Jukka Jouhki & Henna-Riikka Pennanen THE IMAGINED WEST: EXPLORING OCCIDENTALISM
Introduction Christianity, the Enlightenment, the industrial revolution and colonialism. Sometimes, on the After the publication of Edward Said’s other hand, ‘a Westerner’ is simply a euphemism Orientalism (1995 [1978]), generalizing for a ‘white’ person, which means that a discourses about the cultures, societies, and Westerner can be anything from a reindeer peoples of the ‘East’ were not taken for granted herder in Northern Lapland to a stockbroker as much as they used to be. In his revered but in Manhattan. Considering the actual socio- also criticized book, Said described exhaustively cultural heterogeneity of the West, it is the traditional distorted European view of the surprising how unproblematically and vaguely East as the polar opposite of the West, or ‘the the term has been used both inside and outside Other’. The Orient was the object of the West’s of academia (see, e.g., Korhonen 2013; Péteri ed. colonization, and of fantasies and generalizations 2010; Makdisi 2002: 772–773; Bozatzis 2014: that had little to do with reality. While there has 130–134). been examination and abundant criticism of The concept of the West has always been Orientalist worldviews for several decades now, dynamic. A major shift in its meaning occurred scholars have only recently begun to examine when Europe lost its colonies in the course of the concept and the shifting meanings of the the 20th century, the United States became the Occident—the ‘West’ (Bavaj 2011: 4). new hegemonic world power, and at the same The Oxford English dictionary tells us time the Americans took a central role in the that ‘the West’ with a capital W—as opposed imagined West. The rest of the West meant, to the west as a point of the compass—means as Pekka Korhonen (2010: 8–9) describes it, ‘Europe and North America’, which are ‘seen in ‘a disparate collection of American allies from contrast to other civilizations’. However, why Norway and Turkey to Japan and Australia’. these geographical areas are called the West, According to Korhonen (2016; see also Jouhki which countries belong to the West, and what 2015), the West has more geopolitical coherence socio-cultural elements make a society ‘Western’ than the East has, but it is still an amoeba- depend on the discursive context. Sometimes like, ever-changing formation of states (which the concept refers to a certain geopolitical sometimes even includes some Asian countries) formation or a political system; often it connotes presented as one, single actor. In systemic terms, a high level of technological development or the relation between the concept and the reality scientific progress; at other times it simply refers is not a problematic one. There is definitely and to the populations in the world that are the undeniably something called ‘the West’, and richest and consume the most. In the historical although geopolitically, socially, and culturally imagination, the Western world is based on a what the concept refers to is in constant flux, series of interrelated phenomena including people believe in its unity. The West is ‘a widely
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used euphemism’ that stands for an ‘underlying been viewed in Euro-American thought, and unity of culturally rooted values, institutions and how the Western ‘Self ’ has been perceived as a way of life’ (Miklóssy and Korhonen 2010: ix). being in existence. Occidentalism—the belief in a coherent socio-cultural entity called the West—is Examining the West like nationalism or any other ideology that behind Orientalism constructs a collective identity. Occidentalism, too, requires an aggregate of people who feel they belong to an ‘us’ and not to a ‘them’. As Edward Said called the tradition of imagining, a nationalist believes that a nation is to some writing about, and having power over the non- meaningful extent a homogenous formation, West as ‘Orientalism’. Before Said’s treatment, an Occidentalist believes that a fuzzy set of the term Orientalism had high academic value states and nations called ‘the West’ or ‘Western and it simply denoted to an interest in the countries’ has enough internal coherence to exist history and cultures of the Orient. After Said’s as a meaningful whole. Pekka Korhonen (2016; book, however, Orientalism came to suggest a see also Jouhki 2015) likens the West to a big skewed, colonial view of the world. According orchestra playing rapid jazz tunes non-stop. to Said, in the previous academic and popular Whether any members of the band leave or new imagination the Orient was perceived as ones arrive is irrelevant as long as there is noise. monolithic: everything between Morocco and In the present introductory article, the Japan was seen as basically the same culture. concept of Occidentalism is examined through Moreover, the Orientals were represented as the academic literature. The aim is to examine essentially irrational, emotional, child-like, and ‘the West’ as a concept, a product of imagination, collectivist, and on a lower level of progress and a discursive tradition. Despite their and civilization compared to the West—which fuzziness, the terms ‘the West’ and ‘Western’ justified their colonization (Said 1995). serve a purpose: they identify and classify a Said’s work has been criticized for combination of world regions and categorize presenting ‘Orientalists’ as one lot—all ideas about certain ways of life. Although it inherently imperialist, racist, and ethnocentric. is not exactly clear what these terms denote, Yet, while some 19th and 20th century Orientalist they are used as if there was a corresponding scholars indeed adopted the ‘monarch of all distinctive reality out there in the world. Among I survey’ attitude toward the Orient, others countless other ‘Us/Them’ divisions, the West/ were instead quite sympathetic and respectful East (or West/non-West) categorization forms toward it, and even thought that the Oriental and reinforces links between a geographical, way of life could bring some valuable spiritual historical, and sociological paradigmatic chain content to the soulless, materialistic, and over- of concepts. The result is an almost tangible and modernized society of the West. Although inescapable image of the world divided into Orientalists actually differed in their attitudes coherent units, one of which is called ‘the West’ toward the Orient, to Said they were all the (Coronil 1996: 52). However, to understand the same in that they imagined the East and the images of the West, it would be helpful first to West as essentially different, or as ontologically take a look at how its counterpart, the East, has binary cultural entities (Adas 1989: 348–350,
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353; Clifford 2001: 16; Scott 2011: 301; Said generalizing discourse is not the fact that it 1995). generalizes but the fact that the people who Said claimed that differences between produce and reproduce it are often not aware groups and societies were emphasized and that they are generalizing. Hence, we claim exaggerated by naming them according to that Occidentalism—just like Orientalism, an ethnic or cultural group. Feelings like joy nationalism, ethnocentrism, or any other process or suffering, or political organization, were of communal and identity construction—should defined in terms of these groups. Said pointed be an important focus of academic interest. out, for example, that in European and And yet, it has not been sufficiently examined, American literature about the East there had probed, and criticized (Bavaj 2011: 4; Beard been narratives about ‘Arab joy’, the ‘Oriental 1979: 6–7; Jouhki 2006: 59). mode of production’, the ‘Indian mind’, ‘Asian Said examined what he called Western superstition’, and so on. According to Said, Orientalism, and the intertwined Western elements of behavior were attributed to an hegemony in the East, but he stressed that a ethnic origin, which led to their being reinforced similar Eastern Occidentalist discourse should or exaggerated. Orientalists examining the not be created to complement or counteract East were inclined to view the cultures and Western Orientalism. Said (1995: 328) claimed societies they studied as evidence of an Oriental that Orientals would not benefit in any way existence: no Oriental could progress in time from constructing their own stereotypes or overcome the influence of their origin. If and images of the West, and of Occidentals. deviations from the canonized Oriental way However, Said’s warning was surprisingly of life were observed, they were interpreted as uninformed, because discourses and images of abnormal, non-Oriental, and/or Western (Said the West and Westerners have certainly existed 1995: 233–234; Jouhki 2006: 36). for a long time outside of the West. Indeed, Nowadays, Orientalism is considered a Occidentalism (or multiple Occidentalisms) has prime example of the power of academic and been reproduced ever since the idea of the West popular discourse to essentialize a group of or Western people was formed (Takeuchi 2010: people. Concepts such as ‘Asian mind’, ‘Eastern 24; Jouhki 2006: 49), and there are plenty of thought’, or ‘Muslim culture’ are still used today, non-Western counter-narratives about the West but it is increasingly difficult to justify such (Woltering 2011: 5; Coronil 1996: 55–56; Sims generalizing speech. Moreover, ‘the Orient’ as 2012: 207). an academic concept has become disputed and widely rejected ( Jouhki 2006, 35). Orientalism, Multiple Occidentalisms however, is certainly not the only problematic practice that upholds stereotypifying discourses: The academic study of Occidentalism has a humans tend to create imaginative discourses relatively short history, and definitions of the about groupings of any size, from the village- concept itself vary. Occasionally, Occidentalism level to the nation. Our ability to perceive refers to Westernization, the process of a reality and to produce statements about it is non-Western society adopting, or wanting always limited and thus we have to generalize to adopt, cultural elements that have been and draw on pre-existing discourses and labeled Western. In this meaning, the word narrative traditions. The problem in any such ‘Occidentalist’ would be used by an academic
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to label a proponent of what is viewed as one can do almost anything, however immoral, Western culture. Often the word ‘Western’ is in the West, and justify it by rationalizing it. used synonymously with ‘modern’ in academic In general, Occidentalism in Asia and non-academic texts alike. This kind of is structurally and functionally similar to narrative use is not unlike 19th-century cultural Orientalism in the West (whatever that is), evolutionist theories, as it imagines a gradual although it differs in being more defensive than continuum on which the West represents the offensive (Korhonen 1996: 159–160; see also future and the proverbial light at the end of Takeuchi 2010: 29–30). As Rio Takeuchi (2010: the tunnel of progress (see, e.g., Spencer 2003: 26–27) claims, Occidentalism in Asia exists Baber 2002: 755–756; Jouhki 2006, 61). ‘as a strategy devised by subordinate people Perhaps more often in academic texts the for surviving in the hegemonic world order’. word Occidentalism means ‘anti-Westernism’, He proposes that Occidentalism is about the or movements and/or ideologies that reject perpetuation of distorted images of its target, rather than advocate ideas, political processes, but at the same time it is also about ‘acquiring or material objects labeled Western (Woltering as accurate knowledge of the West as possible’. 2011, 5; Sims 2012: 207). For example, Islamic, For example, Francis Nymanjoh and Ben Page anti-colonial, anti-globalist, and socialist (2002) have studied Cameroonian views of movements have been defined as Occidentalist ‘white people’ and whiteness as a symbol of (e.g., Buruma and Margalit 2005; Hermes 2012: the Occident, and claim that if upholding an 8; Chen 2002: 23–42). According to Bryan identity requires a competing alter ego (like the Turner (1997), Occidentalism is thus a fight Oriental has been to Western people), then the against—not advocacy for—‘modernization’. ‘Black Cameroonian Self ’ has been reproduced Ian Buruma (2004; see also Spencer 2003: 236– by creating a ‘White European Other’. Many 250) goes further and describes how aggressive Cameroonians question the fantastic stereotype Occidentalism imagines a process of harmful of wealthy but weak Westerners; however, at Westernization—or ‘Westoxification’—which the same time they hope that the stereotype is makes non-Western Occidentalists reject what true, because the hope of accessing the bountiful is seen as the cold, mechanical West, a machine- West through white people is an essential part of like civilization characterized by emotionless the Cameroonian survival strategy (Nyamnjoh rationalism, cynical secularism, self-centered and Page 2002; see also Jouhki 2006: 154–162). individualism, and power-hungry colonialism. In this article, Occidentalism has a more The East, in contrast, in this kind of counter- abstract, simple, and banal meaning. It means hegemonic Occidentalism, is a place where simply the belief in a coherent socio-cultural family values, tradition, spirituality, morality, entity called ‘the West’, which is thought to be and hard work are valued (Korhonen 1996, distinctive and homogeneous enough to have its 164–166). Jonathan Spencer (2003: 236–250; own culture, people, and society. Occidentalism see also Jouhki 2006: 72) describes how non- is thus practiced both by people calling Western critics of the West view it as the origin themselves Western and by people who do not. and place of rationalism, but claim that the It includes both the self-images of Westerners Western way of practicing rationality has gone and images of Western society as the Other. too far. Occidentalists of this school argue that The value statements made about the West can
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be either negative or positive, or even mutually of anthropology. She is said to have presented contradictory. It does not matter if there are the non-Western Other and the Western Self as different images about the West, because as diametrically opposed categories. The Balinese, long as any images exist, there is Occidentalism. the Samoans, or the Papuans Mead studied— Although we view the West as an entity that all seem to be manifestations of the Other, owes its existence to a significant extent to the the opposite of the Westerner. Mead viewed collective imagination, this does not mean that the objects of her research as homogenous, it is pure fantasy. Like any imagined community, stabile, and standardized in contrast to the the belief in it has some concrete foundation, heterogeneous, dynamic, and diverse Occidental as well as very real or practical consequences Self she presented in her studies. The essential (Anderson 2006 [1983]; Jouhki 2006: 43–44). contrast that Mead found (or created) seemed Being united under a name produces to suggest that the lives of ‘primitive groups’ feelings of affinity and loyalty. This leads people were defined and predestined whereas Western to signify experiences selectively in a way that peoples living in their ever-changing societies buttresses the sense of union. In other words, were free to choose the lives they wanted to lead. when one labels oneself as a Westerner, one Mead often essentialized the West and is more committed to narrating observations exaggerated its uniqueness in order to criticize it. in the empirical world as Western. Naming The same can be said of any self-critique of the ideas, political systems, historical processes, West. To criticize the West does not mean that and even academic disciplines as Western one is not practicing Occidentalism—at least strengthens the Western community. Moreover, in the sense(s) that Occidentalism is defined a feeling of belonging to Western culture can in this issue. For example, James Carrier (1992: lead to political engagement in that particular 201–203) observed how Marcel Mauss (1990 collective. If one sees oneself as a Westerner, one [1950]) essentialized the Western economy and also usually feels politically loyal to ‘the West’. presented it as an inherently cold, rational, and Thus, to claim that a cultural category such as emotionless practice of exchange. While Mauss the West is an imagined community does not criticized the West, he at the same affirmed that mean that it is not a relevant and meaningful such a homogeneous society existed. To consider phenomenon. The West might be fuzzy or a more recent example, Marshall Sahlin’s book, imagined, but it has a true meaning for people The Western Illusions of Human Nature (2008), and practical ramifications both in the West and assumes that there is a ‘Western civilization’, outside of it. ‘Western society’, and even ‘Western notions of nature and culture’. In our view, such concepts Occidentalism should be deployed very carefully—if at all. At in anthropology the very least, anyone writing about the ‘West’ as an analytical category should acknowledge In anthropological discourses, too, the West has its essentializing quality and treat it as a traditionally been treated as a natural entity, an phantasmatic entity (Favero 2003: 576) with unquestioned polar opposite of the exotic Other. shifting, relative, contextual, and sometimes For example, Gewertz and Errington (1991: idiosyncratic content. 82–83; see also Jouhki 2006: 184) see Margaret According to Jonathan Spencer, anthro- Mead as the ‘Great Occidentalizer’ in the history pologists have historically and ideologically
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practiced what he calls Positivist Occidentalism. fieldwork; they have been, rather, more implicit This means that the West has been viewed as the foundations for comparison. Sometimes future of the East. ‘Their’ present is ‘our’ past. In anthropologists might report how the people this well known cultural evolutionist worldview, they are studying have commented on something the non-West is suffering from (or sometimes about the West, but more often anthropologists enjoying) a time lag. Anthropologists who have themselves might comment on what they see as not practiced Positivist Occidentalism have the penetration of the West (or Westernization) engaged instead in what Spencer calls Romantic into the societies they are studying. Often Occidentalism. For example Franz Boas, things like wage labor, missionary work, and Margaret Mead, Ruth Benedict, and Clifford industrial projects are seen as manifestations Geertz did not imagine a similar evolutionist of a coherent entity called the West (Carrier time-scale as the Positivist Occidentalists, 1992: 199). Perhaps there is some empirical but they did imagine two parallel, different— foundation for claiming there is such a thing as albeit equal—entities called ‘the West’ and ‘the Western culture, but anthropology has shown East’ (or non-West). Romantic Occidentalism very little interest in corroborating it through its might have been a less evolutionist, and thus basic method, ethnographic fieldwork. Instead, less hierarchical, view, but its ideology was it seems that the ‘Western ego’ has been more nevertheless essentialist in its relativism: the a paradigmatic premise, an unquestioned axiom, two categories, the West and its counterpart, than an examined or observed fact. Moreover, were seen as ontologically different and the ‘Western experience’ is often seen as some incommensurable cultures (Spencer 2003: 237– sort of standard. For example, if non-Western 241). elements of culture appear in Western culture, According to Martin Sökefeld (1999: they are often called ‘ethnic’. Even in the 418) Clifford Geertz is a good example of how academic study of Occidentalism, the Western anthropology has imagined a ‘Western self ’ in scholar is often viewed as the point of reference contrast to ‘non-Westerners’’ selfhood, which is (Woltering 2011: 3–4). more collective and unbounded. To Sökefeld, the image of the Western Self in anthropology is Towards critical study highly individualist: an entity that is comparable of ‘the West’ to that presented in René Descartes’ Cogito: a bounded, unique, dynamic center for awareness Occidentalist discourses frame one’s expecta- that exists in a distinctive organized whole. tions and experiences of ‘Western culture’ just However, Sökefeld (1999: 418–429) reminds like Orientalist discourses frame one’s interpre- us that individualism is different from actual tation of the East. Like the Orient, the West is individuality. Westerners might believe that they created by infinite self-reference, by endlessly are essentially different from non-Westerners in labeling things as Western (Bhatnagar 1986: their independent individuality, and this idea is 12–13). There is no such thing as the West as certainly reproduced in Western narratives of the such, but there is a label, ‘the West’, which is Self, but it does not necessarily make Westerners given to different geopolitical and cultural act and think in a more individual way. phenomena in different situations. According In general, images of the West have rarely to Korhonen, the West is a synecdoche that has appeared very explicitly in anthropological multilayered narrative content. It is a rhetorical
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shell, a container that can be filled with an mapping of the West emphasizes shared patterns infinite number of different meanings, but the at the cost of differences. In other words, we criteria by which this is done are always under ignore our differences in order to feel united, and question. Thus the meanings are not stable; we fabricate ourselves into coherence (Carrier what the container holds changes constantly 2003: 9; Péteri 2010: 2–3; Bhatnagar 1986: (Korhonen 2010: 16–22; 2016). 3–5). The West as a source of identity is often The West might refer to the process of, and ‘a massive body of self-congratulating ideas’. the culture surrounding, capitalism and wealth What researchers studying culture should do is formation (Coronil 1996: 62–64); or it might not necessarily draw a better map of the West, refer to a multi-layered and complex whole but unmask the rhetoric that creates it (Clifford called modernization (Ahiska: 357–365). People 1988: 265; Jouhki 2006: 51). Anthropology choose their narratives, and they might say, for has traditionally examined the so-called non- example, that they oppose things ‘Western’, Western Other, and in so doing the explicit or when they actually oppose certain technological implicit views of the West—however carefully developments, political processes, or gender roles constructed, naïve, or taken-for-granted—that which are associated with a fuzzy entity called anthropologists hold have been central to the the West (e.g., Ahiska 258–365). According to way they have understood and represented it. Fernando Coronil (1996: 78), it is surprising Edward Said (1995) shook the academic how many people think that the West is the world by claiming that Europeans and place and source of modernity. In his opinion Americans called everything between Japan the West has been naturalized and fetishized to and Morocco ‘the Orient’. In the same way, an autonomous entity. Populations identified by discussion is needed now to establish whether the common signifier seem as if they are living everything from Russia westward should isolated lives, and their characteristics spring really be called ‘the West’. We need to ask if from the internal attributes of their selectively there really is something distinctive or even imagined history and culture. They come unique in being ‘a Westerner’. At the very least, together under the label of ‘Western world’, anthropology should be more interested in ‘Western society,’ or ‘Western people’ (Coronil the ways this transnational and multicultural 1996: 77–78; see also Boatcă 2015: 78–80). population of a billion people called ‘the West’ is In the end, Occidentalism falls into the united, and how far its unity is a product of the very human tendency to practice symbolic imagination. geography. It reveals the way we identify and The purpose of this themed issue is to raise define ourselves by locating ourselves spatially critical discussion about the idea of ‘the West’, and temporally, by drawing the boundaries of to encourage further research on the theme, discursively constructed social spaces we imagine and also to explore some of the potential ways ourselves to be in. This socially and historically in which anthropological and cultural studies situated process is anthropologically important, can tackle the topic. In the first article, Sandra because it has an intimate relationship to the Nasser El-Dine analyzes Arab views of the formation of identities and identity politics. It is West in the context of Syrian and Jordanian also a form of social control. By repeating what youth. Based on twenty in-depth interviews the West and a Westerner are like, norms are conducted during ethnographic fieldwork in the enforced and reinforced. This kind of mental two countries, she explores how local gender
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relations are viewed and valued in relation to a text that advances a ‘culturalist’ explanation the contrasting imageries of Arab and Western of the financial crisis in Greece. Like Jukka culture. Nasser El-Dine’s study shows how the Jouhki’s theoretical foundation, Bozatzis’ article West is a significant symbol for modernity and also expands Michael Billigs’s (1995) influential freedom—which might also mean promiscuity thesis on banal nationalism, and interrogates and recklessness—seen rhetorically in polar how Greece is seen as a ‘cultural other’ in the opposition to ‘truly Muslim’ customs, which context of ‘Western’ society closely affiliated encourage strong marital bonds and emphasize with neoliberalism. tradition. The article also analyzes how Islam, too, is a context-dependent concept, and might REFERENCES even be used in support of liberal views of gender relations. For example, the young Arabs Adas, Michael 1989. Machines as the Measure interviewed for Nasser El-Dine’s study tended of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance. New York: Cornell University to use Islam as a discursive resource to negotiate Press. more individual freedom in finding a marriage partner. Ahiska, Meltem 2003. Occidentalism: The Historical Fantasy of the Modern. The South Atlantic Then, Jukka Jouhki’s article will draw Quarterly 102 (2/3): 351–380. on Michael Billig’s (1995) notion of banal nationalism. In the article he analyzes Helsingin Anderson, Benedict 2006 [1983]. Imagined Communities. London: Verso. Sanomat, the leading national newspaper in Finland, to find out how the issues it reports are Baber, Zaheer 2002. Orientalism, Occidentalism, categorized as ‘Western’ in order to reproduce Nativism: The Culturalist Quest for Indigenous Science and Knowledge. The European Legacy 7 (6): the idea of a Western world. Jouhki’s concept 747–758. of banal Occidentalism extends Billig’s banal nationalism by exploring how the idea of the Bavaj, Riccardo 2011. ‘The West’: A Conceptual Exploration. European History Online (EGO). Mainz: ‘the West’ (just like that of any nation state) is The Institute of European History. http://www.ieg- kept alive not so much by a fervent ideology but ego.eu/bavajr-2011-en.
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Buruma, Ian 2004. The Origins of Occidentalism. Korhonen, Pekka 2010. Naming Europe with the The Chronicle of Higher Education 50 (22): B10. East. In Katalin Miklóssy and Pekka Korhonen (eds), The East and the Idea of Europe. Newcastle upon Buruma, Ian and Avishai Margalit 2005. Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Occidentalism: The West in the Eyes of its Enemies. New York: Penguin. Korhonen, Pekka 2013. Länsi Aasiasta nähtynä. Keynote presentation at Länsimaisuus Workshop Carrier, James G. 1992. Occidentalism: The World 21.11.2013, University of Jyväskylä. Available at Turned Upside-Down. American Ethnologist 19 (2): http://moniviestin.jyu.fi/ohjelmat/hum/hela/lansi 195–212. maisuus-workshop/lansi-aasiasta-nahtyna,
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Spencer, Jonathan 2003. Occidentalism in the Woltering, Robbert 2011. Occidentalism in the Arab East: The Uses of the West in the Politics and World: Ideology and Images of the West in the Egyptian Anthropology of South Asia. In Carrier, James Media. New York (NY): I. B. Tauris. G. (ed.), Occidentalism: Images of the West. Oxford: Clarendon Press. JUKKA JOUHKI SENIOR LECTURER Sökefeld, Martin 1999. Debating Self, Identity, and DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY AND Culture in Anthropology. Current Anthropology 40 ETHNOLOGY (4): 417–448. UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ [email protected] Takeuchi, Rio 2010. Invention of the West in Japan. In Katalin Miklóssy and Pekka Korhonen (eds), The HENNA-RIIKKA PENNANEN East and the Idea of Europe. Newcastle upon Tyne: POSTDOCTORAL RESEARCHER Cambridge Scholars Publishing. DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY AND Turner, Bryan S. 1997. Orientalism, Postmodernism ETHNOLOGY [email protected] and Globalism. New York: Routledge.
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