THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES Volume 27, Issue 3 (2020), Pages 1-99

Director-in-Charge: Seyed Mehdi Mousavi, Associate Professor of Archaeology Editor-in-Chief: Arsalan Golfam, Associate Professor of Linguistics Managing Editors: Shahin Aryamanesh, PhD of Archaeology, Tissaphernes Archaeological Research Group English Edit by: Ahmad Shakil, PhD Published by Tarbiat Modares University

Editorial board: Ehsani, Mohammad; Professor of Sport Management, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran Ghaffari, Masoud; Associate Professor of Political Science, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran Hafezniya, Mohammadreza; Professor in Political Geography and Geopolitics, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran Khodadad Hosseini, Seyed Hamid; Professor in Business, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran Kiyani, Gholamreza; Associate Professor of Language & Linguistics, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran Manouchehri, Abbas; Professor of Political science, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran Ahmadi, Hamid; Professor of Political science, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran Karimi Doostan, Gholam Hosein; Professor of Linguistics, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran Mousavi Haji, Seyed Rasoul; Professor of Archaeology, Mazandaran University, Mazandaran, Iran Yousefifar, Shahram; Professor of History, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran Karimi Motahar, Janallah; Professor of Russian Language, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran Mohammadifar, Yaghoub; Professor of Archaeology, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran

The International Journal of Humanities is one of the TMU Press journals that is published by the responsibility of its Editor-in-Chief and Editorial Board in the determined scopes. The International Journal of Humanities is mainly devoted to the publication of original research, which brings fresh light to bear on the concepts, processes, and consequences of humanities in general. It is multi-disciplinary in the sense that it encourages contributions from all relevant fields and specialized branches of the humanities. Address: Humanities faculty, Tarbiat Modares University, Nasr, Jalal AleAhmad, Tehran, Iran. P.O.Box: 14115- 139 Web Address for manuscript submission: http://eijh.modares.ac.ir/ Email: [email protected]

Contents

The Inner City Seljuk Fortifications of Rey: Case Study of Rashkān Fortress, Gabri and Kāsni Castles Mohsen Saadati, Javad Neyestani, Alireza Hejebri Nobari …………….…………………...… 1

Intellectual Trends in the Post-Revolutionary Iran, A Critical Analysis of Three Decades of Public Debates on Society, Governance, Religion and the Role of Intellectuals Seyed Javad Miri ……………………………………………………………………………..... 20

Branding and Sale of Sportswear in Iran: Based on Grounded Theory Azam Norallah, Mohammad Ehsani, Rasoul Norouzi Seyed Hosseini ……………………..... 45

Plurals in Synthetic Compounds: Evidence from Persian-Speaking Children Musa Nushi …………………..…………………………………………………………….…... 61

Resistance to Deforestation Represented in Louis Owens’Wolfsong: An Eco-Critical Reading Peyman Amanolahi Baharvand, Bakhtiar Sadjadi, Shohreh Chavoshian …………………..... 75

A Study on up-Down Orientational Metaphors in Mullā Ṣadrā’s Philosophy Vahid Khademzadeh …...... ……………………………………………………………………. 86 Intl. J. Humanities (2020) Vol. 27 (3): (20-44)

Research Article

Intellectual Trends in the Post-Revolutionary Iran, A Critical Analysis of Three Decades of Public Debates on Society, Governance, Religion and the Role of Intellectuals

Seyed Javad Miri1

Received: 29/12/2019 Accepted: 2/1/2020

Abstract In this article, the author is attempting to inquire intellectual trends in the post- revolutionary context of Iran. He has gone through the works of Soroush, Malekyan and Kadivar in relation to questions such as religion, society, governance, state and religion. His main idea could be summed up as the break-away of religious intellectuals from conceptualizing religion in terms of jurisprudential frame of reference and this itself has created new ways of understanding religion and its locus within modern society of Iran in the 21st century.

Keywords: Soroush; Kadivar; Malekyan; Post-Revolutionary Iran; Religion.

______1. Associate Professor of Sociology and Religious Studies, Institute of Humanities and Cultural Studies, Tehran, Iran. [email protected]

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1. Introduction Said does also believe that the intellectual is The most challenging taxonomy of an individual who possesses the liability to intellectuals in Iran is post-Revolutionary demonstrate, embody, and clearly vocalize a intellectuals' classification on the basis of message, a point of view, an intellectual religion according to which, they are divided bent, a philosophy or an opinion for or on into two camps i.e. religious intellectuals the behalf of a group of people; this is a hard and secular intellectuals (Ghudarzi, 2007: role for the intellectual to play and he could 82). Having assayed the process of not fit himself into it unless by coming to intellectualism in the post- Revolutionary grip with the fact that his task is obviously Iran during 80s, 90s and the first decade of raising critical questions by challenging the 21st century, this essay seeks to give an traditionalism and dogmatism (Said, 2009: account of the ideas of Abdolkarim Soroush, 30). According to various definitions that Mohsen Kadivar and Mustafa Malekyan as have been proposed by intellectualism and the respective representatives of these intellectual some of the noticeable features decades. of an intellectual in a nutshell are as follows: rationality, scrutiny, critique, criticism, 2. Aufklärung: A Conceptual power of discernment, inquisitiveness, Makeover promoting fraternity and equality, law, Jean Paul Sartre believes "an intellectual is disenchantment, enlightenment, the one who becomes aware of the polarity commitment and rebellion against that does exist between the quest for dogmatism. practical truth (with all the measures it has) and the prevailing ideology (with its 3. Intellectual Tradition in Iran traditional system) both in himself and the Intellectualism (intellectual tradition or society. This self-awareness of intellectual being a public intellectual) like other secures its concreteness through engaging in modern products for such Muslim countries own professional activities and duties and it as Iran appeared as an "other". Iranian is indeed consisted of laying bare the intellectuals, in tune with the rest of essential inconsistencies lied in the intellectuals throughout the world, have expression of the truth that he needs to always devoted themselves to the study of succeed in his affairs through myths, values relevance of their own culture and and traditions. intellectual and social identity with In other words, an intellectual seeks to modernity and tradition/modernity duality retain and secure his own hegemony by is their central issue. Intellectualism in Iran attempting to involve other classes in the is perceived as a political concept and this is aforementioned discourses" (Sartre, 2001: the very reason that Iranian modernity, 66). But according to Max Weber, instead of having been founded upon intellectuals in their search for a meaning of philosophy and culture, is grounded on such the world particularly where the process of political concepts as democracy, socialism, disenchantment is already completed, have parliamentarism and so on and so forth. sought to relocate the world in their rational Iranian intellectual has delimited his pattern and make a sense of this world's own cultural and social role according to pains and agonies (Sadri, 2007: 99). Edward political relations, and instead of seeking for

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cultural developments in the society, he has became the most challenging rival of the always appeared as a social persona by clergy in the interpretation of religion. The focusing on politics and critique of power. overthrow of the clerical monopoly of The birth and death of every epoch of interpretation of religion by religious history of the Iranian intellectual tradition intellectualism was the first challenge have been accompanied by political through which traditional discretion-based developments and this is why any religious judgment (Ijtihad) was replaced by categorization proposed by researchers of modern hermeneutic methods (Kazemi, the history of Iranian intellectual tradition 2008: 121). For religious intellectuals, the has been drawn – whether consciously or first step toward reformism was shifting unconsciously – according to significant from blind imitation of traditional political events. interpretation to a modern and much liberal approach (Sharabi, 1988: 31). This group of 3-1. Religious Intellectualism intellectuals beside their acquaintance with Those intellectuals who have their roots in traditional references was benefited from an the conflict of religious culture of Iran and Ijtihad free from traditionalist myopic modernity and seek to fill the gap between approaches. Moreover the critical role of their own traditional-religious background religious intellectuals in Iran is and the achievements of modern world are simultaneously concerned with modernity religious intellectuals. What distinguish and the West, religion and tradition, and them from secular intellectuals are their even with the stream of Aufklärung itself. religious concerns and the application of But in practical domain, these intellectuals religion's language in the expression of pursue a "local" operational strategy in the modern ideas. Religious intellectuals have Iranian society (Kazemi, 2008: 71-72). grounded their thoughts in the revival and reformation of religion and in their view the 4. Intellectual Movement in 80s task of religious reform is not reforming the With the outburst of the Islamic Revolution, foundation of religion but it is the revival of a new epoch emerged in the history of Iran, forgotten edicts of Islam and purifying them the region and some even argued in the from distortions and superstitions and world (Esposito, 1990). If the previous finally upholding the sovereignty of Islam epoch was the age of a secular and semi- and bringing back the glorious life to modern totalitarian regime that sought to Muslims (Yusefi Eshkawari, 1997: 16-17). modernize the country based on the models Religious intellectuals in the politico- of development proposed by the social domain have also been heavily under international capitalist pressure groups, the influence of "mainstream paradigm" of after the Revolution, a nativist political intellectual trend of every age. Thus regime based on a political interpretation of religious intellectuals have actually played Islam came to dominate the Iranian society. the same role as other intellectuals in The marriage of religion and political power encountering colossal changes and created new situations in the domain of transformations which occur in the world ideas and culture in Iran which were indeed (Kazemi, 2008: 101). Religious natural outcomes of the Islamic Revolution intellectualism, in contemporary Iran, of 1979. The official ideology of Iran's

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revolutionary state in 80s was not in favor of intellectual circles whose activities were intellectual activities. Religious radicalism or devoted to the idea of civil society. The the so-called revolutionary fervor of this "Kyan Circle" was regarded the most period also curbed the atmosphere for renowned research center of post- intellectuals and forced many in favor of Revolutionary reformists whose runners liberalism (and later on those who sought to publicize intellectual debates by supported socialist discourses) to leave the focusing on Soroush's ideas through the country. The Cultural Revolution and the publication of "Keyhani Farhangi" between dismissal of intellectuals and secular the years 1988-1990. professors from academic institutions Upon their strategy of occidental studies accelerated the migration of Iranian elites or they have come to this conclusion that the forced them to reevaluate their intellectual assimilation of positive experiences of strategies in a fundamental fashion. Thus dominant civilization of humanity (western) the post-Revolutionary intellectuals must be and their internalization through local and divided into two groups of domestic and indigenous values is the best solution. In émigré intellectuals. Meanwhile, domestic tune with this strategy they insisted on intellectuals tried to adapt themselves with overcoming three assumed gaps which may the censorship that was dominant in Iran's exist between the Iranian identity, the intellectual atmosphere and with the Islamic paradigm and the Western model imposed restrictions by the revolutionary (Mashayekhi, 2003: 8) and with the slogan state. Thus, one can regard 1980s as the of political development and joining the declining decade of intellectual discourse in global community they gradually moved Iran. The arch-debate of this period was toward western and liberal ideology and intellectuals' own quarrel over the paradigms. This journal triggered a significance of historicism and positivism commotion on such issues as science and that had their origin in the translation of religion, liberty and social justice, Islam and Karl Raymond Popper's works and the West, and religious and political reliance of some of intellectuals like establishments that its editorial board had to Abdolkarim Soroush upon them that was resign due to pressures leveled by the severely criticized by Ahmad Fardid and his government's conservative wings-which followers particularly Reza Davari Ardakani later on came to be known as “pressure (Borojerdi, 1998: 241-270). This squabble groups”. This journal was suspended in 1990 despite the tumult that it raised among and by the following year it resumed its intellectuals did not have enough work with a new editorial body in philosophical depth and was often gone concordance with the government’s cultural along with trivial debates and verbal tussles. policy (Jahanbakhsh, 2004: 221). During this decade, some intellectuals like Furthermore Iran's developments by the Ahmad Fardid and Reza Davari Ardakani end of 1980s prepared the ground for pointed their critiques toward liberalism religious values either to lose their colors or and some others like Abdulkarim Soroush be reinterpreted in line with novel preferred to target Marxism, Socialism and understandings in Iran. Some argued that its Soviet versions of Leninism and new generations' grievance of political Islam Stalinism. This decade hosted various gave rise to an atmosphere of despair and

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Miri,S J______Intl. J. Humanities (2020) Vol. 27 (3): (20-44) indifference toward religion. In other words, more devoted themselves to social and this persuaded religious intellectuals such as political criticism and diverted their efforts Mehdi Bazargan to criticize the idea of toward the reproduction of liberalist, political and ideological Islam as the sole feminist, postmodernist and neo-Marxist possible reading of Religion. His approach doctrines. The principal concern of Iranian was heavily relied upon the modern intellectuals of the 1990s was modernity and intellectual tradition which sought to the obstacles before modernization in the propose a non-ideological interpretation of country. This concern is still regarded as the religion by describing it as the main reason main issue of Iranian intellectual discourse. of Islamophobia. He argued that if we did Besides the intellectuals within the country, not blend religion to poke its nose into however, a dynamic and diverse Iranian social and political affairs many problems intellectualism took a critical shape abroad. and dilemmas broached by new generations Thanks to the translation and publication of of Islam would become pointless and the works by intellectuals in the domains of religion could revive itself again in an human sciences and modern philosophy, acceptable fashion (Bazargan, 2007: 72). during this decade the path was tiled for the To cut the long story short; one could emergence of new debates. Such intellectuals state that during the first decade of the as Dariush Shayegan, Aramesh Doostdar, Revolution there is no sign of strong Mehrdad Mashayekhi, Abbas Milani, and intellectual streams due to various socio- dozens of other renowned intellectuals political and religious issues such as the war across Europe and US having criticized the and steady consolidation of clerical rule in ruling regime of Iran by mobilizing the political map of Iran. It was only from extensive critiques against the intellectual 1988 onward that religious intellectual trends itself which has played an community began to prove itself as a indispensable role in the promotion of "religious circle which takes modernity Iranian intellectualism. What distinguishes seriously" thanks to such factors as the the domestic intellectuals from the émigré is transition from the revolutionary experience most of all the tone of their speeches and as the first form of governance, war writings. termination, charismatic leader's departure, Those Iranian intellectuals who live in and the publication of some papers by Europe and the US, thanks to their Soroush in Kyhan Journal. unrestrained freedom of expression articulate their views on politics, religion 5. Intellectual Movement in 1990s and social situation in Iran in an expressive, With relative opening of cultural transparent fashion and sometimes in sharp atmosphere of the country, religious and critical terms, while the domestic intellectuals in 1990s tried to change the intellectuals are widely stricken by an "univocal society" into a "multi-vocal" and extensive self-censorship in the expression pluralistic society through the propagation of their ideas and views and have always of books, articles and lectures (Kazemi, refrained from sharp-tempered intellectual 1383: 11). Along with this group of criticisms that are prevalent among Iranian intellectuals, a new generation of secular émigré intellectuals. In other words, the intellectuals emerged in Iran who more and Iranian intellectuals who work in Iran tend

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Intellectual Trends in the post-Revolutionary: … Intl. J. Humanities (2020) Vol. 28 (3) to express their ideas in a very conservative This movement which took form within the manner. Religious intellectuals in the 1990s discourse of the Islamic Revolution and more than any other time insisted on the against the official religious paradigm that fulfillment of the idea of civil society. This was dominant in Islamic Seminaries of idea is indeed equivalent to all global values Theology and ruling political regime in Iran, of freedom, democracy, individual rights sought to propose an alternative paradigm and the like that had been debated by other within the boundaries of existing Islamic intellectuals for a century. During this state. This trend which began to grow from period, the social and political action of the second decade of the Islamic Revolution religious intellectuals was reformist in was to come up with a new reading of contrast to pre-Revolutionary decades. By religion through the application of some introducing their local ideas, they engage modern epistemological and hermeneutical themselves in the reconstruction of a global attitudes and by resorting to it to propose a civil society so as to clear more space for paradigm of religious modernity based on religion in the rearrangement of global modern liberal teachings. The main target of community through the modification of secular trend was to break the monopoly of modern ideas (ibid: 106). This group of official clerical interpretation of religion intellectuals sought to lay the ground for the which was intended to provide the required development of modern and liberalistic theoretical basis for ruling political regime. ideas through "the minimization of religion" This initiative of religious intellectuals was and "the tenderization of jurisprudence". concurrent with some modern theological Abdolkarim Soroush and Mujtahid debates that passed into the field of Islamic Shabestari are among the most important theology from Christian theology and representatives of this trend who assayed to challenged the official reading of religion as broach the idea of civil society and social a political legitimacy machine. These and political categories by non- debates ranged from possible and new jurisprudential interpretations of religion. methods for dynamic jurisprudential Here we can indicate such names as Ramin argumentation (Ijtihad), human Jahanbagloo and Ali Mirsepasi as secular expectations from religion, epochality of intellectuals in this domain. Moreover, in religious understanding, the scope and role this decade a reformist trend took form of religion in human life to believers' need to among religious intellectuals which was political, social, economic and in a nutshell consisted of various distinct groups. Some of all extra-religious patterns that are the them had emerged from leftist religious results of human experiences outside the intellectual trends; some were new religious domains. generations of Nehzat Azadi Iran or A remarkable point of secularist Freedom Movement of Iran, and some religious outlook is the effort that this others the culturalist intellectuals who generation of religious intellectuals has pursued the project of religious reformism made to offer a reading of religion that is in in a democratic and liberalistic spirit. This total harmony with all dominant liberal trend gradually changed into a "religious values in the modern world; a religion which secularism current" which holds a positive its political ideal is democracy, its social view of modernity and its achievements. ideal is liberty and human rights, and its

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economic ideal is utilitarian individualism heavily on the works of liberal thinkers like and has been reduced to a spiritual factor in Popper in England from 1969 until the human life. Iran's political developments of Revolution, Soroush took advantages of 1990sleft a radical impact on secular trends these ideas in the criticism of Marxism among the camps of religious intellectuals. which was dominant intellectual trend in The construction period (President 1970s. His scholarship in the history of Rafsanjani's Administrations) and Iranian Islamic theology particularly about Asharite politicians' strong appeal to free economy theologians like Abu Hamed Al-Ghazali and and the presence of technocrats and in the methodology of modern sciences bureaucrats in the government resulted in allowed him to lay the grounds for a the marginalization of ideological forces and modernist reading of Islamic theology in got the social context ready for modern Iran. Soroush pursues Islamic studies in a readings of religion. The epochal victory of Kantian spirit (Razaghi, 1997: 87). By reformists in the presidential election of proposing his theory of epochality of 1997 that in turn had its origin in the understanding and insisting on the revision religious attitudes of the so-called and criticism of religion Soroush stood face minimalist religious intellectuals uncovers to face with dominant traditional the reciprocal relationships of this trend and perspectives. Soroush's reliance on social conditions of the 1990s. The secularist rationality and scientific method and his trend of religious intellectualism found efforts to create a secular view of religion numerous advocates among students and through deliberate application of analytic the newly emerged middle-class due to the philosophy and in particular by resorting to political situation of 1990s and the had a a post-positivistic approach and insistence remarkable influence on religious thought on pluralism and liberal democracy, puts insofar as all traditional religious scholars him in the camp of modernist system- and eminent figures of Islamic Seminaries of builders (Pedram, 2003: 115). Now we Theology devoted themselves to the continue our debate with the articulation of criticism of its ideas and interpretations of his prominent views and theories: religion since the religion's ability to answer the needs of Iranian society in this period 6-1. Hermeneutical Theory of Expansion had been seriously challenged and the path and Contraction of Religious Knowledge been tiled for criticism of religion, religious Hermeneutical theory of expansion and culture, and dominant religious tradition in contraction of religious knowledge is the the Iranian society. The most eminent figure building block of Soroush's theories that in secularist trend of religious seek to distinguish between the essence of intellectualism is Abdolkarim Soroush that religion and the religious knowledge here we turn to his main ideas: although the latter is grounded on the former but it should not be taken 6. Abdolkarim Soroush synonymous with the essence of religion Soroush is one of the most outstanding (Soroush, Kyan, 1991: 7). Religion is perfect religious intellectuals who is heavily under as such, he adds, and the Lord has sent the influence of empiricism as a whatever he considered it necessary for the philosophical perspective. Having relied man but human knowledge and

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understanding of it is defected and ever- applied in deciphering Shariah, on the other changing (Soroush, 1994: 164). From this hand (ibid: 314). In his words the real ever-changing essence of human knowledge intellectual is the one who is aware of the he concludes that the principal factor in the necessity of epochalization of religion and development of religious knowledge is its takes serious steps in this direction; the task interrelation with other human episteme of religious intellectuals is to teach the and every change in religious knowledge believers to content themselves with happens as a result of a development in minimum certainties of minimal religion human extra-religious knowledge (Nasri, and in practice cling to what is solid and 2002: 128-139). According to Soroush, the decisive and pass the allegorical dimensions religion itself along with all its components to the Lord (Soroush, Kyan, 1994: 9). is true but in religious knowledge the true and the false have been intermixed and the 6-2. The Clergy ideas of religious scholars are full of Relying on his hermeneutical theory of inconsistency and discrepancy (Soroush, expansion and contraction, Soroush 2000: 440-441). Soroush opines that concluded that no understanding of religion religious knowledge is a human knowledge is sacred and unconditional and no and like other epistemic branches is in particular group could have any claim of constant development, evolution, expansion exegetical monopoly. He defines the clergy and contraction and this expansion and in terms of the source of livelihood and contraction is the immediate result of an believes that everyone who keeps his pot expansion and contraction that occurs in boiling through religion is indeed a member other fields of human inquiries. The of the clergy caste (Soroush, Kyan, no 245, understanding of religion, thus, is an ever- 2). On the contrary, the non-cleric scholar changing and hierarchical form of cognition in Soroush's view is an individual who while (Soroush, Kyan, 2002: 8). In his view as devoting himself to religious knowledge or philosophy and empirical sciences are not religious praxis but has an independent whole and constantly seek after perfection, source of income. In his view neither jurisprudence, exegetics, ethics, and knowledge nor moral integrity or even theology are also far from being ideally jurisprudential skills are the measures perfect. The final outcome of his perspective according to which one can decide whether could be that the understanding of Shariah someone is a cleric or not but the criteria is needs constant revival and reconstruction only the form of livelihood (ibid: 3). and the constituents of religious knowledge Accordingly, a religion that is knitted to should always be rearranged so as to keep its material and political interests and changes harmony with the ever-renewing into an ideology will miss the chance for components of extra-religious knowledge development and evolution and this is why (ibid: 249). Soroush is of the belief that the the level of religious understanding is epoch must become religious, i.e. that becoming so unsophisticated (Soroush, people's mores and goals should take the Kyan, 1999 no 46, 25). Thus, Soroush form of religion, on one hand, and the refuses to entrust the religious affairs to the religion must be epochal, i.e. that the clergy, for in his view by earning his epoch's epistemic treasures should be livelihood through religion the clergy will

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change into an institution whose function 2) how much they care for human rights will be sustaining this institution itself (ibid: (Soroush, 1993: 279). By answering such 26). The political consequence of this debate questions as "whose is the government?", was resisting the vocational monopoly of the "whether we have any right to govern at all clergy and Soroush's quarrel with jurists and or not?" Soroush seeks to build a bridge the supporters of the rule of jurisprudence between democracy and religious (Soroush, Kyan, 1999, no 46, 232). government and to move from religious government to democratic religious 6-3. Religious Government or government. Soroush regards such values as Religious Democratic Government freedom, justice, rationality and human Following the project of religious rights extra-religious rights and believes that secularism, Soroush proposes the idea of a every religion that is not willing to respect democratic religious government. In his human natural rights jeopardizes its view the difference of religious government legitimacy (ibid: 281). But his insistence on lies not in their forms but in their ends. The the pivotal role of the reason does not imply religious government deliberately builds its that Soroush is in favor of liberalism. Rather peoples' world so that they build their own he emphasizes that in a religious society hereafter; this is the end of religious whose people receive the religion with open government. However, both governments – arms, freely and without any coercion, the religious and unreligious – can follow the authority of any unreligious form of same building strategy (Soroush, 1997: 375). government will involuntarily lead to According to Soroush, religious government undemocratic model of government is a government that has its roots in the (Jahanbakhsh, 2994: 248). In the course of believers' unreligious rights and secularization of religion, Soroush proposes governmental duties of religious people. the idea of minimal religion and believes This government is primarily obligated to that we cannot heap much load upon afford its people's needs (through rational religion. Thus those who behold religion and empirical methods) so that they could from outside need to take this point into have enough welfare and thanks to this they earnest consideration that the maximal may have the opportunity to devote religion is at odds with religion itself. Those themselves to sublime values and more who provoke unintelligible expectations of tender spiritual needs including freedom of religion (in the domains of ethics, praxis, choosing their own faith (ibid: 380). economy, hygiene, programming, In Soroush's view, the primary governance and the like) and urge the assumption in making democracy requires religion to carry a heavy load gradually religious criteria which are consistent with destabilize its grounds of legitimacy democracy and in those societies whose (Soroush, (a) 1999: 110). According to religious criteria are not in the proper pitch Soroush, religion cannot help us to choose with democracy no democracy shall occur the better form of governance, because the there (Mirsepasi, 2002: 76). Soroush believes planning for and the management of various that religious governments could be either aspects of social life should be handled by democratic or undemocratic and this the administrative institutions in a rational depends on: 1) their share of common sense, manner. Religion is not obliged to offer a

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particular method or program of middle-class's leaning toward nonreligious governance. Jurisprudence is neither an intellectuals. It can be said that throughout administrative science nor a governmental the first decade of the 21st century – and policy and what religion has to teach the might even earlier–although Iranian believers in this regard is minimal in scope intellectual community became larger but (Soroush, (b) 1999: 17). the intellectuals lost their prophetic role. This development had its roots in the 6-4. Religious Pluralism changes that the Iranian society underwent Religious pluralism in Soroush's view is through particularly the expansion of grounded on two foundations: one is our technological progresses, the rise of modern various interpretations of religious texts and Medias, the promotion of higher education the other is our varied interpretations of and the wider access of Iranians to original religious experiences (Soroush, 1998: 2). intellectual and scientific sources. These Religious pluralism in Soroushian sense developments had some intellectual does not imply that all religions are equally consequences the most significant of which legitimate, but it is an account of the was Iranian society's deliverance from such diversity that exists in the world, whether dualisms as eastern/western; though another this diversity is a diversity of truths, or a dualism has recently emerged, i.e. diversity that simultaneously hosts both religious/secular dualism. During this truth and untruth (ibid: 92). In fact, Soroush decade Iranian society is more and more regards religions a combination of true and thinking of its social life's scientific and untrue propositions and believes that the pragmatic problems such as coexistence, religious diversity that is dominant in the tolerance, urbanism, and the youth and world demonstrates that the legitimacy and these dilemmas could not be overcome supremacy of a religion cannot be proven exclusively by intellectuals alone. After this through reason and argument. According to event we shall witness the advancement of a theory of this kind the supremacy of a specialism and the reign of expertism. religion over other religion is not During early years of the 21st century we fathomable because of their incomparability, have witnessed the emergence of diversity but the believer's insistence on their belief within the religious intellectual trend. One throughout the history despite many of the reasons of this occasion is Soroush's disputes and argumentations shows that the absence from Iran that led other secret of the diversity of religions is much representatives of religious intellectual trend more complicated to overcome through to seek other sources of inspiration and thus theological debates (Soroush, 2001: 38). to break the Soroushian monopoly within the religious intellectual movement. The 7. Intellectualism Movement in 21st most important occasion in this regard was Century the advancement of social and political The project of secularization of religion freedoms during the reformist government came to its end in the early years of the 21st which gave rise to a variety of new century by opening a new chapter in the intellectual trends indeed (Farasatkhah, Iranian religious intellectualism that was Shargh, no 1012, 5). immediately followed by the students and

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Thus not only the religious intellectuals intellectual development in this decade was released themselves from the bugbears of the emergence and the advancement of 90s but it tilled the path for new intellectuals liberal trend, while during the first years of to emerge. This in turn opened the door of the 21st century – and particularly during the dialogue between the intellectuals. The consolidation of ultraconservative addressee of 2000s' intellectualism was a government–we witness the formation of a generation who bloomed during the age of conservative trend among Iranian development, privatization and Medias and intellectuals. Part of these intellectuals devoted itself more than anything else to the belongs to the religious intellectual trend supreme role of the self or the individual. and the rest are members of the left or so This generation, suffering from the setbacks called secular tradition. The implementation before reforms and reform movement, of economic policies during the past decades reflects more and more upon the existing is one of the sources of emergence of intellectual values within the culture, conservative intellectuals. Some observers discourses and the prevailing norms in the believe that the most part of economic institutions (government and political policies of Rafsanjani administration – the parties). The intellectual atmosphere of the policies that were more or less pursued by first decade of the 21st century is no longer the Khatami administration –followed the confined within the Iranian national borders advices of the IMF; the advices that had the and has found a global audience. During color of conservative policies (Farasatkhah, this decade the past and new intellectuals do ibid: 10). Of course, this perspective needs to not have their previous central status be assessed in a critical fashion as economic anymore. Politics does also get itself policies of conservative ruling class has by involved in the public sphere. Generally now demonstrated the partial accuracy of speaking, Iranian society in the first decade the previous governments economic of the 21st century experienced a more open policies- which were surely not conservative atmosphere. During the Khatami by nature. Among the eminent figures of the administration by the final years of 90s and first decade of the 21stcentury are Mohsen the opening years of 2000s, the cultural Kadivar and Mustafa Malekyan that we shall institutions and reformist newspapers were devote the rest of this essay to their ideas. active and democratic concepts were noticed and discussed. This group has had the most 8. Mohsen Kadivar fruitful output among religious intellectuals Mohsen Kadivar was born in 1959 in Fasa and was regarded as the most significant city near Shiraz. After finishing his studies inheritor of religious intellectual tradition. in electronic engineering during the opening Yet this intellectual fraction does not years of the Islamic Revolution due to his perceive itself in an exclusively religious profound interest in Islamic Studies and fashion. Without being restricted to the human sciences he moved to Shiraz classic problematiques of religious Seminary of Theology and thereafter in 1981 intellectualism, this group examined he joined Qom Seminary of Theology. After pragmatist ideas in dealing with the 1983 he began to teach some theological problems of Iranian society. At the first courses and in 1988 he obtained the degree glance, it might seem that the most of Ijtihad in jurisprudence. Along with

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studying and teaching in Qom Seminary of which the wayfarers can reach their Beloved Theology, in 1999 he got his Ph.D. in One. The absolute dominance of each one of Islamic philosophy and theology these sciences within religious thought, (transcendent theosophy) from Tarbiat according to Kadivar, not only does bring an Modares University and taught at the irremediable havoc upon other sciences and universities of Imam Sadegh, Shahid slows down their growth, but it also perverts Beheshti, Sheykh Mofid, and Tarbiat the dominant science and gives an abnormal Modares. Since 1991 he was in charge of the picture of religion (ibid: 166). In his view office of Islamic Thought of the Institute for religiosity regains its integration only within Strategic Researches. He has published the sacred triangle of intellection, devotion many articles on Illuminative Philosophy and edification. and books on Islamic studies, philosophy, jurisprudence and politics such as A State of 8-2. Reformation of Religion and a Spiritual Leadership (1998), State in Shiite Religious Thought Jurisprudence (2000) and The Book of Along with the necessity of expurgation of Reason (1998) (Roodi, 2000: 19-22). religion and seeing it as a whole, Kadivar debates on the issue of reformation of 8-1. The Necessity of Critique and religious thought in Islam and Iran. Revision of Religious Thought Religious thought must be revised according Kadivar views the critique a necessary step to temporal and spatial conditions, Kadivar in the scientific life of societies. He believes claims, and religious precepts should be that critique sustains scientific life as a purified from various historical and spatial- process of theoretical refutations and temporal necessities, including particular verifications. Scientific critique leads to the circumstances of the revelational epoch epiphany of truth and the revision and (Kadivar, 2002: 405). To implement such a edification of reality (Kadivar, The Book of reformation, he adds, we need to transform Reason, 1998: 196). Moreover, Kadivar our perspective of Islam by shifting it from a insists on the necessity of revision of historical point of view to a teleological religious thought and invites religious outlook. The spiritual and teleological Islam scholars to devote themselves to the that has delivered itself from historical and edification of Islam in its primordial form. geographical necessities of the age of In Kadivar's view religious thought revelation understands the religiosity in including Islamic thought gradually terms of the knowledge of the spirit of becomes tainted with superstitions, religion and Islamic ideals. According to this irrational beliefs and customs and the attitude, thus, religiosity is not measured in brilliant face of Shariah is sometimes terms of the attachment to exoteric dimmed by the rusts of ignorance and meanings driven from the historical and prejudice and sometime by taking a part for geographical circumstances of the age of the whole (ibid: 165). He does not regard revelation (ibid: 405-406).In his study of the any of Islamic sciences such as process of shifting from historical Islam to a jurisprudence, theology, philosophy, spiritual Islam, Kadivar speaks of three mysticism and the like as a substitute for models and historical phases in Iran: Islam but they are merely paths through

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First, the invariable/variable model prescripts in the age of revelation have which has been grounded in the division of surely been just, rational and normal. Every Islamic precepts into variable and invariable religious prescript that does not have these according to which invariable precepts later qualities must be excluded from the constitutes the beating heart of the Shariah circle of invariable canonical precepts and and variable precepts are temporal and taken as an extension of variable and dependent upon transitory interests. temporal prescripts. 3) The legislator is God Second, the governmental model of and his messenger and the non-immaculate jurisprudence which is an initiative of Imam cannot take on the religious legislation. 4) Khomeini and an outcome of practical This model seeks to deepen religious engagement of religion with social problems understanding by restricting the domain of in modern age that implies some influence of jurisprudence and the canonical noteworthy points in Kadivar's view as discourse. Thus Islam as a religion for all follows: I) Taking historical and spatial- times and places which is dependent upon temporal circumstances into account in all the intelligent, just and rational values and religious precepts is necessary for an precepts must be equipped enough to efficient Ijtihad related to jurisprudential answer the modern expectations. This is enterprise. II) Jurisprudence is a theory of apparently the soundest way to defend management of human and social affairs religion in modern times, Kadivar argues from the cradle to the grave and one can (Kadivar, 2010: 408-431). expect to find the answers of all political, economic, social, cultural and even military 8-3. Civil Society and Religious Society problems of human societies. III) Islamic (The Role of Rationality and Human state is the practical philosophy of Experience in Social Management) jurisprudence for human society and its Kadivar suggests three sociological readings security is necessary. IV) The unconditioned of civil society. In the first reading, civil authority of jurisprudent allows him to society is understood in terms of culture. freely make justice-based decisions in a wide This conception emerged after renaissance range of social issues so as to ensure people's in the West and sought to define the civil interests. V) Revealed prescripts are desired society in terms of secularism, anti- by accident and Islamic state for the religionism and instrumental reason which promotion of justice is desired by itself. This are totally in conflict with religion and attitude leads to the formation of an etatist religiosity. In the second reading, civil religion that is a serious challenger of society is seen as an ideology and its religious faith, spirituality and religious narrators seek to draw some principles from conscience. Third, the model of "spiritual the first experience of civil society in the and teleological Islam" which seeks to West and cleanse it from its indigenous ground itself upon the positive points of the qualities and make of it a framework to previous models. This model can be manage their world and people. outlined in a concise manner in this way: 1) These sociologists view the realization of The measure of credibility of religious the ideology of civil society as the condition prescripts is always their relationship with of happiness and prosperity in this world. In justice and rationality. 2) The religious the third reading, civil society is being

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regarded as a method and a science by that gradually penetrates into every domain which one can run the society and this of the society that Kadivar calls it the method may be used by other cultures, dictatorship of the majority of masses. The ideologies and religions, save the autocratic qualities of a civil society in this sense systems, to reach social happiness. Kadivar consist of free organizations, cooperation, embraces the idea of civil society as a pluralism, competition and the recognition method and believes that this conception of people's rights. But a religious society in like the rest of social and political notions his view has two major features that has gone through fundamental whenever one of them disappears the transformations. After a close examination religious society falls; firstly, the entire or of quadruple phases of conceptual evolution majority of the population must be religious, of the idea of civil society including Classical and secondly, the religion should be the Greek, Liberal, Marxist, and the main concern of the society (ibid: 237). contemporary readings of civil society, Kadivar chooses the contemporary reading 8-4. Religion/Politics Relationship as he finds it less problematic. The On the marriage of religion and politics, contemporary conception of civil society, power and state, Kadivar insists on the Kadivar argues, is essentially Hegelian and avoidance from excess and negligence and has emerged successfully out of the critiques views their independence from each other which have been leveled at. According to and religion's supervision of politics the this reading, civil society has its roots in a most ideal kind of such a relationship. middle domain located between the Before the revolution, according to Kadivar, individuals, the society and the state. This some of the clerics had been removed from domain is beyond individual interests and is the political scene as if religion is merely not controlled by the official power. Thus concerned with individual morality and the conceived, civil society is an arena within hereafter. After the revolution we confront which people appear who have two another excess that has trivialized the objectives in sight: firstly, the relocation of religion by entrapping it in the everydayness their wills; secondly, the exchange of their and this led to the politicization of religion wills with the state so as to direct it. A while the objective was the other way round. society of this kind has the rule of law and Kadivar regards the merger of two diversity as its cornerstones and one can institutions of religion and politics one of find in it a variety of political and social the most significant problems of the third ideas and different voices that are decade of the revolution. Politics should be recognized by the law (Kadivar, 2000: 234- handled by the government while religion 236). Civil society as a method, according to needs to be managed by religious Kadivar, emerges as the bridge between the authorities, Kadivar claims (Roodi, 2000: people and the society. Everyone who is to 167). embrace the civil society should take this To ensure the sanity of religion and basic quality into earnest consideration politics these two institutions must be (ibid: 236). On the necessity of civil society, independent from each other. Religion he opines that the denial of civil society as a should not be a matter of the state since we method results in a sort of totalitarianism cannot have a society where believers would

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play political tricks within the boundaries of steered by professionals who are Muslims. religion. By tying religion to politics we But religious authorities supervise this expose the religion to all everyday political steerage to guarantee the implementation of problems. By doing so religion loses its Shariah laws (ibid: 211). In this government sacrosanct state and is reduced to mundane no one takes the other one's place as games of politics. Thus religion must be everyone has his own predetermined place preserved for the days that the politicians in the system. A council of clerics elected by have lost their appeals and the public is Muslim citizens is in charge of ensuring the looking to go beyond mundane politics observance of revealed prescripts. The (ibid: 168). Of course, the nature of religiosity of citizens does indeed guarantee preservation itself is an important issue the cleric supervision of laws and general which needs to be discussed thoroughly. policies (ibid: 212). Because if that is taken to mean a passive mode of social inaction then this is a 8-6. Jurisprudence and Politics repetition of modernist readings of religion Kadivar seeks to draw a clear line between in the public square which is deeply jurisprudence and politics in the Islamic question-begging. On this, we need to turn society which enables him to argue that to other public intellectuals such as Shariati Islamic society’s need for jurisprudence is and Allama Jafari. beyond any sensible doubt. However the question in this context is how to specify the 8-5. Religious Government position of jurisprudence in context of Kadivar draws two diametrically different society where Islam has the supreme role. portrayals of a-religious government. A The major role of jurisprudence is religious government, according to the first legislation, he argues, for the civil, penal and depiction, is identified by the role that commercial statutes need to be religion plays in social and individual affairs jurisprudentially examined lest they have as the absolute authority (Kadivar, Which any conflict with revealed prescripts. Thus Government? Which Freedom? 1999: 207). Kadivar assigns a collateral task to Religious management in this sense jurisprudents, i.e. general deductions from originates in religion itself and particularly Qur'an, tradition, reason and consensus of in jurisprudence and religious law. Islamic community (Kadivar, Aftab, 2003. Kadivar's second illustration of 35: 4). Although jurisprudence is one of the government relegates the management of most significant and noblest Islamic sciences people's affairs to common sense because that have many tasks to do on its own, religion has nothing to do with particular Kadivar states, but we cannot have an situations and the social and political irrational expectation from it and try to management of the society is a rational replace it with such sciences as economics matter. When the society is managed in a and politics. A jurist is obliged to debate on rational manner, the religiosity is also general precepts and it is up to believers ensured by religion's supervision (ibid: 209). themselves to apply them on real life In the first type of religious government the situations. Most of political issues are management of society is assigned to the context-bounded and the jurist is not clergy while in the second type the society is professionally eligible to deal with them.

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The leadership of an Islamic society, two respective phases of traditionalism and Kadivar claims, should have the qualities of modernism. In the second phase of his ingenuousness, trust ability, religious and intellectual life he proposed a new paradigm moral competence. He believes that the idea in religious studies. He called this paradigm of authority of qualified jurisprudent the project of rationality and spirituality and (Welayat-i Faqih) more than having devoted his A Path to Liberation to this religious grounds is based on Platonic project. Hereunder we discuss some of his theory of philosopher-king. But what has ideas: the utmost compatibility with politics is Socratic Method of spiritual edification of 9-1. Theory of Rational Spirituality human beings that finally leads to the moral The project of "rationalized spirituality or integrity of the society. The society must be religion" is Malkyan's key idea that seeks to managed through a just, scientific and demonstrate the impossibility of traditional democratic manner and though religiosity in modern times. According to jurisprudence is one of the professions that Malekyan, the modern man cannot any are necessary for running the Islamic society longer approach religion in a traditional but there is no revealed reason for spirit and s/he has only two options: either jurisprudents' direct involvement in politics "to give up the religion" or "to accept the (ibid: 4-5). religion in a modern form". Malkyan calls this new form and modality spirituality. 8-7. Authority of Jurist or Counsel of Thus conceived, spirituality is the flipside of Jurist traditional understanding of religion that is After long debates upon the issue of jurist's no longer defendable. To state the matter authority, Kadivar concludes that "the rule is otherwise, spirituality is supposed to take that no one has any jurisdiction over others. the place of religion for modern humanity Every individual is responsible for his own (Hashami, 2006: 268-272). This is a kind of affairs within the framework of reason and diversity-oriented unitarianism that has a Shariah law and no one is allowed to meddle minimalistic view of spiritual issues and has in her/his personal affairs and destiny" grounded itself on modern rationality. (Kadivar, Rahi Now, 1998, no 7: 16). The Rationalized religion is necessary because statesmen are the advocates of their people "traditional religiosity in modern times even in public affairs and do not have any if it would be desirable is no longer possible, authority over their personal affairs while spirituality is both possible and (Kadivar, Rahi Now, 1998, no 12: 16). desirable", Malekyan argues. For two reasons Malekyan does not apply the idiom 9. Mustafa Malekyan of "religion" for this new understanding of Mustafa Malekyan was born in 1957 in religion and the quintessence of religions; Shahreza near Isfahan. By 1973, he began his one is that religion has had negative undergraduate studies in mechanics at the emotional repercussions along with its University of Tehran and then turned to positive reverberations throughout the philosophy. After receiving his MS in history and the other reason is that mechanics he moved to Qom Seminary of spirituality has basic differences with Theology. Malekyan's intellectual life has religion that it can be taken at last as the

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archetype of religions (Malekyan (b), 2002: Malekyan. Contrary to historical religion, 310). Malekyan aspires to lead people to an the rationalized religion enjoys the following ideal life that has three qualities of: 1. qualities: minimal devotion, lesser Joyfulness; "people should enjoy all possible dependency upon historical events, pleasures and endure the least of what they insistence on religious experiences, see as pain and grievance." 2. Goodness; a egalitarianism, desacralization of figures and human being should live in a way that could putting religion at the disposal of humanity lighten the burdens and sooth the pains of and thus there is no confliction whatsoever other people. 3. Valuableness; the value of between rationality and spirituality life is determined by knowing if life is worth (Hashemi, 2006: 270). Having announced to be lived. In fact different religions and the possibility of unification of rationality schools of thought have given different and spirituality and the impossibility of answers to the question of ideal life: one union of rationality and historical religion, proposes the fundamentalist religion and Malekyan seeks to demonstrate the the other prefers a modernist religion while feasibility of complete individualization of someone may choose the traditional belief because his intended spirituality is no religion. But according to the project of longer grounded in a historical text. rationality and spirituality one should Malekyan divides happiness into two types realize that humanity can achieve an ideal of worldly and spiritual and believes that life through rationality and spirituality. worldly happiness should be pursued in the Malekyan articulates three forms of light of human experience and reason and rationality (theoretical rationality, practical religious consultation is not pivotal in this rationality and verbal rationality) and three realm. Although the pursuit of spiritual forms of spirituality (ontological, happiness needs the light of religion but this epistemological and psychological) and does not imply that there is no substantial believes that if these six come together then role for human reason and experience an ideal life would become realized. By the anymore (Malekyan (a), 2002: 306). rise of the modern world, Malekyan argues, Malekyan has debated on religious the religious subject finds her/himself in the actions under two categories of moral crossroad of modernity and the ideal life. actions and ritual actions and concluded The project of rationality and spirituality that the rationality of such moral actions as seeks to tackle this aporetic situation by justice and honesty is less challenged and reconciling the rationality with religion and ritual actions can be rational only if they are for this reconciliation it proposes a new declared symbolic (ibid: 272). He denies any interpretation of rationality and religion so agreement and consistency between as the people have a joyful, good and rationality and devotion and states that we valuable life. Malekyan invites the cannot say that A is B since S supposes it to intellectuals to devote themselves to the be so (ibid: 277). The major function of pursuit of truth and relieving their religious prescripts and teachings, Malekyan fellowmen from their pain and grief. The states, is to prepare human existence for modern world is managed by “sovereign spiritual evolutions. Malekyan regards these reason” and spirituality represents the spiritual evolutions the kernel that is "rationalized religion", according to shrouded within the hull of religious

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Intellectual Trends in the post-Revolutionary: … Intl. J. Humanities (2020) Vol. 28 (3) prescripts (ibid: 299). The major reason of religions including the monotheistic and the indispensability of spirituality is the non-monotheistic, revealed and non- inability of traditional interpretation of revealed, religions seek to reduce human religion in soothing the pain and grief. pains and sorrows and have nothing to do Malekyan believes that it has always been on with guidance, salvation and eternal bliss. the top of human expectations from religion In Malekyan's view, among to demonstrate her/him the source of pains contemporary religions, Buddhism is the and sorrows and how to relieve her/himself best religious doctrine that has the most from them (Malekyan (b), 2002: 313). compatibility with modern subject's needs Historical religion, Malekyan claims, was and aspirations as it does not have a heavy appealing for the people of the past since it metaphysics or any metaphysics at all. Every implied a metaphysics that was intelligible religion is appealing for a psychological in their eyes but this metaphysics gradually reason. This is why some people are lost its credibility. He believes that parts of interested in Judaism and some others in religion's convoluted metaphysics are not Christianity and again some others in Islam, rationally acceptable today. This is why Confucianism, Buddhism and so on and so traditional understanding of religion has not forth. But for the modern subject a religion been successful in detecting and soothing is appealing that is less jurisprudential, human pains and sorrows. Having said dogmatic and devotional; since it is only these, Malekyan concludes that today we such a religion would be interesting for need to propose an alternative contemporary human being who is this- understanding of religion (ibid: 314). worldly, humanist, libertarian, anti- Resorting to a functionalistic view of devotionalist, and egalitarian (Malekyan (a), religion, he expressly describes spirituality 2002: 239-240). as an alternative for religion and believes that spirituality is neither identical with nor 9-3. Religion and Science Conflict similar to religion but it is basically a By insisting on religion and science conflict, different method that is applied by Malekyan enmeshes the modern subject in a individuals in their life (ibid: 355). Malekyan gigantic challenge. Resorting to her/his own draws a line between faith and devotion and cognitive faculties and findings the wo/man believes that a spiritual subject does not has created some theoretical, practical and behave like a devoted person and never says artistic schools in different sciences, on the that A is B since X says it to be so and adds one hand, and there is a host of people that this is the process of de-serialization throughout the history that claim to have that spirituality seeks to have it done (ibid: been chosen by the heaven to communicate 395). the Lord's revealed words to people, on the other hand. The problem is that these two 9-2. Religious Pluralism types of findings are inconsistent with each Malekyan has worked on aspects of religious other, Malekyan argues. Now what should pluralism. His stance on this issue is we do with this inconsistency? (Malekyan inspired by the notion of spirituality which (a), 1381, 37) He thinks that human sense of is indebted to Buddhism. According to limitation is the source of religion and if Malekyan’s reading of Buddhist doctrine, all there was no such an experience of

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dispossession and limitedness in human zeitgeist's language (Malekyan (a), 2002, person no religion would ever emerge on 396). the earth. Moreover, this is not a sense shared by all human generations and individuals throughout human history (ibid: 9-6. Religious Government 235). Malekyan believes that today we need Malekyan's account of the inefficiency of to read the Qur'an in a manner that makes it historical religions due to their heavy a source of inspiration for rationality and metaphysics and literalism is a good reason spirituality because the reconciliation of to consider him as an ardent proponent of rationality and spirituality is the most secularism who believes in the separation of serious issue of all before contemporary religious and civil affairs but the truth of the humanity (ibid: 491). We can judge a matter is that he takes a very equivocal religion according to the role that it can play stance in this regard. He shows much in reducing human pains and sorrows sympathy with secularism and believes that through the removal and justification of if religious beliefs were objectively verifiable limitations (ibid: 239). Religion has been there would be no escape from a religious revealed to make our souls paradisiacal so as government. But religious beliefs are not to remain a good person even in a corrupted surely objectively verifiable, Malekyan and hellish society like a beautiful lotus that states. grows within a smelly and muddy swamp The religious, metaphysical, moral, and (ibid: 250). anthropologic propositions are not objectively verifiable like logical, 9-6. Necessity of Modernization and mathematical, experimental and intuitive Reformation of Religion propositions (Malekyan (b), 2002, 255). If a Having noted that all religions have once type of mushroom is proven to be faced the hard question whether to remain poisonous, Malekyan argues, the unchanged and go or to change and remain, government shuts its production without Malekyan states that no intelligent believer referring to public opinions but the would sacrifice her/his goal for some immorality of such affairs as adultery and contemptible means. In his view, religion, in bribery must be decided according to public the past epochs, has not answered human opinions. Even the belief in God's existence questions which may arise in every epoch. which is the building-block of religion has Thus human being in every epoch and in not been demonstrated in a way that no one any particular society needs to continuously could cast doubts on it, argues Malekyan turn to religion by critically appraising this (ibid: 256). Having said these, he concludes “silent narrator” (Malekyan (a), 2002, 305). that religious government does not have any feasible justification and it is not indeed 9-5. The Clergy intelligible to make serious decisions The clergy is responsible to reconcile the according to objectively unverifiable affairs cultural values of their time with religious without referring to public opinion (ibid: traditions. They must communicate the 257). There is “only one occasion where a message of the scripture to their time in religious government could be compatible with secularism and that is when the

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majority of people in a particular society are two aforementioned characteristics (ibid, adamant in their decision to have a religious 273). After noting that if traditional religion government by arguing that in despite of is in conflict with the unavoidable elements unverifiable nature of the religious beliefs of modernity it should be given up and we insist on establishing our state on replaced with spirituality, Malekyan religion … and also institutionalize them in enumerates many unavoidable components our society” (ibid: 258). of modernity that have no consistency with the traditional religion. Thus he issues the 9-7. Modernity needed warrant for conversion into Malekyan says that we are willy-nilly a spirituality. The unavoidable components of modern subject. The modern person can no modernity that are allegedly in conflict with longer accept religion like the traditional traditional religion are as follows: human person. This modern subject has two 9-7-1. The major characteristic of modernity options; either to give up religion or to is rationality which is precisely in contrast accept it on new terms. He calls this new with the devotionalism of traditional understanding of religion, spirituality and religion. Thus Malekyan invites people to states that “I personally believe in this new autonomy or self-ruling in contrast to other- understanding of religion because the ruling by arguing that religion must be traditional understanding of religion neither stripped off its devotional elements as much realistically nor pragmatically is defendable as possible (ibid: 275). (Malekyan (b), 2002, 269). According to 9-7-2. There is a kind of suspicion towards Malekyan, the modern subject differs on history in modernity. The modern subject various epistemological, emotional, knows that history is a science of probability theoretical and practical grounds from the and not one of certainty. This uncertainty is traditional subject. He divides the in contrast with religion's dependency upon components of modernity into two groups the acceptance of some historical events of avoidable and unavoidable. Of the (ibid: 276). Malekyan suggests that this unavoidable components of modernity, inconsistency can be overcome by replacing Malekyan states: 1) we should accept the religion with spirituality which is less good and the true because it is irrelevant to dependent on historical events (ibid: 278). stand against them, 2) and we should 9-7-3.Theworldliness is one of the question reasonably the bad and the false. components that Malekyan praises it. The Malekyan seeks to replace the traditional religions' otherworldliness is not consistent religion with spirituality and believes that with modern subjectivity because the any individual finds her/himself in need of modern subject is looking for interests spirituality when s/he discerns an rather than values (ibid: 279). It is not inconsistency between religion in its intelligible to believe in the otherworldly traditional and historical form and the rewards of praying and fasting. Religion avoidable and unavoidable elements of must give solace, joy, hope and satisfaction modernity. In tackling this inconsistency, to human beings in this world. According to Malekyan states, we need to resort to a novel Malekyan, people should experience understanding of the new religion, i.e. everything in this world and spirituality is a Spirituality which is not incompatible with

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type of experiment within the parameters of (where its fundamental essence is devotion) religious experience. and rationality (where its elemental core is 9-7-4- He praises the decline of classical reasoning) as the foremost theological metaphysics in the realm of spirituality by problem of our epoch and seems to believe arguing the erosive role of religions’ heavy that religious beliefs are not rational for metaphysical systems. most of modern people (Hashemi, 2006: 67). 9-7-5. He speaks of desacralization and The most cherished characteristic of believes that all people must be seen in the modernity, according to Malekyan, is free- same light (ibid: 283). What people talk thinking; one’s crave in looking for reason about must be judged according to the and refusal to bow before anything in the reasons they provide (ibid: 284). absence of sufficient reason (Malekyan (b), 9-7-6. Historical religions involve temporal 2002: 378). Two characteristics of doctrines while spirituality seeks to rationality, i.e. the respect for reason and overthrow these temporal doctrines. liberty, i.e. the reverence for autonomy Religion must serve human interests as it is make the modernity and modern worldview for humanity and not the other way around respectable despite its deficiencies and (ibid: 286) and nothing should be superior imperfections (ibid: 379). to human being (ibid: 287).There is not much room within the parameters of 10. Conclusion spirituality for many elements which are The question of public intellectuals changed inalienable components of historical into an enigmatic and paradoxical issue after religion, he adds (ibid: 287). Since Malekyan the rise of the Islamic Revolution in Iran. believes that the quintessence of religion is The religious intellectuals were treated and devotionalism and in addition he seems to perceived differently by the state and understand the essence of modernity in societal strata thanks to their respective terms of rationality thus he finds them critical or partisan approaches towards totally inconsistent. According to Malekyan, power. An intellectual like Hassan we have neither devotionalism nor Rahimpour Azghadi (b. 1964) who rationalism in their absolute sense. Such advanced remorseless criticisms of such notions as devotionalism, rationality, issues as colonialism, imperialism, modernity, religiosity and the likes are ideal- modernism, Occidentalism, and western types. In other words, being religious and social sciences and did not take any official modern are also gradational and some critical position vis-à-vis the government grades of these are prone to be synthesized. was received warmly by the authorities, his These notions are only irreconcilable in works were published with utmost their absolute sense but one can be partially convenience, and he held numerous lectures religious in traditional sense and partially in Iran's universities and his speeches were modern. This is almost the case with all of broadcasted even on the state television. us, Malekyan states. In Malekyan’s view the However, it should be noted that he has not question of religiosity and modernity are been successful in attracting the public more serious and problematic than thought. attention. But those intellectuals who In contrast to his predecessors, Malekyan pointed their criticisms toward the state by considers the relation between religiosity critiquing various aspects of power in Iran,

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whether those who sought to propose an VII) All three intellectuals believe in the alternative model of governance or those separation and autonomy of religion from who thought their criticisms could be both politics and state. helpful in the reformation and fortification VIII) All three intellectuals have critiqued of ruling regime, all were reproved by the the model of Islamic Republicanism which authorities and removed from the public is represented by the state in Iran today- by square (e.g. Seyed Hashem Aghajeri who arguing that the impact of republicity has was even sentenced to death for his critical decreased immensely since the assessment of the institute of imitation). The establishment of the post-monarchical state three religious intellectuals discussed in this while the role of totalitarian reading of work belong to the latter group of religion in the running of state affairs has intellectuals who consecutively emerged on increased day by day. Regarding the Iran's intellectual scene during three reactions that have been made in response respective decades of post-Revolutionary to the critical views of these three Iran's history. In other words, the state's intellectuals and the restrictions that have pressures, news boycott and their dismissal been imposed on their personal and from intellectual scenes did not reduce their scientific lives one can easily conclude that popularity in the wider society. Our study of critique in its scientific sense has not still these three religious intellectuals' views succeeded to clear a room for itself in Iran. revealed many of their shared opinions that Of course, this is not to deny the seasonal, so we mention them as follows: to speak, appearance of relaxation of rules in I) All three intellectuals are well-versed Iran vis-à-vis critical discourses (e.g. during in religious discourses and traditional the Reformist Era in late 90s and early years sources. of the 21st century or at the second round of II) All three intellectuals insist on the ultra-Conservative Era of President breaking the clerical monopoly of Ahmadinejad’s office which we can witness interpretation of religion, desacralization of harsh critiques of all aspects of his legacy by the clerical caste, jurists and figures and certain public figures). have defied the dominant traditional trend. IX) All three intellectuals seek to reconcile III) All three intellectuals are interested religion and modernity with each other in modernity. without thinking critically about modernity IV) All three intellectuals seek to restrict and about the very possibility of the domain of influence of religion and reconciliation of this twain. This is why an believe in a minimalist religion and instead inherent paralysis is traceable in their embolden the role of rationality in the debates that thwart intellectual efforts, in public square. general, and religious intellectualism, in V) All three intellectuals believe in the particular, in Iran. Of course, this is not to criticism, reconstruction, revival and deny the political impact of these discourses reformation of religion and religious but the cultural impacts of these discourses thought and speak of "epochal religion". have not been profound enough. This may VI) All three intellectuals are somehow in explain why conservatives have been more favor of religious pluralism. successful with the masses through the traditional channels of communication such

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as Mosque, Hosseiniye and Maddahie- To make the long story short, the centers. intellectual claims of breaking the clerical X) And the last point is that the political monopoly of interpretation of religion and Islam does not tolerate any alternative view religious affairs belong to the second decade as the ‘other’ is treated in a suspicious after Revolution when such figures as fashion within the parameters of ultra- Soroush, Malekyan and Kadivar emerged on conservative Islamism. Although to treat the Iran's intellectual scene. After the other in a suspicious fashion may be Revolution these religious intellectuals unavoidable in geopolitical contexts, but began to revise the fundamentals of extending this view to public sphere could theoretical basis of Islamic State by replace it always lead to suppression, oppressive with a democratic state. They devoted policies and intellectual stagnation. themselves to such issues as reconciling These intellectuals have also some points of reason and faith through insisting on the difference as follows: dynamicity of human understanding of I) Soroush and Kadivar show more religious texts, resisting religious state interest than Malekyan to the formation of (based on jurisprudential authority) and the civil society. ecclesial authority, seeking social II) Malekyan proposes to replace religion development through promotion of with spirituality and insists on the rationality in the public square, introducing synthesization of rationalized religion and a new path to tranquility and critique and spirituality. He denies any consistency revision of the relationship of modernity between rationality and devotionalism and and tradition. In sum, their slogans during believes that traditional religiosity is this period of the Iranian history have been impossible in modern times. "rationality", "civil society", "human rights" and "democracy". References [1] Afrogh, Emad. (2001).Contemporary Challenges of [11] Farasatkhah, Maghsud. (2010). Iranian Intellectualism Iran, Tehran: Entersharati Sazmani Tablighati Islami. in 70s and 80s, Shargh, No 1012. [2] Ale Ahamad, Jalal. (1978). On intellectuals' Service and [12] Goodarzi, Gholamreza. (2007).The Unfinished Treason, vol 1, Tehran: Kharazmi Publications. Modernity of Iranian Intellectuals, Tehran: Akhtaran. [3] Alwitabar, Alireza. (1997). Religious Intellectualism: A [13] Hashemi, Muhammad Mansour. (2006).Modernist Progressive Paradigm, BaztabAndisheh, No 22. Religious Intellectuals, Kawir. [4] Alwitabar, Alireza. (2000). Iranian Intellectuals, [14] Jahanbagloo, Ramin. (1995). Modernity, Democracy Modernity and the West, Kyan, No 36. and Intellectuals, Tehran: Nashr-e-Markaz. [5] Banisadr, Abulhassan. (1999). Generalization of [15] Jahanbakhsh, Froogh, Islam, Democracy and Imamate and Resisting Censorship. Modernism in Iran, Kyan, No 46. [6] Bashirieh, Hossein. (2003). Reason and Politics, Tehran: [16] Jahanbakhsh, Froogh. (2004). Islam, Democracy and Negah-e-Moaser. Religious Modernism in Iran: From Bazarghan to [7] Bazarghan, Mehdi. (1998). Hereafter and God: The Soroush, translated by Jalil Parvin,Tehran: Gham-e- Mission of Prophets, Tehran: Cultural Services of No. Rasa. [17] Kadivar, Mohsen, Slavery Problematiques in [8] Borojerdi, Mehrzad. (1998). Iranian Intellectuals and Contemporary Islam, Aftab Journal, No 25. the West, translated by JamshidShirazi, Tehran, [18] Kadivar, Mohsen. (2003). Jurisprudence and Politics, Froozan. Aftab Journal, No 35. [9] Esposito, J. L. (1990). The Iranian revolution: Its Global [19] Kadivar, Mohsen. (1998). Political Jurisprudence and Impact. Miami: Florida International University Jurisdictional State, Rahi No Journal, No 7. Press. [20] Kadivar, Mohsen. (1998).The Book of Reason, Tehran: Entesharat-e-Daneshgah.

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[21] Kadivar, Mohsen. (1999). Ashura Movement and [41] Roodi, Zahra. (2000). The Price of Freedom (A Report Freedom, (b) Collected Essays on Religiosity and on Kadivar's Case in the Clergy Court), Tehran: Liberty,Tehran: Afarineh Publications. Nashr-e-Nay. [22] Kadivar, Mohsen. (1999).Which Theocratic State? [42] Sadri, Ahmad. (2007). Sociology of Intellectuals: Max Which Freedom?, (a) Collected Essays on State and Weber, translated by Hassan Abtiki, Tehran: Kawir. Freedom, ed. Amirreza Sutudeh and Hamidreza [43] Sadri, Mahmoud. (2016). Abdolkarim Soroush and Naseri, Tehran: Moassesayah Nashrwa ahghighat Revivalist Parties, Aftab, 2016, No 2. Zekr. [44] Saeed, Edward. (2009). The Signs of Intellectualism, [23] Kadivar, Mohsen. (2000). Civil Society and the Rule of translated by Muhammad Eftekhari, Tehran: Agah. Law, Collected Essays on Religion and Civil Society, [45] Salimi, Hossein. (2006). The Conceptual Relationship Tehran: Moassesayah Nashrwa Tahghighat Zekr. of Civil Society, Violence, Pacifism in Political [24] Kadivar, Mohsen. (2001). Jurisdictional State: Political Domain, Journal of Political Sciences, No 4. Thought in Islam 2, Tehran: Nashr-e-Nay. [46] Sartre, Jean Paul. (2001). In Defense of Intellectuals, [25] Kadivar, Mohsen. (2002).Tradition and Secularism, translated by Reza Seyed Hosseini, Tehran: Niloofar. Terhan: Serat Cultural Institute. [47] Sharabi, Hesham. (1989). Western Intellectuals and [26] Kadivar, Mohsen. (2004). From Historical Islam to the West, translated by Abdurrahman Alam, Tehran: Spiritual Islam, Baztab Andisheh, No 18. Daftar-e-Mutaliat-e-Syasi. [27] Kadivar, Mohsen. (2005). Human Rights and Religious [48] Soroush, Abdolkarim. (1991). Minimalistic and Intellectuals, Aftab, No 27. Maximalistic Religion, Kyan, No 41. [28] Kadivar, Mohsen. (2005). Human Rights in the [49] Soroush, Abdolkarim. (1991).The Hermeneutical Perspective of Religious Intellectuals, Aftab, Nos. 3 Expansion and Contraction of Religion, Tehran, and 4. Serat. [29] Kadivar, Mohsen. (2006). Jurisdiction or Advocacy, [50] Soroush, Abdolkarim. (1993). Religious Ideology and Rahi No Journal, No 12. Ideological Religion, Kyan, No 16. [30] Kazemi, Abbas. (2004). Sociology of Religious [51] Soroush, Abdolkarim. (1993). Beyond Ideology, Intellectualism in Iran, Tehran: Tarh-e-No. Tehran, Serat. [31] Kazemyan, Morteza. (2000). Shariati: A Committed [52] Soroush, Abdolkarim. (1995). Ideology and Secular Intellectual and Contemporary Intellectuals, Aftab Religion, Kyan, No 31. Journal, 1389, no 27. [53] Soroush, Abdolkarim. (1995). The Roof of Livelihood [32] Malekyan, Mustafa. (2002a).A Path to Emancipation: on the Pile of Religion, Kyan, no 46. Essays on Rationality and Spirituality, Tehran: [54] Soroush, Abdolkarim. (1996). A Critical Revision of Neghah-e-Moaser. Expansion and Contraction, Kyan, No 2. [33] Malekyan, Mustafa. (2002b). Tradition and [55] Soroush, Abdolkarim. (1997). Management and Secularism, Essays by Soroush, Kadiwar, Shabestari Tolerance, Tehran: Serat. and Malekyan,Terhan: Serat Cultural Institute. [56] Soroush, Abdolkarim. (1998). Libertarianism and the [34] Mashayekhi, Mehrdad. (2006). The Transformation of Clergy, Kyan, No 45. Politics and Political Intellectualism, Aftab Journal, [57] Soroush, Abdolkarim. (1998). The Essential and the No 28. Accidental in Religion, Kyan, No 42. [35] Mirsepasi, Ali. (2002). Democracy or Truth, Tehran: [58] Soroush, Abdolkarim. (1998). Mystery and Tarh-e-No. Demystification, Kyan, No 43 [36] Naraghi, Ehsan. (1999). In Crude Brick, Tehran: [59] Soroush, Abdolkarim. (1998). The Right Paths, Iranian Society. Tehran, Serat. [37] Nasri, Abdullah. (2002). The Secret of Hermeneutical [60] Soroush, Abdolkarim. (1999). Religion and Freedom, Text, the Readability of Text and the Logic of Kyan, No 33. Religious Understanding, Aftab, Tehran. [61] Soroush, Abdolkarim. (2000). Just Liberty, Kyan, No [38] Nasri, Abdullah. (2003).The Discourse of Modernity: 51. An Overview of Some Intellectual Trends in Iran, [62] Soroush, Abdolkarim. (2001).The Ethics of the Gods, Tehran: Daftar-e-Nashr-e-Farhang-e-Islami. Tehran: Tarh-e-No. [39] Pedram, Masud (2003). Religious Intellectualism and [63] Soroush, Abdolkarim.(1999a).The Expansion of Modernity in Post-Revolutionary Iran, Tehran: Prophetic Experience, Tehran, Serat. Gham-e-No. [64] Soroush, Abdolkarim.(1999b). A Conceptual Analysis [40] Razzaghi, Sohrab. (2018). Intellectual Paradigms in of Theocratic State, Rasa Publications. Contemporary Iran, Faslnameh Pazhuhesh, second [65] Yusefi Eshkawari, Hassan. (2018).The Cloak of year, no 7, winter 1376. Caravan, Tehran: Entesharat-e-Chappakhsh.

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روﻧﺪﻫﺎی ﻓﮑﺮی در اﯾﺮان ﭘﺲ از اﻧﻘﻼب: ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻠﯽ اﻧﺘﻘﺎدی از ﺳﻪ دﻫﻪ ﮔﻔﺖوﮔﻮ در ﻋﺮﺻﮥ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﯽ درﺑﺎرۀ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﻪ، ﺣﮑﻮﻣﺖ، دﯾﻦ و ﻧﻘﺶ روﺷﻨﻔﮑﺮان

ﺳﯿﺪﺟﻮاد ﻣﯿﺮی۱

ﺗﺎرﯾﺦ درﯾﺎﻓﺖ: ۲۶/۲/۱۳۹۸ ﺗﺎرﯾﺦ ﭘﺬﯾﺮش:۱۳۹۸/۱۰/۸

ﭼﮑﯿﺪه در اﯾﻦ ﻣﻘﺎﻟﻪ، ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻨﺪه در ﺗﻼش اﺳﺖ ﺗﺎ از روﻧﺪﻫﺎی ﻓﮑﺮی در ﺑﺴﺘﺮ اﯾﺮان ﭘﺲ از اﻧﻘﻼب ﺗﺤﻘﯿـﻖ ﮐﻨـﺪ. ﻧﮕﺎرﻧـﺪه در راﺑﻄـﻪ ﺑـﺎ ﺳﺆاﻻﺗﯽ از ﻗﺒﯿﻞ دﯾﻦ، ﺟﺎﻣﻌﻪ، ﺣﮑﻮﻣﺖ ، دوﻟﺖ و ﺣﮑﻮﻣﺖ دﯾﻨﯽ، آﺛﺎر ﺳﺮوش، ﻣﻠﮑﯿﺎن و زﮐﺪﯾﻮر را ﻣﻮرد ﺑﺎ ﻧﮕﺮی اﻧﺘﻘﺎدی ﻗﺮار داده اﺳﺖ. اﯾﺪه اﺻﻠﯽ ﻧﮕﺎرﻧﺪه را ﻣﯽﺗﻮان ﺑﻪ اﯾﻦ ﺻﻮرت ﺧﻼﺻﻪ ﮐﺮد ﮐﻪ روﺷﻨﻔﮑﺮان دﯾﻨﯽ دﭼﺎر ﮔﺴﺴﺘﯽ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺘﯽ ﺷﺪهاﻧﺪ و دﯾﻦ را ذﯾﻞ ﭼﺎرﭼﻮبﻫﺎی ﻧﻈﺎم ﻓﮑﺮی ﻓﻘﺎﻫﺘﯽ ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻣﯿﻨﻪ ﻧﻤﯽﮐﻨﻨﺪ و اﯾﻦ ﺧﻮد ﻣﻮﺟﺐ روﯾـﺶ روشﻫـﺎی ﺟﺪﯾـﺪ ﺑـﺮای ﻓﻬـﻢ دﯾـﻦ و ﺟﺎﯾﮕﺎه آن در ﺟﺎﻣﻌﻪ ﻣﺪرن اﯾﺮان در ﻗﺮن ﺑﯿﺴﺖ و ﯾﮑﻢ اﯾﺠﺎد ﮐﺮده اﺳﺖ.

. واژهﻫﺎی ﮐﻠﯿﺪی: ﺳﺮوش، ﮐﺪﯾﻮر، ﻣﻠﮑﯿﺎن، ِاﯾﺮان ﭘﺴﺎ-اﻧﻘﻼﺑﯽ، دﯾﻦ

______۱. داﻧﺸﯿﺎر ﻋﻠﻮم اﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯽ، ﭘﮋوﻫﺸﮕﺎه ﻋﻠﻮم اﻧﺴﺎﻧﯽ و ﻣﻄﺎﻟﻌﺎت ﻓﺮﻫﻨﮕﯽ، ﺗﻬﺮان، اﯾﺮان

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