Harsher with Now Continues, of Bloggers Persecution 2010. Borders without Reporters 2010. 20, November accessed 10. http://www.rajanews.com/detail.asp?id=65201, October Complex. Shiroodi the from Instructor Swimming the Dismissing 2010. Rajanews 2010. 20, November accessed html, 7(3). http://meria.idc.ac.il/journal/2003/issue3/jv7n3a7. Affairs of International Review East Middle Iran. Revolutionary in Internet The Cyberdissent: 2003. Babak Rahimi, 2010. 20, November accessed 18. http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1079274.html, December Behavior. Un-Islamic Against Drive In Shut Down Cafes Internet Iran: 2007. Liberty Radio 2011. 20, January accessed canada/2252274.html, content/f2_iran_emigration_international_migrants_day_stats_economy_ahmadinejad_ http://www.radiofarda.com/ Towards View Migration. Statistical 2010. Farda Radio 59(2):266-282. Affairs. Parliamentary Net. on the Politics Radical 2006. Jenny Pickerill, 2010. 20, November 1. http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/babylonbeyond/2008/08/dont-expect-ira.html, August Times. Angeles Los Popular. but so accessed Illegal are Dishes Satellite TonyPerry, 2008. 2010. 20, November accessed payvand.com/news/10/jul/1249.html, yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

107 Mohammad Hadi Sohrabi-Haghighat Terranova, Tiziana 2001. Demonstrating the Globe: Virtual Action in the Network Society. Society. Network the in Action Virtual Globe: the Demonstrating 2001. Tiziana Terranova, 2010. 20, November accessed youngest-detained-blogger-on-trial/, at http://advocacy.globalvoicesonline.org/2010/11/20/iran-worlds- viewed 20, November Voices. Global on Trial. Blogger World’s Youngest Detained Iran: 2010. Hamid Tehrani, 2010. 20, November accessed revolutionary-guards-iran, October 7. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/oct/07/ Guardian. The Company. Telecommunications Iran’s in 51 Stake Buy percent Guards Revolutionary 2009. Tait, Robert I.B.Tauris. UK: Iran. in Politics and Internet the Blogistan: 2010. Khiabany Gholam and Annabelle, Sreberny, 8(1):24-41. Society and Technologies of Emerging Journal International Election. Presidential of Iran’s Aftermath the in Politics ICT VOTE?’ MY IS ‘WHERE 2010. Mansouri Shohre and MHadi, Sohrabi-Haghigaht, 2010. 20, November accessed boring-domestic-tv-for-illicit-western-fare, 7. June Nation. http://www.thenational.ae/news/worldwide/middle-east/iranians-shun- The Fare. Western for Illicit TV Domestic ‘Boring’ Shun Iranians 2010. Maryam Sinaiee, 2010. 20, November accessed co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/8099218.stm, 14. June http://news.bbc. Clashes. Street After Held Reformists Iran 2009. John Simpson, 2010. 20, November accessed blog.ted.com/2009/06/16/qa_with_clay_sh/, Blog. 19. June TED http:// Iran. on Twitter and Shirky Clay with Q&A 2010. Clay Shirky, 8(1):57-84. Society in Ethics and Communication of Information, Technology. Journal Communication and Information the Role of emancipatory The 2010. Farid Shirazi, 2010. 20, November businessweek.com/technology/content/jun2009/tc20090617_803990.htm, accessed not Yet. 17. Maybe June Twitter Iran’s Revolution? 2009. http://www. Joel Schectman, 2010. 20, November accessed ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=34407, yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

108 Mohammad Hadi Sohrabi-Haghighat articles/2010/feb2010/pers-f20.shtml, accessed November 20, 2010. 20, November accessed articles/2010/feb2010/pers-f20.shtml, http://www.wsws.org/ 20. February Disarray. in Movement Green Iran’s 2010. WSWS 2010. 20, November accessed http://ivmp.wordpress.com/2007/11/18/satellite-dish/, Dish. Satellite Wordpress 2008. 2010. 20, November accessed news/2001/05/43815, 15. http://www.wired.com/politics/law/ May Cafes. on Net Down Clamps Iran 2001. Wired 6(1):123-129. Society and Media New Ago, Zero and Years Five Studies:Ten, Internet of Ages Three The 2004. Barry Wellman, Blackwell. London: Life. in Everyday Internet The 2002. Haythornthwaite Catharine Barry, Wellman, 2010. 20, November accessed co.uk/world/2010/jun/09/iran-twitter-revolution-protests, 9. June http://www.guardian. Was Exaggerated. revolution’ ‘Twitter Iran’s 2010. Weaver, Mathew 2010. 20, November accessed AR2010062504356.html, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/06/25/ 26. June channel. TV Farsi1 Murdoch’s on Rupert and in is forbidden what’s Iran, Post In 2010. Washington 2010. 20, November english/news/middle-east/In-Iran-Internet-is-Lifeline-and-a-Noose-95977139.html, accessed 9. June http://www.voanews.com/ aNoose. and Lifeline is Internet Iran, VOA In 2010. News Company. and Brown Little Boston: Girl. TheUnadjusted I 1923. William Thomas, 2010. 20, November accessed com/news/2009/jun/16/irans-twitter-revolution/, http://www.washingtontimes. June 16. Iran’s Revolution. 2009. Twitter Times The Washington York: Routledge. 95-113. Pp. Tourist Space. New Space, Virtual Globalization: Virtual ed. David Holmes In yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

109 Mohammad Hadi Sohrabi-Haghighat task more complicated: more task made this have that obstacles due to two is mainly which developed, well notvery are still field this in studies and world, academic the research In cyberspace. in participation their through Islam ofway understanding their and identity, of sense their belonging their expressing Muslims and of expression[2]. presence of Islam growing a content This revealed has numerous formscyberspace[1], via intermingles where content types of all in for or information services to communication technologies search and information new using day their start of individuals of thousands Hundreds 1. Introduction Spain technology, communication and information websites, Islam, Muslim minorities, sphere, public Keywords: Muslim cyberspace. in Spanish aniche find to easily more technologies communication and information in new the potential and many-to-many,communication taking models: two-way better advantage of different on based strategies to use actors of types other for room leaves This models. ofmodels communication, namely the and one-to-many one-way communication media mass traditional on based is its strategy show, will paper this as However, technologies. with these new visibilisation and information communication, for routes new found has Islam institutionalised In Spain, issues. local of the expression for achannel opening –but the world around platform any Internet accessible from it globalised –making only not been has content in cyberspace wherein glocalisation, growing of generated aprocess has in turn which globalisation, of the phenomenon to connected is process This to space be established. Muslim public ever-expanding it an possible for made has content in cyberspace Islamic of presence increasing The Abstract: Enterría Guerrero Arturo Sphere e-Islam: Public Virtual theSpanish yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011 , pp. 110–130

110 Corresponding author: Arturo Guerrero Enterría, Autonomous University of Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain. E-mail: [email protected] in Spanish in cyberspace. in Spanish in content presence of Islamic non-existent, despite growing the is practically sphere Spanish the topic. discussing ponderedhave However, this research who scholars the among are 2009) 2003, Bunt (2000, (2003) Gary and Jon (2003), and Roy Anderson points Olivier of Eickelman view. Dale topic authors approached have this different from several Despite this, development of different areas in the world.in second The based development factorareas is of different andsocial economic, political relation different to is in the inequality this Importantly, areas. geographic large across technologies to new the access is unequal there time, at this to cyberspace; access to gain wishes user the which from area factorgeographic related is the first to The factors. main of two aresult as technologies new to not does these access have population 2008:457-509).al. the of thatpart is the duedouble fact divide to This (Scholz communication technologies and toet information new access unequal with people gapbetween the refers to divide The doubledigital communication technologies. censorship of and information the new and divide double the as digital such to cyberspace, access global limit that exist obstacles since several to exceptions However, this, many are there space. and of time to content, any access regardless tonumber of gain users made it has possible for globalisation agrowing respect, this In 2006). (Campbell content presence of the communication, observed religious was the developmentof stages of computer first the in Indeed, globalisation. of context the within falls communication technologies and information content related presence of to Islamic new increasing Spanish in The technologies communication and new1.1. information and Globalisation • the lack of any methodology adapted to these new interactive interactive new these to adapted resources. methodology any of lack the • and information new to complement and them; of evolution and of applications new appearance the and communication technologies expansion rapid the • yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

111 Arturo Guerrero Enterría change: the creation of creation the the change: years of 21 the years of Web early the appearance in the 2.0 with point came turning the However, space. this to navigate ability agrowing with byconsumed users and to exploit cyberspace, ability greater produced with being by users of Web appearance the as 1.0[4], early as contentBeginning Islamic was public sphere virtual The Islamic 1.2. not– if (re-)invention authority...” of religious 2008:465). (Scholz et al. of “...to apath appearance the entail renegotiation redefinition the and 2003).could Anderson and This predominated up to now (Eickelman has that message central anti-establishment the vis-à-vis potentially are that space new this in circulating world. are ideas New Muslim the in of brought public anew sphere has technologies about appearance the communication of and information new appearance the from resulting content media controlling in laxity For greater the some researchers, content[3].cyberspace blocking and for censoring do mechanisms have Arabia Saudi and China including able countries less to Internet, censor different are the Although state theInternet.authorities of case the in not significant as isinvestment, which and technological considerable financial requires under state control, since it usually is media mass The media. mass the of communication is morea means controlling complicated than Internet as the Controlling access. have citizens their to which media of state authorities to controlbut onpart the of the desire rather the of states; it is not aconsequence development of se, their states per as characteristics political and to social the relating divide of digital the factorfirst the elements the from affect that part in results Censorship conditions. economic and qualifications sex, age, as such characteristics is related to personal divide second digital of world. the This parts all person’s in since it situation, occurs geographic phenomenon This with a issues. is notassociated social on individual yber st century. The arrival of fundamental 2.0 produced a Web arrival The century. C yber O rient, Vol. prosumer . The concept. The of a prosumer merges 5, Iss. 1, 2011

112 Arturo Guerrero Enterría official studies (http://amrkhaled.net/newsite/). studies official no with preachers feature that those even and views advocate progressive that (http://amho.es/), homosexual or (http://feminismeislamic.org/) feminist are that stances as such orthodoxy, Muslim from themselves positions distance that with Internet sites appeared have respect, this In level. to aglobal message their take can communication technologies and of information new before appearance proliferation of the voices unheard and homogenisation, despite expansion tendencyIndeed, towards the the homogenised. is becoming noted, message Roy the has as if, even heard, now be voices can New ideas and forums. and chatrooms blogs, videos, once found not have Internet on aspace could heard through the be thatthat voices andnew flowing up positions where and ideas are new (2003),Anderson however, apublic sphere opened that shown have has and Eickelman detail. in Roy (2003)authors as discussed have such as anti-establishmentarianism, revolutionary and democratisation to way global the it paved not that does has mean this for expression, space expanding opened up an development clearly has this Although content. Islamic with chatrooms and 2009) Khamis and 2008:457-509), (Scholz et al. podcasts videocasts[6], (El-Nawawy forums, blogs[5], of countless the led appearance has to This sends. receiver also user- the role becomesareceiver, not but does send, while this only also in user The figure. new the creating thus receivers, turn, in became, Senders to 2003). many-to-many Anderson and changed receivers, (Eickelman one-to-many, while communication, its sender multiple single and with one-way from communication, in to two-way change essential about an (thereceivers one-to-many model). The move to 2.0 brought Web Web 1.0 offeredwith oneone-wayandsender many communication, receivers. senders and information with equation is similar, the toworld the of where communications, transferred be consumption, can thepointview fromeconomics andof of definition, of this characteristic One special one in individual. but characteristics now rather both unite producer-consumer classic the relationship, no longer users maintain producer consumer ofthe the aproduct and into Internet person. asingle yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

113 Arturo Guerrero Enterría suggesting that the time had come when all content come had products would when and time all the that suggesting predominate, voices emerged transnationality and where globalisation communication technologies, and information of new context the the In public spherethe Islamic of glocalisation The 2.2. content of diversity. order degree in to their decode of their of characteristics the world analysis an and virtual the in platforms group and for individual search on the focused of research the part Another mechanisms. interaction users’ on done, the focusing was platforms online of these of characteristics the analysis an made, was comparison Once this world. offline the in panorama institutional Islamic Spanish the with sites the were and contrasted year out last over the carried was sites Spain in of public sphere. Islamic To observation online end, an this virtual Islamic the Spanish of characteristics the discover paper is to this of goal The Methodology 2.1. 2. e-Islam Spain in podcasts. and videoblogs is related to blogs, material non-profit.extent, altruistic this Much of contribution to is, alarge this and need this not does Internet that share on the of to material is a only broad a point, since there range although content some as dependence far assume public on as the could is concerned, This Semanal). audience possible (Informe largest the to reach trying are press), (radio, printed the media television, mass senders/broadcasters other the with simply occurs just as one that, more and form of media the are communication technologies and information new part, in added that public sphere. concept the However, Islamic of an it must be qualifying way debate, this in rational-critical of adiscursive lack the regarding conclusions to reach Dahlberg Lincoln and ofworks Habermas Jurgen the in tools sought conceptual key noted. have researchers (2009) These Khamis to debate, Sahar El-Nawawy Mohammed and as than publicity more foris dedicated space new toIt expression is possible this that yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

114 Arturo Guerrero Enterría offline, as is clearly seen in several specific points: specific several in seen clearly as is offline, public sphere not does Islamic merely the representIndeed, what occurs 2008:464). (Scholz et al. world [...] Muslim are the World on underrepresented the Wide Web.”[9] world”. “real authorities within the in Dominant existing of structures is not world amere Internet: on “it reproduction the general ofthe Islam for described Scholz as Jan publicsphere exactly is virtual The Islamic public sphereSpain in virtual The Islamic 2.3. [8] context. aglobalising within albeit space, local it possible to makes asmaller create that Spain in of Muslims the situation in elementan there is - of influences idiosyncrasy external and aspect since -despite transnational context, the into this inserted be Spain publicsphere in virtual thethe that model Islamic of argues study This (the media the produces “glocal”). combinationthrough local and of global global became events where local of aprocess glocalisation in resulted rather but didas homogenisation predicted, not, however,globalising occur This follow of aprocess homogenisation[7] aconsequence as of globalisation. which is not among the first sites produced by searches, since sitesit is not produced first searches, which by the among (UCIDE), Spain in sphere, Union and Communities of Islamic public virtual the from missing is totally which Entities (FEERI), Federation Spanish Religious the of Islamic like organisations its milieu[10] and Islámica) entire other with comparison in (Junta Board Islamic role of Spanish important the the reveals sphere The online Islam. world the in seen of institutionalised also are online worlds and offline the between differences These • of citizens. participation to the regard sphere with emerging new of this capacity inclusive great the reflects This global. and opinions becomes transnational these impact world.of potential The online the in participation for individual capacity the public sphere highlights Islamic • The large number of personal blogs proliferating in the Spanish yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

115 Arturo Guerrero Enterría reflects a trend occurring offline with FEERI, which is undergoing is which FEERI, with offline trendoccurring a reflects organisation.[14]also sphere this with blogs associated and virtual The Internet out sites for a process creating carried but also has org/home/), website its UCIDEexample, Thus, for(http://es.ucide.not maintains only of creation groups. new the toa process websites create parallels that has produced world Islam (Bravo 2010), offline the in As institutionalised online Islam Institutionalised 2.3.1. the Spanish Islamic public sphere: Islamic Spanish the in communication technologies and information new the using actors of external participation cyberspace, led increased to the has which of globalisation the is consider to aspect Another • Board. Islamic for Spanish the than is greater agreement, monitoring the of for purpose the for administration the intermediaries as acted (CIE) of Commission Spain Islamic haveState the and and Spanish the between of Agreement Cooperation whom the signed both FEERI, of and UCIDE world,the importance where offline the in Spain in occurring institutionalisation ofprocess Muslim the do mirror not optedhas for ablogcharacteristics format. These yber content. for Islamic searching sites while these access can users Spanish top results, their among them list engines search since and, Internet Spain from for the browsing user any of origin.[13] country available sites are these Despite this, but own residents rather their in Spaniards, addressing Islamic not who are speakers Spanish native sphere are Spanish virtual the influencing actors external Other •• into Spanish.[12] language another from translated content their offer actors external Some •• tools.[11] translation for content advanced or with aforeign language in Spain from accessed Islamic produce websites including language, actors original consumption the in external Some •• C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

116 Arturo Guerrero Enterría type of low despite communication, of cost service. relatively the the type door to the this closing are since they general, in citizens with and base their with organisations for interaction and these accessibility proximity, of alack means of apresence Internet on lack also the –the information it possible on for provide feedback to makes and interact users medium this that mind in bearing However –and organisations. of these strategies for communication is not form of the media apriority this that indicates sphere virtual the in FEERI and CIE absence of like the groups some key sites web element is that these One important to consider when analysing 2010. in created was www.islamclemencia.org/) whose website (http:// Association, Clemency Cultural Pacheco Islamic website the of Torre the like associations websites blogs local from and site itscreated own (http://umme.es/index1.html). possible to It find is also which Union the Women of Muslim (UMME), like groups Spain in to women’s 2008, in websiteown (http://www.mezquitadegranada.com/) created its which Mosque, the Granada like information, online offering from mosques ranging diverse, groupvery is This size. despite small their sought public agreater to away reach also have Islam institutionalised within institutions and centres cultural of associations, types Other fecomclm.com/). Mancha’s of Castile-La Communities siteMuslim http://www. (FECOM Federation the and of 2008, in created www.federacionislamica.com/) Federation (http:// of Autonomous Islands the of Balearic Regions the (CISCOVA 2009,[16] in http://www.ciscova.org/) site the for Islamic the of Valencia Affairs for the Supreme Islamic Community’s Council [15] to Groups decided Internet have create sites that site the include produced. being federations are CIE or the Muslim Spanish main the not into incorporated are websites that groups from time, same At the years. for several operating after 2008), Islámico (Semanario 2008 March operations is up It in for ceased sale. www.feeri.info/) ofa process low representation, group’s since the (http:// domain web yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

117 Arturo Guerrero Enterría possibilities for One interaction. a of routespossibilities is using interaction the for this Webislam above, Internetan with site more offers sites the analysed Unlike sphere. [18] virtual Islamic Spanish websites the in of most important the is one 2010), (Bravo This Webislam.com the Spain in portal. maintains process institutionalising the in despite low itsBoard, importance relatively Islamic Spanish The website merit discussion. (http://www.webislam.com/) Webislam the and Board Islamic role the of Spanish context, the this In future. the in websitethe aforum promises and e-mail, using be accessed can that service a consultancy offers UMME while the to contactorganisation, address e-mail an offers Islands Balearic aform. The Islamic using Federationthe Autonomousof the Regions of Association[17] options thewebsite to contact administrators offer similar Torre Mosque the and Granada Clemency Cultural Pacheco Islamic CISCOVA, contentthe administrators. published by the the FECOM, comments post and on some of administration to the send e-mails users let platforms These by users. participation some minimal allow Country Basque UCID and Extremadura UCID Murcia, UCID Catalonia, UCID by established UCID platforms Valencia, blog.virtual Mancha La The the Castile- UCID with occurs same The dynamism. little very and message one sender one onecommunication model and with or more with receivers, traditional the sphere, reflecting virtual the is in case this in which posted, contents on anotice which board are is acommunication model like result one-way one The the receivers. sender many model and with following communication is established respect, communication loop. the in this In for receiver/user, the site for the not as feedback channels does any offer interaction content.is of blocked their browse possibility The can users that despite fact press, printed the the and radio television, like media of mass The form UCIDE’straditional ifinformation as were it a website their offers websites? their through offer organisations of communication do these is:then, what type respect, this in asked that be question must The communication process. out experimental an carrying are they that it above, is clear analysed those sphere, as such virtual found the be in For can that organisations yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

118 Arturo Guerrero Enterría the website.the Webislam’s site broad promotion apart this sets of participation area ofof anotherdebate, is in found types is open to different which forum, The impressions connect. and tocontact exchange otherWebislam users ‘Chat’, section, lets users ninth the mentionedof consultants while above, the content. board the dedicated is to The section eighth contacting affect some content. to correct can aproposal user, The with then, again once send website to the can administrators user the opens aform that section ‘Corrections’ Entering the interaction. indirect and proximity encourages although interaction,promoteit does which user direct loyalty, for significant any notspace does section provide This is sent that by e-mail. bulletin a news subscription to, a to, cancel or subscribe users lets section ‘Bulletin’ The content avote. the evaluate second user by casting letsthe the piece of while content accessed, acertain been that has number ofthe times these optionsrecords first of The participation. user from is created list this since interactive, is section This voted and items by users. most viewed often ‘Most and ‘Most news the list sections, Viewed’ Voted’, fifth and The fourth the content. affect cannot since users is not interactive, activity particular this for established participation, section it the in is included Although News’, stories offered on news latest presents the Webislam. ‘Breaking section, third The surveys. successive in participate lets users ‘Surveys’, website’s on the impact adirect contents. has and team second The section, of editorial the becomes part but also not does provide feedback, user only the that interesting Here, it is particularly associations. and business spots, on cultural events, to to correspondents be report orusers consultants, invites section same The collaborations. to these send in available forms are more. and Different videos, comments, opinion articles, news, in sending chance to asawork the journalist, users offers section ‘I’m The the journalist’ Viewed’, Voted’, ‘Most ‘Chat’. and ‘Corrections’, ‘Contact’ ‘Bulletin’, News’, ‘Most ‘Breaking ‘Surveys’, ‘I’minto sections: journalist’, the nine divided website to is promote is designed section this This interaction. user of However, one Webislam’sAssociation. part further: goes interaction the offered to by that is similar Clemency Cultural Torre Islamic Pacheco mechanism This form of to members consultants. contact of board the the yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

119 Arturo Guerrero Enterría blogspot.com/). A large number of these blogs, as can be seen, are created created are seen, be can blogs, as number of these Alarge blogspot.com/). al Islam (ConvertsConversos to (http://conversosalislam. Islam) by Zaynatbl by Tasminposted Mus (http://diariodeunaconversa.blogspot.com/) and of aConvert), conversa una de (Diary -Diario suggest names very the - as sphere are as virtual Islamic Spanish the in converts by Muslim blogs are Prado (http://abdennurprado.wordpress.com/).Abdennur of these All and (http://ndeyeandujar.wordpress.com/) Andujar Ndeye by posted blogs the as such Board, Islamic Spanish to connected the individuals also blogs by are There (http://losjardinesdelalma.blogspot.com/). Alma del Jardines and (http://islamgureavideo.blogspot.com/) TV Islamgurea other blogs: created also who has convert, aSpanish by Daud Khan, com/) (http://wwwislamgurea.blogspot. Islamgurea like examples include These sphere. virtual Islamic Spanish the in created blogs been have Many concerns blogs. Islam The expressions most of notableonline these new of for impact. public sphere potential global the sphere, have but online the in public offline the presence in little of very opinions have that for other types opened forms sphere new of has expression and ofrepresentative virtual the setting.[19] outsiderising of institutional the phenomenon This very is voices the to it study is time Islam, of institutionalised analysis this After expression rise of of new forms The 2.3.2. apps. 2.0 of web the potential the using own by their therefore to and decided leaders have online go community misrepresented feel by the Spain in number of Muslims great of on (Cambridge power amonolithicbased 2010), top-down view but a of media, view on atraditional based are environments of cyber types these because is community. This Muslim of Spanish requirements the poorly adapted new to are the organizations institutionalized Spanish of the considered communication strategies be it the that can style and Despite to Juntarenew communication Islámica´sits platform trying efforts many-to-many and of two-way example an communication. as serves and Islam other sitesfrom Internet on promoted the by institutionalised yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

120 Arturo Guerrero Enterría interlinking cyber-network trying to create a pluralistic debate arena. debate arena. to apluralistic create cyber-network trying interlinking an creating are Therefore,Muslims Spanish associations. Muslims Spanish number of traditional misrepresented feel by them agreat the because process, decision-making the in part bottom-up, to want take they because model a new of using concerns communication their and Islam understanding way their of express to trying are Spain in that many Muslims shows This women. on to topicsfocus relating particularly com/portal.htm). forums These (Applied (http://artesaplicadas.foroespana. Arts) Aplicadas Muslim Artes forum) (http://www.musulmanas.org/foro/index.php), Musulmanas and (Muslim Foromusulmanaseislam.6forum.info/forum.htm), de musulmanas Islam) (http:// and (Muslims eIslam Musulmanas creatuforo.com/), (http://mundomusulmanas. Mundomusulmanas include Examples diverse. extremely are the debatesand proposed opinions, different point foras a meeting serve spaces These Muslims. and to Islam topics related to discuss available also are open forums Several website own (http://www.hashimcabrera.com/). his who has Board, Islamic Spanish to connections the with convert aMuslim Cabrera, Hashim from site the include Examples of forms new of Islam. expressions these within websitesexamples of inscribed offers sphere also virtual Islamic Spanish history. and The culture Islamic approach and to Arabic their put forth to forum this use studies language Arabic and studies Islamic and Arabic with connected of Nine Alicante professors University setting. the from a university in is based which (http://www.araboislamica.blogspot.com/), Araboislámica the as blog approachesspheres, such come different from However, world the and point of other of believers. represent view a religious contributions point, the predominantly to this of blogs discussed the all In Centre. Islamic Al-Qaim the with Tawhid and Jafer, is associated Alí and Salvador Abdellah, Jafar González, blog is This (http://shiahispania.blogspot.com/). produced by Spain” Pedro across ablog Muslims to dedicated “Shiite Karbala, as such groups, in opinions their express others while names, own their using by individuals yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

121 Arturo Guerrero Enterría models. However, other actors displaced by the institutionalising process, process, institutionalising However,models. by the displaced other actors one-to-many the following one-way and media, mass the with were dealing they if as technologies, of new the aspects consider communicative the only to chosen have Spain in organisations Islamic Most of institutionalised the Fiore 1967). and (McLuhan message” is the medium “the McLuhan’s saying, famous Malcolm corroborating bases, and users andpotential actors different the relationship between the reveals It also the itself. medium to with respect actors of different the perspective the it sphere possible to make know public virtual Islamic the communication in forms differenttheir of and actors the presence of turn, sphere. In offline public the in are they as technologies, new the using impact media their in behind are FEERI Here, and CIE impact. media greater seeking groups about it the sphere possible to make learn online absence of the in actors presence and the respect, forto this amedium In communication. be cease they that offerthat a but publicnottechnologies space, does mean and communication interest.information New afield special of this make that differences aresignificant public there sphere,that offline but the as trends same by the sphere is ruled this It that shown has sphere Spain. in public virtual Islamic the different affecting topics discussed has study This 3.Conclusions products. religious Islamic and technologies, new through products halal of thesale online, the promotionas such banking areas of Islamic different to expand future the in could initiatives few These madrasaeditorial.com/). (http://www. Editorial Madrasa as well as (http://www.islamlibros.com/), Libros Islam and (http://www.e-andalus.com/joomla/) e-Andalus like bookshops online include initiatives These literature. to Islamic specifically, and, products related to culture on focus selling currently that businesses Islamic creating for possibility a provides form participation of Internet. This on the appearing variations sphere presents commercial virtual Spanish the expression in of forms differentMuslim thedevoted section to last This online Islam Commercial 2.3.3. yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

122 Arturo Guerrero Enterría Workshop (TEIM). It is an initial attempt to systematise the impact of impact the attemptWorkshop to systematise It initial is an (TEIM). Studies Mediterranean Autónoma International the and de Madrid Universidad at the Studies Islamic and of Arabic auspices of Department the the outunder carried being project dissertation of a paperpart is This Acknowledgements before. existed that ademand satisfying thus communication technologies, and information new the opinions to through communicatea niche their voices found have that of Muslim new appearance the facilitated has fact this for do expression, not institutions provide channels these because or do not groups and institutions, represented feel by these individuals it Internet these sites of is because these impossible. Whether current of voices outside editorial participation the the sphere, making Islamic one-way one-to-many virtual and Spanish the model in communicative the uses Spain in Islam institutionalised that shown has study This channels. institutional through themselves express whofindwaynot a could to from individuals ofopinions different range a is contributing expression these new forms of of The appearance sphere appeared. technologies new before to these asmaller were limited which for impact, apotential global of opinions with forspace adiversity but it a create does suggest, public Khamis El-Nawawy sphere, and as arational-critical term Dahlberg and of depth what Habermas the achieve this to spheremanage does that not be It channels. may outside official opinions apublic found created sphere has fortechnologies expressing adoption the communication Additionally, of and information new visitors. the sitethat morereceives means of course, This, Spain. in engines search used of most widely the pages sitespositioned results on the high their have how in they seen be can communication strategies their in mechanism afundamental websites as of to medium these consider this administrators the of many-to-manythe thepart concern The models. on two-way and sites, opted have Board to use Webislam Islamic the as Spanish such and yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

123 Arturo Guerrero Enterría Calleja, Gordon 2008. Virtual worlds today: Gaming and online sociality. http://archiv. sociality. online and Gaming today: worlds Virtual 2008. Gordon Calleja, 18, 2011. December accessed http://www.hashimcabrera.com/, Cabrera. Hashim 2010. Hashim Cabrera, Press. of Wales University Islamic.Cardiff: Virtually 2000. R. Gary Bunt, Pluto. Ed. London: Studies). (Critical Enviroments Islamic Cyber and Fatwas Online E-Jihad, Age: Digital the in Islam 2003. R. Gary Bunt, Press. Carolina of North The University Hill: Chapel Networks). Muslim and Civilization (Islamic of Islam House the Rewiring iMuslim; 2009. R. Gary Bunt, 2010. 2, February accessed spain/, http://www.euro-islam.info/2010/03/08/islam-in- Spain. in Islam 2010. Fernando Bravo, 19,October 2010. accessed http://www.amho.es/, A.H.MO. 2010. Homosexuales Muslumanes de Asociación 2010. 22, February accessed Torre http://www.islamclemencia.org/, Pacheco. Clemencia de Islámica Cultural Torre Asociación 2010. Pacheco Clemencia de Islámica Cultural Asociación 16, 2010. March http://www.araboislamica.blogspot.com/, 2010. Araboislámica. Araboislámica accessed 2011. 25, January accessed http://ndeyeandujar.wordpress.com, Andújar. 2011. Ndeye Ndeye Andújar, 2010. 15, December accessed http://shiahispania.blogspot.com/, Karbala. 2010. Al-Qaim Islámico Tawhid Centro Terra and D´Enlloc, Alí, Terapiacraneal, Jafar, Abdellah, References sphere. public Islamic Spanish on communication technologies the and information new yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

124 Arturo Guerrero Enterría March 9, 2010. March http://www.madrasaeditorial.com/, Editorial. accessed Madrasa 2010. Editorial Madrasa 17,December 2010. accessed http://www.e-andalus.com/joomla/, 2010. Al-Andalus de Virtual Librería 2010. 6, April accessed http://amrkhaled.net/intro/, Website. Official Khaled Amr 2010. Amr Khaled, 2008. 6, January info/, accessed http://www.feeri. islámicas. religiosas entidades de española Federación 2008. FEERI 9, 2010. March accessed http://www.federacionislamica.com/, Baleares. Islas las de Islámica Federación 2010. Baleares Islas las de Islámica Federacion 2010. 22, February accessed http://fecomclm.blogspot.com/, Mancha. Castilla-La de Musulmanas Comunidades de Federeación 2010. CLM FECOM Macmillan. York: New Palgrave Cyberspace. in Discourses Islamic Contemporary IslamDotCom: 2009. Khamis Sahar and Mohammed, El-Nawawy, Press. University Indiana Bloomington: Sphere. Public Emerging World: The Muslim the in Media New F., 2003. Jon W. Dale and Anderson Eickelman, 2010 15, March accessed ciscova.org/, http://www. Valenciana. Comunidad la de Superior CISCOVA Islámico Consejo 2010. 25. Culture and of Communication Study for the Trends; Centre Research Communication Internet. the and Religion 2006. Heidi Campbell, 19, 2010. December accessed http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LRZPzctOa-c, World. Online an in Repression and Resistance Duel: Digital The 2010. Daryn Cambridge, 30, 2010. ub.uni-heidelberg.de/volltextserver/volltexte/2008/8288/pdf/calleja.pdf, accessed September yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

125 Arturo Guerrero Enterría accessed November 25, 2004. 25, November accessed noticiasdot.com/publicaciones/2004/1104/0211/noticias021104/noticias021104-14.htm, http://www. 11-M del Ogrish.com. en yvideos siguen Imágenes 2004. Noticiasdot.com 2010. 30, March accessed http://www.ontsi.red.es/index.action, Información. la de Sociedad la yde Telecomunicación las de Nacional Observatorio 2010. Turismo yComercio Industria, de Ministerio Paidós. Barcelona: Marcas. Las Poder De El No Logo: 2000. Naomi Klein, 2010. 6, December accessed http://www.islamlibros.com/, Libros. Islam 2010. Libros Islam 1, 2010. December accessed com/watch?v=n37p2geSFBE, http://www.youtube. Castells. Mannuel sociólogo al Entrevista 2010. semanal Informe 2010. 20, December php, accessed http://www.musulmanas.org/foro/index. Foro 2010. Musulmanas.org. de Musulmanas.org 1, 2011. February info/, accessed http://musulmanaseislam.6forum. eIslam. Foro 2010. Musulmanas eIslam Musulmanas 2011. 25, January accessed artesaplicadas.foroespana.com/, -Foro. http:// Aplicadas Artes Musulmanas 2010. Aplicadas Artes Musulmanas 1, 2011. February accessed http://diariodeunaconversa.blogspot.com/, conversa. una de Tasnim 2011. Diario Mus, 2010. 8, June accessed creatuforo.com/, http://mundomusulmanas. Foro 2010. Musulmanas. Mundo Musulmanas Mundo 16, 2011. January accessed http://www.mezquitadegranada.com, Granada. de 2011. Mezquita Granada de Mezquita 1967. the Message.Random. Fiore is Quentin Medium The and Marshall, McLuhan, yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

126 Arturo Guerrero Enterría Webislam 2011. Webislam. http://www.webislam.com, accessed February 15, 2011. 15, February accessed http://www.webislam.com, 2011. Webislam. Webislam 2010. 22, February accessed index1.html, http://umme.es/ España(UMME). de Musulmanas Mujeres de Unión 2010. UMME 2011. 15, February accessed http://es.ucide.org/home/, Espana. de Islámicas 2011. Comunidades de Unión UCIDE 10, 2008. November accessed http://islam.cl/sitio/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=80, febrero. de 28 día próximo el Web desaparecerá Feeri Grave: de 2008. Islámico Semanario 48:457-509. Welt Islams Die Des Authority. Islamic in Authority of Religious Construction on the Remarks Some Communities? Listening 2008. Zimmermann Johannes and Stille, Max Tobias Jan, Selge, Scholz, S.L. Bellaterra Ediciones Barcelona: Globalización. La De Era La En Musulmanes Los Mundializado: Islam El 2003. Roy, Olivier 2011. 20, February accessed http://losjardinesdelalma.blogspot.com/, Alma. del Jardines 2011. Daud Los Rodriguez, 2010. 22, February accessed http://islamgureavideo.blogspot.com/, Video. Gurea Islam 2010. Daud Rodriguez, 2010. 22, February accessed http://wwwislamgurea.blogspot.com/, Gurea. Islam 2010. Daud Rodriguez, 2010. 15, March accessed http://abdennurprado.wordpress.com/, Prado. Abdennur 2010. Abdennur Prado, 2010. 30, September web-20.html#mememap, http://oreilly.com/web2/archive/what-is- document, Electronic of Sofware. Generation Next for the Models Business and Patterns Web Design is 2.0 What 2005. Tim O´Reilly, yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

127 Arturo Guerrero Enterría Blogs.” (2010) Blogs.” Islamic Amongst Dissemination Information Tracking and Size Network “Estimating Unit. Communication and Information Research, The for example: phenomenon, this on analysing focused already have authors some blog. However, and Islam words the includes that search asimple through Internet on the found be can of blogs [5] Examples Web. 2005 Media O´Reilly of Software.” Generation Next for the Models Business and Patterns Design Web is 2.0. “What Tim. O´Reilly, see: of Web concept 2.0, of the creation the of history the as well as and 2.0, Web 1.0 Web between [4] difference the To about learn noticias021104/noticias021104-14.htm Com. “ Noticiasdot.com. at: found be can information More e-mule. like platforms (P2P) peer-to-peer and websites on other found be later could they although blocked, to be appeared, photos these where ogrish.com, website the ordered Olmo Del Judge time, that At here. appropriate is attack terrorist 11 2004 March of the to photographs relating Spain in produced of information asample [3] respect, this In forums. and chatrooms e-mail, videoblogs, podcasts, blogs, sites, Internet include technology new to this thanks found be can that communication of audiovisual forms different of the Some diverse. particularly are technologies communication and information new through [2]available contents The www.ontsi.red.es/index.action> “ yComercio: Industria de Ministerio the from available data Eurostat population. Union European the entire 50% for was figure This services. and goods about for information search to Internet the used population total of the 46% Spain, in 2008, [1] to Eurostat According Notes 2011. 16, February accessed http://conversosalislam.blogspot.com/, Islam. al 2011. Conversos Zaynab Observatorio Nacional de las Telecomunicación y de la Sociedad de la Información. la de Sociedad la yde Telecomunicación las de Nacional Observatorio ” November 2004. http://www.noticiasdot.com/publicaciones/2004/1104/0211/ 2004. ” November yber C yber O rient, Vol. Imágenes y Videos Del 11-M Ogrish. En Del Siguen yVideos Imágenes 5, Iss. 1, 2011 ” 2010.

128 Arturo Guerrero Enterría León, UCIDAragón and UCIDMadrid. and UCIDAragón León, UCIDCastilla for UCIDCeuta, websites the include not does list This blogspot.com/). (http://islamancha. Mancha UCIDCastilla-La Vasco (http://assalambilbao.blogspot.com/), UCIDPaís (http://islamextremadura.blogspot.com/), UCIDExtremadura blogspot.com/), (http://ucidmurcia. UCIDMurcia (http://ucidecatalunya.blogspot.com/), UCIDCataluña (http://www.ucidvalencia.org/), UCIDValencia Spanish: [14] original their In A.C. México, de Islámico Cultural Centro the from Islam.com.mx is point this illustrates [13] that example One language=spanish. http://www.al-islam.org/index.php?inl_ at: Spanish into translated version a offers which http://www.al-islam.org/ at: Project Library Islamic Digital Bayt Ahlul the from org site Al-Islam. Shiite the as such exist, features these with of sites [12] number Alarge Internet site itself. the it were if content as of the atranslation see users [11] lets for example, Translate, Google members. their by blogs several as well as http://www.vidahalal.com/, and http://www.institutohalal.com/; http://www.webislam.com; http://www.alagua.org/; org/; http://www.juntaislamica. like: sites Internet several sponsors Board [10]Islamic Spanish The (2008) 3.1 Internet the on Religions of Journal Heidelberg Online Sociality.” Online and Worlds Today: Gaming “Virtual Gordon. Calleja, see ‘virtual’, and ‘real’ between [9] debate on the For information more of. sight lost be should setting the in groups Muslim between differences many nor the context globalising the neither However, Spain. in group the on influences and in interferences external the and Spain in Muslims affect that differences the shown have [8] studies Many 2000. Paidós, Marcas. Las De Poder El Logo: No Naomi. Klein, see: glocalisation, and [7]globalisation on For reflection a broader www.islamictube.net from: are [6]examples These yber , at: http://www.islam.com.mx/index.php. C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

129 Arturo Guerrero Enterría by the search engines if the search is done using the Spanish keywords: ‘ keywords: Spanish the using done is search the if engines search the by produced results top ten the among included are section this in described associations for the sites Internet None of the ‘Islam’. keyword the using done is search the if top positions the in appears Webislam.com es.yahoo.com, and google.es engines, search [18] Spanish main the In individual. to an directly sent be can consultations since association, the at person to aspecific aform via question the sending of option the offers it that in unique is platform virtual This ore-mail. aform using contact making of option the offers Association [17] Cultural Clemency The Islamic Pacheco Torre it. provided sources none of these it because is information, this not included Ihave If it. to obtain at alexa.com done was asearch site, at the not available is information this If themselves. sites the from obtained were [16] a website on creating Data http://www.cislamica.org/contactanos/index.html). at: available website for this (contact data Mosque Granada but to the of Spain, Commission Islamic to the it not related is although site heading, its in CIE acronym the uses which Spain, in Community Islamic of the address to the linked results produces CIE using asearch since error, an produce can es.yahoo.com or google.es on CIE acronym the using site this to find search Internet an Doing website. active an have not does organisation This FEERI. the and UCIDE the by jointly formed is and state, to the Muslims represents that organisation Spanish (CIE) the is of Spain Commission Islamic the that to remember [15] It important is or ‘ with organisations and institutions. and organisations with relationship indirect an have may they although organisation, any with associated directly not are content that cyber-Islamic with examples of the [19] all considered Ihave Here, islámico yber ’. C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011 Islam ’, ‘ ’, musulmán ’

130 Arturo Guerrero Enterría resistances, which manifest themselves through various Islamic discourses discourses Islamic various through themselves manifest which resistances, (i.e. ofumma” creation on community) multiple the identities Islamic and “virtual the of public reconfiguration sphere the and of Islamic the impact IslamWay.com. and AmrKhaled.net, potential doing so, In the it explores IslamOnline.net, websites, namely of most Islamic visited the of three discussion forums the in and deliberations discourses the analyzes book The online. identity Muslim and authority over religious deliberation public contestation sphere the Muslim and of and virtual the with deals which Cyberspace, in Discourses Islamic Dot Com: Contemporary Islam have co-authored They called book a of Maryland. University at the of Communication Department the from Khamis by Sahar and Charlotte in of University at School El-Nawawy Communication Queens the from by Mohammed provided been has of body research expanding rapidly this Arecent contribution to communications studies. in backgrounds with fromscholars field interest this in agrowing witnessed have we recent years Varisco, in Martin Bunt, or Daniel work the of as such Jon Gary Anderson, studies, or Islamic Eastern of Middle domain the within world originated Muslim of Internet the in the impact on the pioneering studies Whereas media. endorsed by these changes political and interest possible in social academic growing world is asimultaneously Muslim there the in outlets proliferation of the media Internet new rates and penetration With growing page 280 ISBN10:230-60035-5, 0-230-60035-2, ISBN: PalgraveIslamic in 978-0- Discourses 2009. Cyberspace. Macmillan, Contemporary Com: Mohammed Islam Dot el-Nawawy Khamis. andSahar sphere public democracy, Muslim women, society, civil and Islam identity, Islam, technology, communication and information websites, Keywords: Vit Sisler Discourses inCyberspace Islamic IslamDotCom:Review: Contemporary yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011 s. , pp. 131–134

131 Corresponding author: Vít Šisler, Charles University, U Kříže 8, Praha 5, 158 00, Czech Republic. E-mail: [email protected] by Jürgen Habermas and further refined by Lincoln Dahlberg. Dahlberg. By so, doing Lincoln by refined further and Habermas by Jürgen of aset of public sphere requirements the developed as with found therein discourses the compared El-Nawawy Khamis and forums, discussion content the of above-mentionedmodernity.” the analyzing In Islamic of standard of authority, ideal the “the as boundaries institutional the outside communication, for a “rational-critical” calls sphere, which of public the theory upon Habermas’ Dot Com draws Islam Essentially, research. of El-NawawyKhamis’ and heart at the lies place take discussions and deliberations of these public sphere the which in quality its among members. The plurality, and diversity as well as of uniformity, feelings by both is characterized umma virtual the aresult, making.” As of “identity ritual” a “virtual as viewed be Internet can the via interactions and discussions identities vibrant where and the religious their preserve who rely on forms communities of modern communication toMuslim or diasporic to immigrant relevant particularly to Khamis, El-Nawawy and for websites.phenomenon This on Islamic looking been have according is, they that of found coherence have many them the ontological and trust the to whereInternet, to flock young Muslims many caused has turn, in This, confidence. and trust their or to gain Muslims of young the mentality the to understand authorities failed have Islamic traditional many that believe also identity. their El-Nawawy Khamis and reconstruct and surroundings of sense their help make them can that of guidance sources and models look can up as they roleto that figures religious seeking are they and religion, their in find refuge to trying are Therefore,them many of future. uncertain an with phases transitional through going are that societies in live Muslims young today many that suggest El-Nawawy Khamis and combination sources. by aunique Arabic as ofand English well as richness empirical and by unprecedented conceptual characterized whole the book is Overall, argumentation. and for subsequent the analysis base therefore empirical and a solid provides to 2008, July February from mentionedsix websites.months, The fieldwork of period stretched over a of above- the boards discussion on place the taking of deliberations the analysis fieldworktextual extensive andbookfrom The stems online. yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

132 Vit Sisler made possible through these forums have contributed to creating anon- contributed have to forums creating these made possible through are that accessibility easy and anonymity the that suggest Khamis and El-Nawawy consensus. and to lend opinionnot change themselves easily on topics did that discourse apt butwere less civil to support they beliefs, ideological and religious their reinforcing and onwere keen establishing a “non-deliberative” reflected publicsphere, whereparticipants analyzed most of threads that the argue El-NawawyKhamis and Fundamentally, websites. analyzed three the in boards discussion various the through identities emerged conflicting, even or how different, analyzes Websites: Chapter 5,Finally, “Islamic Divergent Identities Cyberspace,” in identities online. Muslim collective these reflect how they to examine effort an in websites studied, being of Islamic the boards discussion the on of postings analysis textual chapter is devoted to of a detailed this bulk identities.” Muslim “collective Therefore,the call El-Nawawy Khamis and of tocreation what the is given focus Special concept online. of umma the the redefined and Internet, reformulated have the especially media, new explores howin Identities Cyberspace,” Collective Umma: Virtual “The 4, to of public it. sphere the Chapter criteria applicability the examines and history of Islamic phases concept throughout different the of umma the development the behind of context of historical the overview exhaustive whole Sphere?”, Umma Chapterthe the aPublic book. 3,“Is an provides throughout is manifested studies, case and number of examples a vast rigor, academic with same coupled The studies. or Islamic Eastern Middle and communicationsdiscipline the across researchers and to scholars valuable be will alone which reviews, state-of-the-disciplinerich, literary Sphere: Public The of Case Islam,” provide Virtual the in “Religion and Context” an PublicIslamic Sphere in i.e. “The chapters, opening two the Especially subject. on the of literature command academic insight vast and of book is its the theoretical deep features One of most distinguishing the (under studied being review).forums discussion the in concepts to discourses of Habermasian the applicability the websites to and examine Islamic these through is extended discourse public sphere the whether of rational-critical at investigating aimed they yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

133 Vit Sisler technology, and the contemporary Muslim world. Muslim technology, contemporary the and communication and Internet, information the with dealing researcher any for source it indispensable an make richness theoretical and scope grand its Similarly, contexts. Muslim diverse in interactions religion-technology of the much contribution needed and understanding to agreat the with us work provides Khamis’ El-Nawawy and transition, in societies and media on new dominated literature recently until has which democratization, and Internet the between conventional Given link the practices. democratic actual and participation civic Internet to the of enhance using limitations the highlights DotCom Therefore,Islam level, on a moregeneral discourse. Habermasian rational-critical of a truly quality the improving than rather environment, deliberative yber C yber O rient, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

134 Vit Sisler yber

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Vol. 5, Iss. 1, 2011

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