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ROBERT SCHUMAN CENTRE FOR ADVANCED STUDIES Tolerance and cultural diversity discourses in the Netherlands Marcel Maussen with Thijs Bogers and Inge Versteegt University of Amsterdam 2012/28 5. New Knowledge Country Synthesis Reports EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE, FLORENCE ROBERT SCHUMAN CENTRE FOR ADVANCED STUDIES Tolerance and cultural diversity discourses in the Netherlands MARCEL MAUSSEN WITH THIJS BOGERS AND INGE VERSTEEGT UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM Work Package 5 – New Knowledge on Tolerance and Cultural Diversity in Europe D5.1 Country Synthesis Reports on Tolerance and Cultural diversity - Concepts and Practices © 2012 Marcel Maussen, Thijs Bogers, Inge Versteegt This text may be downloaded only for personal research purposes. Additional reproduction for other purposes, whether in hard copies or electronically, requires the consent of the author(s), editor(s). If cited or quoted, reference should be made to the full name of the author(s), editor(s), the title, the research project, the year and the publisher. Published by the European University Institute Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies Via dei Roccettini 9 50014 San Domenico di Fiesole - Italy ACCEPT PLURALISM Research Project, Tolerance, Pluralism and Social Cohesion: Responding to the Challenges of the 21st Century in Europe European Commission, DG Research Seventh Framework Programme Social Sciences and Humanities grant agreement no. 243837 www.accept-pluralism.eu www.eui.eu/RSCAS/ Available from the EUI institutional repository CADMUS cadmus.eui.eu Tolerance, Pluralism and Social Cohesion: Responding to the Challenges of the 21st Century in Europe (ACCEPT PLURALISM) ACCEPT PLURALISM is a Research Project, funded by the European Commission under the Seventh Framework Program. The project investigates whether European societies have become more or less tolerant during the past 20 years. In particular, the project aims to clarify: (a) how is tolerance defined conceptually, (b) how it is codified in norms, institutional arrangements, public policies and social practices, (c) how tolerance can be measured (whose tolerance, who is tolerated, and what if degrees of tolerance vary with reference to different minority groups). The ACCEPT PLURALISM consortium conducts original empirical research on key issues in school life and in politics that thematise different understandings and practices of tolerance. Bringing together empirical and theoretical findings, ACCEPT PLURALISM generates a State of the Art Report on Tolerance and Cultural Diversity in Europe, a Handbook on Ideas of Tolerance and Cultural Diversity in Europe, a Tolerance Indicators’ Toolkit where qualitative and quantitative indicators may be used to score each country’s performance on tolerating cultural diversity, and several academic publications (books, journal articles) on Tolerance, Pluralism and Cultural Diversity in Europe. The ACCEPT PLURALISM consortium is formed by 18 partner institutions covering 15 EU countries. The project is hosted by the Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies and co-ordinated by Prof. Anna Triandafyllidou. The EUI, the RSCAS and the European Commission are not responsible for the opinion expressed by the author(s). The Amsterdam Institute for Social Science Research (AISSR) unites all social science research of the UvA. Its programme group Challenges to Democratic Representation (Political Sciences) investigates the consequences of these developments for democratic governance. The empirical research focuses particularly on political parties, civil society (most notably, social movements and pressure and interest groups), mass media, citizens and their interests, opinions, feelings and preferences and political ideas. Dr. Marcel Maussen is Assistant Professor at the Department of Political Science and affiliated with the Amsterdam Institute for Social Science Research (AISSR) at the University of Amsterdam. His research interests include the governance of ethnic and religious diversity, political theory and the accommodation of Islam in Western Europe. Contact details: Marcel Maussen: Department of Political Science Program Group "Challenges to Democratic Representation" Oudezijds Achterburgwal 237 1012 DL Amsterdam Phone: +31.20.525.4097 E-mail: [email protected] Personal webpage: http://home.medewerker.uva.nl/m.j.m.maussen/ Programme in FP7 see: http://ec.europa.eu/research/social-sciences/index_en.htm http://cordis.europa.eu/fp7/cooperation/socio-economic_en.html Table of Contents Executive Summary ................................................................................................................................................ 3 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................. 8 Chapter 1 – National discourses on tolerance and cultural diversity in the Netherlands ................................. 10 Marcel Maussen and Thijs Bogers 1.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 10 1.2. National identity and state formation .............................................................................................................. 11 1.2.1. State formation ................................................................................................................................. 11 1.2.2. Citizenship ........................................................................................................................................ 14 1.2.3. The Netherlands and the EU ............................................................................................................. 14 1.3. Cultural diversity challenges .......................................................................................................................... 15 1.3.1. Minority groups and cultural diversity challenges in the Netherlands: an overview ........................ 15 1.3.2 Cultural diversity challenges concerning native minorities ............................................................... 17 1.3.3. Cultural diversity challenges concerning post-war immigration minorities ..................................... 26 1.3.4. Three clusters of events related to diversity challenges of the last decade ....................................... 31 1.4. Conceptualisations of tolerance and practices of toleration in the Netherlands .............................................. 31 1.4.1 Toleration of minorities ....................................................................................................................... 31 1.4.2. Principled acceptance ......................................................................................................................... 32 1.4.3 Pragmatic toleration or condoning (gedogen) ..................................................................................... 34 1.4.4 Multicultural recognition ..................................................................................................................... 34 1.4.5. The divide between the tolerable and the intolerable: Dutch liberal intolerance ................................ 36 1.5. Concluding Remarks ...................................................................................................................................... 37 Chapter 2 – Diversity challenges in education and school life ........................................................................... 39 Inge Versteegt and Marcel Maussen 2.1. Introduction: Education and diversity in the Netherlands ............................................................................... 39 2.2. Methods and Data ........................................................................................................................................... 44 2.2.1. Research problem and questions for the two case studies ................................................................ 44 2.2.2. Respondent selection and approach ................................................................................................. 45 2.2.3 Transcription and analysis ................................................................................................................. 45 2.3. Case Study 1: Christian-Orthodox and Islamic schools ................................................................................. 45 2.3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 45 2.3.2 Reformed and Islamic schools in the Netherlands ............................................................................. 46 2.3.3. Public debate on the freedom of education and religious schools .................................................... 47 2.3.4. Views of principals of Reformed and Islamic schools ..................................................................... 51 2.3.5. Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................... 59 2.4. Case Study 2: Citizenship Education and tolerance ........................................................................................ 60 2.4.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 60 2.4.2. Citizenship education in the Netherlands