INTERNATIONAL Journal of Wilderness

DECEMBER 2003 VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3

FEATURES INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES 3 EDITORIAL PERSPECTIVES 39 Identifying Wilderness in the Landscapes of Wilderness Leaders Hong Kong Urban Periphery BY CHAD P. DAWSON BY LAWAL M. MARAFA 4 SOUL OF THE WILDERNESS Courage for Wilderness WILDERNESS DIGEST 43 Announcements and Wilderness Calendar BY HUBERT WEINZIERL 46 Alan Ewert Leaves IJW Editorial Board STEWARDSHIP 7 Urban Wilderness in Central Europe 47 Perry Brown named to IJW Editorial Board Rewilding at the Urban Fringe Book Reviews BY MATTHIAS DIEMER, MARTIN HELD, and 48 Confronting Consumption SABINE HOFMEISTER edited by T. Princen, Michael Maniates, and Ken 12 The Muskwa-Kechika Management Area Conca A Model for the Sustainable Development of Wilderness? REVIEW BY JOHN SHULTIS BY JOHN SHULTIS and RON RUTLEDGE 48 Driven Wild: How the Fight Against Automobiles 18 Relationships Between Transfrontier Park Managers, Launched the Modern Wilderness Movement by Paul Sutter Policy Makers, and Resident Indigenous Populations REVIEW BY JOHN SHULTIS BY SANDRA SLATER-JONES 24 Adventure Racing in the Wild BY LINDA MOFFAT 2003 Excellence In Wilderness Stewardship Research Award SCIENCE AND RESEARCH Co-sponsored by the 28 Interpersonal and Societal Aspects of Use Conflicts USDA Forest Service and IJW A Case Study of Wilderness in Alaska and Finland Professional stewardship of wilderness is dependent on a foun- BY JOAN KLUWE and EDWIN E. KRUMPE dation of solid research. This award from the Chief of the USDA Forest Service recognizes excellent research conducted PERSPECTIVES FROM THE ALDO LEOPOLD 34 either by an individual or a team. Employees of the Federal WILDERNESS RESEARCH INSTITUTE and State governments, other private or public organizations, A Decade of Coordinated Wilderness Research and private individuals are eligible. BY DAVID J. PARSONS Criteria for selection: (1) ability to identify management implications of the research; (2) creativity and innovation in EDUCATION AND COMMUNICATION scientific method; (3) effectiveness of research accomplishments 35 Wilderness Benchmarking in addressing wilderness stewardship issues of critical importance; Is Visitor Acceptability Creep a Concern or Not? (4) effectiveness in communicating research results to manage- ment; and (5) where appropriate, an interdisciplinary design of BY JOSEPH P. FLOOD the research project occurred recognizing the interactions between the physical, biological, and social components of the wilderness FRONT COVER image of the Iguaçu River as it pours through a subtropical resource. rainforest at Iguaçu Falls, Iguaçu National Park, Brazil World Heritage Site. Nomination submission: Request a nomination form and INSET PHOTO, a male cock of the rock (Rupicola peruviana), in a 1,600 meter- guidelines by e-mail from Don Fisher, USDA Forest Service high cloud forest, Kosnipata Valley, near Manu NP, Peru. Both photos courtesy of National Wilderness Program Manager ([email protected]). Alan Watson/Forest Light, Caledonia, Findhorn, Forres IV360YY, Scotland. Deadline for nominations: January 30, 2004. Tel: 0139-690934/691292. International Journal of Wilderness The International Journal of Wilderness links wilderness professionals, scientists, educators, environmentalists, and interested citizens worldwide with a forum for reporting and discussing wilderness ideas and events; inspirational ideas; planning, management, and allocation strategies; education; and research and policy aspects of wilderness stewardship.

EDITORIAL BOARD Perry Brown, University of Montana, Missoula, Mont., USA Vance G. Martin, WILD Foundation, Ojai, Calif., USA Alan Watson, Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute, Missoula, Mont., USA John Shultis, University of Northern British Columbia, Prince George, B.C., Canada Steve Hollenhorst, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho, USA Wayne A. Freimund, University of Montana, Missoula, Mont., USA Rebecca Oreskes, White Mountain National Forest, Gorham, N.H., USA

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF John C. Hendee, Professor Emeritus, University of Idaho Wilderness Research Center, Moscow, Idaho, USA

MANAGING EDITOR Chad P. Dawson, SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, N.Y., USA

ASSOCIATE EDITORS—INTERNATIONAL Gordon Cessford, Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand; Karen Fox, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada; Andrew Muir, Wilderness Foundation Eastern Cape, South Africa; Ian Player, South Africa National Parks Board and The Wilderness Foundation, Howick, Natal, Republic of South Africa; Vicki A. M. Sahanatien, Fundy National Park, Alma, Canada; Won Sop Shin, Chungbuk National University, Chungbuk, Korea; Anna-Liisa Sippola, University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland; Franco Zunino, Associazione Italiana per la Wilderness, Murialdo, Italy.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS—UNITED STATES Greg Aplet, The Wilderness Society, Denver, Colo.; David Cole, Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute, Missoula, Mont.; John Daigle, University of Maine, Orono, Maine; Don Fisher, USFS, Washington D.C.; Joseph Flood, East Carolina University, Greenville, N.C.; Lewis Glenn, Outward Bound USA, Garrison, N.Y.; Glenn Haas, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colo.; Troy Hall, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho; William Hammit, Clemson University, Clemson, S.C.; Greg Hansen, U.S. Forest Service, Mesa, Ariz.; Dave Harmon, Bureau of Land Management, Portland, Oreg.; Bill Hendricks, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, Calif.; Ed Krumpe, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho; Jim Mahoney, Bureau of Land Manage- ment, Sierra Vista, Ariz.; Bob Manning, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt.; Jeffrey Marion, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va.; Leo McAvoy, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.; Michael McCloskey, Sierra Club; Christopher Monz, Sterling College, Craftsbury Common, Vt.; Connie Myers, Arthur Carhart Wilderness Training Center, Missoula, Mont.; Roderick Nash, University of California, Santa Barbara, Calif.; David Ostergren, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Ariz.; Marilyn Riley, Wilderness Transitions Inc., Sausalito, Calif.; Joe Roggenbuck, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va.; Holmes Rolston III, Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, Colo.; Susan Sater, U.S. Forest Service, Portland, Oreg.; Tod Schimelpfenig, National Outdoor Leadership School, Lander, Wyo.; Rudy Schuster, SUNY-ESF, Syracuse, N.Y.; Elizabeth Thorndike, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.; Jay Watson, The Wilderness Society, San Francisco, Calif.; Dave White, Arizona State University, Tempe, Ariz.

International Journal of Wilderness (IJW) publishes three issues per year Submissions: Contributions pertinent to wilderness worldwide are (April, August, and December). IJW is a not-for-profit publication. solicited, including articles on wilderness planning, management, and allocation strategies; wilderness education, including descriptions Manuscripts to: Chad P. Dawson, SUNY-ESF, 320 Bray Hall, One of key programs using wilderness for personal growth, therapy, and Forestry Drive, Syracuse, N.Y. 13210-2787, USA. Telephone: (315) environmental education; wilderness-related science and research from 470-6567. Fax: (315) 470-6535. E-mail: [email protected]. all disciplines addressing physical, biological, and social aspects of wilderness; and international perspectives describing wilderness Business Management and Subscriptions: WILD Foundation, P.O. Box 1380, worldwide. Articles, commentaries, letters to the editor, photos, book Ojai, CA 93024, USA. Telephone: (805) 640-0390. Fax: (805) 640-0230. reviews, announcements, and information for the wilderness digest are E-mail: [email protected]. encouraged. A complete list of manuscript submission guidelines is available from the managing editor. Subscription rates (per volume calendar year): Subscription costs are in U.S. dollars only—$35 for individuals and $55 for organizations/ Artwork: Submission of artwork and photographs with captions are libraries. Subscriptions from Canada and Mexico, add $10; outside North encouraged. Photo credits will appear in a byline; artwork may be signed America, add $20. Back issues are available for $15. by the author. All materials printed in the International Journal of Wilderness, copyright World Wide Website: www.ijw.org. © 2003 by the International Wilderness Leadership (WILD) Foundation. Individuals, and nonprofit libraries acting for them, are permitted to make Printed on recycled paper. fair use of material from the journal. ISSN # 1086-5519.

SPONSORING ORGANIZATIONS • Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute • Indiana University, Department of Recreation and Park Administration • National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) • Outward Bound™ • SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry • The WILD® Foundation • The Wilderness Society • University of Idaho Wilderness Research Center • University of Montana, School of Forestry and Wilderness Institute • USDA Forest Service • USDI Bureau of Land Management • USDI Fish and Wildlife Service • USDI National Park Service • Wilderness Foundation (South Africa) • Wilderness Leadership School (South Africa)

2 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 FEATURES

EDITORIAL PERSPECTIVES

Wilderness Leaders

BY CHAD P. DAWSON

There is just one hope of repulsing the tyrannical ambition of civilization to conquer every niche on the whole earth. That hope is the organization of spirited people who will fight for the freedom of the wilderness. —Robert Marshall, cofounder, The Wilderness Society

e are blessed with a rich history of wilderness ponents in the historic landscapes advocacy within the United States and around around Hong Kong. Slater-Jones W the world. Some research reports in the United investigates the relationships be- States indicate that a sizable portion of the population knows tween transfrontier park about wilderness and values it (see Cordell et al. in the managers, policy makers, and in- April 2003 issue of the IJW). However, that same public is digenous populations around unaware of or does not understand some of the ecologic, some North American and south- economic, and social benefits of our wilderness resource ern African parks. Shultis and and legacy. As Marshall points out, we need organizations Rutledge review a management and leaders to keep the spirit of wilderness alive. model that may help provide sus- Some of the “spirited people” who are the driving force tainable development around behind development and production of the IJW are chang- some wilderness areas of Canada. ing with this issue. Dr. Alan Ewert, one of the founding Kluwe and Krumpe explore executive editors of the IJW, has resigned in order to devote the social aspects of visitor use Article author Chad Dawson. more time to his new duties at Indiana University as asso- conflicts in wilderness areas of ciate dean in the School of Health, Physical Education and Alaska and Finland; in particular, they are concerned about Recreation (see page 46). Dr. Perry Brown, dean of the Col- recreation uses and users increasingly conflicting with sub- lege of Forestry and Conservation at the University of sistence activities. Flood reports on studies of recreational Montana in Missoula, has accepted an appointment to the users and managers in the Mission Mountains Wilderness IJW editorial board (see page 47). of Montana to address the concern that wilderness users The Soul of the Wilderness article in this issue is an ed- may “benchmark,” or fix a reference point on the condi- ited transcript of a speech in Munich on June 25, 2003, by tions they observe in wilderness, and use that as a reference Hubert Weinzierl, President of Deutscher Naturschutzring. point in future visits to that or other wilderness areas. He calls for us individually to have the courage to speak The two book reviews in this issue focus on the “tyranni- out for wilderness and ensure its creation and protection, cal ambition of civilization to conquer every niche.” The first and to have the courage as a society to restrain ourselves book, Confronting Consumption, tells the story of the obses- from creating cultured landscapes everywhere and losing sion with consumption in Western cultures, while the second the natural. book, Driven Wild, tells about the impact of automobile-based Four articles in this issue speak to the changes within tourism on early wilderness advocates and their interest in the international landscape toward more attention to wild- preserving some natural landscapes. What will generations lands and wilderness. Diemer, Held, and Hofmeister relate in the future say about the wilderness leaders of today and attempts at the and need for rewilding the fringe around the wilderness legacy we leave to them? urban areas in central Europe. Marafa identifies wild com-

International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 3 FEATURES

SOUL OF THE WILDERNESS

Courage for Wilderness

BY HUBERT WEINZIERL

ilderness seems to be booming. There is no if one dares to ask about the remaining wilderness, he or academy that doesn’t offer symposia on wil- she would only raise an uncomprehending stare. W derness; no magazine that doesn’t have a topic To the contrary, the question of whether nature is replace- on the so called “wild”; and even the German state TV able is keeping the landscape planners, government channel (ARD) alone ran over a 100 programs on themes administrators, and legislators busy, but also some invest- like “adventure wilderness,” “longing for wilderness,” “refuge ment speculators who try to distract us from their destruction wilderness,” and so forth. of nature with compensation deals to try to offset or minimize Nature romance, outdoor drive, and the Waldwesen have the damage. For example, amphibian pools in highway loops, returned to our modern vocabulary. The forest as a mysti- restoration after mining, compensation for nature conser- cal place and Green Man or vancy when building power lines, purchase of acreage, and Merlin myths are under discus- “optimization” in new road construction or at the edge of sion again, and it appears that industrial areas—these are offered to the public as ecological many an Internet surfer longs bait. Elaborate and often perverse calculation methods and for the green labyrinths and the so-called ecological performance evaluations are used as proof “downs” of the soul. that nature and species protection are best served with in- It took quite a while for trusions into the ecosystem. the wilderness discussion to It is exactly here that I stake my most urgent protest. Grown cross the trans-Atlantic gap, landscapes and their species and creatures cannot be com- where the discussion had al- pensated for by manipulation or with money—any more than ready started half a century ago. can the place that we call home. Those who sell habitats and But wilderness thinking is now think to buy a piece of nature in exchange elsewhere must Author Hubert Weinzierl by Ulf Doerner. here. Aldo Leopold (1887– know that they destroyed nature all the same. 1948) defined this philosophy with the still-valid words, “Wilderness is a rejection of the Our Grandchildren Will Judge Us arrogance of humans.” by the Nature We Leave for Them Much more honest than an ecological performance evalua- Wild Nature Under Attack in Germany tion would be to introduce a grandchild compatibility check If I were to be led blindfolded through different countries in order to disclose what we force on our posterity. The and had my sight returned in this country, I would imme- ensuing ages will not judge us on how many roads or fac- diately know that I was in Germany: Because nowhere else tories we built, but on how much habitat, how many animal are the forests and rivers governed by a more obtrusive and plant species, and how much wilderness we left be- form of orderliness, and nowhere else are the degrees of hind. Therefore, I plead for more courage for wilderness. Leave cleanliness celebrated with such a perversity as here. Streets, hands off of some forests and meadows. Let’s have the courage farm tracks, forest borders, villages, towns, and industrial to do nothing, and, as foresters or landscape planners, let’s find areas—all reflect a cultivated land, born of offices and draw- virtue in the insight that nature doesn’t need us at all. ing-table brains that have nothing in common with What kind of culture is this that wrecks its basis, the civilization, and nothing in common with free nature. And landscapes and river valleys, leaves its forests to waste away,

4 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 and quarrels in its greed about whether the richest society ever can afford a few animals and plants, which survived the famines of harder days. Isn’t it an indicator for the loss of sense of pro- portion, when in Germany there is currently a heated debate about whether 50 lynx are allowed to keep their ancestral right to live just because they feed on a few deer? Where is the prey envy directed at 50 million cars to which we make hundreds of thou- sands of game sacrifices and against which we even lovingly insure them?

To Live and Let Live “Keeping it Wild” is on the European agenda. Photo by Vance Martin. For 20 years we left the park behind the Wiesenfelden castle to run to seed. We should show more courage for way, nature is all but sent to the asy- Since then, the biologists have regis- wilderness, and not be fobbed off by lum or transferred to the welfare office tered peaks of diversity. The golden the idea that certain habitats are up- of creation. oriole has returned, the hobbyist holders of landscape moral To counter this mind-set, I want to searches for dragonflies and the bog standards. On the contrary, we voice the consideration that ecological calla flowers, and the newts and toads should see nature reserves as pearls succession in its own right is worth attract gray herons. But the tourist embedded into a landscape, and protection, and that we need to assure board inveighs against the unbearable which we carefully protect. Thus, we enough space for evolution to occur. mess that should be cleaned up and need nature conservancy over all ar- Why don’t we seize the historic oppor- converted into human playgrounds. eas. And we need some wilderness tunity in light of the current farming The repertoire of every populist in our country in order to not dis- situation in central Europe and leave politician still has it that our home- connect totally from nature. some fallow land to develop for itself, land would convert into a miserable This shift signifies a few corrections to be reforested, or to just be? Or de- “misnature” without the nursing hands needed in our thinking; for example, velop some hundred thousand hectares and the machines of industrious farm- changing the farming policy fairy tale of of river scapes into floodplains as a pro- ers—that left alone it would convert the farmer as landscape curator. And a tection against floods? to dark and wild steppe. Foresters, confession by us conservationists that Now, due to economic reasons, we hunters, anglers, water managers, and quite a bit of our obsession with nature have the once-in-a-lifetime chance to road builders all assume that the good originates from the anthropocentric declare the areas from which farming Lord is incapable of keeping his cre- wishful thinking to conserve nature as will retreat as succession areas (about ation in order without their help. we would like it to be. Nature conserva- 10%) and to reward the farmers for it Recently, a host of landscape plan- tion understood this way is ultimately instead of subsidizing overproduction ners and landscape curators just a form of the desire to dominate. of agricultural products. reinforced their battle for the perpetu- Isn’t it horrible to live in a country Is the development of hazelnut ation of our artificial or so-called in which every square meter of living hedges, birch clusters, juniper slopes, or “cultured land.” Must not we, the space is technocratically planned as an alder thickets a disaster, even when it conservationists, in the face of such economic area or development axis, leads to a species change? Isn’t there a ideas think about which nature we or as usable agricultural area, con- wonderful new forest after the bark want to protect? Do we want to con- struction area, or, recently, as a beetle collapse in the low mountain serve a snapshot of the human-made concession to ecology as a “mainte- ranges, or fields of reed where a pond landscape forever, or do we want to nance area” or “habitat” conserved just starts to dry up? Or gorgeous wetlands protect nature itself? to make intensive use possible? In this were we don’t keep the drainage trenches

International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 5 open anymore, and forest fringes where it will suddenly become apparent why intuitiveness instead of knowledge, for we used to cut away to the bark? the wildcat is part of the nature of the hope instead of promises. We need to think about these forest, even if we never get to see one, Wilderness does not have to be cheaper alternatives to cultivation of that beaver shavings on the riverbanks jungle, a wild river, or the howling of the landscape. Are we aware that only reveal a secret presence, and that the a wolf. Wilderness is everywhere a rich society can afford state-financed flap of an Apollo butterfly sanctifies where we tolerate it: in a chemical-free programs to cultivate the landscape in the heath slope. garden, in forests where the lynx is the long run, and that the so-called tolerated, or in a society that permits contractual nature conservation will Longing for Wilderness its citizens to think. run out eventually? If we respect the Recently I was asked to deliver a defi- This society that we live in has been right of the wilderness again, we will nition of the topic of wilderness. While chasing the misapprehension of sepa- have to abandon quite a bit of static thinking through my own wilderness rating intellect from mind since the age nature conservation management for philosophy of “doing nothing as na- of enlightenment, which is after all a the benefit of a perpetual flow of natu- ture conservation” and “let nature be dozen human generations ago, and, ral conditions, while also creating nature,” I suddenly realized the error: therefore, our right brain is hopelessly recreation opportunities. Wilderness is not thinkable, wilder- atrophied. Thus, we have our difficul- Maybe we should become more ness can only be, wilderness is not ties in talking to trees or loving sensitive to life processes and rethink describable, let alone able to be butterflies. And it will take time in our conservation relationship to na- planned. It cannot even be experi- evolutionary terms to overcome this ture with a shift toward a future ethic, enced, it is only livable. generations-long error. that abjures the landscape geometry Wilderness is a rejection of order, the Maybe it can happen much faster, and turns toward being and letting be. typical German approach, the appall- given the growing global pressure to con- This idea is not to play anthropocen- ing planning of every square meter, serve wilderness. Then we can go home tric against biocentric thinking, but and the banishment of the last secrets to wilderness, not back to nature. Home, rather to engage more in a spiritual and myths from our surrounding where we can be how we are, to exist, intuitiveness that we are on a common world. Wilderness is a culture against love, eat, drink, sleep, be lazy and weak, earth and a common creature. the streamlined thinking, against all pray, laugh, and dance—being wild and Courage for wilderness is also the the “you may, you shall, you must” simply alive. Therefore, wilderness is the courage for self-control, for observing constraints by which State and religion dream of being allowed to be oneself, in- instead of acting, for noninterference. have cleared our “soul wilderness” and stead of a state of heteronomy. It is doing nothing as nature conser- consolidated our natural creative sen- Wilderness is a mind-set. Wilder- vation. It embodies respect for sitivity. Out of the wilderness of living ness is the delight of not mowing the sanctuaries and the reduction of our hearts they formed disciplined, civi- Garden of Eden, but waiting serenely own characteristic arrogance in favor lized humans, whose ties to the living for paradise. Wilderness is dreaming of respect for the rest of creation. Then threaten to snap. instead of cleaning up. Wilderness is Wilderness nature trails that are a dialogue with nature instead of talk- currently in vogue are as absurd as liv- ing about nature. eries fairs or fitness trails; that are not needed if I am living a real life, and HUBERT WEINZIERL is the president of the clichés of the good old times are Deutscher Naturschutzring (German as bogus as those of the wilderness. League of Nature, Conservation, and Environment [and an umbrella organization The wilderness in our hearts is a of 105 NGOs, 5.5 million members]). This yearning. It is a yearning for all the no- article is based on a translation of a June tions that don’t cost anything, a yearning 25, 2003, presentation in Munich at the for the simple, the manageable, and the launch of the International Wilderness Foundation (Germany). He can be reached Photo by Ulf Doerner. things human. It is a yearning for en- chantment and for mysteries, for at: Post Fach 40, 94343 Wiesenfelden, Germany.

6 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 STEWARDSHIP

Urban Wilderness in Central Europe

Rewilding at the Urban Fringe

BY MATTHIAS DIEMER, MARTIN HELD, and SABINE HOFMEISTER

ilderness is a popular con- cept in central Europe, al- W though extensive natural areas where human management has either never occurred or ceased centuries ago are lacking. Wilderness areas tend to be small and isolated, and often cur- rently in the process of rewilding; therefore, wilderness and rewilding must be viewed in a specific central Eu- ropean context. As Leopold (1942) notes about the value of small wilder- ness: “One of the symptoms of Article coauthors (l to r) Matthias Diemer, Martin Held, and Sabine Hofmeister. immaturity in our concept of recre- ational values is the assumption, frequent among national parks were established in the 1990s, it is unlikely administrators, that a small park or forest has no place for that a substantial number of new reserves will be estab- wilderness. No tract of land is too small for the wilderness lished in the near future due to the large land areas required idea. It can, and perhaps should, flavor the recreational and associated management constraints. scheme for any woodlot or backyard” (pp. 24–25). Concurrently, a number of local initiatives were started by conservationists, foresters, NGOs, and local public agen- Introduction cies, which have led to the independent establishment of In most regions of Europe, including the British Isles, ex- urban wilderness areas in central Europe to complement tensive pristine wilderness areas are lacking, if judged by the more remote national parks (Held and Sinner 2002). the criteria contained in the U.S. Wilderness Act or by the There are analogous efforts within the IUCN to address the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natu- issue of urban parks (McNeely 2001). In the following sec- ral Resources (IUCN) wilderness classification (EUROPARC tions we introduce the underlying ideas, concepts, and and IUCN 2000; Carver et al. 2002). Nevertheless, a num- potential functions of established and proposed urban wil- ber of isolated wilderness areas exist in relatively remote derness areas in central Europe. locations throughout central Europe (Germany, Austria, and Switzerland). They are often synonymous with national Wilderness, Rewilding, and Scale parks of which they comprise core zones, where human As mentioned previously, extensive pristine wilderness ar- impacts were historically minimal or, where management eas are lacking in Europe. Although there is ample evidence activities have been halted. Although a number of these of extensive human influence in the shaping of so-called

International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 7 and immigration of large carnivores com- More recently, a third, dynamic mands great interest and controversy approach has gained momentum, throughout Europe, the rewilding issue which emphasizes processes rather goes far beyond wildlife habitat. Big wil- than static preservation (Scherzinger derness (Soulé and Noss 1998), rewilded 1997; Jedicke 1998). Here, the main- or not, is unfeasible in central Europe. tenance or reestablishment of natural processes, including vegetation suc- From Species to Processes: cession, floods, wind throws, and Conservation in Central insect calamities, are explicitly toler- ated. Reestablishment of natural Europe processes also implies rewilding, since In central Europe, virtually all management is effectively terminated. seminatural landscapes are the prod- In most habitats this process will re- ucts of centuries-old, traditional sult in secondary succession toward agricultural, hydrological, and silvicul- wilderness. In some instances, the tural management regimes. These consequences of rewilding may in- human efforts have resulted in habi- clude the disappearance of certain tats with high biodiversity and many habitat types and even reductions of rare or endangered species (e.g., fens, overall biodiversity. Furthermore, for calcareous grasslands). Many of these some ecosystems there are no clear Figure 1—Abandoned railroad yard in the rewilding area Schöneberger Südgelände in Berlin, Germany. Photo by S. unique and species-rich habitats are conceptions of the composition or Hofmeister. threatened as a result of land-use appearance of the future wilderness state. changes associated with the intensifica- Consequently, rewilding (Verwilderung) pristine North American wilderness tion of agriculture, urban development, is a controversial issue, not only among (Olwig 1995; Schama 1995), the ideal and anthropogenic impacts. For ex- natural resource professionals and of pristine and untrammeled wilder- ample, more than 90% of Swiss conservationists, but also among the ness formulated in the U.S. Wilderness wetlands have been destroyed since general public. Act (1964) still prevails (Cole and 1850. Consequently, nature conserva- A case in point is the national park Landres 1996). In practice, however, tion during the past decades has Bayerischer Wald in Germany where the wilderness criteria associated with focused primarily either on the preser- widespread diebacks of spruce forests IUCN classifications are applied prag- vation of rare or endangered species, occurred due to drought and beetle matically, and difficulties in defining or, more recently, on the maintenance infestations during the 1990s. These natural states of ecosystems prior to of threatened seminatural habitats, diebacks led to public protests remi- human settlement are acknowledged characterized by high biodiversity and/ niscent of reactions to the wildfires and (EUROPARC and IUCN 2000). Briefly, or presence of endangered species. the “let burn” policy in Yellowstone wilderness is viewed as an area, where These two approaches are termed static, National Park during 1988. Yet, in time, natural processes are permitted to op- since the preservation of a status quo attitudes of both the public and some erate without human interference. or an ideal are the primary management critical foresters changed as the restor- Throughout Europe, the establish- objectives. Despite their virtues and ative powers of ecosystems became ment of wilderness inevitably involves the successes, these approaches are highly evident through widespread forest process of rewilding. Yet rewilding is per- dependent upon subsidies to landhold- regeneration, as predicted by conser- ceived differently in Europe than in North ers and managers, which may not be vation professionals. Hence, public America. Although the reintroduction available in the future (Eissing 2002). acceptance of rewilding rises once the dynamic properties of ecosystems are The creation of wilderness or rewilding areas proximate understood and appreciated. Rewilding is also relevant outside to urban centers will contribute to conservation, nature of national parks or reserves. Outside parks, rewilding is bound to increase appreciation, and the overall quality of life. significantly in marginal forest and

8 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 agricultural lands. Present efforts by Table 1—Proposed Classification of Wilderness in Central Europe. federal agencies and the European Union to take cropland out of agricul- Designation Description IUCN Status Purpose tural production and future National Parks Reserves distant from human II, Ib Biodiversity, ecological projections of these agricultural poli- habitation, large areas services, large carnivores, (> 1000 ha). recreation, research cies indicate that abandonment and Urban Reserves close to urban None, but Biodiversity, recreation, hence rewilding of agricultural lands wilderness centers and/or urban areas desirable by ecological services, will increase dramatically in the near (≤ 10 km distance), smaller both IUCN research future, particularly in regions where areas (< 1000 ha). Remnants and national soils are marginally productive of wilderness or areas with agencies. (Eissing 2002). It is presently unclear low human impact. Urban and rural Abandoned urban, industrial Not needed. Biodiversity, education, if and how these extensive agricultural rewilding areas or agricultural sites (< 500 ha), Regional or ecological processes (e.g., rewilding areas will be administered. including rail yards, former national legal plant succession, invasions), Similar trends, albeit driven by differ- coal mining areas, former status recreation, research ent constraints, can be projected for agricultural fields. desirable. the field of forestry. Rewilding Small areas (≤ several ha), Not needed. Biodiversity, recreation, microcosms such as private and public Local legal ecological processes Urban Wilderness (urban and gardens, canyons, edges of status rural) parks, streams or ponds. desirable. in Central Europe Adapted from Meyer et al. 2002. Aside from established national parks and abandoned agricultural and forest- lands, where ecosystems are developing Table 2—Examples of Urban Wilderness Areas in Central Europe. into wilderness, other types of wilder- Name Location/Country Age Area (ha) Habitat Former Use ness are present in central Europe— Faberwald Nürnberg, D 1981 20 Mixed deciduous Recreation albeit at appreciably smaller spatial forest scales than recognized by current IUCN Sihlwald Zürich, CH 1993 820 Mixed deciduous Silviculture, forest recreation criteria (i.e., less than 1,000 hectares Stadtwald Lübeck, D 1994 479 in Mixed deciduous Silviculture, [2,470 acres]). These wildernesses in- four sites forest recreation clude steep canyons or ravines, remote St. Arnualer Saarbrücken, D 1995 45 Grassland, open Meadows, wetlands, inaccessible as well as aban- Wiesen forest landfill doned orchards, or vineyards in National Park Wien, A 1996 8,800 Floodplain, Recreation, suburban and rural areas. In addition, Donau-Auen deciduous forest silviculture Wilder Ruhrgebiet, D 1995– 100 Mixed birch and Coal mines, abandoned industrial areas, rail yards, Industriewald/ 1999 willow stands spoils former borderlines (such as sections of Brachewald the former Berlin Wall), unused lots, Schöneberger Berlin, D 2000 18 Various stages of Railroad yard and recreational parks are rapidly de- Südgelände succession veloping into urban wilderness. These Steinbachtal- Saarbrücken, D 2002 1,000 Mixed deciduous Silviculture, urban wilderness areas are highly di- Netzbachtal forest recreation Goldachtobel St. Gallen, CH proposed 430 Stream, ravine, Silviculture, verse, not only biologically, but also in mixed deciduous hydroelectricity, spatial extent. Only few have a legal forest hunting, recreation status guaranteeing permanence. Con- sequently, a multitude of uses exists, Of primary interest here is urban wil- (Christen 2002), a mixed deciduous for- spanning the extremes of recreational derness. During the last decade a est formerly managed for timber and playgrounds or picnic areas to imper- number of urban wilderness areas, pre- wood production that is reverting to vious and thus solitary thickets. Yet, in dominantly forests, have become wilderness. As for most other urban wil- all examples, parts of the area are established in Switzerland, Germany, derness areas, no definitive legal status rewilding. We propose the following and Austria (see Table 2). The most exists for Sihlwald. Currently, the Swiss classification to characterize various prominent example is Sihlwald, located legislature is preparing amendments that wilderness areas (see Table 1). in the vicinity of metropolitan Zürich would provide recognition as well as

International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 9 unique in that they attempt to coalesce a number of potentially conflicting uses, such as demonstrations of historical industrial architecture, ecological succession on spoils, various recreational activities, and cultural events. They all include zones set aside for rewilding (i.e., secondary succession). As a result of these multiple uses, we classify these sites as urban rewilding areas rather than urban wilderness (see Table 1). The distinction between wilderness and rewilding area seems contradictory, that the process of rewilding occurs in both categories. Yet, the long-term objectives are different. Wilderness areas are tracts of land specifically set aside to evolve without human interference, whereas rewilding areas, or fractions thereof, may never attain this state, due to the multiple management objectives.

Public Acceptance of Urban Wilderness— Successes, Functions, and Potentials The concept of wilderness is highly popular throughout central Europe and publicized through tourism, the media, Figure 2—Goldachtobel—a proposed urban wilderness area near St. Gallen, Switzerland. Photo by M. Diemer. and NGO campaigns. Nevertheless, many people still associate it with vast protection for existing (e.g., Sihlwald) throughout Germany and Switzerland national parks located in Scandinavia, and proposed urban wilderness areas, as a result of this publicity. North America, or elsewhere. Only such as the watershed Goldach-Tobel Another wilderness category unique several of the national parks in close to St. Gallen (see Table 2). to central Europe, often located in Germany, such as Bayerischer Wald, Independent of these Swiss federal metropolitan areas, should also be actively promote the term wilderness. activities, a growing interest prevails mentioned here (see Table 1). Several Furthermore, due to restrictions on use, throughout central Europe for former industrial areas in Germany have many of the wilderness areas within establishing further urban wildernesses, recently gained protective status, such national parks are not freely accessible evidenced by activities of local initiatives, as in the Ruhrgebiet (Emscher to the European public. conferences, and workshops (Held and Landschaftspark), Berlin (Schöneberger Hence, urban wilderness areas can Sinner 2002). Campaigns by Swiss and Südgelände), and Dessau (Ferropolis). serve to promote the wilderness German NGOs have resulted in broad, The areas usually comprise extensive concept in situ in the proximity of nationwide coverage and hence greater industrial complexes, including vast urban centers, as well as to foster public and political awareness of urban areas used for the storage of materials, nature appreciation, recreation, and wilderness. Presumably several new such as open pits or quarries, and experiences of solitude (Zucchi 2002). urban wilderness areas will be mounds of spoils that were abandoned Additional uses include educational, established or officially recognized for economic reasons. These sites are pedagogic, or therapeutic programs.

10 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 In fact, the success of two integrated REFERENCES Olwig, K. R. 1995. Reinventing common na- educational and therapy programs in Carver, S., A. Evans, and S. Fritz. 2002. Wil- ture: Yosemite and Mount Rushmore—A derness attribute mapping in the United meandering tale of a double nature. In W. Switzerland appears to be closely linked Kingdom. IJW 8 (1): 24–29. Cronon, ed. Uncommon Ground: Rethink- with recurrent nature experiences in Christen, M. 2002. Sihlwald—Erfahrungen eines ing the Human Place in Nature. New York: urban wilderness areas. sich entwickelnden stadtnahen Wildnisgebietes. W. W. Norton, 379–408. Bayerische Staatsforstverwaltung Tagungs- Schama, S. 1995. Landscape and Memory. However, these human demands must bericht 7: 25–33. New York: Knopf. be weighed against ecological objectives Cole, D. N., and P. B. Landres. 1996. Threats to Scherzinger, W. 1997. Tun oder Unterlassen? (biodiversity, maintenance of natural wilderness ecosystems: Impacts and research Aspekte des Prozessschutzes und Bedeutung processes) as well as legal constraints needs. Ecological Applications 6: 168–184. des Nichts-Tuns im Naturschutz. Laufener Cronon, W. 1995. The trouble with wilderness; Seminarbeiträge No. 1: 31–44. (maintenance of roads, public safety Or, getting back to the wrong nature. In W. Soulé, M., and R. Noss. 1998. Rewilding and issues, hunting, access). Irrespective of Cronon, ed. Uncommon Ground: Rethink- biodiversity: Complementary goals for con- these limitations, urban wilderness areas ing the Human Place in Nature. New York: servation. Wild Earth (Fall 1998): 1–11. have a great potential for education, W. W. Norton, 69–90. Zucchi, H. 2002. Wildnis als Kulturaufgabe— Eissing, H. 2002. Die Wiedergewinnung der Ein Diskussionsbeitrag. Natur und recreation, and the experience of nature Wildnis—Gedanken zu Wildnis und Landschaft 77: 373–378. (Meyer et al. 2002). In addition, their Wildniserfahrung. Bayerische Staatsforstver- establishment addresses the criticisms of waltung Tagungsbericht 7: 12–24. MATTHIAS DIEMER is an instructor of EUROPARC and IUCN. 2000. Guidelines for Cronon (1995) and others, who have experiential education at the Wildnisschule, Protected Area Management Categories— Wartensee, 9404 Rorschacherberg, and argued that the preoccupation with Interpretation and Application of the Pro- lecturer in environmental studies at the remote and presumably pristine tected Area Management Categories in Institut für Umweltwissenschaften, wilderness has been counterproductive Europe. Grafenau, Germany: EUROPARC and WCPA. Universität Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse with respect to environmental awareness Held, M., and K. F. Sinner. 2002. Denn die Wildnis 190, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland. E-mail: and appreciation of nature (but see above liegt so nah: Wildnis vor der Haustür—Zur [email protected]. quote from Leopold). In this context, Einführung. Bayerische Staatsforstverwaltung MARTIN HELD is a senior lecturer in and author urban wilderness should and can Tagungsbericht 7: 7–11. Jedicke, E. 1998. Raum-Zeit-Dynamik in on economics and sustainable development contribute significantly to environmental Ökosystemen und Landschaften. Naturschutz at the Protestant Academy Tutzing, Schloss- awareness in urban areas, where the und Landschaftsplanung 30: 229–236. Strasse 2+4, 82327 Tutzing, Germany. majority of people reside and where Leopold, A. 1942. Wilderness Values. The Liv- E-mail: [email protected]. ing Wilderness 7: 24–25. environmental problems are most severe. SABINE HOFMEISTER is professor of McNeely, J. A. 2001. Cities and protected areas: In addition, urban wilderness areas serve An oxymoron or a partnership? Parks 11: 1–3. environmental planning at the Fachbereich as vital resource for future generations. Meyer, K., M. Held, and K. F. Sinner. 2002. IV Umweltwissenschaften, Universität For children and adolescents, these areas Wildnis vor der Haustür—Ergebnisse des Lüneburg, Scharnhorststrasse 1, 21335 Workshops. Bayerische Staatsforstver- Lüneburg, Germany. E-mail: provide a suite of functions, including waltung Tagungsbericht 7: 128–131. [email protected]. playgrounds, refuges, and testing grounds for personal challenges under natural conditions. The creation of wilderness or rewilding areas proximate to urban centers will contribute to conservation, nature appreciation, and the overall quality of life. In doing so, they comp- lement the more remote wilderness areas, such as national parks and reserves throughout central Europe and elsewhere. Urban wilderness can be viewed as a unique European approach to reinstate wilderness via rewilding in a landscape extensively shaped by humans and as a model for other Figure 3—View from Sihlwald towards Zürich, Switzerland. Photo by A. König, Grünstadt Zürich. metropolitan areas worldwide.

International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 11 STEWARDSHIP

The Muskwa-Kechika Management Area

A Model for the Sustainable Development of Wilderness?

BY JOHN SHULTIS and RON RUTLEDGE

Introduction extraction activities. After the government demonstrated it The economy of the province of British Columbia (BC) re- was willing to create protected areas despite the lack of mains heavily dependent on resource extraction—the forestry consensus, the LRMP process began to move forward, sector is still its primary economic generator—but it is also though often at an excruciatingly slow pace. known for its level of environmental concern. Indeed, since In northeastern BC, two regionally based groups of stake- the birth of the modern environmental movement in the late holders from government, industry, conservation, recreation, 1960s, there has been an increasing number and intensity of First Nations, and other interested parties began LRMP de- political battles between resource extraction industries and liberations in 1992. The purpose of this article is to describe residents calling for the preservation of wilderness and the innovative outcomes created by these two groups over parklands in BC. This so-called “war-in-the-woods” reached more than five years of discussions. After briefly noting the a crescendo in the late 1980s, when valley by valley battles ecological significance of the Muskwa-Kechika Management became commonplace (Wilson 1998). Area (MKMA), the vision and objectives of the MKMA are A change of government in 1990 stimulated the devel- outlined, and the means of achieving these objectives through opment of a new model of decision making for natural distinct legislation and policy are reviewed. The article spe- resource management in BC. In 1992, the Commission on cifically highlights the central role that the concept of Resources and Environment (CORE) was legislated to “de- wilderness plays in the management of the MKMA. Finally, velop for public and government consideration a British the MKMA’s successes and future challenges are identified. Columbia-wide strategy for land use and related resource and environmental management” (CORE 1992, p. 39). This The Muskwa-Kechika Management Area legislation specifically requested that a regional planning When the MKMA Act was passed by the government of BC process founded on a community-based participatory ap- in 1998, it formalized the creation of the largest conserva- proach be created. In 1994, the Land and Resource tion system in North America. When a third LRMP region Management Planning (LRMP) process was adopted by the joined the system in 2001, the MKMA grew to 6.3 million BC government in concert with the Protected Areas Strat- hectares, or over 24,000 square miles, an area the size of egy, which called for a doubling of BC parkland from 6% to West Virginia or Ireland (see Figure 1). It is one of the few 12% of the province (Province of British Columbia 1993). remaining large, ecologically intact, almost completely The deep antipathy between the ideologies of stakehold- unroaded wilderness south of the 60th parallel, and as such, ers representing industry and conservation interests was contains wildlife populations of truly global significance often difficult to address, and the first two regional LRMP (British Columbia 1997b). meetings were unable to reach consensus regarding which In addition to its globally significant wilderness, areas within their regions would be protected from normal biodiversity, and ecological values, the MKMA also contains

12 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 numerous resource development val- concept of wilderness has yet to be ues. Most significant are well-defined adequately defined by the MKMA. A oil and gas fields, a variety of metallic draft definition states: and nonmetallic resources, forests, and Wilderness is evident over various wilderness recreation and tour- large areas where human ac- tivities and constraints are at ism resources. As the MKMA has been levels that allow for the per- used by First Nations for thousands of petuation of characteristic years, many cultural and heritage val- natural processes, and the ues are also present, including presence of the full comple- archaeological sites, historical sites, and ment of plant and animal traditional use sites, each of which re- communities characteristic of the region. While non-perma- tains high cultural significance to living nent, site specific distur- communities. bances and activities will be According to the preamble of the evident, the overall natural- enabling legislation: ness, biological diversity and The management intent for ecological integrity of the the Muskwa-Kechika Man- MKMA will be maintained. agement Area is to maintain (MKMA, unpublished photo- in perpetuity the wilderness copy, undated) Figure 1—Map of the MKMA. quality, and the diversity and Many difficult questions are raised, but abundance of wildlife and the not yet answered by this definition, ecosystems on which it de- approach equates to an integrated perhaps reflecting future issues to be pends while allowing resource resource management and ecosystem addressed by the MKMA in balancing development and use in parts management approach used in numer- wilderness and resource development. of the Muskwa-Kechika Man- ous places around the globe. For example, the issue of how natu- agement Area designated for However, in our view, the MKMA those purposes [recognizing ralness might be conceptualized and is unique in the way in which it the] long-term maintenance operationalized has yet to be ad- combines several strands of current, of wilderness characteristics, equately addressed in the literature; wildlife and habitat is critical state-of-knowledge thinking. It must similarly, the question of how the con- to the social and cultural well- be noted that the baseline ecological cepts of biodiversity and ecological being of [F]irst [N]ations and health and integrity of the MKMA is integrity might be measured and other people in the area. (Brit- unusual: Predator-prey relationships ish Columbia 1998a, p. 1) monitored in the field remains unclear. are intact and preserved at the ecosys- The Muskwa-Kechika Advisory Board tem scale, primarily because of low is an appointed body responsible for A New Model for human populations levels and the ab- advising the premier of BC on natural Wilderness Management? sence of an established road system resource management in the MKMA. The MKMA basically seeks to create a with its associated habitat fragmenta- The Board: (1) monitors development sustainable development model for tion. However, the model is unique in to ensure activities within the region are what is now a de facto wilderness area, its landscape level use of the wilder- consistent with the intent of the three and in this sense is not particularly ness concept to frame the maintenance LRMPs, the MKMA Act, and the MKMA unique. Resource development is per- and management of the sizable region, Plan; (2) makes recommendations to the mitted in most areas of the MKMA not just designated protected areas trustee on the Muskwa-Kechika Trust (outside of designated protected areas), within the MKMA. Fund; and (3) provides an annual re- and operational plans must consider The structural components of port on these matters to the premier and and address all other significant values management are also innovative, in public (e.g., Muskwa-Kechika Advisory present on the land base, such as fish large part because of the grassroots Board 2001). and wildlife habitat, wilderness recre- level development of the MKMA While the maintenance of the wil- ation and tourism, visual quality, ideal; as the agreement was created derness quality of the MKMA is cultural/heritage, and major river cor- by local residents, they demanded formally entrenched in legislation, the ridors (British Columbia 1998b). This that local residents (via the Advisory

International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 13 area. In addition, five smaller-scale leg- islated planning processes—recreation management plans, wildlife manage- ment plans, landscape unit objectives (forest planning), parks plans, and oil and gas pretenure plans—have been completed or are in progress by either the MKMA and/or the relevant govern- ment ministry. Zoning is consistent with previous systems, and yet somewhat unique. The three main zones are Special Manage- ment Zones and Enhanced Resource Management Zones (covering 57% of the MKMA), and Protection Manage- Figure 2—Trail riding is a popular recreation activity in the MKMA. Photo courtesy of John Shultis. ment Zones (27% of the MKMA). Each zone and its accompanying objectives Board) manage the region rather than methods, based on the highest qual- were given legal status through the the traditional bureaucratic agencies. ity research. Through research and MKMA Act. The 2001 MacKenzie ad- They also convinced a reluctant gov- funding activities, [they] seek world dition to the MKMA included a separate ernment to provide a trust fund for class management, monitoring, and wildland zone, incorporating almost the region. Originally, $2 million an- mitigation to minimize the human 50% of the addition (or 16% of the nually were added to the trust fund footprint” (Muskwa-Kechika Advi- MKMA), which allows mineral extrac- from general revenue funds, although sory Board 2001, p. 4). tion but not timber harvesting; only a change to a more fiscally conserva- Most research follows the tenets of temporary roads are permitted in this tive government has seen this figure conservation biology, which has be- zone (Craighead Environmental Re- reduced to $1 million per year. Us- come an influential lens through which search Institute 2002). ing interest income from this fund, to view ecosystems at the landscape The Special Management Zones are the Advisory Board is able to conduct level (e.g., Soulé and Terborgh 1999). perhaps the key to creating a balance significant amounts of research each As a result, concerns with future de- between resource use and wilderness year. This commitment to research is velopment focus on connectivity preservation. These zones, which al- also reflected in the partnership cre- between landscapes, maintaining core low resource development, attempt to ated with the University of Northern (i.e., protected) and buffer areas, man- ensure that such development has BC, which has created a Muskwa- aging at the landscape scale, habitat minimal effects on the ecological in- Kechika professorship, graduate fragmentation, and the maintenance of tegrity of the MKMA. In essence, they student scholarship, and annual re- predator-prey relationships. A Conser- are large buffer zones, which have of- search funding (British Columbia vation Areas Design plan is currently ten been requested by conservationists 1999). The vision statement of the being generated to direct the manage- but have rarely been established Advisory Board clearly reflects this in- ment of the MKMA in relation to the around protected areas due to the terest in research as they “will location, level, and type of development commercial concerns of private land- promote and encourage effective and activities allowed and their potential owners or public land management innovative resource management impact on ecological processes in the agencies. According to the MKMA Act, “The long-term objective is to return lands to their natural state as devel- Encourage others to create similar unique, opment activities are completed” grassroots approaches to wilderness management (British Columbia 1998a, p. 1). Thus, ecological restoration, which has of- at the landscape level. ten proven to be controversial in other locations (Gobster and Hull 2000), is

14 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 central to the concept of Special Man- agement Zones. Several changes to local strategic planning processes have also occurred. Perhaps most importantly, joint plan approval is required. In the past, plan- ning approvals for resource developments and recreation use in BC have been the sole responsibility of that provincial agency under whose legal mandate the specific activity fell (e.g., Forest Development Plans were approved by the Ministry of Forests). To ensure an enhanced degree of inte- grated management in the MKMA, joint approvals are required for the various local strategic plans (e.g., tim- Figure 3—Camping beneath the Hoodoos in the Wokkpash Gorge. Photo courtesy of John Shultis. ber harvesting, oil and gas exploration, or development). Accountability is Finally, a formal role for aboriginal covering over 6.3 million hectares shared across government agencies people’s participation in implement- (over 24,000 square miles), can the idea having a broad spectrum of environ- ing the vision for the MKMA has been of maintaining wilderness quality be mental and development mandates. negotiated. Management of protected used to guide land use allocation deci- In terms of funding, the MKMA leg- areas and Special Management Zones sions, including resource extraction, or islation created a new funding in the area recognize local First Na- does the idea simply degrade the idea mechanism to guarantee an enhanced tions (Kaska Dena) rights, culture, and of wilderness? Can a diverse group and stable level of support from the history. Recognition is given to the composed of First Nations, members government in combination with pri- right of the Kaska Dena to harvest fish of the public, and representatives from vate sector funding. In addition to the and wildlife using traditional or con- resource extractive industries success- previously noted Muskwa-Kechika temporary harvesting methods in fully maintain the wilderness character Trust Fund, which provides $1 mil- accordance with their aboriginal rights of the region, or even agree on how this lion annually until 2005, the to harvest for sustenance, social, and wilderness character might be defined legislation enables tax-deductible pri- ceremonial purposes. Several First and measured? vate sector donations to the trust fund Nations’ representatives serve on the The question of whether the Advi- that allow a company or interest group Advisory Board (currently seven out sory Board will be allowed to direct to champion or support a project. of 20 board members). While First and manage (i.e., restrict) economic These donated funds are now matched Nations are occasionally consulted on activity in the MKMA region is also up to $1 million per year by the gov- aspects of land and resource manage- unanswered. Will individuals and ernment. It is important to note that ment in BC, this agreement ensures an communities accept a slower rate of the trust fund is not intended to re- enhanced and more formalized role for development and the possibility of place the annual operating budgets for their participation in the MKMA (Brit- fewer jobs and other economic spin- the resource management agencies in ish Columbia 1997a). offs arising from such actions? Will the northeast, but rather to support corporations accept the changes to MKMA-specific planning initiatives Current Successes and operational policies that will be nec- and special projects. Again, much of Future Challenges essary to “maintain in perpetuity the this funding is dedicated to ecological The MKMA model provides some wilderness quality, and the diversity and social research in the MKMA and meaningful questions to supporters of and abundance of wildlife and the eco- toward communicating research find- the wilderness concept. Can the ideas systems on which it depends” as set ings to the communities of the region of wilderness and development ever out in the MKMA Act? The issue of mini- (MKMA 2003). be compatible? In a wild landscape mizing the creation and maximizing the

International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 15 In terms of its successes, from its very creation the MKMA has been an innovative community-based ap- proach to sustainable wilderness landscape management. The original LRMP process brought stakeholders together and allowed them to seek consensus on how the land and wa- ter base would be managed, while doubling the size and number of protected areas in the province. While other regions were not able to reach such a consensus, stake- holders in three northeastern BC regions agreed to create a unique, comprehensive approach to land use Figure 4—Trapping is a traditional activity in the MKMA; old trappers cabin near Harworth Lake. Photo courtesy of and wilderness management. No John Shultis. other regions in BC created such an integrated, long-term approach to deactivation of roads typically devel- hazard at best. Indeed, the enforce- sustainable land use or utilized the oped for forest and oil and gas ment of all types of activities in this concept of wilderness landscapes in development is perhaps the greatest remote region (e.g., hiking, logging, distinct legislation to frame regional challenge in this regard, as the rela- mining, or hunting) is recognized by management. tionship between road construction the Advisory Board as extremely Through the Advisory Board and and the destruction of wilderness and problematic, given the size of the re- agreements with First Nations com- ecological integrity is well documented gion and the decreasing amount of munities, local residents have taken (e.g., Havlick 2002). conservation services provided by the control over the management of the Perhaps most importantly, will the government. The current BC govern- MKMA to ensure that the agreed- provincial government allow the Ad- ment is moving to double the number upon objectives in the legislation and visory Board to challenge its vision of oil/gas wells in BC, and has expe- policies are met. While the concepts for the region? While the MKMA Act dited the development of pre-tenure of sustainable development and com- has distinct legislation that empow- plans for oil and gas development in munity-based conservation are ers and directs the MKMA Advisory the MKMA (Craighead Environmen- currently seen as saviors of 21st-cen- Board to manage the region, it re- tal Research Institute 2002). tury global conservation, there have mains Crown land owned by the Thus, many individuals, groups, been few examples of long-term suc- province of BC and is subject to ex- and social forces will pressure the cess as measured by increased isting government policy. Since 2001, Advisory Board to maintain the eco- ecological health and/or integrity in a new, more fiscally conservative gov- nomic status quo (i.e., to facilitate and these areas. Even rarer are areas with ernment has made significant changes maximize economic development), largely intact ecological systems, to environmental protection and re- and these pressures can only be de- landscapes large enough to maintain source extraction policies. For flected by strong public support for ecological processes, and reserves example, a new results-based policy this new vision. While such support— with adequate funding (Terborgh et for Crown land management is be- due in large part to the al. 2002). It is hoped that the MKMA ing implemented, and industries are consensus-based LRMP process and will prove to be successful in main- basically allowed to write their own the leadership and vision of the origi- taining the wilderness of northeastern management plans as long as they nal two LRMP groups in the Fort St. BC and encourage others to create meet specific guidelines set by the John and Fort Nelson regions—is cur- similar unique, grassroots approaches government. Critics argue that the rently widespread, constant vigilance to wilderness management at the enforcement of these results is hap- will be required to maintain it. landscape level.

16 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 REFERENCES Muskwa-Kechika Management Area. 2003. JOHN SHULTIS is an associate professor in British Columbia. 1993. A Protected Areas Strat- MKMA website. Accessed January 5, 2003, the Resource Recreation and Tourism egy for British Columbia. Victoria: BC. at http://www.muskwa-kechika.com. Program, University of Northern BC, 3333 British Columbia. 1997a. Letter of Understand- Soulé, M. E. and J. Terborgh. 1999. Continental Con- University Way, Prince George, BC, ing Amongst the Government of British Co- servation: Scientific Foundations of Regional Re- Canada V2N 4Z9. E-mail: lumbia and the Kaska Dena Council, serve Networks. Washington, D. C.: Island Press. [email protected]. September, 24, 1997. Victoria: BC. Terborgh, J., C. van Schaik, L. Davenport, and M. British Columbia. 1997b. Muskwa-Kechika Rao. 2002. Making Parks Work: Strategies for RON RUTLEDGE, former MKMA program Management Area Management Plan. Preserving Tropical Nature. Washington, D. C.: manager, resides in Taos, New Mexico. Victoria: BC. Island Press. British Columbia. 1998a. Muskwa-Kechika Wilson, J. 1998. Talk and Log: Wilderness Politics Management Area Act. Victoria: BC. in British Columbia, 1965–1996. Vancouver: British Columbia. 1998b. Fort Nelson Land and UBC Press. Resource Management Plan Summary. Victoria: BC. British Columbia. 1999. Interim Letter of Under- standing between the University of Northern British Columbia and the Muskwa-Kechika Advisory Board. Land Use Coordination Of- fice. Victoria: BC. CORE. 1992. Report on a Land Use Strategy for British Columbia. Victoria: BC. Craighead Environmental Research Institute. 2002. Muskwa-Kechika Management Area. Accessed January 10, 2003, at http:// www.grizzlybear.org/MKMA.html. Gobster, P. H. and B. Hull. 2000. Restoring Nature: Perspectives from the Social Sci- ences. Washington, D. C.: Island Press. Havlick, D.G. 2002. No Place Distant: Roads and Motorized Recreation on America’s Public Lands. Washington, D. C.: Island Press. Muskwa-Kechika Advisory Board. 2001. Annual Report—Fiscal Year 2000–2001. Fort Nelson, Figure 5—The MKMA supports a diverse number of large mammals, including these young caribou. Photo by Ken Meadows. BC: Muskwa-Kechika Advisory Board.

From BOOK REVIEWS on page 48 The founders of The Wilderness So- Sutter provides convincing evidence ciety were responding to a wave of of early wilderness leaders’ fixation on concerns over the impact of automobile- publicity from land agencies eager to the potential impact of consumerism based tourism on the wilderness. maximize the use of protected areas, and and recreation development on wilder- According to Sutter, “What made mod- to the unprecedented wave of public ness. While Sutter occasionally is a little ern wilderness distinct, separate from the spending on the infrastructure (e.g., overzealous in focusing on his primary national park ideal, was the critique of roads, campgrounds, trails) necessary to theme, Driven Wild succeeds in provid- consumerism that was central to it” (p. facilitate and attract users. They were ing an interesting and unique analysis 16; emphasis in original). For example, also responding to the broader concerns of the rationales provided by wilderness Leopold, in his Wilderness as a Form of of the nascent consumer society created leaders for creating a new society to Land Use, published in 1925, stated that in the interwar period; the outdoor rec- champion the concept of wilderness in “Generally speaking, it is not timber, and reation craze of the interwar period was the oft-overlooked interwar period. certainly not agriculture which is caus- itself a manifestation of Americans’ Readers interested in the history of the ing the decimation of wilderness areas, newly found predilection and desire to American wilderness movement will but rather the desire to attract tourists” increase consumption. Many were con- appreciate this distinctive and impas- (cited on page 81). Sutter further sug- cerned that the automobile would sioned analysis, and will be reminded gests that before and after the interwar irrevocably alter the wilderness experi- of the long history of concerns over our period, the politics of wilderness focused ence, from a constructive and consumption patterns on wilderness. on the traditional utilitarian conserva- introspective to a more escapist, mecha- Reviewed by JOHN SHULTIS tion versus preservation battle lines. nistic, and destructive experience.

International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 17 STEWARDSHIP

Relationships Between Transfrontier Park Managers, Policy Makers, and Resident Indigenous Populations

BY SANDRA SLATER-JONES

Introduction Because of their strong spiritual, cultural, economic, and The creation of transfrontier parks—cross-border resource historic ties to the land, indigenous local communities liv- protection units—is a hot topic on the conservation agenda ing within or adjacent to transfrontier parks are the most today. Transfrontier parks are not only heralded interna- affected by how these parks are planned and managed. tionally as joining resource-rich Understanding the underlying issues that influence rela- areas together and enlarging pro- tionships among transfrontier park managers, policy tected areas to further protect makers, and resident indigenous populations may help biodiversity, but also as providing identify possible solutions to these challenges. economic opportunities for resident populations living within or near Case Study Methodology these parks and creating an atmo- Three case studies of transfrontier parks are the focus of sphere of cooperation that can this article: the Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park, promote regional peace (Jaidev and the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, and the Great Limpopo Jackson 1999). Transfrontier Park (Slater-Jones 2002). Semistructured in- Borders, because they exist at the terviews with selected key informants from each of the interface of autonomous nations and case studies were conducted between June and Septem- Article author Sandra Slater-Jones. their sovereignty, are strong symbols ber 2002. Nonprobability, purposive sampling was used of the power of nation-states. They to ensure that informants were diverse in age, gender, in- reflect and reinforce the power of nations and their identi- come, level of access to natural resources, and place within ties (Donnan and Wilson 2001). Since transfrontier parks the community. For the purposes of this article, common exist at international borders and are important symbols of underlying themes evident in all three case studies have cooperation between countries, they have greater societal been extracted from the longer research report and are expectations placed upon them than national parks. These presented here as issues. expectations include the protection of biological conserva- In 1932, the Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park tion and extend into the realm of social equality and welfare. (WGIPP) joined Glacier National Park, USA, and Canada’s In short, there are immense social expectations placed upon Waterton Lakes National Park to become the first transboundary protected area managers and policy makers transfrontier park in the world. The WGIPP was formu- to produce favorable results, often under very contentious lated as a celebration of peace and good relations between circumstances. the United States and Canada. The WGIPP allows visitors

18 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 to experience and appreciate resources that deemphasize boundaries (A. Vanderbilt, personal communication). The Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP) was proclaimed on May 12, 2000, through the signing of a treaty between Botswana and South Africa, joining the Gemsbok National Park in the southwestern part of Botswana and the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, in the northwest part of South Africa. It is one of the few places in southern Africa where wildlife can move freely over vast ranges according to chang- ing weather patterns. It is heralded as the first formalized transfrontier park in Africa, thus serving as a model for other such parks (W. Myburgh, per- sonal communication). Figure 1—GLTP residents do not want to move from their villages to the proposed irrigated buffer zone despite drought and The Great Limpopo Transfrontier harsh living conditions. Photo by Richard Slater-Jones. Park (GLTP) was created in November 2001, joining the Limpopo National land upon which they depend. As a edge of the WGIPP in northwestern Park in Mozambique, the Kruger Na- result, a severe loss of cultural integ- Montana. They lost their land in ces- tional Park, and Zimbabwe’s rity and political autonomy of many sion to the federal government in Gonarezhou National Park. Kruger Na- of the displaced groups has occurred 1895. The Blackfeet had no choice but tional Park already attracts large (West and Brechin 1991). These kinds to sell their ancestral land because, as numbers of tourists to the southern Af- of impacts often generate hostility Bryan (1996) describes, they were rica region due to its incredible diversity among local resident populations to- marginalized and completely depen- of wild animals (including charismatic ward national parks and, as a result, dent on the federal government at the megafauna) and its world-renowned impair the success of sustaining these time. Bear Medicine Bailey Peterson, wildlife management system. With all protected areas in the long term. a Blackfeet tribal member, describes a three protected areas joined together to In WGIPP the loss of aboriginal large proportion of the payment for the form one of the largest and most diverse land by certain Native American tribes, land was the irrigation systems that the conservation areas in Africa, the tour- now living in reservations adjacent to Blackfeet had to build themselves and ism potential is expected to reach even the park, has caused long-standing which did not ultimately benefit them greater, if not overwhelming propor- bitterness that continues to erode the (B. Peterson, personal communica- tions, which will boost the respective goodwill necessary for mutual coop- tion). Some of the Blackfeet describe national economies. eration between the tribes and the the term land cession as a polite way of Following is a description of three parks. Fourteen thousand registered saying “confiscated” (Burnham 2000). major issues synthesized from re- members of the Blackfeet tribe These century-old land issues remain sponses that were common to all three (Gallagher et al. 1999) currently live entangled in current politics, thereby transfrontier areas studied (Slater- on a reservation bordering the eastern confusing trust and preventing harmony. Jones 2002).

Issue 1: Dislocation and When national/international goals and local values Relocation of Resident People In the process of creating national parks conflict, highly collaborative processes involving local around the world, resident indigenous people are often dispossessed of the versus national interests seem vital.

International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 19 territories in the park area before it was established, was also forcibly re- moved from its land and deprived of good economic opportunities. Today, the people of that community live under poor conditions, including low levels of education, insufficient employment opportunities, limited markets, and acute lack of social welfare services (Engelbrecht and Engelbrecht 2000). In 1999, the South African National Parks, after lengthy court proceedings, agreed to relinquish control of 135,905 acres (55,000 hectares) of the park, which was divided between San and Mier Figure 2—The general sentiment of GLTP residents states “We will not leave our land!” Photo by Richard Slater-Jones. (Cock and Fig 2000). The San and the Mier have agreed that the land The loss of heritage and rights has 1931 (now part of the KTP), when remains part of the park as a pro- grown larger in issues of ownership the Nlamani and Khomani San (Bush- tected area. The land claim agreement and control of resources in the WGIPP men) aboriginal people were forced of San communities has shown no today. As a consequence, there is a rift out of their territory. They were evidence of improved livelihoods (E. in the relationship between the park moved to settlements outside the Koch, personal communication; D. agencies and the tribe, although over park where conditions have deterio- Grossman, personal communication). time collaboration and cooperation rated over the years—enveloping the Rural poverty and deprivation must have improved substantially. communities in extreme poverty, se- be understood so that further job pos- The results of dislocation are fur- vere cases of malnutrition, and social sibilities and partnerships can be ther evident in the case of the Kalahari disparity. The Mier community, an- identified (Fig 2000). Gemsbok National Park formation in other culture group that occupied Similar dislocation and relocation of indigenous residents is an issue in a transfrontier park in the making— the GLTP. During the Mozambique civil war (1976–1992), many people fled the country to South Africa. After the war, many returned to the regions where their ancestors were buried and were reunited with their families. To- day, there is a population of about 30,000 people living within the Limpopo National Park (Mozambique portion of the GLTP). There are about 6,500 people living along the Shingwedzi and Elephant Rivers, in the area in Mozambique proposed to be the Tourism Zone of the park. The GLTP management board has proposed the relocation of these people to a proposed buffer zone, Figure 3—With so much at stake, the future of the GLTP must be carefully considered. Photo by Richard Slater-Jones. the 643-mile (400-kilometer) eastern

20 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 boundary of the GLTP along the Limpopo River, where 16,000 people already live. As an offer of compensa- tion, the project proposes that housing and irrigated fields will be provided to the relocated communities in the new support zone. As far as the Shangaan community members living along the Shingwedzi River are concerned, re- location will have a huge impact on their lifestyle. At least 98% of these community members interviewed from different village, class, age, and gender distinctions expressed that they were unwilling to move even if offered compensation. Relocation strategies are likely to fail Figure 4—Kgalagadi residents take a long journey through the desert by donkey cart to fetch water. Photo by Sandra Slater-Jones. if they do no have support from the people affected, and this reality has con- Issue 2: Conflicting National and feel denied of their rights to hunt siderably slowed the pace at which the Versus Local Interests in an area that they consider to his- proposed actions are being implemented Conflicting interests often arise from the torically belong to them. in the GLTP. Other alternatives include value differences regarding the appro- Similar to the issue of hunting in the leaving unwilling communities intact priate use of natural resources or WGIPP is the issue of cattle in the GLTP. along the river, where a second resource between local communities and na- Local people who wish to remain in the zone (in addition to the Limpopo Buffer tional interests. Transfrontier parks GLTP with their livestock will pose a Zone) could be created to prevent ani- usually consist of national parks set up serious ecological threat. Wild animal mal-people and people-park conflicts by national institutions with national occurring in the current region allocated constituencies. Local communities, on for tourism. Additionally, the second re- the other hand, are influenced by is- source zone may be declared a cultural sues and needs of a more local nature. zone, where tourists can take part in cul- This difference makes it likely that con- tural and traditional activities, if flicting interests will occur. supported by the local community. These One of the major conflicting issues additional options could create opportu- occurring in the WGIPP is hunting. nity for aid and development-related The 1895 land agreement between the tourist programs, adding to value and di- Blackfeet Tribe and the U.S. govern- versity of the GLTP and preventing ment stated that the tribe had reserved unnecessary consequences of relocation. the right to “cut and remove wood and It is recognized that transfrontier timber for houses, fences, and all other parks create new ecological corridors domestic purposes, to hunt upon the joining resources across borders, but land, and to fish in the streams as long park authorities must also consider as it remains public land of the United the needs and rights of the people States” (Bryan 1996). According to who depend on these areas for live- Burnham (2000), the Blackfeet held lihood and survival. If this is not those rights until Glacier National Park done, the result will be long-term was created in 1910 and the local damage to the trust and cooperation hunting rights were revoked. As a re- between transfrontier parks and resi- sult, today many Blackfeet Tribal Figure 5—WGIIP—heritage of the Blackfeet and Salish-Kootenai tribes. Photo by Sandra Slater-Jones. dent people. members are bitter toward the WGIPP

International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 21 than social analyses. More attention is munities under local leadership, needed on the stated social goals and would seem logically a source of jobs the processes needed to achieve them— as well as pride in heritage and pro- particularly policies to create an tection of the area. acceptable balance between the conser- Rather than merely being token ben- vation efforts of transfrontier park eficiaries of transfrontier parks, local managers and the rights of resident in- communities need to become real part- digenous people who rely on the local ners through ownership rights and natural resources. decision making. It is important that transfrontier park managers can embrace Issue 3: Missed a range of alternatives to deliver local eco- Socioeconomic Opportunities nomic benefits, such as current activities: Although there is an appreciation of the contract work for park infrastructure con- potential conservation benefits of struction in the KTP; consultancy work, Figure 6—One of the few locally run tourism businesses in the transfrontier parks from the improved ecological management, and monitoring WGIPP—Sun Tours. Photo by Sandra Slater-Jones. protection of natural heritage and in the WGIPP; and craft production for biodiversity, the potential socioeconomic the local and international market pro- populations, for instance, may be af- returns are lacking or not realized. Job posed for the new GLTP. As more fected by the presence of livestock opportunities in tourism generally ben- partnerships are established with resident through disease transmission, and wild efit a small minority of local residents. people that include opportunities for their animals may pose a threat to livestock The Blackfeet tribe living adjacent to the economic benefit, support for the pro- and human lives. Although fencing in WGIPP have a poor local economy, with tected area increases and marginalization the villages is proposed, complications 50% unemployment (Burnham 2000). of local residents will be reduced. Part- may occur when considering that Jobs created through tourism in the nerships between private sector, park, and extensive agricultural fields need to be WGIPP are not sufficient to solve the resident participants create a solid foun- fenced. No matter how well transfrontier tribe’s economic problems. Similarly, in dation from which local economic parks are able to accomplish scientific the GLTP there are neither long-term opportunities can grow. and ecological goals, conflicting social funds nor capacity to meet all expecta- and moral imperatives will always ex- tions of communities (A. Van Wyk, Conclusion ist (West and Brechin 1991). When personal communication), and in the Conservation today calls for a greater national/international goals and local KTP job opportunities for local people awareness of human rights and social values conflict, highly collaborative in tourism are still few and far between. issues. It is important that managers processes involving local versus na- Although ecotourism does not al- and policy makers of transfrontier tional interests seem vital. ways have the capacity to provide parks understand the negative social Effective relationships between the sufficient jobs for local residents, new consequences of many past ap- local people and the park to enhance possibilities may provide further and proaches and rebuild broken bonds and maintain shared values require extended opportunities. Cultural tour- between park management and resi- communication, mediation, and nego- ism is one possibility and is currently dent people. New transfrontier parks tiation between these stakeholders, underutilized. Tourist interests in require policies that address the needs along with joint problem solving (West transfrontier parks might include the of local populations. If transfrontier and Brechin 1991). For transfrontier cultural elements of the protected area, parks are to fulfill the promise of eco- parks to be successful, a focus on com- and development of cultural aspects nomic growth and community capac- mon interests and common goals is could increase public interest in a par- ity building, it will require respect for needed. Compromise and adaptation ticular area. Creating cultural zones the integrity, importance, and values of on the behalf of all stakeholders is may enhance the status of transfrontier local cultures, and opportunities for necessary if cooperation and stability parks and expand the range of expe- communities to promote their own are to be maintained. riences to meet diverse interests. Such goals and priorities. Despite improved Most transfrontier parks have better development of cultural resources, in relationships between protected areas scientific and biodiversity information collaboration with the resident com- and resident people over the last two

22 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 decades, this study found problems to Africa. Society in Transition 31 (1): 22–35. South Africa. Personal communication, address in three transfrontier parks: Donnan, H., and T. M. Wilson. 2001. Borders: 2002. Frontiers of Identity, Nation and State. Ox- West, P. C., and S. R. Brechin. 1991. Resident displacement of indigenous people, ford, UK: Berg. Peoples and National Parks: Social Dilemmas conflicting local and national interests, Engelbrecht, M., and D. Engelbrecht. 2000. and Strategies in International Conservation. and missed socioeconomic opportu- Towards conservation through a social ecol- Tucson, University of Arizona Press: Tucson. ogy approach in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier nities. Many examples and opportu- Park. In Towards Best Practice, Communi- SANDRA SLATER-JONES is an environ- nities noted in the interviews with key ties and Conservation Conference Proceed- mental sociology consultant who received a informants are encouraging in terms ings, Berg en Dal., Kruger National Park: nature conservation b-tech degree in 2000 of progress being possible. Such South African National Parks and DANCED. from Pretoria Technikon and a masters Fig, D. 2000. Professionalising our practice. The degree in 2002 from Development Studies, progress is essential in realizing the role of tertiary education in developing the University of Witwatersrand. She can be goal that “Transfrontier Parks ensure practice of social ecology. Towards Best Prac- contacted at [email protected]. peace, prosperity and stability for gen- tice, Communities and Conservation, Con- erations to come” (Borchert 2002). ference Proceedings. Berg en Dal, Kruger National Park: South African National Parks and DANCED. Acknowledgements Gallagher, E., F. Miele, M. P. Murphy, R. Nickell, and S. Olin. 1999. The Insiders Guide to To Charles Besancon for assistance with Glacier. Helena, Montana: Falcon. the research in WGIPP and support and Grossman, Dave. Consultant Kalahari Land guidance in writing the final report; to Claim. Sandringham, South Africa. Personal Vance Martin and the WILD Founda- communication, 2002. Jaidev, Jay Singh and Rodney Jackson. 1999. tion, USA for sponsoring the WGIPP Transfrontier Conservation areas: Creating op- component of the research; and to portunities for conservation, peace, and the Belinda Bozolli and the Development snow leopard in central Asia. IJW 5 (3): 7–12. Koch, Eddie. Environmental Sociology Jour- Studies Department of the University nalist, Nelspruit, South Africa. Personal of Witwatersrand, South Africa for communication, 2002. sponsoring the GLTP research. Myburgh, Werner. Peace Parks Foundation, Stellenbosch, South Africa. Personal com- munication, 2002. REFERENCES Peterson, Bailey Bear Medicine. Blackfeet Tribal Borchert, P., ed. 2002. Peace parks: No turning Member, Browning, Mont. Personal commu- back. Africa Geographic: (9) 11:86–87. nication, 2002. Bryan, W. L. 1996. Montana’s Indians Yesterday Slater-Jones, S. 2002. Social impacts of and Today. Helena, Mont., USA: American transfrontier parks. Development Studies. and World Publishing. Johannesburg, University of the Burnham, P. 2000. Indian Country—God’s Witwatersrand, unpublished master thesis. Country: Native Americans and the National Vanderbilt, Amy. Public Affairs Officer. Waterton- Parks. Washington D.C.:, Island Press. Glacier International Peace Park, West Gla- Figure 7—Villagers living along the Shingwedzi River in the Cock, J., and D. Fig. 2000. From colonial to cier, Mont. Personal communication, 2002. GLTP completely rely on the natural resources of the area to community-based conservation: Environ- Van Wyk, Arrie. Project Manager for Great survive. Photo by Richard Slater-Jones. mental justice and the national parks of South Limpopo Transfrontier Park, Nelspruit, 1200,

From ALDO LEOPOLD WILDERNESS RESEARCH INSTITUTE on page 34 of a high level Wilderness Policy Council www.pinchot.org/pic/wilderness_ More information about both the has, for the first time, provided an inter- report.pdf). Recognition of the importance research and application programs of agency forum for discussion of programs of common problems faced by the wilder- the Leopold Institute, including sum- and priorities. Much of the council’s initial ness agencies, together with the synergy maries of key projects and publica- efforts have been focused on responding found in leveraging limited resources to ad- tions, can be found at http:// to the recommendations in the 2001 report dress common issues, provides hope that leopold.wilderness.net. of the Pinchot Institute for Conservation, the model of a dedicated, base-funded in- DAVID J. PARSONS is Director, Aldo Ensuring the Stewardship of the National Wil- teragency program of wilderness Leopold Wilderness Research Institute, derness Preservation System (see http:// management science is here to stay. Missoula, MT; E-mail: [email protected].

International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 23 STEWARDSHIP

Adventure Racing in the Wild

BY LINDA MOFFAT

In 1997, adventure racing was still new to the public, though it was already well established within an interested and relatively small group of people from around the world. While every participant I met was a true adventure lover, my attraction to them was based on their respect for nature and the wilderness. They also knew that racing is not actu- ally about individual competition, rather it is about teams challenging each other, against the clock, in nature. Be- cause of the varied nature of the sport and the challenges inherent within it, both physical and interpersonal skills are needed to successfully compete. As a result of all these factors, adventure racing participants are very different type from people I had met while doing triathlons—a sport that I now regard, when compared to adventure racing, as very linear and controlled. What hooked me on adventure racing was the set of questions every racer must face: How will I survive? How will I keep moving forward when I am suffering—men- tally, emotionally and physically? How will I set aside all Article author Linda Moffat (third from left) with her Eco-Challenge teammates. my emotions in order to assist the weak person on my team when that person is making us lag behind? Will I be able to sing wildlands for adventure racing has come un- reach deep inside myself and keep going at the moment der increasing scrutiny during the past several when I am the weakest person? The internal stirrings and Uyears as adventure racing sports have become more questions felt during a race are a compacted version of life. mainstream. Practitioners’ perspectives may be helpful in The issues are forced to the surface—and the racer must gaining insight into the motivations, experiences, and im- deal with them immediately. Procrastination may cost time pacts of this (sometimes) wilderness-dependent activity. and is potentially life threatening. I relish the adventure- racing challenge. Participants and Events Many types of events can fall under the umbrella of “ad- Participants are from every possible background. Though venture racing. I refer to a one- to multiday, multisport event, backgrounds vary, participants’ personal criteria are similar usually consisting of three-, four-, or five-person teams (usu- and singular—the need for maximum challenge and a dedi- ally with at least one female as a member of the team) cation to rigorous physical training. For example, I am a traveling across hundreds of miles of open ocean, lakes, professional marketing consultant and personal career coach. rivers, mountains and/or jungles, with a map and compass, I began competing in 1997 in the Eco-Challenge 24 to 36 checkpoints to reach, and a time deadline to finish. There hour qualifier race held in Pt. Mugu, California. Only three are no direct paths, no markers to tell you where to go, of the top finishers would go on to participate in the 1997 and—usually—no support crews to assist your team in Eco-Challenge five to 12-day Expedition Race in Australia. getting from point A to point B. The races are held in all

24 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 areas of the world, such as Africa, discussion is needed. To further this Malaysia, Europe, New Zealand, Aus- process, I asked a couple of adventure tralia, China, and, of course, the racers whom I respect immensely to United States. The multiple sports comment on what it means to them tend to focus on the terrain of the land to pursue their sport in the wild. I re- and country in which the races are spect them not just as athletes, but also held. They consist of trail running, because of their philosophy on life and hiking, mountain biking, some form how their lives and everyday activities of paddling—kayaks, canoes, weave into nature. The two inter- outrigger canoes, rafts—horseback viewed were Ian Adamson, three-time riding, ropes work—ascending and winner of the well-known and presti- descending mountains—and naviga- gious Eco-Challenge and first-place tion. A map, compass, and person who finisher of Raid Gauloises, along with Figure 1—Ian Adamson mountain biking in Moab, Utah. Photo has strong navigational skills (no GPS multiple first-place finishes in other courtesy of Linda Moffat. equipment allowed) is critically impor- well-known adventure races; and tant in these events. Without these key Adam Chase, an adventure racer and resources, the entire team can get lost snowshoe racer, best known for his and physically depleted as they multiple first-place wins in the area of struggle to find their way through the ultratrail running races (50- to 100- course. Most teams race with very little mile races). Both provided me with sleep (two to three hours a night, if great comments on their perspectives. that); sleep deprivation is one of the Though adventure racing began to many challenges in keeping a team receive public attention in the mid moving forward. 1990s, the following excerpt from Ian Adventure racing must be similar to Adamson’s forthcoming 2004 book, the type of scenario faced by original Runner’s World Guide to Adventure Rac- explorers and adventurers, who had to ing, tells the story of how team racing cope with life and death decisions in the started in the mid-1980s. wild. It requires working through com- In 1987 French journalist plex and continuing challenges without Gerard Fusil was covering the the technology and comforts provided BOC Challenge, a solo around by the modern world. I contend that the world yacht race, and it these comforts blind us to “real” life and sparked an idea to have a similar race, but for small alienate us from understanding the im- teams of men and women portance of wise, balanced use of with no mechanical assis- precious natural resources and the need tance. His concept was to to sustain wilderness. Adventure racing have coed teams consisting of Figure 2—Rappelling on an adventure challenge race. Photo courtesy of Linda Moffat. helps me, and all other participants I five people on a “ground” know, choose a world with wilderness team navigating vast distances over rugged wilderness, sup- rather than one of just cement walls and ported by two people on the three of every major interna- sidewalks. “logistics” team. The original tional race and then retire to race was held in New Zealand raise a family in his bus with in 1989, much to the delight his Japanese wife. History and Impacts of of John Howard who, along Adventure Racing with his teammates, thought I asked both competitors how ad- the whole thing would be a There has been much discussion about venture racing changed or impacted great way to play in their the impacts of adventure racing, and, backyard. These set the stage their life, and what value they see in thus far, it appears to be constructive, for a dynasty of racing in this (sometimes) wilderness-depen- but more information and continued which Howard would win dent activity. Ian commented:

International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 25 FYI—Image 3 was too low in resolution to use.

biggest attractions to adven- process, and generally only ture racing (for me) are the through lands that are open interesting countries and dif- to 4x4 vehicles, [all-terrain ferent wilderness environ- vehicles], motorbikes, horses, ments we get to experience. cattle, and mining. Places like Tibet, Mongolia, Madagascar, Borneo, Adam Chase, a native of Boulder, Greenland, Lesotho, New Colorado, voiced some concerns: Zealand, Newfoundland, and The littering and disregard for Labrador ... the places, the natural beauty through people, history and natural which we race, as I saw at the environment are all part of the New Zealand Eco-Challenge, experience. didn’t sit well with me from I’ve been extremely fortu- an environmentalist stand- nate to [have been] involved point. That concern only es- in adventure racing since the calated last year when the mid-1980s and consequently Subaru Primal Quest was held have been able to leverage my in Telluride, [Colorado,] de- experience along with the ex- spite the raging forest fires in plosion of the sport in the U.S. the region and the fact that the over the last five years. This race created a great demand has allowed me to base my on what were already over- income and lifestyle around taxed limited human re- wilderness events as an ath- sources when it came to Figure 3—Water travel like kayaking is part of many races. lete, writer, television pro- rescue/safety personnel. It is Photo courtesy of Linda Moffat. ducer, and public speaker. In sad, but many adventure rac- doing so, I have had a great ers and a few race directors Adventure racing provided opportunity to expose more care more about the competi- me an opportunity to enjoy a people to the wilderness and tion and race promotions than lifestyle that incorporates wil- give them an appreciation for about what they are doing and derness backcountry travel, its beauty and value. Hope- where they are doing it. cultural experiences, athletic/ fully, this will encourage them I don’t want to sound mental challenge, and a closer to experience it and feel in- overly skeptical, because ad- look at the environment and vested in preserving the natu- venture racing and the cover- our impact on it, with an in- ral environment. age of the sport motivates come-earning source. I sus- The “off-trail” argument people in a unique way to ex- pect that most adventure may have some reason for perience the natural environ- athletes do not come from a concern. However, no adven- ments through which they competitive athletic back- ture racing in the United race. Last year I did the Raid ground, rather they are drawn States allows off-trail travel in Series race in Sweden and Nor- to the sport from enjoyment ecologically sensitive areas, way and, despite the fact that of the outdoors and use it as and virtually all races incor- we were in those countries for a way to participate in a chal- porate heavy penalties for ath- only four days total, I felt an lenging but social wilderness letes who break these rules. affinity and respect for those sport. Adventure racing is prohib- lands that I never would have Adventure racing does not ited in designated wilderness gained had I been on a guided necessarily involve wilder- areas and is heavily restricted tour. Seeing the countryside ness, as there are plenty of in national parks. [Bureau of from the perspective of a racer urban and even indoor races Land Management] land is is very different than touring around. That said, two of the open to use after a permitting it via motorized transport, stopping at “points of interest” and sleeping in B&Bs. Not that To enjoy and ensure the protection of our precious I didn’t long for a bit of the creature comforts that come wild resources and wildlife, we all need to be with all that, but it is so far re- moved that it almost feels cen- accountable for our actions. sored when compared to the

26 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 raw exposure one gains from ensure the protection of our precious It is when we adapt to what life throws adventure racing. Hopefully, wild resources and wildlife, we all need at us that we become stronger human adventure racers and race di- to be accountable for our actions. It’s beings. If we all take a proactive stance rectors are becoming more sensitive to the environment, an individual conscious effort. Every and do a little adapting, we can come and the Leave-No-Trace ethic recreational pursuit will have some en- together as a “team” and make progress will be put into play so that the vironmentally unethical participants. toward saving the “wild.” sport will result in a net ben- As Adam mentioned, we all need to efit to the environment be- integrate the Leave-No-Trace ethic into LINDA MOFFAT has competed over the cause of the inspiration it gives our everyday lives. Adventure racers past six years in multiple 24- to 36- hour people for nature. need to be educators, as Ian has become adventure races, as well as two Eco- Challenge Expedition Races in Borneo, through his experiences and lifestyle as Malaysia, in 2000 and New Zealand in Despite the obvious financial inter- a true adventurer. 2001. Linda has climbed Mts. Kilimanjaro, ests in the business of adventure racing, Humans have an amazing ability to Rainier, Kinabalu, Shasta and multiple I believe there is also a conscientious adapt. It is one of the great lessons I have peaks in Patagonia and New Zealand. She effort to ensure that the race environ- learned through racing. When chal- can be contacted at ment and terrain are not abused and, lenges occur and life gets tough, take a [email protected]. hopefully, are respected. To enjoy and deep breath and keep moving forward.

From FLOOD article on page 38 the condition of that wilderness resource Master’s thesis, University of Minnesota, Stankey, G. H., and R. Schreyer. 1987. Atti- will be, is entirely dependent on our Minneapolis. tudes toward wilderness and factors affect- Flood, J. P. 2001. The effectiveness of wilder- ing visitor behavior: A state-of-knowledge efforts today to educate and invest ness restoration: Perceptions of visitors and review. In proceedings—National Wilder- dollars in the education of tomorrow’s managers. Ph.D. diss. University of Minne- ness Research Conference: Issues, State-of- managers and visitors. sota, Minneapolis. Knowledge, Future Direction. Gen. Tech. Kaplan, S., and J. F. Talbot. 1983. Psychologi- Rep. INT-200. Odgen, Utah: USDA Forest cal benefits of a wilderness experience. In: Service, Intermountain Research Station, REFERENCES I. Altman and J. F. Wohlwill, eds. Behavior 246–293. Anderson, D. H. 1980. Displacement of visitors and the Natural Environment. New York: Stokes, G. 1990. The evolution of wilderness within the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Plenum, 163–203. management. Journal of Forestry, 88 (10): Wilderness. Ph.D. diss., Colorado State Manning, R. E. 1986. Studies in Outdoor Rec- 15–20. University. reation: A Review and Synthesis of the So- Vaske, J. J., M. P. Donnelly, and T. A. Heberlein. Cole, D. N., and T. E. Hall, 1992. Trends in cial Science Literature in Outdoor Recreation. 1980. Perceptions of crowding and resource Campsite Condition: Eagle Cap Wilderness, Corvallis: Oregon State University Press. quality by early and more recent visitors. Bob Marshall Wilderness, and Grand Can- Martin, S. R., S. F. McCool, and R. C. Lucas. 1989. Leisure Sciences 3: 367–381. yon National Park. Research Paper INT-453. Wilderness campsite impacts: Do managers Watson, A. E., and R. Cronn, R. 1994. How Ogden, Utah: USDA Forest Service, Inter- and visitors see them the same? Environmen- previous experience relates to visitors’ per- mountain Research Station. tal Management 13 (5): 623–629. ceptions of wilderness conditions. Cole, D, N., A. E. Watson, T. E. Hall, and D. R. Rossman, B. B., and Z. J. Ulehla. 1977. Psy- Backcountry Recreation Management Trends Spildie. 1997. High-Use Destinations in chological reward values associated with 31 (3): 43–46. Wilderness: Social and Biophysical Impacts, wilderness use: A functional reinforcement Visitor Responses, and Management Op- approach. Environment and Behavior 9 (1): JOSEPH P. FLOOD is an assistant professor, tions. Gen. Tech. Rep. INTRP-496. Ogden, 41–65. Department of Recreation and Leisure Utah: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Schreyer, .R., and J. W. Roggenbuck, J. W. Research Station. Studies, East Carolina University, 163 1978. The influence of experience expecta- Flood, J. P. 1999. The influence of site restora- Minges Coliseum, Greenville, NC 27858- tions on crowding perceptions and social tion programs on wilderness visitor experi- 4353, USA. E-mail: [email protected]. psychological carrying capacities. Leisure ence and visitor opinions of managers. Sciences 1 (4): 373–394.

International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 27 SCIENCE and RESEARCH

Interpersonal and Societal Aspects of Use Conflicts

A Case Study of Wilderness in Alaska and Finland

BY JOAN KLUWE and EDWIN E. KRUMPE

Abstract: Wilderness conflicts in Finland and Alaska are multifaceted, with recreation uses increasingly conflicting with subsistence activities. To investigate these conflicts, over 70 interviews were conducted with subsistence users, representatives from guide companies, local residents, land managers, and nongovernmental organizations in Alaska and Finland. While goal interference and scarcity of resources are factors in many conflicts, social and cultural factors (e.g., traditional values and rights issues) play important roles too. Conflicts that appear at first to be direct and tangible may be symptoms of underlying societal, judicial, and philosophical conflicts.

Introduction tween subsistence and recreation activities. The overall Rural people in Alaska and Finland exhibit strong ties to goal of this project was to identify components of land the land, including legally designated wilderness areas, use conflicts in Alaska and Finland wilderness and to for subsistence purposes. These traditional activities re- examine how those components interact to create the flect intricate relationships between humans and the conflict situations. environment (Endter-Wada 1996; VanZee et al. 1994). Similarities in relationships between the people and lands Subsistence and Wilderness of the far north include contemporary and historic con- Subsistence activities include fishing, hunting, gathering, flicts between urban and rural people, conflicts between and herding animals (particularly reindeer in Finland), and, indigenous and nonindigenous people, and conflicts be- generally, traditional cultural practices, traditional activi- ties for sustaining life, or traditional occupations that provide a minimal livelihood. Subsistence activities typically rely on natural resources, such as land and water, and the ani- mals and plants they contain. Subsistence uses have long occurred within and adjacent to legally designated wilderness in both Alaska and Finland (Aikio and Aikio 1989; Endter-Wada 1996). In both loca- tions, indigenous and nonindigenous people actively engage in subsistence lifestyles, predominantly based from rural communities. In both locations there are perceived threats to the continuance of subsistence lifestyles, including threats

Article coauthor Joan Kluwe above the Article coauthor Ed Krumpe. to land and natural systems, threats to a continuance of cul- Kanektok River in southwest Alaska. ture, and threats to rights of access and use. Photo by Larry Barnes. (PEER REVIEWED)

28 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 Alaska and Finland have relatively uses in the area were fishing and hunt- new wilderness legislation. Erämaalaki ing along the major river corridors. (The Act on Wilderness Reserves) was passed in Finland in 1991; it estab- Methods lished 12 wilderness reserves in north- While there has been substantial re- ern Finland, all north of the Arctic search on recreation conflicts (Kajala Circle. The 1980 Alaska National In- 1993; Schneider 2000), there has been terest Lands Conservation Act estab- little research on conflicts between lished several special provisions for subsistence and recreation activities Alaska wilderness, distinctly different (Kajala and Watson 1997; Wolfe from the 1964 Wilderness Act. In both 1988). Recreation conflict studies his- cases, legislation was influenced by torically focused on human behaviors local demand for continued mecha- that interfere with recreation goals, nized access to areas traditionally used and only more recently on social value for subsistence. In both areas, snow- conflicts (Vaske et al. 1995). While mobiles and airplanes were allowed, goal interference is a factor in many while Alaska also permitted motorboat conflicts, social and cultural issues of- access and Finland permitted all- ten go unaddressed. Figure 1—Larry Barnes practicing catch and release fishing on terrain vehicles (ATVs) within wilder- Snowball sampling with multiple the Kanektok River. Photo by Joan Kluwe. ness. Structures, such as cabins, were origins (i.e., interviewees are asked to allowed in both Alaska’s and Finland’s nominate additional sources of infor- and recreation uses: (1) local residents wildernesses for various uses, includ- mation) was used to identify key and community representatives who ing public recreation. Both pieces of informants on conflicts (Miles and were familiar with subsistence uses, tra- legislation also acknowledged and al- Huberman 1994). Semidirected inter- ditional lifestyles, and contemporary lowed recreation and tourism uses. In views were conducted with individuals, uses of wilderness resources; (2) rep- many respects, wilderness policy in interest groups, community represen- resentatives from tourism businesses Alaska aligns more readily with wil- tatives, and representatives from familiar with past and present recre- derness policy in Finland than with managing/regulatory agencies. Inter- ation uses in the area (e.g., dog safari much of the rest of the United States, views were conducted with people and sport fishing companies); and (3) as many of the above-mentioned uses having a variety of perspectives con- representatives from managing or regu- have been prohibited elsewhere by the cerning conflicts between subsistence latory agencies familiar with policy 1964 Wilderness Act. Subsistence ac- tivities are not a predominant use in wilderness in the lower 48 states (VanZee et al. 1994). This study focused on the north- west arm of Finland and southwest Alaska between 1999 and 2001. In Finland, people near Käsivarsi and Pöyrisjärvi wildernesses were inter- viewed in several communities. Both wildernesses support subsistence uses, particularly reindeer herding, though Käsivarsi wilderness has more recre- ation use. Near the Togiak Wilderness within the Togiak National Wildlife Refuge in Alaska, people in three nearby communities were inter- Figure 2—Subsistence anglers work with their net in the Kanektok River. Photo by Joan Kluwe. viewed. The predominant subsistence

International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 29 Table 1—Examples of Components of Conflict. nism, such as when a recreational dog musher disturbs reindeer herded to- Tangible Conflict Intangible Conflict gether for subsistence purposes. Micro Interpersonal/intergroup conflict Social value conflict Intangible conflicts may or may not level Subsistence vs. recreation Clash of value systems encompass tangible events; regardless, Reindeer herding vs. dog mushing Nonlocals don’t understand or Subsistence fishing vs. sport fishing respect traditional ways. they involve differences in values or ethics—that is, an intangible dimen- Macro Societal level interpersonal/ Societal level value conflict sion. The disturbing noise created by level intergroup conflict Rights issues Conflict with agencies Land access the dog musher may not be viewed Commercial permit administration Decision making merely as inconsiderate, but as violat- Self-determination ing an ethic or value. Along the societal axis, micro refers to an interpersonal related to subsistence regulations and Results or intergroup level, and macro refers administrative aspects of wilderness. Interview participants identified a va- to broader societal levels, including Interview questions focused on riety of groups as having a stake in the societal institutions. Some of these types of subsistence and recreation uses conflicts. Consistent with the human conflicts seem to fit within prevailing occurring, perceptions of the types of propensity to categorize (Tajfel and typologies (e.g., Jacob and Schreyer conflict occurrences, who had been Tu r ner 1986), these were often identi- 1980; Vaske et al. 1995), while others involved in conflicts, changes in con- fied as between-group conflicts (us do not. Thus, this typology encom- flicts, and roles in conflict situations. versus them). From this information, passes and expands upon former Interviews were tape-recorded as per- five dichotomies of conflicting groups conflict research. mitted by the respondent and the were identified: local/nonlocal, rural/ interview location. While the majority urban, indigenous/nonindigenous, na- Tangible Conflict—Micro Level of the interviews were conducted in tional/foreigner, and manager/citizen. In Finland, there were asymmetrical English, Yup’ik and Finnish translators For example, conflicts were identified conflicts between subsistence reindeer were used during several interviews in between local indigenous groups and herders and recreational users, includ- Alaska and Finland, respectively. The local non-indigenous groups. ing dog mushers and snowmobilers. translators were local residents famil- Between-group conflicts could be Reindeer herders were disturbed by iar with the respondents and the local classified along axes of tangibility and recreationists, but recreationists were not area. The translators in Finland were social scale (see Table 1). Tangible con- particularly disturbed by reindeer herd- social researchers or students familiar flicts have specific, observable ers. Reindeer herders felt that sled dogs with qualitative research methods. episodes or events that create antago- and snowmobiles spooked the reindeer In the standard process of qualita- tive research (Marshall and Rossman 1999; Miles and Huberman 1994), data collection and analysis occurred concurrently. An open coding process (Strauss and Corbin 1998) was used to identify phenomena and group phe- nomena into categories. As concepts and patterns emerged from the cod- ing process, they were compared with concepts from secondary sources of in- formation. For example, a pattern found from a personal interview could be sought in other interviews as well as in contemporary media. As patterns were discounted and confirmed, rela- Figure 3—Midwinter light on the northwestern Finnish landscape. Photo by Joan Kluwe. tionships in the data were identified.

30 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 herds, dispersing the herds and render- Walker 2001; Loikkanen et al. 1999), ing weeks of herding useless. there were still many people who felt their voices were not heard or were Intangible Conflict—Micro Level later ignored by the agencies. Con- Subsistence users in Alaska and Fin- versely, the agency representatives felt land felt that outsiders as a group did that some of the issues raised by the not understand or respect traditional public were not merely beyond the ways of life. For example, Yup’ik tra- scope of the planning process, but ditions include respect for animals as beyond the present management au- sentient beings (Wolfe 1988). If an thority of the agency. These types of Figure 4—Recreational snowmobilers enjoy the spring weather animal offers itself to be taken for food, conflicts focusing on how stakeholder in northwest Finland. Photo by Teppo Loikkanen. the animal is to be respected, taken, groups contain different intangible eaten, and all parts used. In contrast, values and the differences between the example, in both Alaska and Finland lo- the highest ethic of sport fishing in- public sector and management (Allen cal indigenous interviewees discussed the cludes catch-and-release practices, and Gould 1986; Shindler 1999). possibilities for Native sovereignty. They returning the fish to the water so as to felt the existing ownership and manage- not impact the fishing resource Intangible Conflict—Macro Level ment schemes were not valid—that the (Hummel and Foster 1986). The two Rights to access, rights to decision mak- indigenous people were the rightful own- ethics are perceived to be in opposi- ing, and rights to self-determination ers of the land. Questions were raised by tion to each other. A common Yup’ik emerged as a societal level of conflict and the interviewees regarding who has the view is that the sport anglers are dis- are considered intangible because they right to act as leader or as participant in respecting the animal’s spirit. Thus, in focus on broad philosophical issues rather the planning processes. addition to the immediate, tangible than identifiable events. The participants conflict, there is an important intan- in these conflicts were largely, but not Conclusions gible dimension. The conflict is exclusively, aligned by regional and eth- It is difficult to neatly separate the manifested in actual interpersonal in- nic identities. The conflicts transcended components of conflict. All four com- teractions (i.e., at the micro level). agencies and were directed at higher lev- ponents, or some combination thereof, els of government, such as national may characterize an individual’s posi- Tangible Conflict—Macro Level legislatures or global organizations. For tion. Not all conflicts will display all In Alaska and Finland, conflict involv- ing the management agency was identified regarding the number of recreational users permitted in an area, particularly the number of commer- cial use permits available. Generally, in both countries, local people did not want more commercial or recreational users, whereas the other groups wanted more access. These are tan- gible conflicts because the permits are commodities or assets that could be exchanged or assigned value. Manag- ing agencies have the power to determine uses and use levels on pub- lic lands (rights to access). While public land agencies have been mak- ing large steps to involve local citizens and to incorporate public comment in Figure 5—Reindeer are fundamental to subsistence lifestyles in northwest Finland. Photo by Joan Kluwe. the planning processes (Daniels and

International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 31 components. However, complex con- Resource managers have often fo- such as the United Nations Human flicts such as intangible conflicts at the cused on tangible conflicts at the macro Rights Council, but individual nations macro level may embody all of the level, such as those concerning alloca- continue to struggle with indigenous other components of conflict. For ex- tion of scarce resources. Planning tools rights issues (Kirsch 2001). Creative ample, a debate concerning rights to such as the Limits of Acceptable ideas are needed to begin to address ownership may include moral issues Change (Stankey et al. 1985) have as- these conflicts in the context of spe- regarding oppression and domination sisted managers in addressing some of cific subsistence versus recreation as well as examples of past tangible the allocation questions (and their ethi- conflicts in wilderness. events that illustrate oppression and cal implications) with a broader lens Managers may need to expand be- domination on an individual or soci- than zoning or carrying capacity deter- yond the confines of agency mandates etal level. minations allowed (Graefe et al. 1984). and frameworks to consider some of These four components of conflict Social value differences have also the underlying components of conflict have direct implications for resource been addressed in a variety of ways in rather than merely targeting the more managers. Tangible conflicts at the mi- recent years. The micro level has been readily observable tangible conflicts. cro level have been extensively examined in recreation research (Vaske Acknowledging these larger societal addressed by researchers. As a result, et al. 1995), focusing on value differ- conflicts more accurately represents agencies have been able to address di- ences between groups with different actual conflict contexts and brings rect conflicts between groups, where orientations. Education programs have voice to the larger issues—possibly such conflicts involve direct interaction been suggested to increase under- freeing managers and citizens to then among people with little symbolic con- standing of conflicting values as has focus attention on the more tangible flict. For example, classic management segregating user groups by zoning to issues. Managers could establish techniques such as zoning (Haas et al. decrease potential direct encounters. mechanisms with other agencies, non- 1987) can separate incompatible groups Rights to access, rights to decision governmental organizations, and tribal or draw together compatible uses, making, and rights to self-determina- organizations to address the intangible thereby alleviating tangible conflict. tion are intangible macro-level social social and philosophical issues. Such values that underlie many land use forums as working groups, advisory conflicts in wilderness in Alaska and councils, and joint projects could be Finland (Kluwe 2002). These appear effective in developing strong relation- to be the most complex types of con- ships to understand and address these flict, often encompassing other intangible conflicts. components of conflict. In addition, indigenous rights Some techniques of investigating groups and others (e.g., Alcorn 1993; wilderness conflict may not reveal all Lane 2001) have suggested shifting to dimensions of conflict. If someone a comanagement structure to increase mentions a tangible or micro-level local voices in natural resource issues, conflict, one must probe into whether enhance local self-determination, and the conflict has deeper philosophical address conflict at a societal level. or societal roots. Some issue-driven Wilderness designation, or other pro- management processes may be limited tected area status, has been overlaid by directing efforts toward concrete, on historic indigenous territories. trackable actions, addressing conflicts These designations have strong impli- exclusively at the micro tangible level. cations for future management of Macro-level social value conflicts, natural resources. Micro-level tangible including rights issues, are intractable conflicts have been easier to address because they are much larger than in public planning processes; however, most managing agencies have the ca- societal, judicial, and philosophical pability to effectively address. Some of questions often remain as underlying Figure 6—Finnish reindeer herders work on the fall round-up. the more fundamental rights questions factors. Wilderness managers dealing Photo by Joan Kluwe. have been pursued in global forums, with subsistence issues need to look

32 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 for issues transcending tangible con- Services, UMI Microform 3050216. Anthropological Association, March 3–4, flicts as they endeavor to understand Lane, Marcus B. 2001. Affirming new directions Anchorage, Alaska. in planning theory: Comanagement of pro- and manage local situations. tected areas. Society and Natural Resources JOAN KLUWE received her doctoral degree 14: 657–671. from the College of Natural Resources at the REFERENCES Loikkanen, Teppo, Timo Simojoki, and Pauli University of Idaho in May 2002. She may Aikio, Marjut, and Pekka Aikio. 1989. A chap- Wallenius. 1999. Participatory approach to be contacted at 2108 West 47th Avenue, ter in the history of the colonization of Sámi natural resource management: A guide Anchorage, AK 99517-3165, USA. lands: The forced migration of Norwegian book. Vantaa, Finland: Forest and Park Ser- Telephone: 907-562-2536. E-mail: reindeer from Sámi to Finland in the 1800s. vice, Metsähallitus. [email protected]. In R. Layton, ed. Conflict in the Archaeol- Marshall, Catherine, and Gretchen B. ogy of Living Traditions. London: Unwin Rossman. 1999. Designing qualitative re- ED KRUMPE is a professor at the University Hyman, 116–130. search, 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: of Idaho, Department of Resource Recreation Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Sage Publications. and Tourism, Moscow, ID 83844-1139, Act. 1980. 16 U.S.C. SS 3101 et seq. Miles, Matthew B., and A. Michael Huberman. USA; telephone: 208-885-7428; e-mail: Alcorn, Janis B. 1993. Indigenous peoples and 1994. Qualitative data analysis: An ex- [email protected] conservation. Conservation Biology 7 (2): panded sourcebook, 2nd ed. Thousand 424–427. Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications. Allen, Gerald M., and Earnest J. Gould, Jr. Schneider, Ingrid E. 2000. Revisiting and revis- From MARAFA article on page 42 1986. Complexity, wickedness, and public ing recreation conflict research. Journal of forests. Journal of Forestry 84 (4): 20–23. Leisure Research 32 (1): 129–132. Daniels, Steven E., and Gregg B. Walker. 2001. Shindler, Bruce. 1999. Shifting public values for REFERENCES Working through environmental conflict: The forest management: Making sense of wicked Bennett, M. A., L. K. Kriwoken, and L. D. Fallon. collaborative learning approach. Westport, problems. Western Journal of Applied For- 2003. Managing bushwalker impacts in the Conn.: Praeger. estry 14 (1): 28–34. Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Endter-Wada, Joanna. 1996. Comparison of Stankey, George H., David N. Cole, R. C. Lucas, Area, Australia. IJW 9 (1): 14–18. subsistence activities among natives and Margaret E. Petersen, and Sidney S. Frissell. Chau, K. C., and L. M. Marafa. 1999. Vegeta- non-natives in Bristol Bay, Alaska. Society 1985. 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Wilderness— Wilderness Research Center, 115–119. Different cultures, different research needs: Com- Vaske, Jerry J., Maureen P. Donnelly, Karin DR. LAWAL M. MARAFA teaches and paring conflict research needs in Finland and Wittman, and Susan Laidlaw. 1995. Inter- conducts research in the Department of the United States. IJW 3 (2): 33–36. personal versus social-values conflict. Leisure Geography and Resource Management at Kirsch, Stuart. 2001. Lost worlds: Environmen- Sciences 17: 205–222. tal disaster, “culture loss,” and the law. Cur- The Wilderness Act. 1964. P.L. 88–577. the Chinese University of Hong Kong on rent Anthropology 42 (2): 167–198. Wolfe, Robert J. 1988. The fish are not to be such topics as ecotourism, sustainable Kluwe, Joan. 2002. Understanding wilderness played with: Yup’ik views of sport fishing development, and natural resources land use conflicts in Alaska and Finland. and subsistence-recreation conflicts along management. He can be contacted at Ph.D., University of Idaho. UMI Dissertation the Togiak River. Paper presented at Alaska [email protected].

International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 33 SCIENCE and RESEARCH

PERSPECTIVES FROM THE ALDO LEOPOLD WILDERNESS RESEARCH INSTITUTE A Decade of Coordinated Wilderness Research

BY DAVID J. PARSONS

On August 21, 1993, high-ranking officials from the U.S. Department of the Interior and the Department of Agricul- ture, along with representatives from universities and nongovernmental organizations, joined Minnesota congress- man Bruce Vento in ceremonies dedicating the newly established Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute in Missoula, Montana. Envisioned as the focal point for the development and application of information necessary to understand and manage wilderness ecosystems and their use, the institute provided a mechanism for the federal agen- cies charged with wilderness management responsibilities to address their research needs (Bureau of Land Manage- helped to articulate research needs as well as conduct research ment, Fish and Wildlife Service, Forest Service, and National and serve as brokers to engage university and other federal Park Service). Although the Leopold Institute was initially scientists in cooperative and collaborative studies. A signifi- formed from the Forest Service’s pre-existing Wilderness cant program of research application, the linking of science to Management Research Work Unit, the intent was that all management through improved understanding of the need four agencies would be active partners in support of projects for and use of research information, has also been developed. and programs to provide the science necessary to address However, the fact that this increased breadth has come largely important wilderness management issues. without increased financial or staffing support has now Now that 10 years have passed since the Leopold Institute’s stretched limited resources to the point that the institute’s ability establishment, it is instructive to reflect on what has been ac- to continue its current level of activity may soon be threat- complished during this time. Perhaps most significantly, the ened. Compounding this dilemma is the interest of the partner institute’s programmatic scope has broadened considerably agencies in the institute expanding its effort into a collabora- from its original focus on recreation use, impacts, and man- tive or coordinating role with scientists working on topics such agement to include such issues as the understanding and as air, water, wildlife, and global change—areas for which the management of fire, nonnative species, and wildlife, as well as Institute has only limited expertise. To achieve this goal, ef- the understanding of the role wilderness plays in larger social forts would need to focus on identifying and developing new and natural systems. This expanded scope has been respon- partnerships and funding sources. sive to the needs expressed by the partner agencies. It has led In developing a program of work, institute staff has worked to the study of such diverse topics as the effects of recreation closely with representatives from the wilderness agencies to as- fee programs, subsistence use, the risks and benefits of restor- sure that research and application priorities address important ing natural fire, surveys of invasive species, the effects of management needs of all the agencies. The 1999 establishment stocking nonnative fish in mountain lakes, and the causes of declining amphibian populations. Institute scientists have Continued on page 23

34 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 EDUCATION and COMMUNICATION

Wilderness Benchmarking Is Visitor Acceptability Creep a Concern or Not?

BY JOSEPH P. FLOOD

Introduction managers struggle with the In recent decades, heavy visitor use in many wilderness question: How is visitor experience areas and subsequent impacts to the wilderness resource affected when the idea of a natural have changed the focus of wilderness management. Hu- environment is different from what mans are amazingly adaptable and prone to perceiving a was found during a previous first experience as the “norm,” and, as a consequence, es- wilderness visit? A benchmark tablishing a benchmark for acceptable conditions. This experience occurs the first time a conceptualization suggests that a chronological pattern can visitor arrives at a wilderness setting take place for both new visitors and new managers. As wil- and identifies with the condition of derness areas become increasingly crowded and impacted that setting (Vaske et al. 1980; through use, degraded resource conditions can become the Watson and Cronn 1994). benchmark for new visitors or managers. Some research This experience suggests that suggests that both visitors and managers may be accepting during future visits visitors may Article author Joseph P. Flood higher levels of degradation based on two things: the con- have a predisposed perception of cept of initial benchmarking and the gradual acceptability the conditions they expect prior to their arrival. These of changing resource conditions in wilderness over time. conditions may include, but are not limited to, the level of Recreational impacts on biophysical resources of wilder- impact on trails and campsites as well as the number of ness are a worrisome problem to managers charged with people they may encounter. Studies have underscored the the responsibility of maintaining natural conditions. For importance of visitor expectations in influencing their the purpose of this article, impacts to the biophysical re- wilderness experience, specifically with regard to effects on source are defined as loss of vegetative cover and soil the perception of resource conditions in the environment compaction and erosion at campsites, lakeshores, mead- (Cole et al. 1997; Rossman and Ulehla 1977). ows, and along trails. Natural or pristine conditions are According to Stankey and Schreyer (1987), the primary areas predominately influenced by acts of nature and not reasons people want to participate in a recreational pursuit by impacts related to recreational use. The purpose of this explain their motives. These motives must be translated article is to expand discussion of the concept of cognitive into behavior through some choice process, which in turn and perceptual benchmarking as it relates to perceived qual- is influenced by many situational factors. The object of ity, experiential expectations, and rating the perceived choice might be a particular recreation environment, a quality of wilderness resources. behavior, or a desired psychological condition. The preference for a particular wilderness environment depends Background on the attributes in the environment being perceived as Since the 1960s, wilderness researchers have struggled with suitable for fulfilling the needs that motivated the behavior. visitor perceptions of natural or pristine environments. While For example, visitors might expect to see little evidence of many visitors enter wilderness with an appreciation of the human impacts in the remote portions of a wilderness. natural environment (Kaplan and Talbot 1983), it is not clear Evaluations of on-site conditions in the form of impacts at how these visitors actually assess the quality of the campsites can vary depending on the individual. For instance, environment they are seeking. For example, wilderness research conducted by Vaske et al. (1980) demonstrated that

International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 35 people who first visited an environment expectations for the same activity or management actions are appropriate several years before tended to evaluate setting. When a situation differs from (Cole et al. 1997; Vaske et al. 1980; environmental conditions more what a person deems appropriate, the Watson and Cronn 1994). In some negatively than those whose first visit experience is more likely to be instances impacted campsites are being occurred close to the time of evaluating evaluated negatively (Vaske et al. restored, while in other areas, campsite the environmental conditions. Anderson 1980; Watson and Cronn 1994). impacts have steady increased over time (1980) measured changes in the behavior Some research has shown that and little has been done to address the of users in response to perceived visitors with a more extensive history impacts. Stokes (1990) argued that conditions. She discovered that visitors of visiting wilderness generally perceive visitors can provide important insights whose expectations differed from the more social and resource problems about the condition of wilderness and actual conditions either made a (Watson and Cronn 1994; Cole and that they should be considered a key psychological adjustment to the different Hall 1992). This information is source of information and support for conditions or were displaced to a different encouraging because it suggests that management practices. area better able to meet their needs. these longer-term visitors are more Visitor benchmarking is defined as sensitive to changing social and Revisiting Visitor any perception or previous experience resource conditions and will better Benchmarking in the that defines the campsite condition assist managers in understanding many expected at a wilderness destination of the problems visitors report. Mission Mountains campsite (Vaske et al. 1980). Social Wilderness areas with a high percentage Wilderness psychologists have documented that of repeat visitors may find general Wilderness is often examined in two standards people use to evaluate a visitor surveys more helpful in assessing dimensions: the psychological and the setting are highly influenced by their resource conditions. However, some biophysical. Psychological dimensions expectations for that experience, recent research suggests that future involve perceptions, attitudes, values, which implies that different generations of wilderness visitors may and responses visitors have about individuals will bring different have different expectations about what wilderness conditions. The biophysical characteristics of wilderness encompass the vegetation, wildlife, and interrelated geographical settings. The following case study focuses on visitor observation of heavily impacted biophysical conditions at campsites and how measures taken to restore them influence the quality of visitor experience. Both visitor and manager perceptions of the wilderness resource are examined in order to understand the influence of management actions on quality of visitor experience. Research was conducted in the Mission Mountains Wilderness (MMW), located in western Montana, where campsite restoration has been ongoing for the past 20 years. The research process included exit surveys, interviews, and focus groups with 350 MMW visitors (Flood 1999, 2001). In addition, a national survey was conducted with 33 selected U.S. Forest Figure 1—Perceptions of on-site conditions: Visitor and manager perceptions of quality flow model. Service wilderness managers having

36 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 direct experience with campsite and trail restoration. Some findings illustrated the many reasons visitors listed for visiting wilderness. Although reasons for visiting are similar to those found in previous research, the order of importance was different. Manning’s (1986) research findings indicated that visitors ranked engaging in recreational activities as their number-one reason for Figure 2—Restoration signs for former camping areas in the Mission visiting wilderness, closely followed by Mountains Wilderness. Photo by J. Flood. spending time with family and friends. Although MMW visitors also ranked upon the change in conditions at a seeing other people and impacts, but most engaging in recreational activities as specific campsite and compare their affected by observing litter. Although they their number-one choice, the remaining expectations to what they find in the lacked a benchmark for comparing the reasons for visiting the MMW were: current trip. The second type of appropriateness of campsite impacts they experiencing solitude, spiritual renewal benchmarking occurs prior to entering observed or the restoration activities to or nature appreciation, and spending a wilderness, when first-time visitors address these impacts, they registered time with family and friends (Flood evaluate the conditions of a campsite strong negative reactions to observing litter. 1999). Increased emphases on based on what they think it should In general, the written comments from experiencing solitude, spiritual look like. The third type of visitor MMW visitors and interviews show that renewal, and nature appreciation were benchmarking happens when many of the visitors’ positive reactions to evident in all of the data sets. wilderness visitors compare and observing restoration activities resulted Underscoring the significance of what evaluate campsite conditions found in from: (1) seeing heavily impacted mattered most to MMW visitors was one place with those observed at other campsites being restored in the MMW and best stated by eight of the longtime wilderness areas they have visited. (2) their visits to other wilderness areas MMW visitors who were in a focus A summary of findings from these where little or nothing was being done to group interview. These individuals studies (Flood 1999, 2001) suggests that restore these areas. Results from the MMW indicated that their reasons for visiting visitors with the fewest number of years survey, interviews, focus groups, and were motivated by desire to experience visiting the MMW were least affected by manager questionnaire suggest that visitors a sense of peace, passion for wildness, tranquility, healing, and opportunities for solitude (Flood 2001). Findings from exit surveys, manager questionnaires, interviews, and focus groups suggest that visitor perceptions of on-site conditions in wilderness are inextricably tied to the idea of benchmarking (Flood 1999, 2001). This research identified three types of visitor benchmarking, and these are diagrammed in Figure 1. The first type of benchmarking occurs when repeat visitors return to the same wilderness and evaluate on-site conditions based on observations made during prior visits. On Figure 3—Marking the boundary of a restoration site. Photo by J. Flood. subsequent trips, repeat visitors reflect

International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 37 experiences was improved, visitor opinions of managers tended to be very positive, and visitors felt that the area was well cared for by managers. When managers did little or nothing to address heavily impacted campsites, the quality of visitor experience was greatly reduced, visitor opinions of managers were very negative, and visitors felt that the area was neglected (Flood 2001). Whether managers choose to ignore or restore heavily impacted campsites, their decisions have a significant effect on the quality of visitor experience. Moreover, visitor perceptions and expectations of campsite conditions Figure 4—Reestablishing waterfront vegetation requires excluding visitors. Photo by J. Flood. they will encounter in future visits are affected. The results provide a yardstick do indeed establish benchmarks based on On-site observations by visitors were for assessing the relationship between campsite conditions. varied and included such factors as conditions found at campsites and the Various factors influence visitor acceptable campsite conditions, heavily influence these conditions actually have experiences once they arrive at their impacted campsites that are devoid of on the quality of visitor experience. destination campsite (Flood 1999). These native vegetation and seriously eroded, Findings from this study underscore factors include visitor reactions to level of and/or observing evidence of management that managers need to do a better job of impact at campsites and the extent of actions to restore them. Restoration providing wilderness education to visitors, management activities, or the lack thereof. activities may include information signs which can be accomplished by continuing located at trailheads and at campsites, wilderness ranger presence in wilderness, contact with wilderness rangers who providing up-to-date management provide on-site restoration education, information on wilderness websites, and evidence of stakes and twine, and visitor distributing wilderness management restrictions. Findings illustrate that visitor newsletters and brochures to visitors. motivations to engage in specific Making this information available will wilderness experiences, and whether it is improve the public’s understanding of possible for them to attain a desired level wilderness management. of quality, are heavily dependent on prior Wilderness education for visitors perceptions of campsite conditions they and training workshops for managers expect to find at their wilderness can go a long way toward addressing destination campsites (Flood 2001). the best methods for providing information to the public and teaching Conclusions the latest techniques for developing and This research shows that visitor implementing well-designed campsite experiences are influenced by what they management programs. The most find at their campsite. These findings are effective way to guarantee that the wild strongly supported by previous research remains in wilderness is to invest in (Cole et al., 1997; Martin et al. 1989). wilderness education efforts for the Previous research in the MMW (Flood public and for managers. Whether Figure 5—Campsite restoration activities are supported by 1999) suggests that when managers wilderness exists in the future, and what visitors, especially when the area is obviously impacted. Photo chose to restore heavily impacted by J. Flood. campsites, the quality of visitor Continued on page 27

38 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES

Identifying Wilderness in the Landscapes of Hong Kong Urban Periphery

BY LAWAL M. MARAFA

Introduction et al. 2003). In many countries, Wilderness is a very subjective concept, and the growing wilderness is now being used for demand for wilderness makes it a contemporary issue of nonconsumptive purposes. importance as it is sought by conservationists, recreationists, With the growth of urbani- adventure enthusiasts, and others. As wilderness continues zation and development, the to draw attention, forums such as the World Wilderness distance between the city and the Congress provide a basis for diverse participation and create backcountry continues to an international agenda for wilderness itself (Martin 2001). diminish. As a result, there is also For society to continue to survive in a sustainable manner, a growing concern about the fate we will need to revisit our perception and attitude toward of wilderness, particularly where wilderness and nature. There is a different perception of rapid development is happening, wilderness in various communities. like in Hong Kong. In many urban Article author Dr. Lawal M. Marafa. Although worldwide views on wilderness might differ, environments, wilderness is not some views are in tandem with the need for its perpetuation. easily accessible. What is interesting is that in Hong Kong, Historically, Easterners (e.g., Japanese and Chinese) view wilderness is often juxtaposed at the periphery of the urban humans as part of nature. The Chinese believe in the art area. While wilderness in other countries tend to be far and and science of feng shui, which purports that human destiny demands long hours of travel, it is less than an hours’ drive is enhanced if we live in harmony with nature. The common from Hong Kong, making it easily and readily accessible. point between traditional and contemporary resource Although wilderness is often equated with protected areas, managers, however, is to try to protect the wilderness this is not entirely a new phenomenon. Ancient cultures have resource and the experience it provides. For example, the protected certain places from human-caused change since U.S. Wilderness Act of 1964 specifies that wilderness the earliest of human times (Miller 1999). According to Miller, “generally appears to have been affected primarily by the designation of wilderness and other special places and sacred forces of nature, with the imprint of man’s work substantially areas is not a new idea. Some of these wilderness areas, unnoticeable, and has outstanding opportunities for mosaics of different landforms, have been designated as solitude or a primitive and unconfined type of recreation.” national or country parks, putting them in the realm of Furthermore, as Martin (2001) indicated, the issue of protected area systems. In some places they are referred to as wilderness has attained international importance and has natural reserves. In this regard, the country park system in succeeded in integrating diverse cultures and races in a Hong Kong is unique. One of the places where preservation, nature conservation dialogue. conservation, and sustainable development ideals are While the concept of wilderness is not new, the past few promoted is in the protected areas. In Hong Kong, this process decades have shown a dramatic increase in the use of has been going on in the protected areas that have been wilderness as a unique and attractive recreation setting (Bennett designated as country parks (see Table 1).

International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 39 Table 1—Objectives of Country Park System in Hong Kong. unique and important cultural land- scapes worthy of understanding, Country Park Functions preservation, and conservation. Objectives Most wilderness and cultural land- Conservation Protection of natural resources Landscapes scapes are juxtaposed with country Ecological resources parks that are protected as a result of Sites of geological interest the Country Park Ordinance in Hong Water catchments Sites of cultural and archaeological interests Kong. These parks are often the most Park’s tranquility accessible wild environment that Recreation Provide optimum range of outdoor recreation compatible with people can patronize and utilize with- conservation objectives out fear of breaking the law. To most Minimize conflict of activities people, these parks represent an envi- Provide for changes in demand ronment to be feared, revered, Encourage other agencies to provide environmentally compatible activities conserved, or studied as they contain Prohibit such activities that are not compatible with conservation a large ecological resource and have objectives been impacted by humans. Education Educate the public of the need to learn and conserve its countryside In Hong Kong, and some parts of Increase the public’s enjoyment by giving them a deeper understanding south China, such landscapes assume of the countryside environment a feng shui status because of previous Provide information on the location of facilities Provide opportunities for field studies human intervention (see Figure 1). These feng shui landscapes particularly Earlier, the International Union for Now, many societies do not use are based on the spatial juxtaposition Conservation of Nature and Natural wilderness for consumptive purposes. of villages, woodlands and forests, Resources (IUCN) defined a national Consequently, there are growing alter- and, in some instances, graveyards. In park and protected areas as a relatively native uses and values that people historical terms, feng shui explicitly large natural area, not materially altered attribute to wilderness including ex- states that human beings should live by human occupation, where human periential, mental and moral in harmony with nature, contrasting use is for inspirational, educational, cul- restoration, and scientific activities the notion that humans are separate tural, and recreational purposes (Lucas (Hayashi 2002; Bennett et al. 2003). from nature alluded to by the West- 1992). In many countries, these pur- Some of the wilderness environments ern view (Hayashi 2002). poses are practiced, and the IUCN has are treasured as historic resources and In view of feng shui, this article ex- classified categories of protected area reflect evidence of human continuity plores the status of natural and systems specifically by their primary and civilization. Where this is the case, wilderness landscapes located at the management objectives. Within the wilderness then assumes the role of a periphery of urban Hong Kong. It also broad definition provided by the IUCN, human and natural environment. The highlights the potential use of these cul- protected areas are in fact managed for antecedents of such environments re- tural and natural landscapes for many different purposes (see Table 2). flect traces of past subsistence experiential benefits to the community. While substantial changes in land practices and rituals, making them This region is similar to other regions use and development patterns have emerged since the passage of the 1976 Table 2—Categories of Protected Areas. Country Park Ordinance in Hong Kong, some of the wilderness areas in Strict Nature Reserve (i.e., nature reserve/wilderness area mainly for science or wilderness protection) the country parks and patches of old National Park (i.e., ecosystem conservation and recreation) native forests dating back to ancestral times remain intact. Historically, the Natural Monument (i.e., conservation of specific natural features) vegetation in these forest groves was Habitat/Species Management Area (i.e., conservation through management intervention) used for fuel, medicine, and even ac- Protected Landscape/Seascape (i.e., landscape/seascape conservation and recreation) corded such status as temples or Managed Resource Protected Area (i.e., sustainable use of natural ecosystems) meeting points. Source: IUCN 1994.

40 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 around the world where attempts have been made to promote the use of such wild, bucolic, rural, and peripheral land- scapes as destinations for ecotourism and other nonconsumptive uses.

The Role of Feng Shui and Geomancy In different societies, people’s views and acts on nature influence the over- all natural environment. As a result, the survival of humans is, in part, a result of the way we view and act upon nature and indeed wilderness. If we want to promote contempo- rary environmental concerns such as sustainable development, environmen- tal conservation, environmental education, ecotourism, and experien- Figure 1—Evidence of human habitation and subsistence agriculture at the edge of dense feng shui vegetation. tial learning, there is the need to further Photo by L. Marafa. study and reconsider the relationship between humans and nature. Our abil- the adherence to feng shui belief in spa- can be found around some of the na- ity to navigate through these global tial placement and geomancy. For tive villages. These areas are mostly concerns will be shaped largely by the centuries, geomancy have been ap- native vegetation communities that knowledge and wisdom we acquire and plied to the Chinese practice of feng have survived hundreds of years of pass along to future generations shui by which the location and orien- fire, cutting, vegetation destructive, through active promotion of these sites tation of houses and tombs was and consumptive activities by past and appropriate education programs in determined with close regard to the civilizations. order to understand, study and con- topography of the local landscape. serve wilderness and nature. It is natural to refer to the feng shui The Ecological Integrity of Although we have houses near for- locations of the countryside as wilder- ests with rich cultural history and ness because these locations are often Cultural and Natural diversity, the forests are still consid- surrounded by mountains and natu- Landscapes ered wild. Indeed one of the current ral areas. The feng shui sites have clearly The transformation of the forest has policies in perpetuating these semi- defined configurations. Indeed, Han been historically defined by the struggle wilderness areas is to foster clear (2001) had described the ideal feng over competing uses and contrasting awareness and concern about these shui location as a semi-enclosed space discourse of place, through which its cultural landscapes that have in part that is surrounded by mountain at the geographical and cultural features have been modified and bequeathed to us back, on the left, and on the right, and been shaped. Despite this fact, the con- by past generations. is open with flat land at the front. The cept of wilderness is still looked up to Although countryside landscapes at open land in front of the houses is in communities, rural or urban. As a the urban periphery were mostly used what was traditionally used for agri- vindication of the Eastern perception for agriculture, such as tea terraces and cultural purposes. of wilderness and nature, Martin (2001, paddy fields, there is a diminishing Feng shui is often referred to as p. 9) observed that “we are a part of role and significance of agriculture in geomancy—more popularly known in nature, not apart from nature.” the local economy (see Figure 2). The the West as earth magic (Man-ho and In terms of ecology and landscape cultural and natural landscape (rep- O’Brien 1991). In Hong Kong, it is status, these feng shui wilderness envi- resented by feng shui groves) in south only within these feng shui locations ronments can be considered a relict that China has been modified as a result of that thriving and mature vegetation represents a patch of continuing

International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 41 agencies. The Hong Kong government’s policy is to create outline zoning plans (OZP) that identify the significance of such landscapes. These OZPs are in addition to the country park structure where zoning tends to divide the parks into recreational, conservation, and wilderness zones to accommodate myriad demand as indicated in the country park objectives (see Table 1). However, manipulating wilderness conditions is philosophically and prac- tically difficult. Ancient cultures have protected certain places from human- caused change since the earliest human times; those places that are protected are often sacred and revered. Because these areas have limited impact by humans, Figure 2—Rural homes at the foot of a mountain range with abandoned agrarian fields in front. Photo by L. Marafa. they represent the remnants of ecologi- cal biodiversity and processes and ecological processes that should be con- ize the importance of the continuous include rare or endangered species served, maintained, and studied. As existence of wilderness environments (Chau and Marafa 1999). these landscapes are the closest repre- in an urban periphery. As wilderness is becoming more and sentatives of wilderness in Hong Kong, In most countries, wilderness is un- more important and some of it is being there is the need for a commitment to der some sort of management placed under protected area systems, protect in perpetuity a portion of the framework. In order to perpetuate wil- about 9% of the Earth’s terrestrial sur- landscape and its related human heri- derness, there is the need to forge an face is now under protection (IUCN tage. Such a commitment could integrated and collaborative system 1994), according to one of the numer- educate and encourage people to real- across the wilderness management ous objectives stipulated by the IUCN guidelines (see Table 2). In a society where wilderness is well managed, it can make contributions to the eco- nomic and social development of a community. Additionally, wilderness provides good subjects for environmen- tal and ethical education while simultaneously promoting the virtues of conservation (see Figure 3). Conse- quently, if societies want to work toward sustainable livelihoods, we will need to invest in wildlands and wilder- ness. We will need to manage them actively to provide the full range of eco- system goods and services. Also, there is the need to consider the theme of wilderness further, particularly as it borders on the interface of the relation- ship between people and nature. Figure 3—Interpreting wilderness on a planned trail. Photo by L. Marafa. Continued on page 33

42 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 WILDERNESS DIGEST

Announcements and Wilderness Calendar

COMPILED BY STEVE HOLLENHORST

Europe: Treaty Conserves wolves outside of Russia, with more than places. The program is sponsored by Largest Remaining 4,000 animals living in the Carpathian the Consortium for International Mountains. About 16 million to 18 million Protected Area Management (CIPAM), Wilderness people of various ethnic groups and which includes the USDA Forest Environment ministers from five east nationalities live in the region. Service International Programs, the European countries signed a new Unemployment and poverty have University of Montana, the University environmental agreement in Kiev, worsened in the region, posing a significant of Idaho, and Colorado State University. Ukraine, that aims to protect the threat to the Carpathians. “A great Led by Dr. Bill McLaughlin from the continent’s largest reserve of natural emphasis of the convention is on providing University of Idaho and Dr. Wayne forests and large carnivores. Hungary, benefits to local people, while developing Freimund at the University of Montana, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, sustainable tourism in and around the course evaluated policies and Slovakia, and Ukraine signed the protected areas and working together on institutional arrangements that sustain Framework Convention on the managing these areas,” said Achim Steiner, both people and natural resources. The Protection and Sustainable Development director general of the Switzerland-based seminar stimulated deliberations and of the Carpathians at a United Nations World Conservation Union. “Only by interactive problem solving for issues conference of 55 countries. The securing livelihoods can the long-term related to protected area and natural meeting’s purpose was to strengthen sustainable development of the region be resource management. Program cooperation in protecting and improving assured.” Source: Greenwire—http:// activities took advantage of the rich the environment in Europe and central www.eenews.net/Greenwire.htm. experiences and multiple cultural Asia. Representatives from the Czech perspectives of the participants, as well Republic and Poland are expected to sign Third International as the unique heritage and resources the agreement. available in the northern Rocky The Carpathian Mountains, arching Protected Area Mountain region. Themes included across eight countries and covering about Management Seminar Integrated Planning for Protected Areas; 78,000 square miles (202,020 square The 2003 International Seminar on the Community Involvement; Tourism, kilomters), are Europe’s last region outside Management of Parks and protected Concessions, and Visitor Management: Russia to boast large tracts of untouched areas was held from August 7 to 23, and Communication, Marketing, and forest, as well as large populations of brown 2003, in the Rocky Mountains of the Environmental Education. For bears, wolves, lynx, European bison, and western United States. Designed for information on next year’s seminar, visit the threatened imperial eagle. The midcareer planners and managers of the USDA Forest Service International Carpathians are home to one-third of all nationally significant protected areas Programs website at: http:// European plant species, including 481 worldwide, this integrated state-of-the- www.fs.fed.us/global/. For more species found nowhere else in the world. art course examined strategies to information on CIPAM, visit http:// The area includes nearly half of Europe’s conserve the world’s most special working.wilderness.net/protectedareas/ . Submit announcements and short news articles to STEVE HOLLENHORST, IJW Wilderness Digest editor. E-mail: [email protected].

International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 43 Fortieth Anniversary of 3 to raise public awareness and under- electronic umbilical to teams of rescuers standing of wilderness and a summit or standing by.” For more information on the the 1964 Wilderness Act conference component October 4 to 7 to personal locator beacon, see http:// The year 2004 marks the 40th celebrate the public values and benefits www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories/ anniversary of passage of the 1964 from wilderness; discuss necessary actions s1168.htm. Wilderness Act in the United States and to steward Wilderness resources; and to is a presidential election year. These expand partnerships to enjoy and support Walk For Wilderness Planned events present a unique opportunity in Wilderness programs. For more informa- To celebrate the 40th anniversary of The history to launch efforts to increase tion, see www.wilderness.net/40th/. Wilderness Act in the United States public awareness, understanding, and (1964–2004), cities, towns, and support of our nation’s wilderness New Technology Promises communities across the country are heritage. To capitalize on this encouraged to sponsor a “Walk for opportunity, representatives from the to Tame Our Sense of Self- Wilderness” event to bring a broad cross- wilderness stewardship agencies, Reliance section of local residents together to learn nongovernmental organizations, user An editorial in the Missoulian newspaper more about the benefits of an enduring groups, and funding organizations have lamented the introduction of a small new wilderness resource. It can also help come together to advance nationwide device to carry with you into the wildest promote the National Wilderness wilderness outreach efforts. corners of Montana or the world. Called a Summit and EXPO to be held in Denver, Representatives from a number of personal locator beacon, it’s much like the Colorado, October 1 to 7, 2004. Walks organizations and agencies are locator beacons carried by most aircraft. are encouraged on or near the 40th currently working together through With the flick of its switch, the pocket-sized anniversary date of the signing of the monthly conference calls to advance beacon sends out a digital distress signal Wilderness Act (September 3). The walks these and other wilderness awareness encoded with information about you and do not take place in congressionally efforts. The primary focus of this group pinpoints your location. The signal will be designated wilderness, but in the is to identify and capture the talent and picked up by a National Oceanic and communities that surround wilderness. resources needed to complete 40th Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) For more information on hosting a Walk anniversary projects by leveraging satellite and relayed to NOAA’s Mission for Wilderness event in your community, existing resources and ensuring that Control Center in Suitland, Maryland. contact Ralph Swain, Regional efforts complement rather than Someone there will route the signal to the Wilderness Program Manager, 740 compete with each other. It is intended Air Force Rescue Coordination Center at Simms Street, Golden, CO 81401; (303) that the group expand to include Langley Air Force Base in Virginia. The air 275-5058; e-mail: [email protected]. representatives from the hunting and force will then alert local police or a search fishing and river and horse outfitting and rescue team in the area from which the communities, among others. In signal was sent and tell your rescuers exactly A Professional Society for addition to the multi-organizational where to find you. It’s up to you to decide Wilderness Stewardship? coordinating team, a team made up of what level of emergency calls for flipping In the April 2003 issue of the IJW, three to five representatives from each the switch and summoning help. “We want Wayne Freimund and Connie Myers agency and the NGO community will recreationists who venture into America’s wrote an article proposing the creation be responsible for planning and hosting remote wilderness to be safe and prepared of a professional society for wilderness the National Wilderness Summit and if an emergency arises,” declares a NOAA stewardship. Following the article was EXPO. To the degree time and resources administrator on the agency’s website. “The a commentary on the proposal from allow, this team will also work on local best way to do that is to carry an S=9D IJW editor in chief John C. Hendee. and regional activities to increase public personal locator beacon.” In lament, the Freimund and Myers proposed “the awareness of wilderness. Missoulian editorial states that today’s establishment of a membership A Wilderness Education and Steward- “rugged individualists” may “find their way organization for wilderness stewardship ship Summit has been scheduled for to the last vestiges of frontier, but [they] need to provide a valuable forum for linking Denver, Colorado, from October 1 to 7, not worry about finding [their] way out. wilderness managers, scientists, and 2004. This event includes an EXPO as a He or she can roam the wilderness but won’t others to address common stewardship public outreach component October 1 to know wildness—not while connected by challenges and bring focus to the

44 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 profession of wilderness stewardship. watershed. Wager Bay is important to resource; information about technology; Within such a venue, we could move local Inuit communities as a hunting agency and academic research results; and toward an integrated and collaborative ground and because of its cultural discussion of the recent issues facing wil- system of wilderness stewardship. This significance. More than 500 derness managers. The registration fee is organization would serve as a archaeological sites are found within $450/person. A limited number of open- professional home for people who wish the park. The signing ceremony was ings for community residents who wish to see themselves as wilderness held in Iqaluit and attended by Prime to attend the workshop, but will not re- professionals.” The article is available Minister Jean Chrétien, Nunavut quire lodging or meals, will be available online at http://www.wilderness.net/ official Nancy Karetak-Lindell, and for $25/person/day. Forest Service em- feature.cfm. To join a discussion on Nunavut leader Paul Okalik, as well ployees must register via TIPS at http:// the topic, visit the Wilderness.Net as Tongola Sandy, president of the fsweb.r2.fs.fed.us/hr/index.html and sub- discussion page at http://www. Kivalliq Inuit Association. Source: The mit a job code and override number to wilderness.net/forum/. CPAWS—http://www.cpaws.org/ Barb Sumpter at [email protected]. For news/ukkusiksalik-2003-0823.html. registration by other government employ- Canada Creates 41st ees (BLM, NPS and FWS) and National Park in Nunavut Wilderness Ranger Academy nongovernment attendees, contact Ralph A training program to provide a “tool box” Swain at [email protected], or telephone: The government of Canada announced of professional wilderness management (303) 275-5058. the creation of Ukkusiksalik National skills to field level wilderness rangers, Park in Nunavut. Canada’s 41st seasonal rangers, wilderness managers, Correction on Newman et al. national park protects 20,500 sq km and volunteers will be held in Aspen, article in August 2003 IJW (7,915 sq. mi.) of wilderness, including Colorado, from May 18 to 21, 2004. The In the previous issue of IJW (Volume 9 Wager Bay—a vast arm of the sea that program theme is the 40th Anniversary Number 2), the paper by Newman, extends 100 kilometers (38 miles) of The Wilderness and is hosted by the Manning, Bacon, Graefe, and Kyle, “An inland from the northwest corner of Forest Service, Bureau of Land Manage- Evaluation of Appalachian Trail Hikers’ Hudson Bay. “The creation of ment (BLM), National Park Service (NPS), Knowledge of Minimum Impact Skills Ukkusiksalik National Park is the and Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS). The and Practices” contained a typeset error result of many years of work on the program includes a review of wilderness in Table 1 on page 36. The incorrect part of Inuit communities and Parks history, philosophy, values, and The Wil- answers for the “minimum impact Canada, and we applaud their derness Act; understanding the quiz” were highlighted in bold. Below commitment and vision in protecting wilderness ranger’s roles and responsibili- is the corrected table. this magnificent wilderness area for ties; a focus on wilderness as an enduring future generations,” said Stephen Hazell, national executive director for Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society (CPAWS). Ukkusiksalik National Park protects important habitat for caribou, musk ox, polar bears, grizzly bears, golden eagles, and many other arctic wildlife species. The new park includes a major marine component—home to bearded and ringed seals and beluga whales. It encompasses a landscape of rolling tundra, cliffs, and unique phenomena such as a reversing waterfall, created by the impressive eight-meter (26 foot) tides in the area. It is the first national park to encompass almost an entire Corrected Table from Newman et al. August 2003 IJW.

International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 45 Wilderness Task Force Accord,” a call to action for protected area the wilderness concept and to provide Launched at World Parks conservation constituents that encourages more formal representation in WCPA ac- a series of new dialogues and agreements tivities. In consultation with wilderness Congress to recognize how protected areas benefit leaders from around the world, The The Wilderness Task Force, established society. Previous congresses have had a WILD Foundation prepared terms of ref- by the International Union for Conser- tremendous impact in assisting national erence for the WTF, which were approved vation of Nature and Natural Resources governments to create new protected ar- by the WCPA in March 2003. (IUCN) World Commission on Protected eas and direct more resources toward The WTF had two formal meetings at Areas (WCPA), recently made its debut conservation of biodiversity. the World Parks Congress. At the first at the Fifth World Parks Congress in Wilderness was first officially recog- meeting, attended by over 80 delegates, Durban, South Africa. Every 10 years nized as an IUCN protected area category Mr. Martin presented the terms of refer- since 1962, the world’s protected area in 1992, when the WCPA took the im- ence and led a discussion of the next steps. leaders gather at the congress to assess portant step of establishing Category 1(b). Ian Player provided inspiring words about achievements, problems and issues, and Nonetheless, there has been a need for the importance of elevating attention to chart goals for the future. This year the more formal discussion of wilderness is- wilderness in international conservation Congress focused on demonstrating how sues at WCPA meetings in IUCN circles. The second meeting, attended by protected areas are relevant to the broader publications. In response, WILD Foun- approximately 60 delegates, had a two- economic, social and environmental dation President Vance Martin proposed fold purpose: (1) to present in more detail agenda for humankind in the 21st cen- that a Wilderness Task Force (WTF) be “The Wild Planet Project: Making the tury. The end result was the “Durban established as an IUCN focal point for Case for Wilderness and People,” an ini-

Alan Ewert Leaves IJW Editorial Board

Administration recently assumed Resource Recreation and Tourism additional duties as associate dean in Department at the University of the School of Health, Physical Northern British Columbia in Prince Education and Recreation. Alan’s keen George, British Columbia. In 2000, insight and sound advice will be sorely he moved to Indiana University and missed on the IJW editorial board, as held the Patricia and Joel Meier well as his expertise and experience Endowed Chair in Outdoor in adventure recreation in wilderness. Leadership. Dr. Ewert has exceptional and Dr. Ewert has authored numerous varied experience in wilderness- articles in scientific journals and related positions. After three years as books on a variety of topics including a faculty member at Ohio State natural resource management, University, he became the director for outdoor adventure, and resource- professional development for the based tourism. We look forward to Pacific Crest Outward Bound School. his continued involvement with Dr. Alan Ewert climbing near the top of Mt. Ellen, From there he joined the U.S. Forest wilderness and the IJW. Utah. Photo by Amy Shellman. Service as project leader of the ALAN EWERT can be contacted at Wildland and Urban Interface Indiana University, Department of Dr. Alan Ewert, one of the founding Research Unit based in Riverside, Recreation and Park Administration, executive editors of IJW, has resigned California, and within a few years was HPER Bldg., Room 133, 1025 East from that position in order to devote promoted to branch chief of Seventh Street, Bloomington, IN 47405- more time to his new duties at Recreation, Wilderness, and Urban 7109; or by phone at (812) 855-8116, or e-mail at [email protected]. Indiana University. Dr Ewert, a Forestry Research for the USDA Forest professor and endowed chair in the Service in Washington, D.C. In 1996, —John Hendee Department of Recreation and Park he became professor and head of the IJW Editor in Chief

46 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 Perry Brown Named to Hendee, IJW editor in chief. “He will bring example, their Wilderness Center has IJW Editorial Board experience, insight, and leadership to the flourished, Wilderness.Net has evolved board to help us in our mission of providing into the prime wilderness Internet information to wilderness planners and source, international wilderness study managers, scientists, educators, advocates, programs have been developed, and a and users.” major wilderness research conference Perry Brown earned his Ph.D. from Utah was cohosted in 1999. In 2001, Perry State University in 1971. Early in his career was selected to chair a major Task Force Perry was a noted for his teaching, research, Review of federal agency wilderness and outreach in the areas of natural resource stewardship, culminating in what is policy and planning and in recreation now known as “The Brown Report” behavior and planning at Colorado State (see IJW, April 2002). Earlier this year University and then at Oregon state Perry presented the IJW-Corrigall Dr. Perry Brown, dean of the College of University, before becoming associate dean Stewardship Award to recipient Bill Forestry and Conservation, director of the of the Oregon State University School of Worf on behalf of IJW. Montana Forest and Conservation Forestry. In 1994, Dr. Brown was named As an IJW board member, Dr. Brown Experiment Station, and professor of dean of the University of Montana’s Forestry will help us focus on strategic rather than Forest Resources at the University of School, now the College of Forestry and editorial matters, helping IJW strengthen Montana in Missoula, has accepted an Conservation. The name change reflects the such things as our sponsorship base, appointment to the IJW editorial board. broader direction that has evolved under wilderness awards programs, sub- He will replace Alan Ewert, a founding his leadership. Dean Brown has long been scriptions, international distribution, and IJW board member who is resigning due a supporter of IJW (U of M is one of our service to a broader wilderness clientele. to increased administrative responsibilities sponsors) and under his leadership at the Welcome to the IJW team, Perry. at the University of Indiana. “Perry is a University of Montana wilderness has —John Hendee, IJW Editor in Chief fine addition to the board,” said John prospered in their education programs. For tiative The WILD Foundation is prepar- assemble the state-of-the-art knowledge on the need for the WTF and WWC to ing for the 8th World Wilderness on the many benefits of wilderness, but continue to celebrate wilderness with Congress (WWC) in 2005 in Anchorage, also to use that information to gener- energy and enthusiasm and without Alaska; and (2) to solicit input on addi- ate new conservation outcomes. apology. Finally, a request was made to tional functions the WTF could provide. Discussions included the possible develop a forum at the WWC to bring Cyril Kormos, vice president for functions the WTF could assist with via together high level wilderness manag- policy at the WILD Foundation pre- the website and via the upcoming 8th ers from around the world to exchange sented “The Wild Planet Project.” The WWC. A central component of the dis- lessons learned and experiences—gov- objective is to assemble working groups cussion was the need for better ernment representatives from India and on biodiversity, ecosystem functions, communication on wilderness issues. the United States pledged to work to- social issues, law and policy, and eco- Participants suggested that the WTF gether to organize this forum. nomics that will each make a case for develop a communications strategy to For more information, contact the wilderness protection, and present that disseminate wilderness information Wilderness Task Force—http://www. case at the 8th WWC. Mr. Kormos more broadly and more effectively. Par- wild.org/international/iucn.html; Wild emphasized that this was intended as a ticipants noted that NGOs around the Planet Project—http://www.wild.org/ in- participatory effort. WILD will take a world would need as many tools as pos- ternational/wpp.html; World leadership role in coordinating this ef- sible to make the wilderness concept Commission on Protected Areas—http:/ fort and will chair the social and law tangible in their countries (e.g., The Wild /www.iucn.org/themes/wcpa/; and World and policy groups, but he invited oth- Planet Project), particularly in non-En- Parks Congress—http://www.iucn.org/ ers to take on the remaining working glish speaking countries unfamiliar with themes/wcpa/wpc2003/index.htm. groups. He emphasized that this work the concept and in countries where little Source: Steve Hollenhorst, Cyril Kormos, was intended as an applied initiative to wilderness is left. Emphasis was placed and Vance Martin.

International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3 47 WILDERNESS DIGEST

Book Reviews

Confronting Consumption voluntary simplicity or recycling), this on consumption, and how the ecologi- edited by Thomas Princen, Michael book highlights “the need to see con- cal and social impacts of this fixation Maniates, and Ken Conca. 2002. sumption not just as an individual’s continue to reverberate around the MIT Press. 390 pp., $26.95 (paper). choice among goods but as a stream of globe. It clearly links wilderness and Wilderness has no lack of enemies. By choices and decisions winding its way consumption and identifies the grow- necessity, defenders of wilderness tend to through the various stages of extraction, ing schism between consumers and the deal with frontline issues such as recalci- manufacture, and final use, embedded wild. For wilderness is not only con- trant legislators intent on antiwilderness at every step in social relations of power sumed by extractive industries, it is also legislation, the environmental and social and authority” (p. 12). consumed by recreation and indirect impacts of overuse, special interest groups Confronting Consumption is divided use of wilderness. intent on inappropriate use, or resource into three sections. The first two sections Reviewed by JOHN SHULTIS extraction activities. As a result, the review and analyze the status quo—the broader social forces that initiate these and existing economic and political struc- Driven Wild: How the Fight other threats—obscured as they are by tures that champion consumption—and Against Automobiles their own pervasiveness—can be forgot- the primary characteristics of the con- Launched the Modern ten in the heat of battle. sumer society. These sections also Wilderness Movement Confronting Consumption brings one provide a detailed critique of our society’s by Paul Sutter. 2002. University of of these obscured forces into much focus on production and consumption, Washington Press. 360 pp., $35.00 (cloth). sharper focus. The central issue ad- discussing, for example, the concept of dressed is the Western nations’ obsession distancing (i.e., the increasing social and The theme of consumption addressed with consumption and its impact on the geographical distance between resource in the previous book review (Confront- environment and on the consumers extraction and consumption, and the ing Consumption) is echoed in Driven themselves. By consuming “things,” we inability of consumers to see the eco- Wild, which traces the cultural and also consume less tangible goods such logical impacts of their consumption), intellectual history of the wilderness as wilderness or ecological integrity. commodification (i.e., our increasing movement. Paul Sutter focuses on the The authors suggest that the envi- ability to bring new goods and services years 1910 to 1930—a period often ronmental movement has tiptoed into consumption), globalization, and ignored in previous historical analy- around the issue of consumption, per- the growing North-South divide. The ses—and addresses his topic by haps in part because—as primarily final section provides five chapters that identifying the roles and rationales of middle-class-based organizations— provide specific examples of how the four of the eight founding members they too felt it necessary to rely on juggernaut of consumption might be of The Wilderness Society: Aldo consumption (e.g., selling member- challenged. The voluntary simplicity Leopold, Robert Sterling Yard, Benton ships in their organization in order to movement, forest certification, MacKaye, and Bob Marshall. lobby governments) to exist. Indeed, Adbusters, and the home power move- Sutter argues that these and other one of the central themes of the book ment are critically examined—warts and wilderness leaders were not primarily is that the calls for spiraling consump- all. A social response incorporating both responding to the dangers posed by the tion are deeply entrenched within cautious consumption and better pro- traditional extractive industries (e.g., contemporary society. While traditional ducing is suggested as a possible cure forestry and mining) when they created economic theory ascribes responsibil- for our addiction to consumption. The Wilderness Society. Rather, most of ity for all consumption-related Confronting Consumption is an excel- their arguments were organized around problems to individuals (e.g., calls for lent reminder of our society’s fixation Continued on page 17

48 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2003 • VOLUME 9, NUMBER 3