The Persistence of Orientalist Stereotypes: the Representation of Chinese Americans in S.J

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The Persistence of Orientalist Stereotypes: the Representation of Chinese Americans in S.J The Persistence of Orientalist Stereotypes: The Representation of Chinese Americans in S.J. Rozan’s Detective Fiction Series Maritta Similä University of Tampere School of Modern Languages and Translation Studies English Philology Pro Gradu Thesis Spring 2008 Tampereen yliopisto Englantilainen filologia Kieli- ja käännöstieteiden laitos SIMILÄ, MARITTA: The Persistence of Orientalist Stereotypes: The Representation of Chinese Americans in S.J. Rozan’s Detective Fiction Series Pro gradu –tutkielma, 112 sivua + lähdeluettelo. Kevät 2008 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Amerikkalaisessa populaarikulttuurissa esiintyy paljon aasialaisiin liittyviä stereotypioita, ja orientalismi, länsimainen tapa tulkita ja kuvata itämaita, on vaikuttanut siihen, miten aasialaisia on kuvattu kirjallisuudessa. Tutkielmani käsittelee aasialaisiin, erityisesti kiinalaisiin ja kiinalais- amerikkalaisiin, liittyviä stereotypioita dekkarikirjallisuudessa. Käytän esimerkkinä ja vertailukohteena valkoisten kirjailijoiden 1920–1940 –luvuilla luomaa jännityskirjallisuutta, mutta tärkein tutkimusmateriaalini on S.J. Rozanin dekkarisarja, josta tutkin romaaneja China Trade (1994), Mandarin Plaid (1996), A Bitter Feast (1998) ja Winter and Night (2002). Tarkoitukseni on esitellä tunnetuimmat stereotypiat ja selvittää, miten niiden vaikutus näkyy Rozanin teoksissa. Teoreettiselta taustaltaan tutkielmani kytkeytyy kulttuurintutkimukseen, orientalismiin ja postkolonialistiseen tutkimukseen sekä aasialais-amerikkalaisuuden tutkimukseen. Ensin esittelen representaatiota ja stereotypioita yleisellä tasolla, sitten tarkastelen orientalismin perinnettä ja vaikutusta populaarikulttuuriin. Vanhimmalla, kaikkein negatiivisimmalla aasialaisiin liittyvällä stereotypialla oli suuri vaikutus amerikkalaiseen populaarikulttuuriin etenkin vuosina 1850–1940. Aasialaisia pidettiin moraalittomina ja julmina ihmisinä, jotka maahanmuuton varjolla valloittaisivat koko maan ja tuhoaisivat valkoisen rodun. Nämä pelot näkyivät selkeästi 1920-luvun dekkarikirjallisuudessa, ja stereotypian vaikutukset näkyvät myös S.J. Rozanin teoksissa. Analyysissäni tarkastelen erityisesti kiinalais-amerikkalaisten jengien kuvausta ja rikollisuuden arkipäiväisyyttä kiinalais- amerikkalaisessa yhteisössä. 1960-luvulla aasialais-amerikkalaisten representaatioissa tapahtui suuri muutos, kun heitä alettiin pitää mallivähemmistönä, ja aasialais-amerikkalaisuuteen liitettiin positiivisia ominaisuuksia, kuten ahkeruus, älykkyys, perhekeskeisyys ja halukkuus sopeutua amerikkalaiseen yhteiskuntaan. Jo ennen esimerkillisen vähemmistön stereotypian vakiintumista dekkarigenressä oli esiintynyt kiinalais-amerikkalaisia etsivähahmoja, joiden menestys perustui kykyyn miellyttää valkoisia. Myös Rozanin teoksissa esiintyy runsaasti esimerkillisiä maahanmuuttajia, ja päähenkilön perheen historia vahvistaa tähän stereotyyppiin kuuluvan ajatuksen siitä, että amerikkalainen unelma toteutuu, jos maahanmuuttajat riittävän lujasti päättävät menestyä uudessa maassaan. Aasialaisiin naisiin liittyvät stereotyypit vaihtelevat vaarallisesta viettelijättärestä avuttomaan uhriin, mutta tunnetuin stereotypia on alistuva nainen, joka tekee kaikkensa miellyttääkseen valkoista miestään. Osa Rozanin teosten naisista sopii näihin rooleihin, kun taas toiset vastustavat perinteisiä rooleja. Erityisesti Lydia Chin, yksityisetsivänä toimiva kiinalais-amerikkalainen nainen, on uudenlainen hahmo amerikkalaisessa populaarikulttuurissa. Asiasanat: kiinalais-amerikkalaiset, orientalismi, stereotypiat, representaatiot, S.J. Rozan. Contents: 1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………1 2. Theoretical Framework…………………………………………………………………………..13 2.1. Representation, Difference, and Stereotypes……………………………………………….14 2.2. Orientalism………………………………………………………………………………….21 3. The Yellow Peril…………………………………………………………………………………32 3.1. The Legacy of the Terrifying Dr. Fu Manchu…….………………………………………...36 3.2. The Yellow Peril in Rozan’s Novels……………………………….……………………….41 4. The Model Minority Myth………………………………………………………………………..54 4.1. The Well-Behaved Chinese American Detectives of the 1930s ………………...………….59 4.2. The Model Minority Myth in Rozan’s Novels……………………………………………...63 5. Stereotypes of Asian Women…………………………………………………………………….78 5.1. Asian Women in Detective Fiction…………………………………………………………84 5.2. The Representation of Chinese American Women in Rozan’s Novels…………………….89 6. Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………109 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………….113 1 1. Introduction American popular culture is filled with stereotypes of Asians, such as the sinister criminal, the loyal servant, the submissive sex object, the hard-working immigrant and the intelligent college student. These stereotypes are a part of Orientalism, the Western discourse “dealing with the subject and subjugation of the East”.1 Orientalism has served all kinds of political and ideological purposes, and has changed its shape in response to changing situations, but representations of Asians have always been a powerful way to spread and maintain Orientalist ideology. In particular, stereotyping is an efficient way to create long-lasting ideas about what Asian people are like. Orientalist stereotypes have proven to be extremely persistent, and even conscious attempts to avoid repeating them in literature have often failed. In 1982, Kim claimed that especially white authors are incapable of representing Asians correctly: “Anglo-American literature does not tell us about Asians. It tells us about Anglos’ opinions of themselves, in relation to their opinions of Asians”.2 Many contemporary scholars working in the field of Asian American Studies share Kim’s opinion, and in fact, Ma goes even further by arguing that Orientalism affects even Asian American authors to such an extent that in American popular culture, “Orientalism and Asian American identity are...ultimately symbiotic”.3 The aim of my study is to examine the effects of Orientalism on American popular culture, particularly detective fiction written by white authors. I will study the most famous stereotypes of Asians, especially of the Chinese and Chinese Americans, and trace the tradition of these stereotypes in the genre of detective fiction. My primary research material is S.J. Rozan’s series of detective fiction, which interests me because it seems that the author has wanted to create a new kind of Chinese American character who resists old stereotypes. The aim of my study is to find out 1 Sheng-mei Ma, The Deathly Embrace: Orientalism and Asian American Identity (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000) xi. 2 Elaine H. Kim, Asian American Literature: An Introduction to the Writings and Their Social Context (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982) 20. 3 Ma xii. 2 to what extent Rozan has succeeded. How are the Chinese represented in this series? Can traces of stereotypes be seen in the novels? Can a white author create credible Asian characters? In order to find out whether Rozan’s representation of the Chinese is stereotypical, I need to present some of the most well-established stereotypes of Asian Americans. To understand these stereotypes, I need to examine the historical context in which they were created, and study their political, sociological and ideological roles. This background information is a significant part of my work, because stereotypical representations are always connected to a certain discourse and cannot be fully understood without examining their history. Hence the focus of my study is not just on Rozan’s novels, but on the stereotypes and their persistence in American popular culture. In order to illustrate the stereotypes I present, I will study how they can be seen in some detective fiction written by white authors mostly in the 1920s or 1930s. I will use Sax Rohmer’s Fu Manchu – novels, because the most famous embodiments of negative stereotypes of the Chinese can be found in them. Dashiell Hammett’s short stories also include some of these stereotypes, and because of Hammett’s great influence on the development of the genre of hard-boiled detective fiction, it is interesting to compare his stories to Rozan’s contemporary hard-boiled series. In section 4, I focus on stereotypes that are at least seemingly more positive, and will study Earl Derr Biggers’s Charlie Chan and Hugh Wiley’s James Lee Wong as examples of early Chinese American detective figures. When examining stereotypes of Asian women, I will return to Rohmer’s and Hammett’s fiction. In addition, I will discuss Juanita Sheridan’s novel The Chinese Chop because its protagonist, Lily Wu, is one of the first female Asian American private investigators in American literature. My approach is historical and comparative, as I study the contexts of origin of the stereotypes and make comparisons between older and contemporary detective fiction. Nevertheless, my foremost aim is to examine how stereotypes of the Chinese are visible in S.J. Rozan’s series. Rozan’s novels are set in her native city, New York, and much of the action takes place in Chinatown. The most distinguishing feature of the series is that it has two alternating main 3 characters, two private investigators that work together. In the first novel of the series, China Trade (1994), the main character and narrator is Lydia Chin, a 28-year-old Chinese American woman. In the next novel, the focus is on Bill Smith, who also narrates the story. Thus every other novel is told from the point
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