Charles Darwin, Edward Blyth, and the Theory of Natural Selection Author(S): Loren C

Charles Darwin, Edward Blyth, and the Theory of Natural Selection Author(s): Loren C. Eiseley and A. Grote Source: Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 103, No. 1 (Feb. 28, 1959), pp. 94-158 Published by: American Philosophical Society Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/985383 . Accessed: 24/10/2013 12:44

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This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions CHARLES DARWIN, EDWARD BLYTH, AND THE THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION

LOREN C. EISELEY Professorof Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania

CONTENTS voyage of the Beagle. On her deck, impatient PAGE for the sight of home was a tall, spare young I. Introduction...... 94 man with the brooding eyes of a philosopher. II. Edward Blyth...... 96 He had looked much upon savage men and III. Clues to Darwin's knowledge of Blyth...... 97 animals in remote uncharted lands. What he IV. Blyth and natural selection...... 99 thoughtupon such matterswas destined,in turn, V. Blyth and the conservative aspect of natural selection...... 104 to change the thinkingof the world. VI. Darwin and Malthus re-examined. 107 Already the lines which were to make that VI I. Breaking the species barrier. 108 face one of the saddest and most familiarof the VI I I. Darwin's dilemma...... 111 Victorian era were beginningto show upon the man's countenance. Seasickness and in- Appendix: young somnia had marked him; in Chile he had A. Selected articles written by Edward Blyth, sufferedfrom some afflictionabout which he published in The Magazine of Natural History, 1835-1837 ...... 115 was never to speak. It was Charles Darwin B. Memoir of Edward Blyth by Arthur Grote, back fromthe five-yearvoyage which had con- published in the Journal of theAsiatic Societyof vinced him of the enormous antiquity of the Bengal, August, 1875...... 150 earth and of the changes time had wroughtin the lifewhich swarmed upon the planet's surface. ABBREVIATIONS USED IN FOOTNOTES With his own hands, Darwin had pried fromthe A: The Autobiographyof Charles Darwin, edited by Nora earth the bones of vanished creaturesrelated to Barlow, London, Collins, 1958. those of the present. He had seen man, in FO: Foundationsof theOrigin of Species, edited by Francis Darwin, Cambridge UniversityPress, 1909. almost bestial simplicity, wandering on the MLD: More Lettersof Charles Darwin, edited by Francis bleak shoresof Patagonia. Darwin and A. C. Seward, 2 vols., London, John Murray, In spite of his carefully stored specimens 1903. below decks, the young-manhad returnedfrom MNH: The Magazine of Natural History,London. ifnot completelybaffled. He N: Charles Darwin and the Voyage of the "Beagle," edited his travelspuzzled by Nora Barlow, New York, Philosophical Library, 1946 believed in evolution,or was at least impressed (this book contains the rough notebooks kept by Darwin by the theory. He had come to suspect the during the voyage). alteration of the formsof life fromage to age. 0: The Origin of Species, by Charles Darwin, 2nd edition, The mechanismwhich molded life to fitinnumer- Cambridge UniversityPress, 1935. however. PG: Principles of Geology,by Sir Charles Lyell, 4 vols., able strangeenvironments eluded him, thirdedition, London, John Murray, 1834. He had gone farenough to see that the explana- LLD: Life and Lettersof CharlesDarwin, edited by Francis tions ventured by the older discreditedevolu- Darwin, 3 vols., London, John Murray, 1888. tionistssuch as the FrenchmanLamarck would VAP: Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestica- not satisfactorilyaccount forall he had observed. tion, by Charles Darwin, 2 vols., Orange Judd & Co., New York, 1868. The delicate adaptations of organismto purpose, as seen in a hummingbirdor a woodpecker,could All of the three papers by Edward Blyth utilized ill this not be producedby such vague forcesas climate study will be indicated by date alone aftertheir first listing animal. since they were all published in The Magazine of Natural or interiorwilled effort on the part of the History. There must be something else, some other I. INTRODUCTION mechanismlying hidden beneath the surfaceof life.' ON a gloomyday in October,1836, a barnacle- etc.," encrusted ten-gun brigantine sailed into Fal- I"I came to think fromgeographical distribution, Darwin once remarked, "that species probably change; mouth Harbor, England. She was back from but foryears I was stopped dead by my utter incapability around the world in what was to become one of of seeing how every part of each creature . . . had become the century's most celebrated voyages-the adapted to its conditions of life" (MLD 1: 208).

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, VOL. 103,NO. 1, FEBRUARY, 1959 94

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Again and again, around and around,Darwin's of his achievement. If we are forcedby facts diaries and notebooks reveal his pursuitof the to acknowledge that a few men entertained subject. In his autobiographyhe says of the inspirationalflashes of similar thinkingbefore early period after his returnfrom the voyage: Darwin's time, we do so with discomfortand a "Nor did I ever intermitcollecting facts bearing feelingof guilt beforethat awe-inspiringfather- on the originof species; and I could sometimes image in our minds. We frequentlyprefer to do this when I could do nothingelse fromill- drop the subject or to repeat the old formulaof ness."2 Finally, by Darwin's own account, he total independentinvention. chanced to read the politicalphilosopher Thomas In being thus evasive, however,we are falsi- Malthus in October of 1838. He claimed to fying scientifichistory. We are making the have seen,in the latter'streatment of thestruggle assumptionthat one of the widest read natural- for existence among human beings, the key to ists of his day was incapable of perceivingin natural selectionin the animal world. books what he was so remarkably adept in seeing when he looked at tortoisesand finches. Being well preparedto appreciatethe strugglefor existencewhich everywhere goes on, [he said,] it To examine the sources of Darwin's thoughtis at once struckme that underthese circumstances not to deprecatethe magnitudeof his accomplish- favorablevariations would tend to be preservedand ment. It merely places that achievement in unfavorableones to be destroyed. The resultof properperspective, so that we can see how easily thiswould be the formationof new species. Here and imperceptiblythe flow of thought passes then, I had at last got a theoryby which to fromage to age, even when superficiallythere work.. . .3 appear to be unrelated leaps or spectacular dissension. This account of the Darwinian discoveryhas been hallowed by tradition and reaffirmedby Darwin, with a slight twinkle,has recounted Darwin's descendants. It is true that as time how, afterthe deliveryof his and Wallace's joint has passed precursors have been located- papers beforethe Linnean Society in 1858, Pro- Darwin himselfwas led to attach an account of fessor Haughton of Dublin had commented themas a historicalintroduction to later editions "that all that was new in them was false, and of the Origin-but it has been generallyassumed what was true was old."4 Though we need not that Darwin arrived independentlyat his final join ProfessorHaughton in condemningwhat disclosure,natural selection. It was taken for was new in the papers, it is still interestingthat grantedthat Darwin was unacquainted with the the learnedgentleman seemed to catch echoes of minor anticipationsof his work which research somethingout of the past. Perhaps, after all, has revealed and that, like his great colleague his ear had not played him false. It is this very Wallace, his act of synthesiswas essentially a briefperiod, between the time when Darwin was strokeof individualgenius. rowed ashore fromthe Beagle and the opening of his firstnotebook Today, one hundredyears after the publication on the "species question" nine months later in 1837, that I wish to of the Origin, books and magazine articles by turn. In those months is contained the real the score continue to extol this point of view. secret of the Darwinian Because we are only a centuryaway froma great story. What came afterwardswas the reorientationin human thoughtit may be that merely long slow toil of buildinga greatbook. For we unconsciouslyprefer to see the formulatorof that task Darwin was preeminentlyfitted. He had the the evolutionaryhypothesis in solitarygrandeur indomitable building energy contained in one of his own and isolation, a modern-dayMoses descending reefsof coral. Like the with the tablets from an Andean mountain. coral he built slowly and soundlessly upon a Darwin, like George Washington,has come in submergedand hidden base. science to bulk larger than human. He fills, Two years ago, in composing a work dealing and fillsadmirably, our need fora symbol. He with the major aspects of evolutionarythought, has become one of the immortals. He is in- the presentwriter remarked that the Originand violate and sanctified. Investigations of the its author have a historywhich runs silently and sources of his thought fade before the majesty mysteriouslythrough twenty years of ill health, lone effort,and corrodingdoubt. We know a 2 Barlow, Nora, The autobiographyof Charles Darwin, little of the family influenceswhich affected 99, London, Collins, 1958. 3A, 120. 4A, 122.

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Darwin's childhood;we can trace,in some degree, unrelated incidents have a deep bearing upon the impact of his Edinburgh and Cambridge the problemswe have been discussingbut, like a education. We can follow his thoughts from puzzle, they have to be fittedtogether. In that an inspectionof his diary and his lettersto his puzzle even the taillesscats will have theirplace. family as he begins his long erratic passage around the world. But we know, for the docu- II. EDWARD BLYTH ments lie ready to our hand, that as late as 1836 and for a short time thereafter,Charles Twice in a hundredyears Edward Blyth has Darwin was still strugglingwith the problemof been faintlyand somewhat timidly mentioned the rapidityof organic change. "If one species as a Darwinian precursor. Once afterhis death, does change into anotherit mustbe per saltum," though while Darwin was still living, in the he writes, "or species may perish."5 No one annals of an obscure local natural historyso- has indicated what led the young Darwin to ciety;6 once again in a letterto Naturein 1911.7 think in this way-a way, incidently, quite The second discovererwas apparently unaware foreignto the views he was later to express in of the first. In neither instance does the an- the Origin. nouncement seem to have aroused attention. In his master work slow and imperceptible By the time this resurrectionoccurred the transformationsextending over vast ages of time excitementover Darwin's forerunnershad abated. have replaced these early and immaturespecula- Moreover, from the public standpoint Blyth, tions. The fact is, however,that this important as we shall see, was not a very good example of a shift in Darwin's thinking remains undocu- real precursor. In spite of his importanceto our mented. It has not even been discussed. Is study he was not, at this time, an evolutionist. this the view that he entertainedon the famous To grasp fullyhis part in early Darwinian events voyage and brought home with him? Did he one must know his relationto Darwin. get it in the firstmonths ashore afterhis return It is just this point which Blyth's two dis- fromthe voyage and ifso where? Is it his own? coverersfailed to pursue.7a This was indeed a Is it someoneelses? And if so whose? On this strangeoversight because Edward Blyth was at the published notes fall silent. They ask only least a casual friend of Charles Darwin and whether a Henrietta St. Bath would probably Darwin's later volumes are spotted with numer- answer a letter and give informationabout a ous referencesto his work. Anything,therefore, tailless breed of cats near MalmesburyHead. which Blyth might have to say upon species is If it were not for a small series of accidental deservingof the most carefulscrutiny. circumstancesthe events we are now about to The paper which excited the attention of recount would never have been transmittedto Geldart and Vickers appeared in The Magazine posterity. As it is, one is forced to call upon of Natural Historyin 18358 a shortwhile before all the skills of the literarydetective in order to Darwin returnedhome. It was followedin 1837 make one's way, albeit dimly,into nine months by a lengthysecond paper9which was apparently in the lives of two young men one hundredand ignoredby the two discoverersof the firstdocu- twenty-twoyears ago. One of these accidental ment. Both papers are equally important to circumstancesto whichwe have referredwas the our study, and I shall make extended use of discoveryof Darwin's trialessays on the road to Writtenin 1842 and 1844 they had 6 Geldart, H. D., Notes on the life and writings of the Origin. Naturalists were found long Edward Blyth, Trans. Norfolk and Norwich never been printed. They Soc. 3: 38-46, 1879. after Darwin's death in a cupboard in the old 7Vickers, H. M., An apparently hitherto unnoticed house at Down. Darwin's son Francis pub- anticipation of the theoryof natural selection, Nature 85: lished them as the Foundationsof the Origin of 510-511, 1911. 7a Vickers, it is true, conversed with Francis Darwin Species in 1909. Since theydate into the earlier about the matter but did not pursue it further. years of Darwin's work on evolution they yield 8 An attempt to classifythe "varieties" of animals, with clues to the past which have vanished in the observations on the marked seasonal and other changes which naturally take place in various British species, and Origin. The second accident was the redis- which do not constitutevarieties, The Magazine of Natural covery of Edward Blyth. These seemingly History (London) 8: 40-53, 1835. 9 On the psychological distinctionsbetween man and all 5 Barlow, Nora (ed.), Charles Darwin and the voyageof other animals, etc. etc., The Magazine of Natural History theBeagle, 263, New York, Philosophical Library, 1946. (London), n.s., 1: 1-9; 77-85; 131-141, 1837.

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The next twenty-twoyears he spent in India, making innumerable specialized contributions to the natural history of southeastern Asia. His healthfailing, he returnedin 1862 to England wherehe died in 1873. These are the spare, sad outlinesof the lifeof a potentiallygreat scientist frustratedby the time and the circumstances under which he was born. It is not unlikely that he was readinglate in London on that day in 1836 when Charles Darwin, just ashore, was postingfast through the echoingcountryside toward Shrewsbury. Edward Blyth was one to rememberthe color and shape of a darting bird or a foxgoing over a hedge. He saw things hiding,shifting, changing. He had what today we would call a photographicmemory. This memorywould make, in the end, part of the mystery that lies forever between Charles Darwin and Edward Blyth.

TII. CLUES TO DARWIN'S KNOWLEDGE OF BLYTH The idea of selection,though in its full creative aspect as "natural" selection it contains subordinate propositions, is, superficiallyat least, a simple concept. Once the scheme is grasped multitudinousexamples lie ready at hand for illustrativepurposes. There are no intricate propositions,no complicated mathe- matics which can be traced fromone individual FTG. 1. Edward Blyth. Reproduced fromthe Journal of theAsiatic Societyof Bengal, August, 1875. to another. In simplerforms the idea of selection was knownto breeders,and here and there dim relationshipof selectionto the struggle them. Blyth himself,however, deserves a pre- some was glimpsed by philosophersin liminaryword. A year younger than Darwin for existence the and early nineteenthcen- he was born,like AlfredWallace, into straitened both eighteenth Perhaps it is this fact whichhas caused economic circumstances. He received only a turies. despair of tracingall the peregrina- trade school education but was an omnivorous scholars to the idea through successive hands. readerand observerin naturalhistory. He used tions of late eighteenth century it had been a small inheritanceto purchase a drug business By the by several writers, including in the town of Tooting in Surrey,now absorbed touched upon had, however,skirted the subject into greater London. Blyth, it appears, could Lamarck, who its fullsignificance. Its crea- not abate his passionate interestin zoology suffi- withoutglimpsing beyond the bounds of species had ciently to achieve business success. Much of tive aspect both because of his timewas spentreading in the BritishMuseum not been grasped-probably and the fact that the length or making the rounds of kindred metropolitan religiousprejudice along with its successive institutionsseeking a post more congenialto his of geological time, largelyunappreciated.10 interests. He was a born scholar, but he was faunas,remained of the enormousprestige of Darwin, trapped in miserable economic circumstances Because and haunted by ill health. 10 For an account of the history of the concept onie By 1841 he was advised to quit England fora should consult Conway Zirkle's Natural selectionbefore the warmer climate. Having published widely he "Origin of Species," Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. 84: 71-123, 1941. Dr. Zirkle observes very perspicaciouslythat "the was offered a small post as Curator of the widespread acceptance of teleologymade natural selection Museum of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal. an unheeded hypothesis" throughoutits earlier history.

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 98 LOREN C. EISELEY [PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC. as well as this very elusive quality of a simple reveal, not alone that Darwin at some point in idea, the discovery that Blyth had written his life had handled the volumes in question, upon natural selection in 1835 fell upon deaf but that he had used consistentlythe entire ears. No one, it appears, thought of actually series. Some of the referencesare to small items examining Darwin's volumes with Blyth in and thusshow that the volumeshad been scanned mind. The present writersought to do so for with great care. In spite of this, and in spite just one reason: I failed to comprehend how of the fact that Darwin was fond of quoting Charles Darwin could have been unacquainted Edward Blyth frequentlyupon a considerable with the periodical in which Blyth published. range of topics, there is not a solitary direct It was one of the leading zoological journals of referenceto the two papers which particularly the day. Darwin's friends,Henslow, Jenyns, concernus-those of 1835 and 1837. Lyell, had all appeared in its pages. To assume Charles Darwin had a high opinion of Blyth.'2 that a man of Darwin's "prodigious memory In The Origin of Species he spoke of him as and power of abstraction" was unacquainted one "whose opinion, fromhis large and varied with the thought of a man writing upon the stores of knowledge,I should value more than species problem in so prominentan organ as that of almost anyone.""3Nevertheless, the two The Magazine of Natural Historyseemed, in the extensiveand interestingpapers in which Blyth period 1835 to 1837, illogical in the extreme. treated of subjects directlypertaining to Dar- I set out, therefore,upon a carefuland detailed win's greatest intellectual effortremain, as I examination of Darwinian materials which have said, unnoted. Even more strange,there mightbear upon the problem. is one referenceto a paper immediatelyadjacent It was obvious that as a firststep in my task to Blyth's paper of 1837.'4 This seemingfailure the Descent of Man (1871) and Variation in to examine Blyth's papers of 1835 and 1837 is Animals and Plants UnderDomestication (1868) particularlyodd when one comes to realize that were apt to offermore clues than the Origin Edward Blyth has fourand a quarter inches of itself. Unlike the Origin they are extensively referencespace in the index of the Variationof footnoted. Furthermore,since the materialsfor Animals and Plants UnderDomestication, a space these books dated very largely into the pre- considerably greater than that allotted any Origindays, it was likelythat theymight contain othersingle individual in the book. One begins useful evidence. Afterall, both volumes were, to get the feeling that something more than in reality,part of the big original Originwhich chance is at work in this situation. The Maga- Wallace had forestalledby communicatinghis zine of Natural History has been obviously discovery of natural selection to Darwin in utilized at great length by Darwin. We have 1858. his own testimony, corroborated by his soIn My examination of the two volumes led Francis, that he "read and abstracted . . . rapidly to some highly interestingdiscoveries. whole series of Journals and Transactions.""5 became evident that whatever the precise It on be in which Darwin had come upon which is the precise volume of Blyth's first paper time might natural selection. the series, it was clearly demonstrable that Turning to the second volume of Variation of animals Darwin had held in his hands, and made use of and plants under domestication,we find the followingcita- for scholarly purposes, the volumes of The tions: p. 30 n. 47, MNH 1, 1837; the same volume of 6, Magazine of Natural Historycontaining Edward MNH is also listed in p. 99 n. 33; on p. 188 n. 30, MNH 1833; on p. 189 n. 39, MNH 9, 1836; p. 192 n. 52, MNH Blyth's papers upon natural selection. I list all n.s. 2, 1838; p. 193 n. 57, MNH 5, 1832; p. 237 n. 7, MNH the referencesto the magazine below and it will 8, 1835; p. 354 n. 4, MNH n.s. 1, 1837; p. 396 n. 21, MNH be observed that they are numerous.1" They 1, 1829. 12 In the Variationof animals and plants underdomestica- 11Descent of man, 785 n. 31; 788 n. 1; 803 n. 30; 807 n. 47, tion Darwin remarks: "Mr. Blyth has freely communi- Random House ed. n.d. All of these referencesrefer to cated to me his stores of knowledge on this and all other is to The Magazine of Natural History 1, 1837; n.s., this journal related subjects" (1: 164 n. 1). The reference will be hereafterreferred to as MNH. Oriental pigeons. 1935. Variation of animals and plants under domestication,1st 13 The Originof Species, 17, OxfordUniv. Press ed., authorized American edition, New York, Orange Judd 14VAP 2: 30-31. 16 London, & Co., 1868, 2 vols. 1: 55 n. 75 contains a referenceto Life and letters of Charles Darwin 1: 83, of his MNH 6, 1833. 1: 82 n. 42 refersto MNH 4, 1840. 1: John Murray, 1888. Francis Darwin (p. 153) spoke facts 115 n. 67 gives a referenceto the same journal for 1, 1829. father's literaryhabits as follows: "When collecting 1: 335-336 n. 8 indicates a referenceto MNH 8, 1835 on a large scale, in earlier years, he used to read through,

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Yet a man whose work he obviously valued, a tains an article by Charles Waterton on the man whose name Darwin appears to have taken habits of the carrioncrow, and another "On the pleasure in promoting before the public, is Faculty of Scent in the Vulture." Darwin's representedonly by his comment upon specific friendJenyns also had a paper on the principles faunal items. Blyth is restrictedto the role of of taxonomy in this volume. It is now un- taxonomistand fieldobserver. mistakably clear that Darwin as a young It may at this point, however, be still con- naturalist was as well acquainted with this tended that Darwin did not know the files of journal as his colleagues and read it just as The Magazine of Natural History in his earlier assiduously. years, and that by the time the citations I have In the Januaryissue of 1835 Blyth's paper on given were utilized Darwin was concernedsolely varieties made its appearance. One year later with post-Origin subject matter. Though in Darwin was still in Australia and thinkingwist- this case it would still appear strange that fully of home. His final notebook, has, un- Darwin made no reference to Blyth in his fortunately,not been fully published. Nora historicalsketch appended to latereditions of the Barlow tantalizinglyremarks that "He [Darwin] Origin,for the moment let us allow this objec- quotes fromrecent reading and begins a draft tion to stand. Let us go back into the less of a geological paper, presumablyin the leisure documented,early phase of Darwin's career in of the slow days sailing home across the At- the hope of ascertaining whether any of the lantic."'7 One would like to know whether surviving papers of that era can throw light Blyth's paper had reached him,but now the last upon this curious and absorbing problem. notebooksgrow jumbled in timebecause Darwin Fragments from the early notebooks of 1836 out of longhabit continuedto carryand use them and 1837, as well as the trial essays, should offer afterhaving been ashore fortwo years.'8 Thus, such publishedclues as are available. We have unless additional unpublished material should already seen that althoughDarwin was cognisant throwlight on the question, we cannot identify of evolutionaryideas before going to sea with the precise month in which Darwin firstsaw the Beagle he did not arrive at a satisfactory Blyth's papers but that see them he did there solution fororganic change until afterhis return can be no doubt. It is significant,I genuinely fromthe fiveyear voyage. believe, that Darwin opened his firstnotebook on the "species question" in 1837. In January IV. BLYTH AND NATURAL SELECTION of that year Edward Blyth venturedthe begin- In the notebooks which Darwin kept oIn the ningof a second paper in whichthere is comment voyage there is contained all manner of stray upon the principleof natural selection. In fact, jottings, ranging from the rise of continental from 1835 to 1837 there is sporadic discussion areas to the price of melons. On July 19, 1835, upon subjects of an evolutionary cast in The the Beagle arrived at Callao in Peru. In Magazine of Natural History."' We now come, Darwin's notebook for that day the following however, to the crux of our discussion: Is it cryptic item is included. "Smelling properties possible to trace in The Originof Species or in the discussed of Carrion Crows, Hawks, Magazine trial essays that preceded it any directevidence of Natural History."i6 There can be no doubt of the influenceof Edward Blyth? Our answer that this Magazine of Natural History is the will affirmthe truth of the connectionbetween one which later was to contain Blyth's first Blyth and Darwin but the clues upon which our article treating of natural selection. It is assertionis based have to be musteredwith care. evident that more than one issue had reached If it had not been for the publication of the Darwin by mail at Callao. By the good fortune of his bird referenceswe can identifyat least 17 Op. cit.,260. 18 Ibid., two numbers as those of January and May. 257. 19See, for example, Fennel, James H., Comments on The volume is that of 1833 (vol. 6) which con- Mr. Blyth's remarks on specific distinctions, MNH 9: 647-648, 1836. Fennel says, "I do not think that the and make abstracts, in this way, of whole series of peri- order of nature has offeredany opposition to the structure odicals." Writingto Huxley in 1859, Darwin commented, and habits of any animal becoming . . . gradually altered "I have picked up most by reading really numberless in a greater or less degree from its primitive parents." special treatises and all agricultural and horticultural Fennel, as is characteristicof the British scientists of this journals; but it is a work of long years" (LLD 2: 281). period, finds it 16 necessary to dissociate himself from La- N, 244. marck, but his meaning is plain.

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Foundationsof theOrigin of Species in 1909 it is Blyth,in his paper of 1835, composedwhen he unlikely that the dim outlines of the carefully was just twenty-fiveyears old, betrays im- hidden trail would ever have been perceived. mediatelythe taxonomicalinterests which were This trail begins to be discerniblein the Darwin to become so evident in his later writings. It notebook of 1836 with the curious word, "in- is obvious that he is intriguedby organicchange osculate."20 It is a word which never has had but has not succeeded in breaking out of the a wide circulation,and which is not to be found currentthinking of his periodexcept in threevery in Darwin's vocabulary beforethis time. importantparticulars: (1) Blyth refusedto be Twice in a single paragraph this word which engulfedby the mysticismin the quinary taxo- means to adjoin, or pass into, is used in connec- nomicalsystem of MacLeay and Swainson which tion with evolutionaryjottings and speculations. was so widely popular in the eighteen-thirties.24 Moreover, these speculations, as we will see a Instead, he sees at the root of any logical system little later, have a directbearing upon problems of classificationa law of "irregularand indefinite presentedin the various Blyth papers. Here I radiation." "The modificationsof each succes- am concernedonly to point out that a rare and sive type," he observes, are "always in direct odd word not hitherto current in Darwin's relation to particular localities, or to peculiar vocabulary suddenly appears coincidentlywith modes of procuringsustenance."25 (2) Blyth its use in the papers of Edward Blyth.21 In the described natural and sexual selection in no Originit survivesto make one fleetingappearance uncertain terms and recognized their creative as "osculant."22 Taken in conjunction with role in the emergence of varieties. He was other evidence the rare and mildly archaic clearly aware of variation and its hereditary character of this word suggests the fact that character.26 (3) In spite of denying that in- Darwin, excited and stimulated by Blyth's definitedivergence could be produced in this discussion of varietal and speciation problems, way, he throws out in one amazing and con- acquired it fromhis readingof Blyth. tradictorypassage the suggestion that just as It is now necessaryfor us to familiarizeour- man is able to affectthe physical constitution selves more completely with the nature of and adaptations of domestic animals so wild Blyth's ideas as expressed in the three papers naturemight achieve the same success. He then runningfrom 1835 to 1837 in The Magazine of asks "May not, then, a large proportion of Natural History. At the beginning of this what are consideredspecies have descended from account of Blyth I remarkedthat he was not an a commonparentage?"27 evolutionist. Keeping this in mind one can It can thus be observed that though Blyth, still see an amazing resemblance between his like Buffon,denied himself,he produced within thoughtand Darwin's, once one makes allowance a short,usable compass an abstractof Darwinian forthe fact that to Blyth the strugglefor exist- evolutionso remarkablycomplete that its rami- ence and natural selection were conservative ficationsneeded only to be explored and docu- rather than creative forces. In this restriction mented. In Blyth's somewhat incoherentand Blyth is reflectingthe eighteenth-centurylimita- rushingeagerness he threwoff, and dashed by, tion upon organic divergencewhich blinded so the answersto his own objections. It is an apt many early nineteenth-centurythinkers.23 It illustrationof the difficultiesinvolved in escap- was Darwin's contribution,of course, that he ing fromthe views of one's own age, particularly altered the strugglefor existence and made of it when those views are deeply imbedded in one's a creativemechanism. In doing so, however,he religious consciousness. Read in the light of passed by way of the steppingstone of Edward Blyth'spapers one can see that a largeproportion Blyth. of Darwin's early effortis devoted to findinga way throughthe species barrier as erected by 20 N, 263. Lyell and Edward Blyth though the latter is 21 Its use occurs in: Observations on the various seasonal 24 discourse on the and other external changes which regularly take place in Swainson, William, A preliminary birds, etc. etc., MNH 9: 399, 1836, and in: On the psycho- study of natural history,91-92, London, 1834; Rylands, distinctions between man and all other animals, Peter, On the quinary, or natural system of M'Leay, logical 1836. etc., op. cit., 399, 508, 1837. Swainson, Vigors, etc., MNH 9: 130-138; 175-182, 22 0, Ch. 13, p. 386. See also MLD 2: 305, n. 1. 25 op. cit.,406, 1836. 23 I have discussed this matter at more length in my 26 cit.,45-46, 1835. recent book Darwin's century, New York, Doubleday, op. 27 cit., 135, 1837. 1958. See particularlyp. 329. Op.

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions VOL. 103, NO. 1, 1959] CHARLES DARWIN AND EDWARD BLYTH 101 never directly mentioned in his text. To realize On this point Blyth stands in about the same the extent of this relationship it is necessary, position as certain other eighteenth-and early firstof all, to get a clear picture of those aspects nineteenth-centurywriters whom I have had of Blyth's thinking which are germane to the occasion to analyze elsewhereexcept that he is evolutionary problem which confronted Darwin more conscious of ecological selection.31 He is when he arrived home in 1836. It will be ob- cognisantthat variant traitscan be accumulated served that they have a remarkably Darwinian by selectivebreeding under domesticconditions. sound. He is also aware of selection under the struggle In the first place, the leading tenets of Dar- for existence in wild nature. But Blyth was win's work-the struggle for existence,28 varia- primarilya student of living forms. He was a tion, natural selection and sexual selection are all careful observer of the delicate adjustment of fully expressed in Blyth's paper of 1835. life to its surroundingenvironment. In fact he exaggeratedthe of It is a general law of nature, [Blyth observed,] for permanence theseexquisite all creatures to propagate the like of themselves: adaptationswhich he feltdisqualified the animals and this extends even to the most trivial minutiae, forany othermode of existence.32When circum- to the slightest peculiarities; and thus, among our- stances changed, he contended, a species must selves, we see a family likeness transmitted from perish with its locality. Like Lyell somewhat generation to generation. When two animals are earlier,Blyth had glimpsedthe negative aspects matched together, each remarkable for a certain of the struggle for existence and the way in peculiarity, no matter how trivial, there is also a which species were eliminated. He failed to decided tendency in nature for that peculiarity to see, however, that natural selection was a increase; if and the produce of these animals be set potentiallyliberalizing rather than conservative apart, and only those in which the same peculiarity factor in life. This is most apparent, be selected to breed from,the next is particularly curious generationwill possess it in a still moreremarkable because, unlike his contemporary,Swainson, he degree; and so on, till at length the variety I desig- remained undeceived by the highly artificial nate a breedis formed,which may be very unlike the numerical taxonomy which was in popular original type.29 favor at the time. He recognizedthat species were always "modified in direct relation to Here, of course, we are dealing with artificial particular localities, or to peculiar modes of selection-with cattle, pigeons, and other do- procuringsustenance."33 "Just as the surface mestic forms. After commenting upon sexual varies," Blyth observed, "so do its productions selection in herd animals "so that all the young and inhabitants." He made out clearly "the . . . must have had their origin from one which reiteratedivergence and ramification"of organic possessed the maximum of power and physical relationships. strength; and which, consequently, in the struggle Blyth'syouthful failure, it can now be realized, for existence was the best able to maintain his lay in his provincialism. Perhaps his species ground," Blyth proceeds beyond purely artificial would have remained less fixed if he had had selection. He applies the principle of selection Darwin's experience of the new lands. As it to wild nature just as Darwin was later to do. was, Edward Blyth tended to see everything The best organized, the most agile will survive except man's domestic productionsassigned to and leave the most progeny. He sees selection its place and kept there by the inexorableforce in nature, however, as a conservative principle of natural selection. Species boundaries were "intended by Providence to keep up the typical carefully demarcated. Blyth saw about him, qualities of a species." The sickly, the ill- the hedge-constricted,precision-cultivated Eng- adapted must, Blyth contends, soon disappear. lish landscape. Darwin had broughtback with The slightest deviation in the coat color of a him the memoriesof foreignweeds invading the cryptically adapted form will cause its discovery new world, of introduced animals overrunning and destruction.30 the indigenousproducts of oceanic islands. 28 The actual phrase is used. Blyth may have drawn For Darwin, fresh from the wild lands, the it from Lyell with whose Principles of geology he was boundaries of life seemed less rigid and sharp. acquainted. See Blyth, 1835: 48. The phrase occurs in Blyth, ibid., 46. 31 Darwin's century, 53-54, 122, 137, 201-202, 329, 29 op. cit.,45-46, 1835. The italicsare thoseof Blyth. New York, Doubleday, 1958. 3 Similar expressions occur in the paper of 1837, pp. 32Blyth, 1837: 83. 79-80, 135. 33 Blyth, 1836: 406-407.

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Nevertheless,he was to spend a great amount of self-adaptingsystem to prevail . . . we should space in the trialessays and the Origin answering seek in vain for those constant and invariable the argumentsof Edward Blyth. He had to seek distinctions which are found to obtain."37 a way throughthe mind block of a particular Living species, he contended,would under such world view; namely, Providence and special circumstancesblend into each other-something creation. Yet, ironically,it was still Blyth who which does not occur in nature. In the plant in 1837 suggestedthe road which passes beyond world sea-water prevents the germination of the purely negative selectionto be found in the driftingseeds carriedfar from their own locality; Principles of Sir Charles Lyell. Even in 1835 animals have homing instincts. "Such an- Blyth had remarkedsomewhat crypticallythat tagonist principlesobtain throughoutcreation, the studyof simplevariations "properly followed whether or not human observation may have up . . . might lead to some highly interesting yet detected their existence."38 Blyth's world, and importantresults."34 By 1837 he had grown in otherwords, is still that of the English hedge- aware that his "localizing principle" was not rows, of a stability which gives way only to absolute, that "when a species increasesnumeri- extinction,never to reallymarked organic altera- cally in any habitat beyond what the latter is tion. This stabilityhe came veryclose to fasten- adequate to sustain . . . either their ranks are ing upon the young Darwin. Many pages of mysteriouslythinned by what is termedepizooty, Darwin's preliminaryessays and of the Origin or an erraticimpulse . . . instinctivelyprompts itselfare spent in dealing with Blyth's defense a portion of them to seek fresh quarters."3 of the species barrier. Where Lamarck had Blyth noted the dangers which beset those seen most so-called extinct species evolving by wandererswho pass out of theirlocality and he alteration into living ones, Blyth saw all past noted the fact that they mostly perish without formsas extinct and without representationin being able to establish themselves in other the present. The compromise solution would places. He was, however, beginning uneasily have to be sought by Darwin. to sense that if his localizing principle,which is As one leafs through Blyth's small papers, really natural selection "breeding in and in" however, one is amazed by the ideas which and transmittingselected individualpeculiarities reappear in the trialessays of 1842 and 1844 and in a singlestable environment,were to be broken which Darwin never altered throughouthis life. throughby removal of formsto other habitats, Besides taking note of natural selection,sexual unlimitedorganic change might be possible in selection, and the role of hereditaryvariation, wild nature. The situationwould then be more Blyth expressed the view that macromutations comparable to the release offeredby man in the would "very rarely,if ever, be perpetuatedin a controlledbreeding of domesticforms. state of nature."39 Darwin was apparently convinced by Blyth's argumentand clung to it A varietyof importantconsiderations here crowd believed in the influenceof uponthe mind, [confesses Blyth,] foremost of which thereafter.40Blyth is the enquiry,that, as man, by removingspecies food in the stimulationof variations in domestic fromtheir appropriate haunts, superinduces changes stock and, again, we findenvironmental ideas of on theirphysical constitution and adaptations,to this kind lingeringin Darwin.41 Blyth's emphasis what extentmay not the same take place in wild on sexual selectionin man42anticipates the weight nature,so that, in a few generationsdistinctive given to it by Darwin in the Descentof Man. charactersmay be acquired,such as are recognised These are general comments. They suggest as indicativeof specificdiversity. . . . May not the germs,expressed briefly, of what grew to be then,a largeproportion of what are consideredspecies chapters, even books, in the hands of Darwin. havedescended from a commonparentage?36 Since our thesis is somewhat startling; namely, After toying with this intriguingpossibility, that Darwin made unacknowledged use of "were this Blyth felt forcedto reject it because 37Ibid., 136. 34 Blyth,1835: 53. 38 Ibid., 137. Note, incidently, that Darwin devoted 35 Blyth, 1837: 134. Compare Blyth's sentence with the considerable attention to the effectsof salt water on seeds. followingremark from The Originof Species, 64-65, 2nd ed. See the EdinburghPhilosophical Journal, n.s., 4: 375-376, Oxford Press, 1935: "When a species, owing to highly 1856. favorable circumstancesincreases inordinatelyin numbers 39Blyth, 1835: 47. in a small tract, epidemics-at least this seems generallyto 40 See FO, 247; 0, 174-175. occur with our game animals-often ensue. ... 410, 7-8, 10; FO, 1-2, 14-78. 42 36 Op. Cit., 135, 1837. Italicsmine. Blyth, 1835: 49.

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Blyth's work, the critical historian may still paragraph occurs a list of odd mutationsinclud- want to ask what interiorevidence, what de- ing "donkey-footedswine, tailless cats, back- tailed similaritiescan be used to establish the feathered,five-toed, and rumplessfowls, together fact that Blyth is more than a Darwinian pre- with many sorts of dogs. . . .43 cursor, that he is, instead, a direct intellectual This odd littleconcentration of mutativetypes forebearerin a phylogenetic line of descent. is duplicated in almost the same order in Dar- Edward Blyth, in the writer's estimation, be- win's essay of 1844. Like Blyth, Darwin is longs in the royal line. He is not an isolated discussing "sports" or hereditary monsters. accident. Instead, he is one of the forgotten Like him, Darwin mentionsAncon sheep, rump- parents of a great classic. But Darwin's less fowls,and tailless cats.44 It is true that the shadow, grown to almost superhuman propor- solid ungular swine and five-toed fowls have tions, lies massive and dark across the early disappeared but they occur in later pages of portion of the century. How can one find, Darwin's essay. They have merely been dis- even in this similarityof ideas, more than the persed.45 In the matter of claws, two*pages accidental repetitionof like thoughtsby different fartheron we encounter the phrase, "breeds, men? characterized by an extra limb or claw as in At this point let us remind ourselves of one certain fowls and dogs." In the Origin this thing: We have proved that The Magazine of curioussequence has vanished thoughthe Ancon Natural Historywas abundantlyused by Darwin sheep is still mentioned. from the very outset of his career. We have Blyth, in his discussionof food and its effects shown from his own words that he was an on animals, commentsthat "herbivorousquad- enormous and voracious reader and compiler. rupeds which browse the scanty vegetation on From thislet us turnto the interiorof the papers mountains are invariably much smaller than themselves. It is well, in doing this, to bear theirbrethren which crop the luxuriantproduce in mind that in essence the principleof natural of the plains. "46 Darwin in turn holds selection is simple. Once the leading idea is that "externalconditions will doubtlessinfluence grasped illustrationscan be altered, new facts and modifythe resultsof the most carefulselec- can be substituteduntil an original connection tion; it has been found impossible to prevent betweenone man's paper and thework of another certain breeds of cattle from degeneratingon is totally lost. This is particularlytrue when a mountainpastures. ..47 book has grown fromtwo or three papers and Blyth, in his discussion of hybridity,recog- perhaps only from certain paragraphs within nized dominance (i.e. prepotency) and the those papers. As I intimated in the introduc- possibility of the reemergence of suppressed torypages of this study, what exists in the trial characteristicsin the third generation.48 Here essays of Darwin has been almost completely again Darwin, in the essay of 1844, expresses obliterated in the Origin. It was the publica- similar views.49 The use and disuse concept is tion of the essays in 1909 whichmakes it possible broughtinto play by Blyth in his discussion of to discern the connectionwhich I now hope to domesticforms where "an animal . . . supplied demonstrate. We have already dwelt upon the regularlywith . . . abundance of food,without obsolete word "inosculate" which suddenly ap- the trouble and exertionof having to seek for pears in Darwin's notebookupon his returnfrom it . . . becomes, in consequence, bulky and the voyage and coincidentwith its appearance in lazy . . . while the muscles of . . . locomotion the papers of young Blyth. There is, it emerges, . . . become rigidand comparativelypowerless, an even more remarkable use of words in a or are not developed to their full size."50 Dar- similar context and comparable order which win, in his second essay devotes a section to this challenges any attempt to explain the situation throughaccidental duplication. The statistical 43 Blyth, 1835: 47. It will be rememberedthat Darwin, probability of the same peculiar animals with in the Notebook of 1836, took a sudden interestin tailless the same cats. anatomical oddities being listed to- 44 FO, 59-60. gether in the same approximateorder by pure 45 Ibid., 216-217 for swine; 62 for five-toedfowls. chance is so remoteas to be almost meaningless. 46 Blyth, 1835: 43. In Blyth's paper of 1835 occurs a statement 47 FO, 64. involvingAncon sheep with an explanatoryde- 48Blyth, 1835: 48. 49BFO, 107-108. scription of them. A little later-in the same 50 Blyth,1835: 44.

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subject and comes once more to similar conclu- Darwin almost totally avoided reference to sions which are re-expressedin the Origin.5" man in the Originit is of interestto note that the Blyth devotes considerableattention to pro- homing instinct in man receives attention in tectivecoloration and the utilitarianadvantages both of the trial essays. It is mentionedbriefly gained by such devices in the struggle for in the firstessay58 and twice in the second.69 existence.52 In the course of this discussion Here the Australiansavage reappears. Blyth,in his paper of 1835, quoted fromMudie's The instinctive shamming of death is also FeatheredTribes of theBritish Islands the meta- mentionedby Blyth60as characteristicof certain phor "grouseare brownheather." In theOrigin animals. Once more Darwin treats of it briefly Darwin utilizes the same descriptive device but criticallyin the essay of 1842 and again in picturing"the red grousethe colourof heather."53 the lengthieressay of 1844.61 By subjecting Further on in the same section, and this time Blyth's papers to extended and minute analysis in his owInwords, Blyth speaks of the ptarmigan there is no doubt that a few additional items as "snow in winter." In the same section in pointingtoward a connectionbetween the two Darwin "the alpine ptarmigan [is] white in men mightbe established.62 Even makingsome winter."54 The discussion of protectivecolora- allowance foraccidental use of the same sources, tion is more extended in Blyth but both men's the effect is cumulative and, in the present views are the same. Blyth has a vivid descrip- writer's view, unexplainable by chance. Fur- tion of the relation of the falcon to its prey. thermore,there is ample evidence that Blyth's He dwells at lengthupon the bird's great powers restrictionson divarication beyond the species of sight. In the same Darwinian passage hawks level troubledDarwin and that he was forcedto are mentionedas "guided by eyesight to their spend considerabletime and ingenuityin finding prey."55 Like Blyth, Darwin then dwells upon his way around this barrier. To this effortwe the pruningeffect exercised by these carnivorous will soon turn. In the course of our investiga- birds in keeping the crypticcoloration of small tion it will be possible to see more clearly than mammals and ground-dwellingbirds, such as heretoforewhy Darwin approached the subject grouse, uniformand constant through natural of variationin wild naturewith such timidity. selection. The variant animal is unable to conceal itself successfully and is thus more V. BLYTH AND THE CONSERVATIVE ASPECT OF NATURAL SELECTION subjectto destruction. AlthoughDarwin's treat- mentof the idea is not as lengthyas Blyth's,the In a recentstudy of evolutionaryhistory the descriptive material cited above is powerfully writerhad occasion to observe that both Darwin suggestive of a direct connection particularly and his colleague Alfred Russel Wallace had when it is taken in conjunctionwith the other been profoundlyinfluenced by the work of Sir evidence we have been at some pains to Charles Lyell. We may now add to the list of assemble.56 potential evolutionists affected by that great If we turn to Blyth's paper of 1837 it will be book, The Principles,the name of Edward Blyth. recalled that in discussinghis localizingprinciple In comparingthe beliefsof Lyell and Blyth in he touched upon the hominginstinct in animals. the eighteen-thirtieswe will be able to see more During the course of his discussion Blyth as- clearly how evolutionary thought was slowly sertedthis capacity was "not whollyabsent from inching ahead during a time which, to many the human constitution."57 He referredto the writers, has seemed totally devoid of evolu- Australianaborigines and othersavages as being tionary significance. It is not surprisingthat subject to this "intuitive impulse." Although Blyth, like Darwin an eager young scholar,had

51FO, 91; O, 10. 58FO, 19. 52 1835: 51-53; 1837: 80. 5 FO, 119 n. 2; 124-125. 60 530, 77. 1837:5. j4 Ibid. 61FO, 19. 56 Ibid. 62 For example, Darwin followsBlyth quite explicitly in if in any country or 66 One could add smaller items such as Blyth's reference his essay of 1842 when he says that cross to the variation manifestedin the beaks of finch-likebirds districtall animals of one species are allowed freelyto (1836: 400) whichmay well have intriguedDarwin through "any small tendency in them to vary will be constantly the problem presented by the Galapagos fincheswhich he counteracted." "Such varieties," Darwin says, "will be had collected. constantly demolished" (FO, 2-3). Compare Blyth, 57 1837: 138. 1835: 46-47.

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions VOL. 103, NO. 1, 19591 CHARLES DARWIN AND EDWARD BLYTH 105 been impressedby the great learningand elegant species might diverge in distinct environments sentencesof Charles Lyell. What we shall want or under human selection,but he felt that the to see is the way in which the work of Blyth preponderanceof the evidence favoredthe view passed, in one particular,beyond the thoughtof that such divergence was limited in scope-a Lyell on species. In this one act we can see the simple adjustment to insure survival. Recog- closing of the gap in thoughtbetween Darwin's nizing the fact that Blyth had read Lyell, let forerunnersand the author of the Origin him- us now see in what manner Blyth approached self. Blyth is the missingkey that makes the the same problem. entire transition so smooth as to be almost First of all it may be quickly observed that imperceptible. although Blyth, too, agreed that there was a First, let us examine the work of Lyell on limitto divergencehe handled the whole subject species. Like othersof the late eighteenthand with greater clarity and precision than Lyell. early nineteenth centuries he recognized the Instead of confininghimself to vague references importanceof the strugglefor existence, actually as to the effectsof climate, temperature,and used the phrase, and realized that this aspect other similar factors, in determiningorganic of the natural world accounted formuch extinc- change, Blyth wrestlesdirectly with the genetics tion throughoutpast time. "The most fertile of the problem: variety,"he observed,"would always in the end, prevail over the most sterile."63 Yet Lyell, There wouldalmost seem, in some species,to be a tendency,in everyseparate to some afterdismissing Lamarck, failed quite to grasp family, particularkind of deviation; which is onlycounteracted the creative aspect of this selection. Lyell by the variouscrossings which, in a stateof nature, recognizedthat therewas considerablevariation must take place, and by the . . . law which causes in livingforms and he commentedon the "extra- each race to be chieflypropagated by the most ordinaryfact, that the newlyacquired peculiari- typicaland perfectindividuals.67 ties are faithfullytransmitted to the offspring."64 Nevertheless,Lyell did not believe such devia- Blyth,long beforeDarwin had expressedhim- tion to be endless. Rather, his interpretation self on the same subject, had clearly recognized partakes of the theologicaloutlook of the time. the analogy between artificialand natural selec- He remarks of domestic animals that "attain- tion. He had seen the latter process,however, ments foreignto theirnatural habits and facul- as a conservative rather than a liberalizing ties, may, perhaps have been confirmedwith a factor. "The original formof a species is un- view to theirassociation with man."65 He con- questionablybetter adapted to its natural habits tended that the organization of plants and than any modificationof that form,"a68 he as- animals was never absolutely constant but that serted, for he saw natural selection as pruning the plasticityof a given species was limited. out the least deviation which threatenedto unfit the animal for its environment. As a neo- We mustsuppose [argued Lyell] that,when the zoologist Blyth had a sharp eye forthe incessant Authorof Naturecreates an animalor plant,all the variation in nature, but he was also intensely possiblecircumstances in whichits descendantsare aware of how frequentlythe deviant form is destinedto liveare foreseen,and thatan organization is conferredupon it whichwill enable the speciesto destroyed. He saw the plunge of the hawk on perpetuateitself and surviveunder all the varying the animal whose crypticcoloring was imperfect, circumstancesto which it must be inevitably he observed what happened to creatures who exposed.66 strayed beyond their normal environment. He The range of variation, Lyell thought, would saw in his mind's eye a world held in a tight differsomewhat according to whetherthe animal dynamic balance. It was a world that might had been created to occupy a widely varying move but could not: environment or a narrowly constricted and uniformone. Thus, the great geologist recog- 67 Blyth, 1835: 46. In Darwin's autobiographyhe states nized the possibility that the varieties of a that his interest in the cross fertilizationof flowers by insects, begun in 1838, arose through his belief that "crossing played an importantpart in keepingspecfic forms 63PG 2: 364. constant." It is worth noting that here he is treating of 64 Ibid., 345-346. the conservative aspect of selection just as it was handled 65PG 2: 375. by Blyth in the paragraph cited above. 66Ibid., 351. 68 Ibid. The italics are Blyth's.

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It would be easy to point out additional hindrances species, can be easily convertedby man into a to the more extensive spread of species of fixed means of raisingdifferent varieties."72 habit, by treatingon the fr-actionwhich are allowed It should now be apparent why the young to attain maturity,even in their normal habitat, evolutionist,Charles Darwin, after discovering proof the multitude of germs which are annually of duced; and in what ratio the causes which prevent Blyth upon his returnhome fromthe voyage the numerical increase of a species in its indigenous the Beagle, began momentarilyto contemplate locality would act where its adaptations are not in the possibilitythat if "distinct species inoscu- strict accordance will sufficientlyappear, on con- late73so we must believe ancient ones [did] . . sideringthe exquisite perfectionof those of the races not gradualchange or degenerationfrom circum- with which it would have to contend.69 stances, if one species does change into another it must be per saltum-or species may perish.74 Contained in this remark is a full recognition Yet with his South American experiencebefore of the Malthusian struggle of population against him we see, on the next page, that he is tryingto natural resources, but Blyth felt the cards to be grope around the difficultyraised by Blyth. stacked against extended change. It was not "Dogs, Cats, Horses, Cattle, Goats, Asses," he an unreasonable position. Species, Blyth had persists,"have all run wild and bred, no doubt observed, faced extreme difficulties when they with perfect success. Showing how creation wandered out of their normal range. does not bear upon solely adaptation of ani- Were this self-adapting system [i.e. evolution] to mals."75 It is evidenthere that he is considering prevail to any extent, we should in vain seek for the possibility that animals can respond to those constant and invariable distinctionswhich are change, that Blyth's "localizing principle" is found to obtain. Instead of a species becoming not absolute. "Nothing quite makes sense," gradually less numerous where its haunts grade writes Darwin's granddaughter,Nora Barlow, imperceptibly away, we should discover a corre- of this point in Darwin's career. sponding gradation in its adaptations. . ..70 One can observethat the reason forthis feeling that Darwin is gropinglies in the fact that he is Now as a modern student of evolution has tryingto finda way around the obstacle raised recently observed, in Blyth's firstpaper-the fact that there are by a paradox the process of natural selection has, distinct breaks between the modern species over short periods, a conservingeffect rather than rather than indefinitepassages between them. a modifyingone. In a constant environmentthe Lyell, in addition, had contributedto this diffi- great majorityof the individuals of a species are very culty paleontologicallyby his contentionthat, precisely fitted to their habitat, and almost any change from the typical will be a disadvantage: wherea capacityis given to individualsto adapt consequently many variant forms are eliminated themselvesto newcircumstances, it does not gener- beforethey can reproduce....71 ally requirea verylong period for its development;

It was this fact which Blyth had sensed so per- 72 Blyth, 1835: 46. See also 1837: 80. spicaciously, but at the same time he had failed 73The termappears to be used by Blyth and Darwin in to see what lay beyond. His failure was partly the sense of adjoining, not blending. the result of inexperience, partly the product of 74 N, 263. 75 As early as the firstedition of the Journalof Researches the theological atmosphere of the time. This is (1839), we can observe Darwin's thoughtplaying over this characteristically revealed in one of his remarks problem of the successful intrusion of foreign types of of 1835 about natural selection. "The same animals. "I will add," he says at the close of Chapter I X, "one other remark. We see that whole series of animals, law," he writes, "which was intended by Provi- which have been created with peculiar kinds of organiza- dence to keep up the typical qualities of a tion, are confinedto certain areas; and we can hardly suppose these structuresare only adaptations to peculiarities 69 Blyth,1837: 137. of climate or country; for otherwise,animals belonging to 70 1837: 136. a distinct type, and introducedby man, would not succeed 71 Barnett S. A. (ed.), A centuryof Darwin, xiii, London, so admirably, even to the exterminationof the aborigines. Heinemann, 1958. W. L. Brown, Jr. has treated another On such grounds it does not seem a necessary conclusion, aspect of the break between modern species (character that the extinction of species, more than their creation, displacement) in several papers. For a discussion and should exclusively depend on the nature (altered by bibliographysee his: Some zoological concepts applied to physical changes) of their country" (JR, 212). Darwin problems in evolution of the hominid lineage, Amer. is here already attemptingin a subterraneanfashion to find Scientist46: 151-158, 1958. a way past the fixityof Blyth's totally adapted world.

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions VOL. 103, NO. 1, 1959] CHARLES DARWIN AND EDWARD BLYTH 107 if,indeed, such werethe case, it is not .easyto see turn to Malthus for inspiration.78Furthermore, how the modificationwould answerthe ends pro- Francis pointed out what we know to be true, posed,for all the individualswould die beforenew that in 1837 he had already given vent to the qualities,habits or instinctswere conferred.76 essential aspects of the principle.79 Blyth had presented Darwin with a possible There are, it is true, a few referencesto mechanism of potentially indefinite organic Malthus in the trial essays before the Origin change but had at the same time labelled it as but not to the exclusion of other workerssuch a conservative mechanism ordained by Provi- as de Candolle. Oddly enough, although Dar- dence to maintain the stability of species. In win confided his great secret to a few of his 1837, however, as we have previously noted, intimates, he seems to have placed little em- Blyth showed a few signs of doubt, hastily phasis upon Malthus. One reads with surprise suppressed,upon this notion. It is conceivable a letter from Hooker to Darwin written in that these doubts did not pass unnoticedby the January of 1863. "Did you ever read that widely traveled Darwin who had seen old world painfulbook, Malthus on Population?" Hooker forms,intrusive in the New World, extirpating writes. "I did the other day and was painfully or successfullycompeting with formssupposedly impressedby it."80 If one turns back to Dar- createdfor a specifichabitat. Moreover,Blyth's win's lettersof the eighteen-forties,one gets the point of view was indirectlychallenged in 1838 same impression of neglect. Though Darwin by W. D. Weissenborn who pointed out that wrote oftento Hooker, Gray, and Jenynsabout numerous species were flourishingin habitats his work, and about the strugglefor existence, where they were not originally indigenous.77 Malthus remains unmentioned.8' In fact, the The work of the voyager naturalistswas making indices to the five volumes of published letters ever moreapparent the factsof animal and plant record no referencein the firstthree, save for movement and adaptation. Blyth's hedgerow the single remark in Darwin's autobiography. world was in the processof dissolution. The followingtwo volumes contain only three briefreferences and two of these are directedto VI. DARWIN AND MALTHUS RE-EXAMINED AlfredRussel Wallace. My colleague and formerstudent, Dr. Gerald According to Darwin, his recognitionof the Henderson of Brooklyn College, has raised an principleof natural selectioncame in October of interestingpoint in this connection. He main- 1838 when he chanced to read Thomas Malthus tains that afterDarwin had received Wallace's on population and perceivedthat the geometric increase of living formswould create a struggle 78 FO, xvi. The remarks quoted by Francis from in nature which would in turn promotethe sur- Charles' notebook take on an added clarity when read in vival of advantageous variations. Actually, the light of Blyth's work. 79 A second obstacle to a complete acceptance of Darwin's however,this statement,in the lightof the facts statement lies in an unnoted half-discrepancy of the we have previouslyrecounted, is open to some Autobiographyitself. Darwin says he read Malthus in doubt even though it may well be that Darwin October of 1838 and at this point glimpsed how the prin- was additionallystimulated by readingMalthus. ciple of artificial selection could be transformed into natural selection in wild nature. Yet fartheron in Dar- In the firstplace, it was not necessaryfor Darwin win's own reminiscences (A, 127) he tells us that he was to read Malthus in orderto realize the intensity studying the cross fertilizationof flowerswith an eye to of the struggle for existence. Leaving aside the species problem as early as the summerof 1838. As Blyth's contribution,mention of it occurs in we noted on p. 105 this same interestin the conservative the writingsof Darwin's grandfatherErasmus, aspects of inter-crossingis expressed by Blyth. It seems a little unlikely that if Darwin first grasped the Mal- in Paley's Natural Theology,and in the Principles thusian principle in the fall of 1838 he would have been so of Geologyby Sir Charles Lyell. Even Lamarck intensively occupied with the conservative aspects of mentions it in the Philosophie Zoologique. All crossingin the summerof the same year unless his thought of these workswere read whenDarwin was young on natural selection was already well advanced. Rather and impressionable. His own it suggests,once more,that Darwin was engaged in seeking son, Francis, a way through this obstacle to divergence observed by expressed surprise that he should have had to Blyth and of which Darwin was already aware through a perusal of Blyth's paper. 76PG 2:369. 80 Huxley, Leonard, Life and lettersof Sir Joseph Dalton 77 Weissenborn, W. D., On the influence of man in Hooker 2: 43, London, John Murray, 1918. modifyingthe zoological features of the globe, etc., etc., 81 See, forexample, his lettersto Jenynsin 1845, LLD 2: MNH, n.s., 2: 13-18; 65-70; 122-128; 239-256, 1838. 31-32, 33-35.

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 108 LOREN C. EISELEY [PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC. sketch of 1858 and preparationswere made for men were reasoning from the same principle: the joint papers to be given beforethe Linnean natural selection. Blyth, however, had dis- Society,the passage fromthe essay of 1844 which covered its short-timestabilizing effects. He was selectedby Hooker, Lyell, and Darwin to be was, as we have seen, still laboring under the incorporatedinto Darwin's announcementwas theologicalaspects of the argumentfrom design. the only one in which Malthus was mentioned. His emphasis is largely upon natural selection Dr. Henderson points out that the famous as a providentiallocalizing principle confining letter to Gray of 1857 contains no referenceto animals and plants to their proper sphere of Malthus. Instead, de Candolle, Lyell, and activity-the place forwhich theywere created. Herbert are extolled as Darwin's authorities. Only man, throughthe intelligentuse of artificial It is Dr. Henderson'sconsidered opinion that the selection, is in a position to multiplyvarieties passage referringto Malthus was deliberately and perpetuatepeculiar forms. chosen for presentationto the Linnean Society Although Blyth, like Lyell, appears to have "because of its correspondencewith the subject regardedthe changingenvironments of the past matterof Wallace's essay." 82 From the time as resultingsimply in extermination84he does of Wallace's appearance on the sce-ne, Dr. hint crypticallyin a paper of 1838 that the only Hendersoncontends, the significanceof Malthus evidence for the continued existence of the began to bulk larger-inDarwin's public declara- "creative energy" lies in the "results afforded tions about the originof his views on species. by the study of fossil remains."85 Darwin, Some time ago I pointed out that to have re- calling upon his extended South American ferredto Lyell, forexample, as the directsource experience,was not impressedby the hedgerow- of one's ideas upon evolutionary struggle in everything-ordained-to-its-own-placephilosophy naturewould have been to quote a man publicly of Blyth. Taking such hints as were provided opposed to evolutionin supportof that doctrine. by his own experience and the timid insights Since Malthus was active in a quite different which Blyth failed to pursue, Darwin denied field,and was, in addition, the basic source of that everything in the animal world must muchof the thinkingon the strugglefor existence perishwith its locality. For a time he choked, in early nineteenth-centuryEngland, it was con- as we have seen, upon Blyth and Lyell's argu- venient to have recourse to him as the "au- ment that adjustmentwould come too slowly to thority."83 It is possible that Darwin found it fit an animal to survive in an environmentfor easy to fall in with Wallace's use of Malthus which it mightnot, in the beginning,be as well partlybecause a natural rivalrydictated his de- fittedas theindigenous occupants of the ground.86 sire to show he was just as aware of Malthus as For this reason he consideredbriefly the possi- was Wallace. Furthermore,this curious chain bilityof macro-mutativeleaps as a way through of events was obscuring ever more deeply the this particular difficulty-adjustment,in other real origin of Darwin's evolutionary system. words, of a more instantaneous variety. He Some of Darwin's hesitations,long delays over soon saw, however,that this was both scientifi- publishing,and almost neuroticanxiety can now cally dubious and unnecessary. From the time perhapsbe betterunderstood. He had hissecrets, of the firstessay he beginsto answerthe question and, as I hope to show a little later, he had his of how a transitionalform can subsist until its justificationfor them. 84 1837: 82. 85 On the doctrine of spontaneous organization, MNH, BREAKING THE SPECIES BARRIER VII. n.s., 2: 508-509, 1838. observed that the main 86 Interesting in this connection is a letter from Lyell We have previously "When I the to A. R. Wallace written in 1867. Lyell says: differencebetween Blyth and Darwin lies in firstwrote, thirty-fiveyears ago, I attached great impor- fact that one was a special creationistand the tance to preoccupancy, and fancied that a body of in- other an evolutionist. The thingwhich strikes digenous plants already fittedfor every available station us as unusual in this connection is that both would prevent an invader, especially froma quite foreign province, fromhaving a chance of making good his settle- 82 Henderson, Gerald, AlfredRussel Wallace: his roleand ment in a new country. But Darwin and Hooker contend influencein nineteenthcentury evolutionary thought, Doc- that continental species which have been improved by a toral Dissertation, unpublished, University of Pennsyl- keen and wide competitionare most frequentlyvictorious vania, Philadelphia, 1958, p. 54. over an insularor morelimited flora and fauna." Marchant, 83Darwin's century,182 n. 17, New York, Doubleday, James, Alfred Russel Wallace: lettersand reminiscences, 1958. 278, New York, Harpers, 1916.

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adaptations have been perfected. " I would (4) Darwin argued cogently that no environment rather trust . . . pure geological evidence than is completely static and thereforerenewed selection either zoological or botanical evidence,"87Dar- is going on even under superficiallyuniform con- win once remarkedto Hooker. ditions.93 It is here that we see him taking boldly to a (5) Darwin invokes a law of succession to explain why the living organisms of a continental area course at whichBlyth only hinted. For Darwin ordinarilyshow the closest affinitiesto the extinct altered Blyth's scheme by openly attachingto it life of the same region. This anatomical relation- Lyell's infinite time and changing geological ship between the past and the present is only ex- conditions. To it he added the view that the plainable on the basis of evolution.94 species barrier was an illusion created by the (6) Finally, in The Origin of Species, Darwin imperfectionsof the geological record and the devotes an entire section to the formidable point shortness of human life. Organic change oc- raised by Blyth as to the rarityor absence of transi- curredat a rate whichwas imperceptible. As a tional varieties between the various modern faunas. matter of fact, men tended to forgeteven their It was Blyth's argument,based on modernobserva- transitionaldomestic varieties once a new breed tion, that transitionalvarieties could not have sub- sisted. his withdeliberate became established. "To be brief," Darwin Referringto "opponents" vagueness in Chapter 6 of the Origin, Darwin con- wrote to Asa Gray in 1856, "I assume that fesses, just as we had deduced previously fromour species arise like our domestic varieties with examination of Blyth and the notebooks of 1836, much extinction."88 that "this difficultyfor a long time quite confounded Long before this, however,in the firstessay me."95 Nevertheless, he came to believe the diffi- of 1842, we can see him marshallinghis argu- culty could be explained. We tend, Darwin argued, ments for the purpose of breaking through to thinktoo much in termsof recentclimate and geo- Blyth's conservative "localising" system. In graphicalgradation and thenexpect lifeto gradeitself summaryform his pointscan be stated as follows: as imperceptibly. Actually lifeis historical. It may intrude into new areas. Species compete and (1) The conquest of an indigenous fauna by in- sharply limit each other's expansion. Intermediate troduced organisms "shows that the indigenes were varieties,therefore, tend frequentlyto contract their not perfectlyadapted,"89 that is, there is no such range and disappear. Thus Darwin, after long thingas an animal providentiallyordained to occupy study and analysis, broke through the seemingly a given environment. Adaptation is, and will durable species-barrierwhich Blyth had, paradoxi- always be, only a relatively successful achievement cally, created upon the basis of natural selection. often broken in upon and destroyed. Thus there is no real barrierto continued change.90 All of these points and more were, by degrees, (2) Oscillations of sea-level on islands and con- shaped into the final perfected argument of The tinents creates shiftingconditions-isolation, faunal Origin of Species. Natural selection, as we now migrations, etc. This creates opportunities for can see, was used first as a conservative teleo- new selection of new characters, not just the con- logical device for maintaining the stability of servingselection of Blyth.9' the natural world. This was its primary func- (3) New conditions, Darwin maintained,increase tion in the hands of Edward Blyth. Charles the tendencyfor mutations to appear. This happens under wild conditions in a formanalogous to what Darwin, the vast synthesizer, the perceptive Blyth contended was the case among domestic coordinator of materials from diverse sciences, animals.92 Similarlymigrations of faunas and floras remains the massive figurehe has always been. into new environmentswould promote mutation. One last question remains to be considered 87 LLD 1: 358. before we turn to the forces which, in some de- 88 LLD 2: 78. gree, may have motivated Darwin's behavior. 89 FO, 34 n. 1. Compare with Blyth, 1837: 80. We have 90 observed that he chose to ignore Later, in a letter to Lyell, Darwin on the eve of the publicly the papers of Edward Blyth. Is it Origin, gave forceful expression to this new historical point of view. He says "As each species is improved,and possible that the man who once wrote "all my as the number of formswill have increased, if we look to notions about how species change are derived the whole course of time, the organic condition of life for from long-continued study of the works of . . . other formswill become more complex, and there will be a agriculturists and horticulturists,"96could have necessity for other forms to become improved, or they will be exterminated; and I can see no limit to this 93 FO, 90-91. process. . . " (LLD 2: 177). 94 FO, 33. 91FO, 30, 35. See also LLD 2: 209, 259. 95 0, 156. 92FO, 15, 91. Blyth, 1835: 44-45. 96LLD 2: 78.

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 110 LOREN C. EISELEY [PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC. been secretly aware of any other precursors? that Darwin was aware of Matthew by 1844. After the Blyth episode one cannot help but The fact that Darwin, as we have seen, speaks wonder. On page 78 of the 1844 trial essay on forcefullyof his long and persistentsearching of the road to the Origin occurs the following horticulturaland agriculturalsources makes it observation: less easy to accept his ingenuousdisclaimer that excused in not having discovered In the case of foresttrees raised in nurseries,which ''one may be vary more than the same trees do in theiraboriginal the fact [i.e. natural selection] in a work on forests,the cause would seem to lie in theirnot hav- Naval Timber."100 ing to struggleagainst other trees and weeds, which Another intriguing,if small point, arises in in theirnatural state doubtless would limitthe condi- connection with Matthew. It involves the tions of theirexistence. simplequestion of whereDarwin got the idea for his phrase "natural selection." Though easy to one turnsto the Originitself one findsthat When appreciate afterits appearance such phrases are has vanished. In Patrick Mat- this statement deceptive in that they often emerge from at Naval Timberand Arboriculture, thews' book on least some similarexpression, rather than being which contains a full anticipation of natural totallyoriginal. Blyth does not use the expres- remark: selection, occurs, however, this intriguing sion nor, seemingly,with one exception,does it Man's interference,by preventing this natural occur in Darwin's essay of 1842.101 It does ap- process of selection among plants, independent of pear in the second essay of 1844. The nearest the wider range of circumstancesto which he intro- thing to Darwin's usage occurs in the passage duces them, has increased the differencein varieties fromMatthew which I have already quoted re- particularlyin the more domesticated kinds.97 ferringto trees. In it Matthew speaks of "this Darwin's comment, in other words, sounds as natural process of selection." Darwin uses the though based on MVatthew at least I am un- expression"natural means of selection,'102 in the aware of any other convenient source. So essay of 1842 and utilizesthe same phrase in the strongly did I feel this to be the case that, upon title of Chapter II in the essay of 1844. Later encountering Matthew's statement, I looked in the text, however, the term appears as we into the Variationof Animals and Plants Under know it today. The similarityof Matthew's Domestication, curious as to what one might phrase is intriguing,particularly in the light of find there. By 1868 Matthew's book had been the tree reference,but cannot, perhaps, be re- publicly called to Darwin's attention. There garded by itselfas totallyconclusive evidence of was thus no reason why he should not refer to connection.'03 Taken in conjunction with our Naval Timberand Arboriculture.In the second 100LLD 2: 301. volume of Darwin's work one comes immediately 101 The foundations of the origin of species is deceptive upon the following reference under "Matthew": because, as Francis Darwin explains in the preface, he added subheads to the firstessay in order to prepare the Our common forest-treesare very variable, as roughdraft for publication. I can findno trace of "natural may be seen in every extensive nursery-ground;but selection" in the text. It occurs only as a subhead added as they are not valued like fruit-trees,and as they long afterward by Darwin's son and in one scrap added seed late in life, no selection has been applied to on the back of a page. Ihis may be later than the text. them; consequently, as Mr. Patrick Matthews re- See FO, xxi-xxii and p. 44 n. 4. 102 Matthew (p. 387) also uses the phrase "selection by marks, they have not yielded differentraces. ...98 the law of nature." Origin This statement appears to be a shortened 103One curious little episode took place as the about to be published. Apparently Murray, Darwin's in a new was version of the 1844 comment placed publisher, had raised some question about the use of the setting with some additional comment from words "natural selection" in the full title. Darwin wrote another page of Matthew added.99 to Lyell "Why I like the term is that it is constantly used The reemergence of this discussion of the in all works on breeding,and I am surprisedthat it is not to Murray; but I have so long studied such works variability of forest trees in nurseries suggests familiar that I have ceased to be a competent judge . . ." (LLD what it 97 Matthew, op. cit., 308. 2: 153). This odd little statement cannot mean 98 VAP, 287. appears to mean or Darwin would actually be denying his 99Matthew, op. cit., 107. This is the page reference own originality. The word "selection" was in common given by Darwin which covers part of his comment but use among breeders but, so far as I have been able to not all. To get the part referringto the variability of the ascertain, none before Darwin were using the expression trees one must go back to my reference on p. 308 of "natural" selection. Darwin himself was to define the Matthew. phrase in the Origin with no such accompanying renuncia-

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions VOL. 103, NO. 1, 1959] CHARLES DARWIN AND EDWARD BLYTH 111

other material,however, there is no doubt that runners as having no relationship to his own Matthew deservesmore extended attention than accomplishment. They are dismissed, as Dar- he has received. win was inclinedto dismisshis own grandfather, as "part of the historyof error,"as speculative, VIII. DARWIN'S DILEMMA as lacking in facts. The ironyin this situation We have now come, througha very tedious lies, of course,in the fact that many of the ideas and detailed effort,to a question of considerable Darwin was laterto use came fromthe researches magnitude. Why did Darwin, who, afterall, is of these very men. Lamarck, for example, ob- a figureof such staturein sciencethat the sources served the strugglefor existence and recognized of his informationneed not detractfrom his great the significanceof vestigial organs before Darwin. synthesizingachievement, feel impelled toward Are we to say, because Darwin postdates the such secretive behavior? Many pages of his earlierworkers and had more informationavail- biographiesare devoted to his magnanimity,his able to him,that theirobservations only became friendliness,his lack of pretense. On the other facts in his hands? It has been contendedthat hand, it is well known that he had his moments Darwin sometimesthought in this fashion but of indifferencetoward his forerunners.104He he had the grace to confess that he had little was capable of saying in his autobiographythat feeling for history.106There is no reason one he had never encountered a single naturalist hundredyears later to embrace the same fallacy. who entertaineddoubts on the permanence of Charles Darwin, like everyother worker in the species, while in a letter to Hooker in 1847 he field of science, used the knowledge and the had commentedjovially, "I see you have intro- accumulated stores of informationof his pred- duced several sentences against us transmuta- ecessors. To their effortshe added his own tionists. "105 vast resourcesand the originalityof a powerful, Attemptsto explain some of these paradoxes far-reachingmind. R. Taton, in his stimulating of characterhave been legion. There have been book, Reason and Chance in ScientificDiscovery also the complications introduced through the (1957), points out that new discoveries, par- unconsciousprocess of myth-making,the desire, ticularly where some degree of synthesis is in other words, to keep this man and his dis- involved,are oftenmade by one who has knowl- coveryinviolate--a unique act of geniuswithout edge derivedfrom more than one fieldof thought. precedentand withoutprecursive steps. There Certainly this is true in the case of Charles has thus arisen a tendencyto see Darwin's fore- Darwin. He took the providential "localizing principle"of a neozoologistlike Blythand added tion of originalityas that quoted above. Furthermore,he to it the infinityof geologicalchange. He drew was later to complain frequentlyof the public's failure to also, fromthe analogy of domesticbreeding, the understand it. See, for example, LLD 2: 317-318; also MLD 1: 160-161. It would appear that in the haste of fact that change was potentially endless and, composition he allowed the pronoun "it" to stand for given time,could carryorganisms far beyond the ''natural selectio'n" when what he intended to designate restrictedhabitats to which Blyth and his fellow was "selection." naturalistshad confinedthem. 104 It is interestingto note that Lyell caught Darwin up in the proofs of the firstedition of the Origin when he Darwin's solution, in essence, was merely was about to ignore Lamarck and St. Hilaire, as evolu- another way of looking at the world fromthe tionary forerunners (LLD 2: 207). Darwin himself same set of data, but it was the dispassionate omitted Wallace "by inadvertence" fromthe finalsummary observation of a man on a height to which no of the first edition of the Origin. Although this was remedied in later editions Wallace's name was never 106 He writes, in a letter to John Morley in March of afterwardin any edition indexed for this particular spot. 1871, "I believe your criticism is quite just about my Doubtless these acts were unconscious and not deliberate deficienthistoric spirit, for I am aware of my ignorance in but they have a certain psychological interest and con- this line "(MLD 1: 326). sistency. See LLD 2: 264. Of Lamarck's book he wrote Other evidences of Darwin's historical indifference,even to Lyell in October 1859: "It appeared to me extremely to the lettersof his most distinguishedcolleagues, are to be poor; I got not a single fact or idea fromit" (LLD 2: 215). found in his son Francis' account of his filing habits: On another occasion in 1859, shortly after the Origin "when his slender stock of files was exhausted, he would was published, Darwin remarked to Hooker, "I have burn the letters of several years. . . . This process . .. always had a strong feeling no one had better defend his destroyed nearly all lettersreceived before 1862" (LLD 1: own priority. I cannot say that I am as indifferentto the v). In this manner one of the most important letters subject as I ought to be . . ." (LLD 2: 252). Hooker ever wrote to Darwin has perished. See Baker, 105 LLD 1: 355. For autobiography statement see A, J. R., A critique of materialism, The Hibbert Journal 45: 124. 32, 1936.

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 112 LOREN C. EISELEY [PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC. one else had climbed. Nevertheless, Darwin English naturalistsdiscussing the species ques- himselfonce spoke appreciativelyof the contri- tion disavowed Lamarck with the ritual regu- butions of the less giftedworkers in the fieldof larityof communistsabjuring deviationisttend- science. Here again one catches a momentary encies today. From this standpointit is likely glimpse of Darwin's ambivalent psychological that the eagerness of Darwin to disclaim any behavior-his curt dismissal of those who had assistance from Lamarck was little more than come close to his pet theory,and yet again his the common English reaction of the time, how- remorsefulpraise of the "littleman" in science.107 ever ungraciousit may now appear. It would Charles Darwin, often depicted as a simple, seem that the subject of evolution itselfoffered forthrightman, was, in reality an enormously difficultiesto a man engaged in reopeningwhat complex human being. Consider, for example, was regardedby the majorityas a closed episode the unconsciousirony to be found in these re- in biology. Darwin was confrontedby a genu- marksto Lyell in 1860: "I have had a letterfrom inelyunusual problem. The mechanism,natural poor Blyth of Calcutta, who is much disap- selection,by whichhe hoped to prove the reality pointed at hearingLord Canning will not grant of evolution, had been written about most any money. . . . Blyth says (and he is in many intelligentlyby a nonevolutionist. Geology,the respects a very good judge) that his ideas on time world which it was necessaryto attach to species are quite revolutionized. "108 It is natural selectionin orderto produce the mecha- within the parenthesisthat the irony lies, but nism of organic change, had been beautifully it may be suspected that Darwin was only written upon by a man who had publicly re- speakingwhat to him was an experiencedtruth. pudiated the evolutionaryposition. Irrespective,however, of various recent at- Here was an intellectualclimate in whichmen tempts to psychoanalyze Darwin and to con- were violently opposed to evolution as godless sider the psychosomaticaspects of his long ill- and immoral. Here was the germ of the idea ness-his reluctance to meet the public, his itself,the strugglefor existence,regarded as a disturbingstomach symptoms,his anxieties- mere pruningdevice for keeping species up to therestill remainthe social imponderablesof the par. "The most important views," Darwin time. The French Revolution had had a dis- reminiscedin his old age, "are often neglected astrouseffect on Englishscience. One can catch unless they are urgedand re-urged.""11 echoes of thisconservative reaction in the writers Sometimevery soon afterhis returnfrom the of the period. Alexander Maxwell in his voyage of the Beagle Darwin apparentlymade a Pluralityof Worlds(1817) speaks of the "infidel decision: the evolutionaryidea would have to notionsand absurditieswhich abound in Buffon, be launched again as somethingtotally new and Hutton, Playfairand many of the Frenchwriters it would have to be launched with a massive upon the same subject."'109 He castigates "as- accumulation of demonstrablefacts to bolster tronomicalfable" and "visionary speculation." it. In the atmosphere of that time, to have Similarly, the zoologist, William Swainson, footnoted one's ideas as derived either from speaks criticallyof what is actually the evolu- French sources or from men who had already tionaryapproach. "A cold, ill-concealedspirit taken a differentstand on the same evidence of materialism,or an open and daringavowal of would have led to little but embarrassment. wild theories,not more impious than they are Darwin settled down to a long period of fruitful absurd, attest . . . the infidelitythat attaches labor and watchfulwaiting. His reputationas to some of the greatestnames in modernzoology a sound, conservative naturalist was growing. which France, or indeed any other countryhas He watched the critical attack on Chamber's produced.'110 Vestigesof the Natural History of Creation-an Evolution was suspect as French atheism. attackmade moreferocious by religiousbigotry. 112 vio- 107 Writingto W. Graham in 1881 Darwin said: "I think He watched and was silent while Huxley I could make somewhat of a case against the enormous "I 2:147. importancewhich you attributeto our greatestmen; I have MLD been accustomed to think second, third, and fourthrate 112 Darwin's concern over the intellectual climate of the men of very high importance, at least in the case of times can be glimpsed in a letter to Gray as late as 1857. Science" (LLD 1: 316). "You will perhaps think it paltry of me, when I ask you 108 LLD 2: 315-316. not to mention my doctrine; the reason is, if anyone, like 109p. 178. the author of the 'Vestiges' were to hear of them, he might 110 The studyof natural history,88, London, 1834. easily work them in, and then I should have to quote from

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions VOL. 103, NO. 1, 1959] CHARLES DARWIN AND EDWARD BLYTH 113 lently condemned Chamber's book. Through- Darwin's reluctance to review his forerunners, out the whole time his own huge treatise was therewas a genuine and understandablehunger growing. Darwin had an almost pathological to possess the theoryas totally his own. patience. In the end it came close to destroying From a tolerance of what he used to term him. Only the fact that AlfredRussel Wallace "speculative men," from a willingnessto call chanced to send his own discovery to Darwin himself"a gamblerwho loved a wild experiment," instead of to a journal preventedhis anticipation Darwin, as he became by degrees a British of The Originof Species. institution,appears to have sobered into what If one considers this peculiar set of circum- his granddaughter,Nora Barlow, observes as stances one can realize, objectively, that these "his repudiationof those who spin theirtheories conditions are not those of today and should without the constant discipline of factual de- not, perhaps, be judged by today's standards. tail.""'5 In this attitude, it has been con- Indeed, one observer put the matter quite tended, has lain much of his rejection of his succinctlyin Darwin's finalyear. Speaking of forerunners. Darwin's predecessorshe wrote, It is true that the Origin was originallycon- ceived to be an abstract of a work and To have reliedin any way on theirauthority when larger Mr. Darwin's book was firstpublished might well that Darwin wrote to at least one correspondent have increasedthe mountainof prejudiceagainst his advising him not to expect footnotes."16 One views withoutin any way relievingthe weightof can observe, however, that, if there had been ridicule that lay upon theirs. When the whole any pressingdesire on the part of the master to scientificworld had been stirredto its foundations remedythis situation,it could easily have been and whenthe wholeworld almost had been roused done in later editions. One can only conclude into payingattention to science. . . thenwhen it that Darwin was solitary and elusive beyond could best be done,Mr. Darwinturned ridicule into even what his familyhas recorded. "This sense renown, and madeall whocould even remotely claim of solitariness," wrote Charles Cox just fifty to have anticipatedor sharedhis views participators of his fame.113 years ago, "followed him to the end of his life and was, no doubt, an importantfactor in the This comment by a contemporarywho ap- formationand preservationof his extraordinary parentlysensed some of Darwin's difficultiesis individualityand faithin his own powers."''17 interestingand pertinentbut certainlyexcessive As one looks back over the curious and inter- in its praise of Darwin's late atonement to his twinedhistory of Darwin and his associates one forerunners. In the firstplace, Darwin's ges- is struckmore and moreby the smoothunbroken ture is meagre and confused,as ProfessorC. D. evolution of the natural selection concept from Darlingtonpointed out some years ago when he the time of the eighteenth-centurywriters on- commentedthat, "There are many,like Bateson, ward. An enormousbody of mythhas obscured who complained at least privately,of Darwin's this process. In this hundredth anniversary disregard of historical propriety or historical year since the publication of the Origin, the knowledge."1"4 There is every indication that number of eulogies, addresses, and similar Darwin found the historicalintroduction which encomiumsis buryingever deeper the true story was included in the Origin a painful task. It of the past. The flash of genius, the master would seem that beneath the political necessities stroke,arouse our pride in human achievement. which undoubtedly had early contributed to Few of us want to learn that many less fortunate men toiled to erect the edificelater to be known a work thoroughlydespised by naturalists,and this would greatly injure any chance of my views being received by as Darwinism. Fewer still will accept the fact those alone whose opinions I value" (LLD 2: 122). that Darwin was a human man among men who 113Stebbing, T. R. R., Letter regarding Butler's con- yearned hungrily for the approbation of the tention that Darwin slighted the older evolutionists, Nature 23: 336, 1881. worldperhaps, as has been intimatedby psychol- 114 Purpose and particles in the study of heredity, in ogists, as a compensation for the doubts of a Science, Medicine and History, ed. by E. A. Underwood, 2: 74, Oxford UniversityPress, 1953. "15A, 219. Jacques Barzun, 116 in his well-knownstudy Darwin, Marx, 4"You must remember that I am now publishing an Wagner, 2nd rev. ed., New York, 1958, expressed similar abstract, and I give no references" (MLD 1: 118). The views (p. 18) and quotes H. F. Osborn (p. 52) as saying letter was writtento Wallace in April of 1859. that Darwin "owed far more to the past than is generally 117 The individualityof Charles Darwin, Popular Science believed or than he himselfwas conscious of. Monthly74: 345-346, 1909.

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 114 LOREN C. EISELEY [PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC. domineeringfather."18 Yet it is this man, not tigers in the river port of Lucknow, respected the bearded idol, who is one of us if we would Charles. "He is a veryclever, odd, wild fellow," but see it. Darwin once wrote in turn of Edward Blyth, Charles Darwin was an explorerwho found "who will never do what he could do, fromnot no answer for the questions that hounded him stickingto any one subject."''2' throughoutthe five years of a great voyage."19 They kneweach otherwell, those two. Blyth, Upon his returnto London he combed journals so far as the published materials inform us, with incredibletenacity until he foundwhat he chose never to rememberthat he had, in the was seeking. In doing so he broke throughthe eighteen-thirties,written of thingswhich, how- invisible barrierbefore which other men-even ever differently,had swept the world in '59. Blyth-had hesitated,the fixityof livingforms. Being both generous and modest, perhaps he Once, in a letterto Hooker, he commentedthat never saw any relation between his youthful it was a pity that scientificmen read so little. cogitations and the great change in human "I have often thought," he insisted, "that thinkingwhich ensued a quarter of a century science would progressmore if there was more later."2la Or perhaps he thoughtthe old concep- reading."'20 This was the man, the plodding tion common. One cannot help but wonder. man with the enormousunyielding patience and We know, certainly, that Blyth was several uncannyinsight, who piled up foldersof evidence times a guest at Down and that many unpub- until the worldcapitulated. In Darwin the boy lished letterspassed betweenhim and Darwin.'22 in every one of us is vindicated. Perhaps that It is well to end upon and to respect the two has been partof our secret,if confused, adulation. men's mutual silence. But let the world not For Darwin, we thought,was the youth who forgetthat Edward Blyth,a man of povertyand failed at school and ran away to sea only to bad fortune,shaped a key that droppedhalf-used returnin triumphwith the secrets of Sinbad's fromhis hands when he set forthhastily on his cavern. own ill-fated voyage. That key, which was This dream need not die because the sailor picked up and re-forgedby a far greater and runaway was helped by others, or because he more cunning hand, was no less than natural picked up doubloons of gold secreted in the selection. At that moment,probably in 1837, treasure chests of unread journals. Rather, it the Originwas born.'23 When Blythdied in 1873 should be a lesson to all of us. Sir James Paget therewas foundamong his papers a fragmentof once remarkedthat Darwin's volumes "exempli- a work which he was preparing"On The Origi- fied in a most remarkable manner" Darwin's nation of Species."1'24 It was not, his literary power of "utilizing the waste material of other executorsopined, worthpublishing. It was de- men's laboratories." One might venture the rivative. In truth it was the dry seed husk observation,in the light of our present study, fallen fromwhat had grown to be a great tree. that he was equally adept in the utilization of 121 1: 63. those stray sparks which fell fromother men's MLD 121a however, the significance in his head underwenta Blyth was quick to notice, minds,but which own of Wallace's paper of 1855 on the law of succession, and marveloustransformation. mentioned it to Darwin. This suggests he was following The finest vindication of Charles Darwin, evolutionary discussions in this later period with interest. man and voyager, lies in the fact that Edward 122 Francis Darwin says: "His letters to my father give evidence of having been carefullystudied . . ." (LLD 2: Blyth, who also fled England, and, traveler- 316). To my knowledge, these letters have never beeni naturalistthat he was, bargainedonce foreighteen published. Nor were Darwin's letters to Blyth forthcoming at the time the published collections were made 118 See Hubble, Douglas, The life of the shawl, Lancet (MLD 1: 62). 265: 1351-1354, 1953. Also Good, Rankin, The life of 123 In a letter writtento Lyell in September of 1838 we the shawl, Lancet 266: 106-107, 1954. find Darwin speaking enthusiastically of the "delightful 1"9It is worth noting that the biologist William Ritter number of new views which have been coming in thickly was struck, a number of years ago, with the fact that and steadily,on the classificationand affinitiesand instincts Darwin had become convinced of the fact of evolution of animals-bearing on the question of species. Notebook It before natural selection "had occurred to him." In the after notebook has been filled . . ." (LLD 1: 298). matters light of the present paper Ritter's observation of the will be recalled that Blyth's papers dealt with these contained dichotomybetween belief and discovery takes on renewed and Darwin had utilized the journals which interest. Mechanical ideas in the last hundred years of them. biology, Amer. Naturalist72: 318-319, 1938. 124 Grote, Arthur,A memoir of the late Edward Blyth, 120 MLD 1: 475. Jour. Asiatic Societyof Bengal, Part II, n.s., 43: xiv, 1875.

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions VOL. 103, NO. 1, 1959] CHARLES DARWIN AND EDWARD BLYTH 115

APPENDIX A I. Simple Variations.-The firstclass, which SELECTED ARTICLES WRITTEN BY EDWARD I propose to style simple or slight individual BLYTH, PUBLISHED IN THE MAGAZINE variations,differs only in degreefrom the last, or OF NATURAL HISTORY truevarieties; and consistsof mere differencesof colour or of stature, unaccompanied by any Vol. 3 (1835), pp. 40-53: ART. IV An Attempt remarkable structuraldeviation; also of slight to classify the " Varieties" of Animals, with individual peculiaritiesof any kind, which are Observationson the markedSeasonal and other more or less observable in all animals, whether Changes whichnaturally take place in various wild or tame, and which,having a tendencyto British Species, and which do not constitute perpetuate themselves by generation, may, Varieties. under particular circumstances, become the originof true breeds(which constitutemy third THE appellation "variety" being very com- class ofvarieties), but which,in a state of nature, monly misapplied to individuals of a species, are generallylost in the course of two or three which are merely a natural undergoing regular generations. Albinoes belong to this firstdivi- change, either from to ma- progressing youth sion, and also the other numerous anomalies turity,or gradually shifting,according to fixed mentionedinVII.589 591.593 598.125 These laws, their colours with the seasons, I conceive simple variations occur both in wild and in that it will be useful to to out a some, point domestic animals, but are much more frequent few of the less generallyknown changes which in the latter,and are commonlyobserved in all naturallytake place in various British animals; breedsand truevarieties. some few of which to appear have been hitherto Among the Mammalia, total or partial ab- overlooked,and others to have been described sence of colour is always, I believe, continued incorrectly. throughlife; excepting,of course, the cases of The term "variety" is understoodto signify mere seasonal change; and, in this class of a departure from the acknowledged type of a animals generally, perfect albinoes are much species, eitherin structure,in size, or in colour; more numerous than among birds. Perfect but is vague in the degree of being alike used albinoes are peculiar to warm-bloodedanimals, to denote the slightestindividual variation, and and in them thereis a total deficiencyof colour- the mostdissimilar breeds which have originated ing matter in the rete mucosum, and, conse- fromone commonstock. The termis, however, quently, in the fur, and even the pigmentum quite inapplicable to an animal in any state of nigrumof the eye is entirelywanting. In birds, periodicalchange natural to the species to which these perfectalbinoes are extremely rare, al- it belongs. though several instances have been recordedin Varieties require some classification; and VII. 593. 598. There are threesorts, however, though I feel myself hardly adequate to the of true permanentalbinoes, which may be thus task, I shall here propose to arrangethem under designated:-1. Perfect Albinoes; which are four principal heads; in the hope that this entirelywhite, and in which the eyes appear endeavour will induce some naturalists, more crimson,from the total want of colouringmatter, competent than myself, to follow out this rendering the minute bloodvessels visible: 2. intricate and complicated subject, into all its Semi-Albinoes;which are either white or of a details. pale colour all over, and in which the irides are I would distinguish,then, what are called always paler than usual, and not unfrequently varieties, into simple variations,acquired varia- blue [I. 66. 178.]: and, 3. Partial Albinoes; tions, breeds,and true varieties. These appear, which are partly of the natural colour, but are in general, sufficientlydistinct, although the more or less mottled permanentlywith white; exact limitsof each are sometimesvery difficult and in which,if a whitepatch surroundsthe eye, to be assigned. Indeed, in many cases theyonly the pigmentum of that organ is commonly differin degree, and in others they may be all wanting. I have thus observed a rabbit, one combined in one individual. Moreover, the eye of which was red, and the otherdark hazel; varieties of either class have a much greater but such instances are of very rare occurrence, tendency to produce varieties of another class, although (and it is a curious fact) rabbits are than the typical animals of a species have to 125 The Roman numeral represents the volume number produce any sort of variety. of The Magazine of Natural Historyfor 1834. L. C. E.

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 116 LOREN C. EISELEY [PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC. oftenseen whollywhite, with the exceptionof a were of a pure white: on the next moult, prob- small patch around each eye; which organ, ably, no more white featherswould have ap- consequently, is of the usual dark colour. peared. Of a brood of young robins which Albinoes,when paired together,as is well known, frequented my garden, two were white, one produce chieflyalbino offspring,and a breedof partiallyso, and one of the usual mottledbrown; them may thus be perpetuated; but, even in a these all moulted into the ordinarycolour. I domestic state, they not unfrequentlyproduce could add other instances to the list, especially young of the usual colour; and, if paired with amongst domestic poultry. But it does not an ordinaryindividual, they sometimesproduce hence follow that among wild birds there are partial albinoes, or semi-albinoes[I. 178.], and no permanentlywhite or pied varieties; or, in occasionally,if the originalcolour be brown (as other words, no true partial and semi-albinoes. in the case of mice or rabbits*),a black, sandy, A blackbird with a white head has now in- or slate-colouredoffspring, or an individualwith habited a garden in this neighbourhood for one of these colours more or less varied with three successive years; and if the cupidity of white, is produced; but, in the majority of collectorsdid not mark out every white or pied instances, the young wholly resemble one of bird for destruction,I doubt not that I should theirparents, and the preponderanceis decidedly have been able to have furnishedsome other in favour of the natural hue. The coloured similarinstances of permanentvariation. offspringof an albino, however,even if matched II. Acquired Variations. The second class of with another coloured individual, has still a varieties which I would designate thus, com- tendency to produce albinoest, and this fact prises the various changes which, in a single has been noticed in the human species; but, as individual, or in the course of generations,are Mr. Lawrence observes on the subject (in his gradually brought about by the operation of Lectures on the Physiology,Zoology, and the knowncauses: such as the greateror less supply Natural History of Man), "the disposition to of nutriment;the influenceof particularsorts of change is 'generally'exhausted in one individual, food; or, either of these combined with the and the charactersof the originalstock return, various privationsconsequent upon confinement; unless the variety is kept up by the precaution which changes would as graduallyand certainly above mentioned,of excluding from the breed disappear if these causes were removed. all which have not the new characters. Thus, Redundance or deficiencyof nutrimentaffects when Africanalbinoes intermixwith the com- chieflythe stature of animals. Those herbivo- mon race, the offspringgenerally is black," &c. rousquadrupeds which browse the scanty vegeta- These observationsapply alike to all simple or tion on mountainsare invariablymuch smaller individual variations,and to most other varie- than their brethrenwhich crop the luxuriant ties,and affordone of many reasonswhy marked produce of the plains; and although the cattle breeds are in a state of nature so rarely per- usually kept in these differentsituations are of petuated. There is yet,however, before quitting diversebreeds; yet eitherof the breedsgradually this subject, another sort of albino to be con- removedto the other'spasture, would, in two or sidered, which, I believe, is peculiar to the three generations,acquire many of the charac- featheredrace, and whichis not, like the others, tersof the other,would increaseor degeneratein permanent;these, therefore,I shall denominate size,-according to the supply of nutritiousfood; temporaryalbinoes. Most of the pale, white, though,in eithercase, theywould most probably and pied varieties of birds,which are produced soon give birth to truevarieties adapted to the in a state of nature,are of this kind. A friend change. In this instance, temperatureappears informsme that a perfectlywhite lark in his only to exert a secondary influence. The Ice- possessionmoulted, and became of the ordinary land breed of sheep, which feeds on the nutri- hue. I lately shot a sparrow which was all tious lichensof that island, is of large size; and, over of a very pale brown,or cream colour; it like the otherruminant animals whichsubsist on was moulting,and some of the new feathersthat similarfood, is remarkablefor an extraordinary werecoming were of the usual colour,and others development of horns. Another example of acquiredvariation, dependent solely on the supply * These observations are chiefly deduced from the of nutriment,may be observed in the deciduous with mice and rabbits. results of some experiments horns of the deer family,which are well known t Of seven young rabbits thus produced, two were albinoes, one black, and the remainderof the usual color. to be large or small according to the quality

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions VOL. 103, NO. 1, 1959] CHARLES DARWIN AND EDWARD BLYTH 117 of theirfood. That temperaturealso does exert locomotion;but which,if turnedloose into their an influencegreater or less, according to the natural haunts, would most probably return, species of animal, is very evidentlyshown in the in a very few generations,to the form,size, case of the donkey*,of which there are no breeds, and degree of locomotive ability proper to the nor true varieties, and but very few simple specieswhen naturally conditioned. * The crested variations [VII. 590.): this animal is every varieties of domestic geese and ducks, and the where found large or small, according to the hook-billedvariety of the latter, are, however, climateit inhabits. in all probability,true varieties;and what are The influenceof particularsorts of food may called "lob-eared" rabbits may be either a true be exemplifiedby the well-knownproperty of variety,or a breed. The various slight diversi- madder (RuCbiatinctorum), which colours the ties, which I call simple variations,are very secretions, and tinges even the bones of the common in the present class of varieties; and animals which feed on it of a blood-redcolour; there is also in them a great tendency to pro- and, as another familiarinstance, may be cited duce what I call truevarieties, as well as those the fact,equally well known,of bullfinches,and slighterdeviations, which, by particularmanage- one or two other small birds, becoming wholly ment,may be increasedinto the sort of varietyI black when fed entirelyon hempseed. I have denominatebreeds. known,however, this change to take place in a III. Breedsare my thirdclass of varieties; and bird (the small aberdevatt finch,so common in thoughthese may possiblybe sometimesformed the shops), whichhad been whollyfed on canary by accidental isolation in a state of nature,126 seed; yet this by no means invalidates the fact, yet they are, for the most part, artificially so often observed, of its being very frequently broughtabout by the directagency of man. It brought about by the direct influenceof the is a general law of nature for all creatures to formerdiet. In several instances which have propagate the like of themselves: and this fallen under my own observation,feeding only extendseven to the most trivialminutiae, to the on hempseed has invariably superinduced the slightest individual peculiarities; and thus, change.t among ourselves, we see a family likeness The most remarkable of acquired variations transmitted from generation to generation. are those broughtabout in animals in a state of When two animals are matched together,each confinementor domestication:in which case an * animal is supplied regularlywith abundance of [A Tame Duck whichflies withthe same Power, and at very nutritious,though often unnatural, food, the same Height,as a Crow. (H. S., in I. 378.)-Was not without the trouble and exertionof having to this duck a wild one? I am led to ask this question from seek for it, and it becomes, in consequence, having myselfwitnessed a similar instance. I had often seen a duck, which I had taken to be a tame one, flying bulky and lazy, and in a few generationsoften about, and always returning to the farm to which it very large; while the muscles of the organs of belonged. On enquiry, I found that this duck had been locomotion, from being but little called into taken, when a duckling, from the nest of a wild duck, action, become rigid and comparativelypower- and began to fly as soon as it was full grown. The case less, or are not developed to theirfull size. The which H. S. mentions might probably be accounted for in the same manner, as it is by no means likely that so un- common domestic breeds of the rabbit, ferret, wieldy a bird as the tame duck should think of tryingits guinea-pig, turkey,goose, and duck, are thus wings, after its ancestors had for so many successive gen- probably only acquired variations,which, from erations been satisfied with walking and swimming,and the causes above-mentioned,have in the course fly "with the same power, and at the same height, as a crow."-W. H. H. Postmark, Burton on Trent, Oct. 8, of generations,become much largerand heavier 1834. (excepting,however, in the case of the turkey) The late Rev. Lansdown Guilding had remarked as than their wild prototypes,and less fittedfor followson the case stated by H. S.: Domestic birds, from flyinglittle, have their muscles relaxed, or, perhaps, they never acquire * their natural For some curious remarks on this subject, see the strength,for want of exercise. I have observed the geese excellent article "Ass" in Partington's Cyclopaedia of in Worcestershire,in harvest time,to take very long flights; Natural History. but, though they went on boldly, they never ascended very t I have not heard, however, that wild bullfinches,haw- far into the air.-Lansdown Guilding. St. Vincent,May 1, finches,and other birds liable to be thus affected,are more 1830.] commonly found black in localities where hemp is much 126 Note that here Blyth has already glimpsed the iso- grown. Amongst others, the skylark and woodlark are lating mechanism which was to become, and remain, an very susceptible of the influenceof this food. importantevolutionary topic. L. C. E.

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 118 LOREN C. EISELEY [PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC. remarkable for a certain given peculiarity,no in.j* There would almostseem, in some species, matter how trivial, there is also a decided to be a tendency,in every separate family,to tendency in nature for that peculiarityto in- some particularkind of deviation; whichis only crease;and if the produceof these animals be set counteractedby the various crossingswhich, in apart, and only those in which the same pecu- a state of nature, must take place, and by the liarity is most apparent, be selected to breed above-mentionedlaw, which causes each race from,the next generationwill possess it in a still to be chieflypropagated by the most typicaland moreremarkable degree; and so on, till at length perfectindividuals. the varietyI designatea breed,is formed,which V. True Varieties.-The last of these divisions may be very unlike the originaltype. to which I more peculiarly restrictthe term The examples of this class of varieties must variety,consists of what are, in fact a kind of be too obvious to need specification:many of deformities,or monstrous births, the peculi- the varieties of cattle, and, in all probability, aritiesof which,from reasons already mentioned, the greaternumber of those of domesticpigeons, would very rarely,if ever, be perpetuatedin a have been generally brought about in this state of nature; but which, by man's agency, manner. It is worthyof remark,however, that often become the origin of a new race. Such, the originaland typical formof an animal is in forexample, is the breed of sheep, now common great measure kept up by the same identical in North America,and known by the name of means by which a true breedis produced. The ancons*,or ottersheep. A ewe produceda male originalform of a species is unquestionablybetter lamb of peculiar form,with a long body, and adapted to its naturalhabits than any modifica- short and crooked limbs: the offspringof this tion of that form; and, as the sexual passions animal, with ordinaryfemales, was foundsome- excite to rivalryand conflict,and the stronger timesto resemblethe one parent,and sometimes must always prevail over the weaker,the latter, the other; but did not usually blend the char- in a state of nature, is allowed but few oppor- acters of each; and, in the cases of twins, the tunitiesof continuingits race. In a large herd two lambs were oftenequally diverse with their of cattle, the strongestbull drives fromhim all parents. This variety was extensivelypropa- the youngerand weaker individualsof his own gated, in consequenceof being less able to jump sex, and remainssole masterof the herd; so that over fences than the ordinarybreeds of sheep. all t-heyoung which are producedmust have had The solidungular ["donkey-footed"] variety theirorigin from one which possessed the maxi- of swine, tailless cats, back-feathered,five-toed, mum of powerand physicalstrength; and which, and rumplessfowls, together with m-any sorts of consequently,in the strugglefor existence,was dogs, and probably, also the race of fan-tailed the best able to maintainhis ground,and defend pigeons, are other striking examples of true himself from every enemy. In like manner, varieties. among animals which procure their food by The deviations of this kind do not appear to means of their agility,strength, or delicacy of have any tendencyto revertto the originalform: sense, the one best organised must always ob- this,most probably,could only be restored,in a tain the greatestquantity; and must, therefore, directmanner, by the way in which the variety become physically the strongest,and be thus was firstproduced. enabled, by routingits opponents, to transmit To this class may be also referred,with more its superior qualities to a greater number of than probability,some of the more remarkable offspring. The same law, therefore,which was varietiesof the human species. With regardto intended by Providence to keep up the typical colour, we know that temperatureexerts no qualities of a species, can be easily converted permanentgradual influence whatever: white by man into a means of raisingdifferent varie- races remain unchanged at slight elevations the and the natives of Boothia ties; but it is also clear that, if man did not keep within tropics; Felix are very dark; the swarthyinhabitants of up these breeds by regulatingthe sexual inter- course, they would all naturallysoon revertto * See, however, a good practical article on this subject, the original type. Farther, it is only on this entitled "Breeding," in one of the forthcomingnumbers of that we can satisfactorilyaccount for the now publishingedition of Miller's Dictionaryof Garden- principle ing and Rural Economy. the degeneratingeffects said to be produced by * Agkon,an elbow, fromthe crooked formof the forelegs. the much-censuredpractice of "breedingin and See Lawrence's Lectures,p. 447, 448.

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Mauritania are a white race, and their sun- of man thus generallyblends the charactersof burnthue is merelyan acquiredvariation, which each; though instances are not wanting of its is not transmissibleby generation,and which entirelyresembling (like the mixed produceof an does not extend to those parts which are not ancon sheep) eitherone or theother of its parents; exposed to the sun. The colouringprinciple of but in this case (as in the albino) the perfect black races is inherentin them, and is quite charactersof the other parent frequentlyshow independentof externalagency; is even darkest themselvesin the next generation. I am enter- in some parts which are the least exposed, and ing, however, into a wide field, already well vliceversa. The Ethiopian race is nowheremore troddenby many philosophers;and the subject black than in the vicinityof the Cape of Good is already probably prettywell understoodby Hope, wherethe crops are sometimesinjured by the great majority of readers. Those who are the winter's frost. Strangely enough, this not so familiarwith it, will findit ably treated invariablenessof colour constitutesabout, per- in various works; especially in Dr. Pritchard's haps, the most fixedcharacter of these races. work on man, and in the published Lectureson There is one fact, however, here to be ob- theNatural Historyof Man, by Lawrence: some served, which is very well worthyof attention; sound and excellent remarks on varietieswill and this is, that coloured varieties appear to also be found in the second volume of Lyell's have been chiefly produced in hot countries; Principlesof Geology. which seems almost to induce the conclusion Still, however,it may not be impertinentto that they were originallyefforts of nature, to remarkhere, that, as in the brute creation,by a enable the skin to withstandthe scorchingpro- wise provision,the typicalcharacters of a species duced by exposure to the burning rays of a are, in a state of nature, preserved by those tropical sun.* How far the structuralpeculi- individualschiefly propagating, whose organisa- arities of the negro and other races may not, tionis the mostperfect, and which,consequently, in some cases, be the effectsof breed,it would be by their superior energy and physical powers, impossible, perhaps, now to ascertain, and are enabled to vanquish and drive away the would be worse than presumption,in a novice weak and sickly,so in the human race degenera- like myself,to try to determine. Wherever a tion is, in great measure, preventedby the in- black individualwas produced,especially among nate and natural preferencewhich is always rude nations, if the breed was continuedat all, given to the most comely; and this is the prin- the natural aversion it would certainlyinspire cipal and main reason why the varieties which would soon cause it to become isolated, and, are produced in savage tribes, must generally before long, would, most probably, compel the eitherbecome extinctin the firstgeneration, or, race to seek for refugein emigration. That no if propagated,would most likelybe leftto them- example, however,of the firstproduction of a selves, and so become the originof a new race; black varietyhas been recorded,may be ascribed and in this we see an adequate cause for the to various causes; it may have only taken place obscurityin whichthe originof differentraces is; once since the creation of the human race, and involved. In a civilised state of society there: that once in a hordeof tropicalbarbarians remote are other inducements,besides personal attrac- fromthe thencentres of comparativecivilisation, tions,and a new varietyin this case, unlessvery where no sort of record would have been pre- outre'indeed, would be graduallymerged, and in served. But it is highlyprobable that analogous- a few generationswould disappear entirelyby born varieties may have given rise to the Mon- intermixture with the common race. The golian, Malay, and certain others of the more inferioranimals appear not to have the slightest diverse races of mankind; nay, we may even predilectionfor superior personal appearance; suppose that, in some cases, the difference,in the most dissimilarvarieties of the same species the firstinstance, was much greater,and was mix as freelyand readily togetheras the most considerablymodified by the intermixturewhich typical individuals; the most powerful alone must have taken place in the firstgenerations. becomes the favourite. I nstances of this are The mixed offspringof two differentvarieties not rare in the breeds of dogs. * The above is confessedlya hasty and imper- See Dr. Stark "on the influenceof colour on heat and odours," in Jameson's Edinburgh Journal for July, 1834; fect sketch, a mere approximationtowards an also Professor Powell's reply to it, in the number for apt classificationof "varieties;" but if it chance October, 184. to meet the eye, and be fortunateenough to

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 120 LOREN C. EISELEY [PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC. engage the attention,of any experiencednatural- summergrey, adapted to the hue of the lichens ist, who shall thinkit worth his while to follow on which it squats; and in winterwhite, hardly up the subject, and produce a better arrange- to be discerned upon the snow. The same ment of these diversities,my object in indicting change also takes place in the stoat or ermine the presentarticle will be amply recompensed. (Putorius ermineus), although this is doubted Here, however,I may observe,that the classi- by Mr. Berry (VII. 591.).* In mild winters, ficationI have proposed for specificdeviations such as we have of late experiencedin the South in the animal creation,is equally applicable to of England, but few of the stoats become white, those of the vegetable. The "varieties" in and some of these not until the latterpart of the both are strictlyanalogous. season. The changetakes place quickly,but not I come now to the second division of my uniformly,the animal assumingfor a shorttime subject, whichis to point out a pied appearance; but I have not succeeded Some Periodical and otherChanges of Appear- in ascertaining whether it is accelerated by ance, whichnaturally take place in variousBritish sudden cold, as the animals are not always to be Animals, and whichdo not constituteVarieties.- seen exactly when we want them. One per- Among our native Mammalia, I know of three fectlychanged, however, was seen in this neigh- principal modes whereby a change of colour bourhoodsoon afterthe one or two days of very is broughtabout; namely,an actual sheddingof cold weather in the beginningof last October. the coat; a partial shedding of the coat; and In referenceto Mr. Berry's communication,I an actual changeof colourin the coat itself. may observe, that in many dozens of stoats I. As an example of change of appearance which I have seen in summer,I have never yet produced by actual shedding of the coat, may seen a whiteone; whereasin winter,I have seen be instanced the fallow deer (Cervus Dama), in the same neighbourhoods a considerable whose white spots disappear with the annual number of white stoats. Where the climate is casting of its coat in autumn. excessive, and the transitionsof the seasons II. Partial shedding of the coat takes place are moresudden, this change is much morelikely in those animals which acquire in autumn a to take place generally. In the fur countries, coveringof two differentkinds: one long,downy, the ermine's change of hue is, I believe, most and warm, which is shed in spring; the other regular. shortand glossy,which is retained. This change There has been, strangelyenough, a difference ofappearance is exemplifiedin thecommon water of opinionamong naturalists,as to whetherthese shrew (S6rex fodiens), the short summer coat seasonal changes of colour were intended by of which is much blacker than the longerdowny Providence as an adaptation to change of coveringwhich conceals this in winter. In this temperature*,or as a means of preservingthe little animal the additional wintercoat is shed various species from the observation of their about the latter end of March, or beginningof foes,by adapting theirhues to the colour of the April; and does not take place uniformly,but surface;against which latteropinion it has been progressively,beginning on the head, and plausibly enough argued, that "nature provides ceasing at the hinderextremities; and exhibiting for the preyer as well as for the prey." The in its progress,throughout, a well-definedline of fact is, they answer bothpurposes; and they are separation. Animals which (as the British among those strikinginstances of design,which Mustelinae)have two sorts of fur,the shorterof so clearly and forciblyattest the existence of which is the more warm and downy, do not an omniscientgreat First Cause. Experiment undergo this change, but retain both sorts demonstratesthe soundnessof the firstopinion; throughoutthe year. In these the young have * only one kind, which is close and woolly; as is This gentleman should have mentioned,in his account of the white stoats seen in summer, whether the tail was well exemplifiedin the common polecat (Pu- white or black. If the former,they were doubtless al- torius FAirc),the young of which are of a very binoes; if the latter, some constitutionaldebility may have uniformdark brown, and very unlike the old prevented them from resuming their natural hues. I animals. have seen white stoats late in March, but never after this. albino III. Actual change of colour in the coat itself Both in these and in the white ferret (a domestic variation of the polecat) a decided tinge of yellow is always is exhibitedin the appearance of the fallowdeer's more or less noticeable. white spots in spring, and in the case of the * See Dr. Stark's paper, before cited, in Jameson's mountain hare (Lepus variabilis). which is in Philosophical Journalfor July, 1834. ESee MNH 6: 79.]

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions VOL. 103, NO. 1,1959] CHARLES DARWIN AND EDWARD BLYTH 121 and sufficientproof can be adduced to show that and the anterior,which, when they rest,conceal the other is also sound. Some arctic species these, are adapted to the hues of the various are white,which have no enemy to fear,as the places where by day they are found: even the polar bear, the gyrfalcon,the arctic eagle-owl, bright upper wings of the tiger moths (A'rctia the snowy owl, and even the stoat; and there- CAja, and A. villica) are with difficultyrecog- fore, in these, the whiteness can only be to nised upon a lichened bank or, paling.: It is preserve the temperatureof their bodies [VI. curious, indeed, the resemblancewhich subsists 79.]; but when we perceive that the colour of betweenthe coloursof nocturnalbirds and night nocturnal animals, and of those defenceless Lepid6ptera; the bufftip moth (Pygae'ra buce- species whose habits lead them to be much phala) thus reminds us of the barn owl (Strix exposed, especially to enemies fromabove, are vulgAris); and the goat moth (C6ssus Ligni- invariablyof the same colour with theirrespec- perda), and a host of others,are similarin their tive natural haunts, we can only presume that tintsto most of the Strigidae:in both cases they this is because they should not appear too are doubtless intended for the same purpose, conspicuous to their enemies. Thus, in the that of concealment. It would indeed be easy eloquent language of Mr. Mudiet, who, however, to extend this list of examples considerably advocates the firstopinion, "the ptarmigan is further;but I shall only now mentionthe com- lichenrock in summer,hoar frostin autumn,and mon hare, which, when in form,would hardly snow in winter. Grouse are brown heather, ever be seen were it not for its brillianteye; black game are peat bank and shingle, and if its eye were closed, which it probably was partridgesare clods and witheredstalks, all the beforeits quick sense of hearinghad warnedit of year round." So, also, on the Continent, the our approach, it would almost always, perhaps, common red-leggedpartridge (Erythropusvul- wholly escape our observation. This ever garis) is of the colour of the gravellyand sandy continuedwatchfulness must have given rise to soils on which it is found. So, also, are the the supposition, that the hare always sleeps differentlarks, the common quail, the various with its eyes open. snipes,and all the otherground squatters, of the Seeing, therefore,so many most striking hue of their peculiar localities. So, also, are adaptations of colour to haunt, in cases where the numeroussmall Grallatoreswhich haunt the the concealment thus affordedcan be the only margin of the ocean, adapted to the colour of purpose, I think it is not too much to infer, the sand. So, also, are thosesylvan birds,which that the changes of colour in many arctic ani- quit the dense umbrageof healthygrowing trees, mals were intendedby Providencefor the double to seek theirfood and expose themselveson bare purpose of preservingtheir bodily heat, and of trunks and leafless decaying branches, of the enabling them to elude the observationof their hue of theirparticular haunts. "So exquisitely enemies. Certain it is, that their conspicuous- are theyfitted for their office," says Mr. Mudie*, ness would otherwiseexpose them to inevitable "that the several woodpeckersvary in tint with destruction. If I had here space, I could the generalcolours of the treeswhich they select. satisfactorilyprove that the high-flyingFal- If it is an alternation of green moss, yellow c6nidae can, in most cases, only perceive their lichen, and ruby tinted cups, with here and preywhen it is moving;just, as on the sea-shore, therea spot of black, then the greenwoodpecker we can only distinguishsanderlings when they comes in charge; but if it is the black and white move. Small MammAlia which frequentopen lichens of the alpine forestor the harsh-juiced situationsare rarelymuch abroad, except in the tree, then we may look for the spotted races twilight;and ground-feedingbird-s are ever on upon the bark." The wryneck is the colour the watch, and even the smaller kinds (as I of the lichened branch; and the night swallow have repeatedlyobserved) can perceivea hover- and the owls resemble their peculiar places of ing falconlong before it comes withinthe sphere concealment. So, also, the gayer colours of of human vision; and they instantly flee to nocturnalmoths are always on the hinderwingst, shelter, or they crouch, and lying motionless, t See Mudie's Feathered Tribes of the British Islands, so exactly resemble a portion of the surface, i. 50. that even a hawk's eye cannot distinguishthem. * See Mudie's Feathered Tribes of the British Islands, i. 190. t Animals of brightand gaudy colours are generallyvery t Among day-flyingLepidoptera, the more gaudy colours retiringin their habits: even the common robin mostly are usually on the fore wings. turns away his breast as you approach.

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Why should the falcon race be endowed with externalappearance, observable in this interest- such wonderfulpowers of enduringhunger and ing subclass of animals, have been hithertovery fatigue,if, as is said, at the elevations at which greatly and strangelyoverlooked, and that, in they soar, they can clearly distinguishevery consequence, the many valuable physiological living object scattered over the wide expanse inferences deducible from their investigation beneaththem? It is only on such animals as are have been quite lost to the purposes of science offtheir guard that they descend; or otherwise, and of classification. food being so abundant, they would soon mul- It is true that many naturalists have in so tiply to the extirpationof theirprey; which,of far attended to the mutationsof plumage which course,would be very speedily followedby that some particular species undergo, as that they of the preyer. are able at once to recognise them in every How beautifullydo we thus perceive,as in a livery they assume; but the exact ages, and thousand other instances,the balance of nature seasons, of moulting; the precise nature of the preserved:and even here we see anotherreason general, or only partial, change that is under- why sickly or degenerate animals (those, I gone, and the various accordances and dissimi- mean, which are less able to maintain the larities observable between the changes of necessary vigilance) must soon disappear; and distinctspecies; the endless charactersof agree- why the slightest deviation from the natural ment and difference,so importantin pointing hue must generally prove fatal to the animal. out affinities,in showing what apparently How different,thus, are even simple variations similarraces could neverbe broughtto hybridise from the seasonal changes of colour which together;would seem to have been passed over naturally take place! Properly followed up, as unworthy of notice, as undeserving of a thissubject mightlead to some highlyinteresting particularinvestigation. and importantresults. It certainlypoints to the The subject is both extensiveand complicated, conclusion,that every, even the slightest,tint and involves a number of other recondite and marking has some decided use, and is enquiries. I could have wished that some intimatelyconnected with the habits and welfare naturalistbetter qualified than myselfhad taken of the animal; and it also furnishesa satisfactory it in hand. For my own part, I have littletime reason, why closely allied animals (or, in other forpractical observation;but, having long been words,animals of very similarform and habits) in the habit of keepinga numberof birds (chiefly should so very commonlynearly resembleeach the smaller kinds which occur in Britain) in a otherin theircolours and in the generalcharacter state of captivity, I have thus enjoyed some of theirmarkings. very favourable opportunitiesfor making myself fully acquainted with the various changes Vol. 9 (1836), pp. 393-409: ART. I. Observations that a great number of species undergo,both on the various seasonal and other external seasonally, and in their progress from youth Changes which regularlytake place in Birds, to maturityand old age; and I have neglected more particularly in those which occur in no opportunityof studyingthose of otherraces, Britain; withRemarks on theirgreat Importance whichcircumstances may have variouslychanced in indicatingthe true Affinities of Species; and to place in my way. upon theNatural Systemof Arrangement.'27 It is to be remarked,then, that some species of birds (as, forexample, the larks and starlings, NUMEROUS as are the writersin this depart- the crows,the woodpeckers,and various others) mentof zoology; assiduouslyas the studyof birds moult the whole of theirimmature, or nestling, is cultivated in all parts of the civilised world; plumage the firstyear, includingthe wing and and talented as are many of the naturalists tail primaries;while a very few (as the bearded and close observers who devote their more pinnock, Calam6philus biArmicus, and rose particular attention to this branch; it still ap- mufflin*,MecistAra rosea) shed the primary pears to me, that the numerousand verydiversi- feathers of the tail the firstseason, but not fied regular changes of plumage and general those of the wing: numerousother races (as all 127 This two-partarticle is not so directlypertinent as the modificationsof the fringillidousand thrush the papersof 1835and 1837 to the evolutionaryproblem types) moult their clothingplumage very soon but it was thoughtadvisable to reprintit hereas bearing afterleaving the nest, and retain the primaries Blyth's taxonomicalviews and in a generalway upon * powersof observation. L. C. E. Parus caudatus Linnaeus.

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions VOL. 103, NO. 1, 1959] CHARLES DARWIN AND EDWARD BLYTH 123 till the second autumn; the Falc6nidae, again, about midsummer,are firstclad in the summer and some others, undergo no change whatever dress, which is exchanged, before they have until that period. All those which I have as become halfgrown, for that of winter. It is not yet mentionedchange their feathersonly once improbable,also, that diversitiesof a like kind in the year, towards the close of summer,im- may obtain in the renewalof the scales of fishes. mediatelyon the cessationof the duties towards What the definitepurpose effectedby very theirprogeny: but thereare various other tribes many of these peculiar and dissimilarchanges (as the wagtails and pipits, Motacillinae,and may be, I confessmyself utterly unable to say; mostof the aquatic races) whichregularly under- nor can I suggest even a plausible hypothesis go another general moulting in the spring; upon the subject. Why, forexample, should the though in no instance, that I am aware of, are pipits (A'nthus) shed theirplumage twice in the the primarywing feathersshed more than once year, and the larks (Alatuda) but once? And in the year: those of the tail, however,in some why, also, should the latter change all their rare instances, are; and the differentcoverts, nestlingprimaries at the firstmoult, while the togetherwith the secondary and tertiarywing formerretain theirs until the third (including feathers, in most, if not all, double-moulting the vernal) general renovationof plumage? It birds, are changed twice. In some migrative is easy enough to say, with Mr. Mudie, that, in species (as the cuckoo,and mostof the swallows), the wagtails, and certain other species, the the young of the year do not change theirplum- colours of the summer and winter dresses are age until the winter months; whereas the old each, in so far as they differ,more peculiarly birds moult in autumn; and in other birds, adapted to the particular season of the year; again (as in various ducks [VIII. 544, 545.]), but this is merely a concomitancy: in other two generalchanges of feathertake place within words,this adaptation is not the purpose of the the short period of about four months. Very change; forwe findthat, in certainspecies which many other similardiversities, of a more or less regularlymoult twice in the year (as the tree subordinate character, might be enumerated, pipit), the summerand winter plumage hardly if enough have not been already mentioned differ;whilst, on the other hand, as complete to show that a wide field for observation is an adaptation of colour to season is effectedin here open to the practicalornithologist. others (as the stone chat, and most of the In like manner may analogous diversitiesbe Fringillidae),which moult in autumn only, by observed throughoutthe mammiferoussubclass thewearing off of the extreme tips of the feathers; of vertebrate animals; thus, the squirrels and these in winter having covered and concealed the shrews renew their covering twice in the another,and, in many instances,a very diverse, year, and the rats and rabbits but once. The colour beneath. By what reason can we ever common squirrel'sseasonal changes have never, hope to account for the curious fact, that the that I am aware of, been remarked by any commondrake, and also the pintailedand other naturalist,though it is so commonan inhabitant teals, should moult theirwhole clothingplumage of our island: its summercoat is very different (includingthe tail) in summer,and then again fromthat of winter,the furbeing much coarser, in autumn? As Mr. Waterton has well re- more shining, and of a bright rufous colour; marked on the subject, "All speculation on the while the ornamentaltufts to the ears are wholly part of the ornithologistis utterlyconfounded; wanting:these grow in autumn,while the animal for there is not the smallest clue affordedhim, is renovating its coat, and continue usually by which he mightbe enabled to trace out the till about the beginningof July,the timevarying cause of the strange phenomenon. To Him somewhatin differentindividuals. Their winter alone, who has ordained the ostrich to remain fur, besides being of a much finerquality and on the earth,and allowed the bat to soar through texture,is considerablylonger, thicker and more the etherialvault of heaven, is known why the glossy,and quite of a differenthue fromthat of drake,for a veryshort period of the year, should summer,inclining to greyishbrown. The first be so completelyclothed in the raimentof the young ones, too, which are produced very early female,that it requiresa verykeen and penetrat- in the season, push forththe wintergarb, which, ing eye to distinguishthem." [VIII. 544.] I believe, they then retain throughoutthe sum- In one point of view, however, at least, a mer; whereas the second race of young ones, knowledge of these changes is of considerable which,for the most part, make theirappearance practical use to the naturalist; for they not

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unfrequentlypoint out at once, in doubtful seeing Providence, under the beneficentdis- cases, the most appropriatesituation of a genus pensation of whom nought that ever exists or in a system, and thus assist him very greatly occurs stands isolated and alone, but all conduce in his endeavours to fabricate a sound system and work admirably together for the benefit of classification. Instances of this I shall not of the whole; by whose all-wise decree it is here advance, as it is necessaryto say something ordained, that, while the lofty and sterile firstof what meaning I attach to that most mountain peak attractsthe clouds, which in hackneyed of all phrases, "natural system," winter, in consequence, precipitate themselves concerningwhich it is more than probable that upon it in the form of snow, it should thus my views may very considerably,and perhaps cause itself to become clad in the hue of all essentially,differ, from those of many who may othersthe mostcalculated to preventits internal perchancehonour them with a perusal. temperaturefrom being fartherreduced, and Under this phrase, then, two very distinct itself from thereby becoming an increased kinds of relationare ordinarilyblended together source of cold by radiationto all around; while, and confounded; viz. the adaptive relation of at the same time, the concretionof snow itself, every organised production to the conditions instead of deluging the country round with under which it was appointed to exist, and the superfluous moisture, is thus retained for a physiological relation subsisting between dif- time upon the heights,not only to shelter the ferentspecies of moreor less similarorganisation. more tender organised productions of the These may be aptly designated the adaptive mountainfrom severer cold, but also to furnish, system,and the physiologicalsystem; the system by the action of the summersun, a due supply of relative adaptation between the earth, its of water, when needed, to the fountains and productions,and its inhabitants,and the system rills which irrigateand fertilisethe more level of agreements and differencesbetween the country; there having done its part, to flowon organisationof distinctraces. to the mighty reservoirsof the ocean, again To illustratethe formerof these is, perhaps, to arise in clouds, and to fulfilagain its ap- superfluous:it is the systemby which alone the pointed rounds, with perpetual never ceasing existence of one species is necessaryto that of energy,while the world endures. another,and whichbinds each race to its locality; "Look round our world; behold the chain of love where the presenceof each is alike necessaryto Combining all below and all above. preserve the equilibrium of organic being See plastic Nature workingto this end; around; and when circumstanceshave changed, The single atoms each to other tend, and the necessity for its agency no longer Attract,attracted to, the next in place remains,a wholerace perishes,and the fragments Form'd and impell'd its neighbourto embrace. of a skeleton in the solid rock perhaps alone See matter next, with various life endued, proclaim that such had ever existed. It is the Press to one centre still, the general good. vegetables life sustain, beautiful,the sublime and compre- See dying grand and See life dissolving vegetate again: hensive, system which pervades the universe, All formsthat perish other formssupply: of which the sun and planets are but a portion, (By turns we catch the vital breath and die,) and which, to returnto ornithology,is so well Like bubbles on the sea of matter borne, exemplifiedin the adaptation of the ptarmigan They rise, they break, and to that sea return. to the mountaintop, and the mountaintop to the Nothing is foreign:parts relate to whole; habits of the ptarmigan;which suits the ostrich One all-extendingall-preserving Soul to the arid desert,the woodpeckerto the forest, Connects each being, greatest with the least; and the petrel to "the far sea wave." It is the Made beast in aid of man, and man of beast*; stands alone: majestic and admirable system by which all All served, all serving; nothing and, where it ends, unknown." so beautifullytogether, and to The chain holds on, nature works POPE'S Essay on Man, Epistle iii. which all that our externalsenses reveal appertains. It is the system which, exquisite and * I am unwillingto allow even this harmless line to pass intenselyinteresting in all its minutestdetails, musterwithout indulgingin a few remarkson the distinct- of the animal is, if possible, even more so in its complicated ness of the human race fromall other parts creation; a distinctnesstoo little borne in mind by many relations; by which, by the unity of design naturalists. Man alone, of all the countless wonders of pervadingwhich, all is demonstrableto be the creation, though clad in a material frame,the functionsof workmanshipof One omnipotentand all-fore- which are necessarilyidentical with those of other animals,

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In this sense of the phrase only we trace what Thus far,I believe, all systematistsagree. may be esteemeda suitable meaningto the term I must venture, however, to differfrom the "inatural system:" this is the only system by majority of them, in opposing the prevalent which the wonders of creation are naturally notion,that the extrememodifications of diverse arranged; this alone is the system which types blend and inosculate28 by direct affinity; nature everywherepresents for our contempla- contending that, however closely these may tion: but, admire it as we may, still this is not apparentlyresemble, the most similarmodifica- the systemby which an extensiveknowledge of tions of diverse types are not, in a physiological species can be acquired, or whichcan be studied sense, more nearlyrelated to each otherthan are elsewherethan in the wilds. the more characteristicexamples of the same. Every species of organism,as must be obvious To this conclusion I was originally led by to all examining thinkingpersons, is framed reflection on various interesting phenomena upon a greater or smaller series of successively connected with the changes of plumage which subordinate typical plans, upon each of which take place in birds; having observed that, is organised a variety of differentspecies, per- however importantly,to suit peculiarityin the fectlyunconnected and distinctfrom each other, mode of life, the general structure of very however some may resemble,even to minutife, aberrantforms may be modified,so as to render and which exhibit each typical or subtypical it even doubtful upon which fundamentaltype structure more or less modified,and, in the they are organised there are, notwithstanding, extremes,generally more or less approximating certain constant characters,of less importance towards the extreme modifications of other to the existence and welfareof the species, by plans of organisation,in direct relation to the which every typical standard may be easily endless diversificationsof the surface of the traced to its ultimateramifications; some of the earth,to varietyof climate,or to peculiar modes most valuable of these characters, in the of procuringsustenance. featheredrace, being affordedby peculiaritiesin is no part of the mere reciprocal system of nature; as products of the soil. Does not, then, all this intimate that they are. He alone is bound to no particular locality, the human race is no part of the mere mundane system, but inhabits alike the mountain and the plain, and by that its agency tends rather to supersede, and is opposed contrivanceis enabled to endure the fervidheats of tropical to, that of the rest of organic nature? that a time must climes,and the witheringblasts of a polar winter; traverses come, should nought intervene of what in physics we in all directions the wide extent of the pathless ocean, can take no cognizance, when the human race, having interchanges purposely the productions of distant lands, peopled all lands, shall have increased beyond the means and accommodates the respective soils for their reception. of subsistence? But alas! who can dive into futurity? He alone degenerates in climates which supply his every The same awful Being who firstawakened man into exist- natural want; and placed as nature formed him, in the ence, in common with the meanest atom, who appointed richest soil, is a being out of his element, unable, by the his destiny upon earth to be so diverse from that of his mere unassisted use of his own organs, to maintain his other creatures, who endowed him alone with a capacity existence as a species. He alone studies the complicated to reflect upon his Maker's goodness and power, may laws of matter, that he may wield them at his will. He (I make no appeal here to revelation, writingonly in the alone possesses a power of indefiniteself-improvement, spirit of natural theology) close his non-conformingcareer, and can so communicate his attainments that each genera- as a species, upon earth, in a manner differentfrom the tion shall rise in knowledge above the last. He alone has extinctionof other species which yields to the progressive the sense to sow, that he may reap; and, alone, intention- changes of the surface. No naturalist can doubt that this ally, and from observation and reflection,opposes ob- beautiful world existed, and was clad in verdure, stacles to the course of events in their natural progression; and inhabited,for countless ages before reduces whole countries to an artificialstate; and system- man became its denizen; and there are no atically increases vastly their capability of yielding sus- memorials to indicate that an analogous tenance for him, and for those creatures he has taken being ever previously existed. Man alone is a creature under his protection. Other races disappear before him, by himself; the only being whose agency is at all opposed whose existence is at all opposed to his interest,and those to the mutual and reciprocal system of adaptations pre- alone remain (but oh! how altered from their former valent around him. He did not always exist here, and condition!) which minister to his wants and comforts. there is no reason to suppose that he always will. All All other beings are mere creatures of locality, whose conduces rather to intimate that he is but a sojourner for agency tends to perpetuate the surrounding system of a short time. In his vanity, he is apt to imagine that all which they are members; but wherever man appears, were made for him! and presumptiouslyenquires of what with his facultiesat all developed, the aspect of the surface use could have been the creation without him! Yet how becomes changed; forestyield to his perseveringlabours; ardently does he labour to exterminate every portion of the marshes are drained, and converted into fertilelands: that creation, which he deems to be in the least injurious the very climate accordingly changes under his influence, to his own interests! and oftentimesto the extinctionof some of the indigenous 128 See p. 100 of my essay. L. C. E.

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To illustrate this, I First, then, let us consider affinity,which, may cursorily adduce the various finch-like according to the views I hold, is inseparably Stirnidae (Aglaius,M6lothrus, Dolichonyx, &c.); connectedwith the doctrineof types. extrememodifications of the C6rvustype; as are All organisedmatter is, of course,intrinsically also, however unlike they unquestionably ap- allied in its nature,as contradistinguishedfrom pear,the genera Alau'da, and even Amm6dramus. that which is not organised; this, therefore,is All these, I have ascertained either fromdirect the first,or, as some would rathersay, the last, observation, or from competent sources, shed the ultimate, the slightest possible, degree of the nestling primaries the firstseason, which affinity.Next, we have a grand primarydis- is not the case with any modificationof the tributionof all organic matter into the animal fringillidoustype, or of the dentirostral. If and vegetable kingdoms*;a divisiontoo obvious other charactersbe wanting,which point alike to be fora momentcalled in question, and uni- to the same conclusion, I may mention the versally allowed; admitted even, inconsistently constant presence of a craw, or enllargementof enough, by those who hold that every natural the cesophagus, in all the Fringillidae,and its assemblage of species,great or small, formspart invariableabsence in all, even the most aberrant, of some quinary circle. Now, I cannot but modificationsof the C6rvus type; all the latter, observe here, in passing,that, to any unbiassed too, preservethe ambulatorymode of progres- person,I should thinkthat a due consideration sion, which, in perfection,is not observable of this firstbinary distributionmust at once in any Fringillidae,not even Plectr6phanes. carry convictionto the mind, must be at once Again, other characters of distinctionbetween a most unanswerable argument against all these two equivalent divisions are sufficiently quinary or similar doctrines; the which, of visible in the general aspect of the bill, even course, if based upon sound theory,would not wherethe extremesapproximate: all the Fringil- only be found to hold good, but would be most lidae, for instance (to which 1 would restrict obviously indicated by these primary and the appellation Conir6stres),possess what may comprehensive assemblages of every created be strictlydefined a bruising,or compressing, species. But, to return: here we have the instrument;whereas the general character of animal type, and the vegetable type, diverse in the same organ in the other division is rather structure,distinct even in chemicalcomposition, what may be aptly termed a thrustingone, insomuchthat the kingdomto whichany dubious intermediatein its structurebetween those of production appertains may be decided by the Fringillidaeand Dentir6stres;in which last chemical analysis, even in a fossil,should but a group the bill is modifiedinto eithera snapping, veryfew particles of its primitivesubstance have holding,or tugginginstrument, as the case may been preserved. Say not, that the kingdoms be: sometimesall three,as in Vireo. blend at their ultimate extremities;for there However, to returnto the propositionI was are no better groundsfor this suppositionthan just advancing, that, physiologicallyspeaking, those which led many, for a time, to advocate there are no combinations of distinct types, the spontaneousgeneration of I nfus6ria;extreme no intermediateorganisms, save those between minutenessalone setting the limit to a definite a central type and its ultimate ramifications: partition. We must thereforeadmit, that there the general structure may be intermediate, is a degree of physiologicalaffinity between the and, consequently,the situation a species holds most dissimilaranimals, and also between the in the adaptive system,the officewhich it may most dissimilar plants, which no animal or have to performin the general economy of the vegetable can possibly have for each other: universe; but the latter does not constitute species fromthe two kingdoms,however these affinity;neither, strictly speaking, is it analogy; may undoubtedly approximateat the extreme thereforeI must distinguishit by anotherterm, boundaries,can have no higherdegree of affinity approximation. for each other than what they possess in com- As I shall have occasion to make use of these mon, as opposed to all unorganised matter; words frequently,as I proceed,it will be neces- * epithet,too vague advancing further,to define the The mineralkingdom is a superfluous sary, before to have any meaning beyond a negative one. Chemically precisemeaning which I attach to them,however speaking, it, indeed, comprises both the others. The muchthis may appear digressingfrom the subject proper distinction is, of course, between organized and more immediatelyin hand. not organized.

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what further relations they may show are, stood to signifythose modificationsof particular therefore,totally distinct from affinity. types,which, adapted to intermediatemodes of Leaving plants,we nowenter upon the primary life, very commonlymore or less resemble (in divisions of the animal creation, the separate consequence of this adaptation) species which leading types, the distinct plans, upon one or are organised on other and differenttypes. I other of which all animals are organised, and have already had occasion to mention certain which cannot, any more than the last, be con- extreme modificationsof the corvine or omniv- founded, in any instance, one with another, orous type of perchingbirds, which are close however in particular cases these too may approximationstowards the fringillidoustype approximate; of which presently. Every ver- (as Aglaius and other finch-like Stu'rnidae, tebrateanimal is, therefore,allied to everyother Amm6dramus,and Aladda); the true affinities, vertebrateanimal by what, to specifyby num- however,of all which are at once shown by a bers, may be expressed as three degrees of reference to their moulting. The hag, the affinity;whereas it is physiologicallyrelated lamprey, and the pride, are, thus, extreme to every member of the Annul6sa, and other approximationsof the general vertebrate type invertebrateclasses, by only two degrees, its of organisation towards the class Mollu'sca. affinitywith plants being reckonedas one; the The Ornithorynchus,among mammifers,ap- proportions of these numbers towards each proximatesvery remarkablytowards birds; but other pretty accurately denoting the value of it exhibits less analogy with them, collectively, these degrees; two being double one, three than many rodent species do. The prong- exceeding by half two, &c. Animals of the hornedantelope is an approximationin its genus same subclass, as differentmammifers, or birds, towards the Cervidae; but its affinityto the or reptiles,are, of course, related to each other latter is not greater than in other antelopes. by four degrees of affinity;those of the same The frigate bird is an approximationtowards order by five, and so on; the numberof these the eagles; yet no one would consider it as several degrees increasingin proportionto the organisedupon the falcon type: so the Pterocles number of subordinate successive types upon is an approximationtowards the pigeons,and the which differentspecies are alike organised,and Nicobar pigeon towards the Gallinidae; each of which, successively,they are modifications, being at once referableto its particular type, not combinationsof differentones, in the last though in certain adaptive relations they are case any morethan in the first. Every modifica- intermediate. The pipitgenus is a most striking tion ofevery successive type is thus rudimentally approximationof a very marked type (sub- differentfrom the most approximate modifica- ordinate to the dentirostral)towards the larks; tions of every otherequivalent type,or superior but its moultingsat once intimateits true posi- type, to which it does not appertain; and this tion in the system, however its general aspect is the same conclusion to which I have been might,at firstsight, render this doubtful. It is irresistiblyled from consideration of various by no means nearlyallied by affinityto Alaiu'da; phenomenaconnected with the changes of plum- and I will unhesitatinglyventure to assert, age whichtake place in birds. As everyspecies that by no art could they be induced to unite is perfectlyaind essentially distinct and separate to the productionof a hybrid. fromevery other species, so, except in a retro- Analogy,in the most definitesignification of grade direction,are the successive typical and the term, is well exemplifiedin the close re- subtypical plans upon which they are severally semblance between the mouth of the swift, organised, however similar the latter may in and those of the largerhigh-flying insectivorous some instances be, as are also the former. It bats (Vespertilio). It- is exhibited wherever is unnecessar\to enter here upon any remarks species that are modificationsof diverse types on hybrids,as furtherelucidatory of the precise are organised to performnearly the same part nature of affinity:it is well known that these in the general economy of nature; which latter can only be produced within a certain physio- by no means necessarilyimplies approximation; logical range, and that their degree of fertility as may be illustratedby adducing the vultures (paired with individuals of pure blood) is in among birds, and the dog kind among quad- proportiointo the degree of affinitybetween the rupeds,or certainof the Sphingidaefrom amongst parent species. insects, as compared to the Trochilidaeof the By the termapproximation, I must be under- featheredrace. It is well exemplifiedby the

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 128 LOREN C. EISELEY [PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC. deadly springof the cats, as comparedwith that Affinity,approximation, and analogy, may of the crushing serpents, and as somewhat thereforebe collectivelydefined as pertaining contradistinguishedfrom that of the saltatory to the physiologicalrelations subsisting between spiders; all the energyof the body being, in the differentspecies, as opposed to their adaptive formercases, remarkablyconcentrated in a single relations; of which latter they are wholly inde- spring, from which exhaustion follows, while pendent: that is to say, differentspecies, nearly in the lattercase it is not. It is curiouslyshown allied by eitherof these physiologicalrelations, by a fact related by Sir W. Jardine, of the exhibit no mutual, no relative adaptation European howleror eagle-owl (Buibo europaeus), towardseach other's habits and structure;such in which the analogy of that genus to the cat as we observe in the huge claws of the anteater family is even more strikinglyindicated than (Myrmec6phaga), evidentlyfurnished in direct by the very remarkablegeneral resemblancein relation to the habits of a particulargroup of their external aspect. "This bird," observes insects,the mounds of which they are obviously Sir William, "evinces a great antipathyto dogs, intendedto scrape open, while the tongue is as and will perceiveone at a considerabledistance; expressly modified to collect the aroused in- nor is it possible to distract its attention so habitants, upon which alone the creature is long as the animal remainsin sight. When first fittedto feed, and upon the supply of which, perceived,the feathersare raised," &c., exactly therefore,as an existingspecies, its being alto- as a cat raises her fur at sight of her natural gether depends. Adaptive relations are, in enemy; though, in either-case, it is difficultto general, even more obvious and striking in say why they should be inimical. No doubt, groupswhich are physiologicallythe most widely however,the purpose,the reason forthis antip- removed; as may be exemplifiedby adducing athy, is the same in both instances,and it is for the bill of the crossbill,modified in directrelation the naturalistto endeavour to findit out. The to the seminiferouscones of the Coniferae;or commonpipit, a modificationof the dentirostral the recurved bills of certain humming birds, type; and the Lapland snowfleck,one of the to the bent tubes of the corollas of particular conirostral(as here limited); are in so farrelated Bignon-iacece,&c. Physiological relations are to each other by analogy,as that they are both all resolvable into mere resemblance;because approximations towards the lark genus, an every species is essentiallydistinct and separate extreme modification of the omnivorous or fromevery other species; otherwiseit would not corvine type; they are thereforerelated to each be a species, but a variety. The most similar other by a certain analogy; to Alauda, by ap- species, therefore,are only allied to each other proximation;and to aHl the members of their in consequence of the close resemblanceof their respective separate groups, by an additional generalorganisation; the degree of affinitybeing degreeof affinityto what subsistsbetween either greateror less, according to the extent of that of them and the others. Affinityand analogy, resemblance (according to the degree of their of course, coexist,as all organismsare, at least, physiological,not their mere apparent, simili- related by what I have termedthe firstdegree tude); in short, according as they are more or of the former; but the extent of the former less framed upon the same general or typical does not necessarilyaffect that of the latter: plan; whichplans not only regulatethe minutiae vultures and dogs, for instance, are allied by of structurein those species whichare organised threedegrees of affinity;while the carrionbeetles upon them, but, to a very considerableextent, (Carabidae) are related to either by only two even theircolours and markings. degrees: yet the analogy is as great in the one Of course,the observationhere very naturally instance as in the other. Pure analogy may suggestsitself, that, if the colours and markings subsist with very triflingapproximation; as is of species have a definiteuse (which, in some shown by the already cited case of the cats and instances, is sufficientlyobvious even to our serpents,or as may be exemplifiedby a hundred comprehension), then, we might reasonably similarinstances of corresponding groups existing expect to findthat resemblancewhich is found in major divisionsof diversestructure, in which, to subsist between those of species whose habits however marked the analogy, however similar are almost the same. the officethey were destined to performthe True; but, then, there are many trivialities degree of approximationis in many instances observable in the marking of allied species, quite imperceptible. which can only be explained upon the principle

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that they are modificationsof some particular It only now remains for me to apply the general or typical plan, of markings,as well as various facts which I have been endeavouring of structure. Such is the pale line along the to establish; after which I shall commence a head of the newly discovered Dalmatian, minutedetail of observationson the moultingof Regulus modestus Gould,in place of the bright- birds. That our systemsof classificationshould coloured coronal feathersof its differentcon- be founded on the true affinitiesof species, geners;which is exactlyanalogous to the curious rather than upon any arbitrarycharacters, is fact, that the apparent rudimentsof dentition now, I believe, admitted on all hands to be the exist in the gums of the foetaltoothless whales; desideratum; and the true principle on which sufficientlyintimating that these latter animals alone this can be effectedis, as it appears to me, are modificationsmerely of some generaltypical sufficientlyobvious; though, from our present plan, of which one of the leading characters veryimperfect acquaintance with existing species, is to be furnishedwith teeth. So, also, might it must necessarilybe a long while yet before be adduced the tiny,soft, deflected spine situate our arrangementscan be consideredat all final, at the bend of the wingof the commongallinule, if,indeed, we can ever hope themto assume that in like mannerindicating that this species, also, character. is framedupon some particularplan of structure, The true physiological system is evidently the more characteristicexamples of which have one of irregularand indefiniteradiation, and of spurredwings, as we findto be the case in the reiterate divergence and ramificationfrom a allied genus Pdrra. In all the species organised varying number of successively subordinate upon any given type, we may always look for typical plans; often modifiedin the extremes, some trivial resemblancesof this kind; we may till the general aspect has become entirely always expect to find some traces of any par- changed,but stillretaining, to the very ultimate ticular structure or markings,which are ob- limits, certain fixed and constant distinctive servable in those typical forms of which the characters,by whichthe true affinitiesof species others are but modifications;the probability may be always known; the modificationsof each of this, of course, increasingwith the number successive type being always in direct relation of degreesof affinity;and it is not unusual, too, to particularlocalities, or to peculiar modes of to find colours or markings,which, in typical procuringsustenance; in short,to the particular formsare scarcely discernible,developed, as it circumstancesunder which a species was ap- were,in particularmodifications of those forms, pointed to exist in the locality which it indige- to a considerable extent: yet, in the most nously inhabits,where alone its presenceforms approximate modificationsof diverse subtypes part of the grand system of the universe,and of one general type, we only find such trivial tends to preservethe balance of organic being, resemblancesof this kind as may be directly and, removed whence (as is somewhere well traced up to the typical standard from which remarkedby Mudie), a plant or animal is little they both diverge; whatever other marks of else than a "disjointed fragment." similitude these may show being obviously Systematists,with few exceptions, err most analogous adaptations, rather,to similaritiesof grosslyin imaginingthat allied species have been habit, unaccompanied by those trivial resem- created in direct referenceto each other (as blances which imply physiological proximity. members of a sort of cabinet system of even Thus, howeverclosely, both in formand colour- proportions)rather than to the localities they ing, our common grey flycatcher(Muscicapa indigenouslyfrequent, to the officeeach was Grtsola)may approximateto some of the smaller ordained to fulfilin the universal,or adaptive, Tyrannulae of North America, the mottled system. One would have supposed that the character of its nestlinggarb at once indicates various factswhich geology has broughtto light that it is not framedon exactly the same series would have sufficedto undeceive them in this of successive types; in a word, that its relation particular. It cannot be too often repeated, towards these tyrannules must be considered that, upon whatever plan a species may be as one of approximation,rather than of direct organised, its true relation (the reason for its affinity. It would be easy, in like manner, existence at all) is solely connected with its to illustratethe precedingseveral positions; but indigenous locality: else, why should so many the limits of the present disquisition will not thousand species have ceased to be, the particu- permitof it. lar circumstancesunder which they were ap-

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pointedto live no longerrequiring their presence? be filled up; and, on the other hand, with ex- To expect, indeed, for a single moment, that, amples equally glaring of the most dissimilar in any isolated class or division of organisms, forms being brought under one general head, a perfectsystem of another kind could obtain, that the same particularnumber should not be harmonisingin all points,and true in the detail exceeded. Thus, in Mr. Selby's in many to any particularnumber, appears to me (even respects very valuable and useful "British supposing that none of the species were now Ornithology,"while the closely allied linnetsand extinct,and that we knew all that are at present siskins are placed in separate subfamilies,be- existing), prima facie, a manifest illusion. tween the typesof which no supergenericchar- Species are distributedover the earth,wherever acter of the least importancecan be descried, the most scanty means of subsistencefor them we find the buntings actually arranged in a are to be found; and theirorganisation is always subfamilyof which the larks are typical; and, beautifully and wonderfullyadapted for ob- in another division, of like value, among his tainingit under whatevercircumstances it may Sylviadae, four genera (PArus, Acc6ntor, Set6- exist: just, therefore,as the surface varies, so phaga, and Calam6philus) grouped together, do its productionsand its inhabitants;and there which have hardly a single character in unison is no locality, or apparently, even vegetable that is not common to the whole Dentir6stres, production,so peculiar, but species are found and which, certainly, are but very distantly upon it especially organised to find their sub- allied. To adduce additional instancesmust be sistence chiefly or wholly there. The very superflous:a system which can admit of such undergroundlake has its own peculiar inhabit- very arbitrary arrangementscan have but a ants; for the wondrous Proteus there revels in faint title indeed to be designated the "only regionsof everlastingnight: of course happy in natural one." its existenceas the bird that cleaves the freeair, It is unnecessarynow any longer to detain or as the lion that exults in his conquering the attentionof the reader by furtherprefatory prowess. Ponder this well; and it is clear, that observations; nor would it be worthwhile here upon these groundsalone all quinaryimaginings to offerany remarkson the progressof plumifica- must at once fall to the ground. tion, the which might be better introducedas but I shall forthwith The more- deeply, indeed, I consider the occasion may require; quinary theory (now advocated by so many proceed to point out what I conceive to be of talented naturalists)in all its bearings,the less very great importancetowards the classification consistentdoes it appear to me with reason and of birds according to their true affinities,the common sense; the more thoroughlyam I con- differentchanges of plumage and appearance vinced of its utter fancifulnessand misleading to which various groups of them are subject, tendency. Nothing in this world is withoutits confiningmyself, for the most part, to those particular and definiteuse, which observation, upon which I can speak quite positively,from in time, generally contrives to discover: but having myselfhad opportunitiesof witnessing what utilitycould therebe, what purpose could them. On this enquiry there is, indeed, hardly be effected,by separate and distinct races of any guide to go by, but directpersonal observa- beings, created obviously in direct relation to tion; for though,in the books the greaternum- particularlocalities, being distributedinto even ber of these changes of appearance in the feath- groups of a limitednumber, like the celebrated ered race have been oftenmentioned, it is seldom groves of Blenheim, "nodding at each other?" that the precisemanner in whichthey are brought If the quinarysystem be universal,as some would about is stated; and the term "vernal moult" have, pervadingall creation,how is it that the has been, in general, so very vaguely applied stars and planets do not revolve in groups of (sometimes indicating an actual shedding and five? Or why even do not animals mostlypro- renovation of the feathers themselves, and duce theiryoung by fives,or multiplesof five? sometimes merely the seasonal wearing off of The absurdityis, indeed,too greatto be dwelton. theirwinter edgings), that I have thoughtit best If we examine,too, the writingsof even the most to decline altogether availing myself of their eminent advocates of this strange theory, we assistance. I may just premise,however, before continuallymeet (as might be expected) with commencing,that, independentlyof moulting, divisions apparently made for mere dividing thereare two principalmodes by which a great sake, that the requisitenumber of groups might alteration in the appearance of the feathers

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions VOL. 103, NO. 1, 1959] CHARLES DARWIN AND EDWARD BLYTH 131 of birds is, in some cases, gradually brought emplificationof which may be adduced (as a about; namely,a direct change of colour in the familiar,though not, perhaps, the most striking feathersthemselves, and the gradual shedding, instance) the great developement of the bill in spring (as has already been spoken of), of laminaein the shovellergenus (Spathillea); also their extreme tips, which are frequentlyof a the perfectionof the bill, as a groping instru- differentand more dingy colour than that part ment,and as a sentientorgan, in the snipes and of the featherwhich becomes exposed to view woodcocks; in consideration of which, many when these have disappeared. A familiarand naturalists, esteeming these to be the most beautiful illustrationof both these changes is characteristic peculiarities of their respective furnishedby the breast plumage of a male of major groups,have thereforeadopted the above- the common, or song, linnet (LinAria cannd- named genera as the types of extensivenatural bina). The coloured portion of these feathers, families. Now, this may be very well in a in winter,is of a brownishred; and they are confessedlyartificial system; but, where affinity tipped with deciduous dusky edgings. In the is to be considered the basis of classification, spring, the latter gradually wear off,and the these formswill rather have to be arranged as dark maroonchanges to a brightcrimson.* The ultimatemodifications of theirrespective types, same plumage which the ptarmigan acquires in a particular direction. They are neither in autumn becomes, in winter, white, and in of them centresof radiation (at least, to any springgradually re-assumes somewhat its former extent), such as the form of Anas B6schas colour, but a still deeper one.t Variations in undoubtedlyis in the duck family;and such as general appearance, however, induced by a the godwits (Limosa) at least approximate to change of colour in the feathersthemselves, are be in the natural family to which the snipes of comparativelyrather unusual occurrence. appertain. C6rvus and Ardea are good examples of thoroughlytypical forms, which, modified Vol. 9 (1836), pp. 505-514: ART. I. Further in every possible way, radiate and ramify in Remarkson theAffinities of thefeathered Race; every directionaround; and so, also, is Merula, and upon the Nature of SpecificDistinctions. * and that central division of the finchfamily to which the term Coccothrau'steshas been given. (Concluded) All these graduate, througha series of species, THERE are two modes of estimating the into almost every formreferable to theirrespec- typical standard of a natural group of species. tive groups; and such must necessarilybe the There are two distinct principlesupon which, case with the more characteristicexamples of according as we desire to framea system upon every general plan of structure,of whatever obvious and tangible characters, or upon the value. Typical forms,in fact,as a leading rule, physiologicalrelations, that is the true affinities, are merely those examples of each plan which of species, we may arrive at very differentcon- are the least bound, as a matterof necessity,to clusions as to which form is the more worthy particular localities; and we accordingly find to be consideredthe general type of the whole. them (I mean the forms,rather than species) I have said (p. 406.), that it is not unusual to to be of comparatively general distribution; findcertain characters,which, in typical forms, whereas the more one of these plans is modified are comparativelylittle noticeable, carried out, to suit any particular purpose, the more com- in particularmodifications of those generalplans pletely it is adapted to any peculiar sort of of structure,to a much greater extent; in ex- localityor mode of life: the adaptation,of course, implies a recedingfrom the general, or central, * Curiously enough, however, the song linnet's changes type; and the species may therefore,in technical of tint do not, to the slightest extent, ever take place in language, be termed aberrant,even though its captivity. deviationbe a fartherdevelopement of t Inspection of a considerable number of ptarmigans,at characters differentseasons, induces me to dissent from the general peculiar to its group. opinion, that the time of moulting in these birds is con- It is clear that we must eitheradmit this, or finedto no particular period. allow of a of * multiplicity primarytypes to every I wish the reader to excuse, for the present, my not natural family,to everygroup of species framed enteringinto detail on the moultingsof birds, as, just now (this being the chief season for moulting), I have some upon the same generalor leadingplan: the which opportunities of considerably extending my information must necessarilylead to such gross violations on the subject. of affinityas the adoption of PhasiAnidaeand

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Tetra6nidaeof the Quinarists as separate and blackbird has, when young, a spotted breast; independent natural groups, equivalent and and, in fact, the charactersof its nestlingplum- equally distinct fromeach other, as are either age alone forbidits alienation fromthe spotted of -them from the two contiguously ranged thrushes. Where, indeed, can we trace the line families, Colfimbidaeand Struthi6nidae; and of separation between Merula and Philomela this, too, while the very genera assumed to be even? And does not also the same form, in typical of them, Tetrao and Phasianus, are another of its various gradations, merge im- allied so nearlyas to hybridisetogether. perceptibly into Petrocincla, and thence into This is so interestinga subject, that a few the differentsaxicoline genera, Erythaca, Pheni- additional remarksmay be well devoted to its cura, and Sialia? one ousel (Petrocincla, or, elucidation. Assuminga type to be merelythe rather,Geocincla Gould) being absolutelya large abstract plan upon which a certain number of robin, another a great redstart,while a newly species are organised,the said plan being vari- discovered species of Sialia has the markings, ously more or less modifiedaccording to the and many of the characters,of a Petroclncla? purpose for which a species was designed, it But it would be endless to follow M6rula into certainly does not necessarily follow that or- all its diversifiedramifications. I shall content ganisms simply illustrative of the mere plan myselfwith tracing the series into Philom6la, should have been created, seeing that all crea- whichis at once conclusiveas to the trueaffinities tures are obviously framed in direct relation of the latter. to their indigenous haunts, and not as mere To be brief,then, we observe in the European counterpartsof one another. At the same time, song thrush a deviation from the gregarious wherever an extensive array of species are characterof its nearestBritish congeners, and an organised upon one general plan of structure, approximationto the style of marking in the there cannot but appear some tendency to transatlanticspecies. M. mustelina of North converge to a general centre; a tendency be- America is yet more solitary,and does not even coming more obvious as we recede from the associate to migrate; in this resemblingPhilo- extremes,whereupon there is usually a marked mela, which its habits (as describedby all who increase in the numberof species exhibitingthe have observedthem) accord within almostevery same characters,till at length a sort of focus particular:still it retainsa good deal of the true presents itself,as a central genus, the proper Merula; and it builds a plastered nest, like our limits of which completelybaffle the ingenuity thrushes. In M. solitaria the size decreases, of naturaliststo define,inasmuch as the various the numberof breast spots are diminished,the species it comprises blend with, and continu- tarse is much lengthened (a character which ously radiate into, the immediatelysubordinate commences in M. mustelina), the nest is con- divisions. structed without plaster, and even the tail is Wils6nii In illustration,it is sufficientto mentionthe rufous, as in the nightingales. M. is the already cited genera, C6rvus, Ardea, Merula, has the very form of Philomela, and breast- and what should be Fringilla,but which is at smallest bird that ranks in Merula: its these presentbetter known as Coccothra(ustes. spots are but very few, and appearing habits Take either of these divisions, and observe as thoughmore than half obliterated;its its how difficultit is to defineits (artificial)bound- are exactly those of Philomela, and so is differsfrom that aries; how unbroken is the concatenation of nidification;and its bill hardly of species which links them with what are simply of our nightingale. The great nightingale according to Bechstein, aberrant modificationsof their structure,but Eastern Europe has, a bill which naturalists have been accustomed to an obscurelyspotted breast, also stronger it is described to be consider as separate and distinct generic divi- than the common species; in its and, consequently, sions. Let us, for a moment,consider Merula. more omnivorous diet, in a state of confinement:even Some naturalists try to separate the spotted- to be morehardy to the small M&uke. breasted thrushes from those in which the its size impliesan approach to the nestlingplumage of the markingsare less broken; and, unquestionably, And, lastly, look Luscinia), a characterof no takingthe extremes,there is muchdiversity; but song nightingale(P. in the true affinities thereis quite as muchbetween the differentspot- small importance indicating station ted-breastedthrushes. In eithercase, however, of birds,and we at once perceiveits true where can the dividing line be drawn? The in the system,and how distinctit is fromthose

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions VOL. 103, NO. 1, 1959] CHARLES DARWIN AND EDWARD BLYTH 133 forms with which (apparently from its mere differencesin the bill, and certain particulars size) it has been hithertoassociated: it is, in fact, connected with its plumage, the proportionate an ultimatemodification of the type represented size of the sexes is the reverse of that of the by Merula. European species, as Le Vaillant himselfascer- Let us now compare, for a moment,the ex- tained and published. Then the beautifully tremesof the genus M6rula; let us bringtogether glossed raven of the Brazils is obviouslydistinct; the large mottled-backedthrushes of the East, also the raven of the South Sea Islands, and, and those diminutive solitary thrushes of the there is reason to believe, that of India. And West. Does it seem proper that these should what ifthese can be provedto be separatespecies, rank in the same minimumdivision? And yet by fixed and constant structural distinctions; how are they to be separated? How can the do they not show how nearly species may re- former be divided from those of the missel semble, and point to the almost inevitablecon- thrushform*; the last-mentionedfrom the field- clusion, that, in some instances, there may fare group; the fieldfaresfrom the merles, or possiblybe no means whateverof knowingthem from the congeries to which the song thrush apart? belongs, which last we have seen to inosculate How vastly important is this consideration with the nightingales? How, in like manner, when we contemplate the natural productions can we divide the genera Ardea or C6rvus? of America! Many years have now elapsed It indeed appears that, in these very typical since the genius of Buffonsuggested the capital genera, there is a sort of clusteringof species proposition,that there is no absolute specific (if I may be allowed the phrase) about the identitybetween any organism of the Eastern centre of radiation. In Ardea, and C6rvus and Western continents,with the exception of particularly, the central species become ex- those which inhabit very far to the north. All tremelydifficult of determination;if, indeed, in subsequent investigationhas gone to prove the some instances, the proximityis not even too force and acumen of this sterlingremark; and close fordetection. How nearlydo some of the the number of species (exclusive of evident typical crows resemble! Upon the most scru- stragglers)supposed to be common to the two pulous and minutecomparison, C. L. Bonaparte continentshas been gradually diminishing,on was unable to discern the least differencebe- more careful and exact comparison from that tweenspecimens of the European C6rvus Cor6ne time to the present. In fact, I think we may and the common crow of America; and he now fairly venture to assume, putting aside consequentlyinfers their identity: yet who that stragglers,that those species alone are satis- attentivelyperuses the various descriptionsof factorilyidentical in the two continentswhich the latter, that considers well its marked gre- are distributedover the whole north of Asia, garious habits, and the diversityof its note from and may be looked for on the north-western that of our crow, can for a moment coincide coast of America. Very lately, the American with him in opinion? Look again, to the raven, scaup (pochard) was found, on comparison, that formerlywas considereda bird of universal to be distinctfrom that of Europe, althoughthe distribution,as was also the snipe. First, the differencealmost whollyconsists in the obliquity Africanspecies must be detached, as Le Vail- ofits wingspectrum; a characterwhich, however, lant's description of it should long ago have proved to be fixed and constant. Had there indicated; forwe findthat, independentlyof the not been this diversity,the two species would * On examining a series of specimens of M. viscivora, have been, of course, equally distinct: yet how it will be seen that many exhibit conspicuous traces of the should we have discriminated them apart? mottling on the upper parts, particularly on the rump, The barn owls of the two continents,which are and that space covered by the tertiarywing feathers; also now believed (and on good grounds) to be dis- on the upper tail-coverts; the latter being broadly edged tinct,are even more similar.* with a paler tint, which in the formeroccupies the centre of each feather. Here we have an interestingillustration, Equally close resemblances obtain in other in the plumage of birds, of the gradual developementof a departmentsof the zoologyof Europe and North particular marking as we recede fromthe type. There is also a regular increase in the size of the bill, which, in the * From subsequent investigations,I am enabled greatly missel thrush,is rathersmall. I am unaware that the form to strengthenthe above position. Minute comparison of of M. vkria and its immediate congeners is furthermodi- a considerable number of American specimens with ex- fied, but suspect them rather to be the extreme ramifica- amples of what have been hitherto esteemed the same tions in that direction. species in Europe has brought to light distinctions as

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America, and particularlyin the insect tribes: froma generalsurvey of the factsrecorded, that, many butterflies,for instance (as several of the as the degree of fertilityin hybrids(paired with Coflades-),-from- the opposite shores of the individuals of pure blood) varies according to Atlantic, being only to be told apart by the the degreeof proximityin the parentspecies, the slowlyacquired practicalken ofthe entomologist. possibilityof mulesbeing produced at all existing The natural productions of Japan, again, in only within the sphere of a certain affinity;so, many instances, present the most astonishing on the other hand, when the parent species similitudeto those of Europe; yet they exhibit approach so nearly as some that I have had characters which cannot be well reconciled occasion to mention,their mixed offspringwould with variation, however unimportantin them- be almost equally prolific,hybrid with hybrid. selves, because they are distinctions which This is, at least, stated of all the membersof the climate or locality are not in the least likely genus B6s; and most naturalistsconcur in the to bring about. Besides, supposing the latter, opinion,that our commonfowls are derivedfrom we should not only expect to meet with speci- the blending of a plurality of species. Cer- mens in every degree intermediate,but to find tainly,if the analogy of plants can be admitted, the same speciesequally flexibleto circumstances the fact is in so far settled; for I know many in otherplaces, which is not the case. hydrid plants which of themselvesyield fertile In ornithology,the jay and bullfinchof Japan seed in abundance: the mixed produce, for may be selected from among numerous other example, of the Calceolhria purplureaand C. instances; the formerdiffering only from-the plantaginea; the formera half-shrubbyspecies, European bird in the greater developement the latter herbaceous.* A varietyof additional of certain markings about the head, and the instancescould be enumerated. Hybrid plants, latter p-resentingno other differencethan the however,are equally sterilewith mule animals, muchpaler, or roseate,tint of its abdominal-plum- if the parent species are not very closely allied. age. Taking a series of species, we have every It is to be hoped that,ere long,the experiments grade of diversity,from the obviously distinct of the Zoological Society will have solved this Japanese peafowl (Pavo mCuticus),to the mealy curious and importantproblem. Already some linnet, which apparently,differs in no respect highly interestingand complex hybrids have fromthat of Europe. In a specimenof a petty- been obtained undertheir management.t chaps fromthe same locality,the only difference I have found it to be a very general opinion I could perceive fromour common Sylvia Tro- among naturalists,that specificdiversity must of chilus on very minuteinspection, consisted in a necessitybe accompanied by some perceptible peculiar slight curve at the extremityof the differencein the structure. To this I cannot upper mandible: still we know how nearly two * It is greatlyto be wished that horticulturistswould not British species of this genus resemble,and yet name their hybrid plants in the same manner as genuine how very diverse are their notes. Perhaps the species; the confusionthus already induced in many genera song of the Japanese pettychaps is dissimilar being quite inextricable. Surely they could find some fromthat of either: at any rate, a dry skin is other mode of denoting them. t Since writing this, I have ascertained the fact, that hardly sufficienton which to found a definite the mule progeny of the A'nser cygn6ides, coupled with opinion. the domestic goose, breed freelywith one another; and have Of course, all these various facts lead us to seen an individual of which both the parents were hybrids. domestic consideration of, What is a We do not, indeed, know the wild stock of the the important goose; but, certainly,no one would dream of referringit to species? What constitutesspecific distinction? A. cygn6ides. As Mr. Jenynswell observes, the common To which the only rational reply appears to be gander, after attaining a certain age, is always white, a (and even this is quite incapable of probation), character which, it may be remarked, is in accordance derived froma separate origin. For it with the snow goose (A. hyperboreus) of North America, Beings it borne in un- a species obviously distinct. Let be, however, appears that hybridism,after all, is but an mind, that, in every known instance, intermixtureof certainguide, howeversatisfactory in particular species is solely induced by man's agency; even the mules cases; there being much reason to conclude, that have been found wild between Tetrao Tetrix and Phasianus colchicus: for instance, White of Selborne, who curious as, in some instances, they were unexpected. figuresone of these, states, in one of his firstletters, that Thus, the osprey of North America may be always told, black game was formerlyabundant in the neighbourhood, by trivial though constant characters, from that of but that only one solitary grey-hen had been seen for Europe; and the same obtains with a variety of other many years: such an individual might be expected to species considered identical. breed with a cock pheasant.

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accede, until I hear of a sufficientreason why it direction,which may happen to be more or less should be the case. We perceive every grade regular, according as circumstances (adaptive of approximation,till in the shrews,for instance, relations) require. That there-should -be a a slightdiversity in the formof one of the back slight break, for instance, in the series where teeth comprehends all the difference. It is the fringillidoustype is modified into L6xia, thereforepresumed that, as so very trivial a is perfectlyconsistent with the nature of the deviation cannot be said to affectthe animal's deviation; but the true affinitiesof the crossbills habits,for what purpose,then, does it exist,save are, nevertheless,equally recognisable,and the to intimate the separateness of the species? same may be said in othercases wherethe hiatus But, surely,it will not be contendedthat species is much more considerable. were created with a view that man should be And here it will not be out of place to say a able to distinguish them! Surely, differences fewwords upon the termsperfection, degradation, werenot imposedmerely to facilitatethe progress and the like, as applied to natural productions. of human knowledge! Is it not much more Let it be borne in mind, that, although every rational to conclude, that, as great differences species is equally and wondrouslyperfect, even in the structureimport corresponding diversities to the most trivial minutiae,in referenceto the in habit, so, by the same rule, minordifferences officefor which it was designed,still, if we desire also imply an equivalent diversity in degree? to cite an instancewherein the adaptation, if not Let us, again, consider the American and more perfect,is, at least, more obviously re- European crows: here it would seem that specific markable and extraordinarythan in another, diversity is unaccompanied by any structural it is to aberrantspecies, rather than to the central deviation. or typical exemplificationsof a general plan of Of course, it is hardly necessary to hint the structure,that we must direct attention; inas- importanceof these factsto geologicalenquirers: much as the formerexhibit those modifications they intimatethe excessivecaution requisiteere ofthat plan, thoseadaptations to a peculiarmode we can ventureto identifythe fragmentsof an of life,which are the most calculated to excite organism,when even existingspecies, in many our wonder and admiration. Such forms as instances, are not, probably, to be told apart. L6xia and Recurvir6straare sufficientillustra- It must be admitted that they warrant a good tions of the position. There, perhaps, would deal of scepticismas to many of the identifica- be no objection to the word degradation,under- tions that have been assumed.* stood strictlyin a classical sense; but, when we But to returnnow to the fourtypical genera, consider its popular, its English meaning, in which have led to the above lengthydigression. which alone it will be apprehended by an ex- I certainly do not conceive it necessary that tensiveclass of readers,no termshould be more there should be, in all instances, an unbroken carefully avoided: the most degraded species gradation into the subordinateforms, similar to absolutely happeningto be those which are the that from M6rula into Philomela; for it is most worthyour especial admiration. evident that the affinitiesof Philomela, and its The difficultiesof classificationarise fromthe relations to the thrushgenus, would be the same, necessary fact (obviously necessary when we were there no interveningexamples. Still it is consider the adaptive relations of species) of reasonable to suppose that, generallyspeaking, there being successive centres of radiation; such series would occur; not, however, for the the differentmodifications of a leading plan of mere abstract purposes of arrangement,but structureradiating in their turn, and thereby because thereare gradesin localitiesand modesof constitutingan irregularseries of subordinate life. That there should be species variously types, of every degree of value. Thus, the modifiedupon any particularplan of structure, starlingtype is comprehendedin the omnivorous and that the deviation should be greaterin one or corvine plan of structure,and, in its turn, instance than in another, of course implies comprisesothers of less importance,upon all of radiation from a general centre; and the very which may be organisedan indefinitenumber of circumstancethat the same charactersare more species, diverselymodified to suit a variety of developed in one species than in another,neces- localities, and often approximatingin external sarilyalso occasions a gradationin the particular appearance to species framedupon othergeneral * For some facts bearing upon this subject, see Art. types of structure, wherever they are alike VI-. Ed. modified to perform the same office in the

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 136 LOREN C. EISELEY [PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC. adaptive system: such approximation,however, and correspondinga characterin most instances, by no means inducing an additional degree of yet loses almost all its value in the Certhiada3. physiologicalaffinity. Unquestionably, all the yoke-footedtribes are Before concluding'this,I must call attention very nearly related by affinity;yet how dis- to another point worthyof consideration. To cordantare they in the details of theirstructure! recuragain to the fourtypical genera we have all A single,and comparativelytrivial, resemblance along been considering,and which, of course, in the organisationof the foot becomes, in this it is most satisfactoryto revertto in every in- instance, a character of the very firstimpor- stance, it appears that the centralspecies, for the tance.-Tooting, Surrey,August 13. 1836. most part, exhibit a marked increase of size, being generallyabout the largestof those framed Vol. 1 (n.s.) (1837), pp. 1-9: ART. I. On the on theirrespective plans of structure. I do not PsychologicalDistinctions between Man and all say that this obtains in every instance,but still otherAnimals; and the consequentDiversity of it is so generalas to be quite worthyof attention; Human Influenceover the inferiorRanks of and the rationaleof it appears simplyto be, that, Creation,from any mutualand reciprocalInflu- as typical formsare more adapted for general enceexercised among the Latter. distribution,and better calculated for finding subsistencein a varietyof localities,than those THERE is not, withinthe wide range of philo- modificationsof them which are organised ex- sophical enquiry, a subject more intensely pressly for peculiar places only, we must infer interestingto all who thirstfor knowledge, than that an increase of stature would, as a general the precise nature of that important mental rule,be incompatiblewith the well-doingof aber- superioritywhich elevates the human being rant races; or, to put it inversely,that beings above the brute, and enables man alone to of comparativelylarge size require to be less assume the sway wheresoever he plants his partial in their adaptations; that (their wants dwelling;and to induce changes in the constitu- being greater)they should not be too much con- tion and adaptions of other species, which have finedto particularplaces for the needfulsupply no parallel wherehis interferenceis unknown. of food. However, this is a rule so brokeninto I am led to offera fewremarks on this subject, by exceptions,and so entirelydependent on the by observing continually that the instinctive character of the particular adaptation, that, actions and resourceof animals are attributed, though obvious enough in the main, it is much most inconsiderately,to the habitual exercise more likelyto meet with assent than demonstra- of their reflectivefaculties; often where it is tion. Certain it is, that, in very many groups, utterlyand manifestlyimpossible for them to the largestspecies are among the most centrally have observed facts whereon to base those typical. Witness, by way of example, the inferences,which alone could have led them, woodpeckersand the parrots. by an inductiveprocess, to adopt the course we In fabricatingan arrangementaccording to find them to pursue. I am perfectlyaware the natural method (i.e. based on the true that the word "instinct," by not a few, is de- affinitiesof species), we cannot be too much nounced as a merecloak forignorance, as a sort -impressedwith the considerationthat organisms of loophole throughwhich to escape froma ra- must be ever regardedin theirtotality; that no tional explanation of phenomena; but, with all one structuralcharacter can be expected to hold deferenceto those who advocate this over and in all instances,however important in particular above refined notion, I venture to maintain cases. We have only to considerthe fact,that, that it has a verydefinite signification, to express in a natural group, it is but the same leading which no other term could be substituted: it plan of structurewhich is so variouslymodified, implies an innate knowledge,which is not, like each organ,in its turn,being adapted differently human wisdom,derived exclusivelyfrom obser- to diverse circumstances;and we perceive how vation and reflection,and to assign a secondary valueless are the arbitrarycharacters of those cause forwhich is clearly impossible;wherefore who try to frameartificial systems. Even the it savours rather, I conclude, of sophistry, dentition of the MammMlia,so paramount in to affectto be dissatisfiedwith any non-mis- the majorityof cases, becomes quite a secondary leading expression,which is currentlyunder- means of distinctionin the Marsupililia; and stood to denote it. the structureof the bill in birds, so important Place a juvenile chimpanzee in presence of

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions VOL. 103, NO. 1, 1959] CHARLES DARWIN AND EDWARD BLYTH 137 one of its naturalenemies; a python,or one of the A kitten reared by hand, or a bird raised from larger Feles; and it "instinctively"recoils with the nest, have the same language*, the same dread. But does a human infant evince the leading habits, as the rest of their species, but like recognition? Here, then, is a fundamental little, if at all, modifiedby change of circum- distinctionat the outset. stances. A kitten watches at a mouse-hole, Not only, too, do brute animals (as remarked though it has never seen a mouse; the squirrel by White of Selborne) attempt, in their own proceeds by the easiest possible method to get defence, to use their natural weapons before at the kernel of its first nut, by invariably these are developed, but they intuitivelyunder- scraping, with its lower incisors,at the softer stand the mode of warfareresorted to by their end, which it instinctivelyturns in its forepaws brute opponents. They know, also, where the to the proper position; and the wasp, crawling latter are most vulnerable, and likewise where forth from its pupa envelope, immediately their concealed weapons lie. Observe the de- commences feeding the neighbouring larvae. portmentof a rat that is turned into a room The human infant, too, applies instinctively with a ferret:see how artfullyhe guards his to the breast, like the young of all other mam- neck against the wall, instinctivelyknowing malians; but, unlike those, it has to attain all that there only will his enemy fix.* Notice, its after-knowledgethrough the medium of its on the other hand, the wondrousaccuracy with external senses. It looks to its nurses, and which the Musteladae constantly wound the those about it, for information;and these are jugular vein of any bird or quadruped they capable of so communicatingtheir attainments, attack. Witness a thrushthat has captured a as very materiallyto assist the infant learner wasp, firstsqueezing out the venom from its in its acquisition of knowledge. It is preposter- abdomen, before it will swallow it. Or see a ous to assert the contrary,as has been done; spider tryingto shake offa wasp fromits web, or to pretendthat it rests on the choice of the and, failingto do so, proceedingto cut it clean infantwhether or not it will learn.t Practically, away. Can aught analogous be traced in the it cannot help doing so; and it is equally mon- actions of inexperiencedman? Whence, then, strous to deny that human beings can so com- the acquired knowledgeon which these animals municate the results of their experience,that, could reason to act thus? withwhat in addition is ever accumulating,each The distinctionis, that, whereas the human generation must necessarily rise in knowledge race is compelled to derive the whole of its in- above the last. Unless the facultieswere to be formationthrough the medium of the senses, much deteriorated,it could not be otherwise. the brute is, on the contrary,supplied with an Who can pretendto deny the excessiveinfluence innate knowledgeof whateverproperties belong ofevery generation upon that whichimmediately to all the natural objects around, which can in succeeds it; the influenceboth of precept and anywise affectits own interestsor welfaret; a example? Imagine it possible for those of the sort of intimation,by the way, that all the present day to refuse to instruct; and what inferiorraces pertain to some general compre- would then be the consequentcondition of their hensive system, all the components of which * have a mutual The reader may probably be disposed to referthis to reciprocalbearing, and to which the structureof the vocal organs. But, admitting to the man only does not intuitively conform nor full extent the reasonableness of this view, it must be constitute a part of, except in .so far as his borne in mind that the smaller birds have great power of bodily frameis of necessitysubject to the com- modulation; and it is a certain fact, that, although in mon laws of matterand of organisation. most species the song is purely innate, there are many (as the song thrush and nightingale) in which it is, for the In every other species, each individual comes most part, acquired; as is proved by the fact of these never into the world replete with "instincts," which warbling their wild notes when reared in confinement, require no education for their developement. except they have had opportunities of listening to the proper song of their species; which latter, it may be re- *Even more: he will contrive so to place himself, if marked, they imitate much more readily than any other. practicable, that the ferret'seyes shall be dazzled by the I do not consider, however, the music of a bird to be so light. much the language of its species, as those various notes and t The indirecteffects of human agency on this intuitive calls by which differentindividuals commune together; knowledge of brutes will be considered presently. In no and these I have never known to vary under any circum- way is the deteriorationmore evident,than in domesticated stances. animals poisoning themselves by feeding on that which, t See Mag. Nat. Hist. (old series), vol.-ix, p. 612, 1. 3., et in a wild state, they would instinctivelyreject. seq.

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offspring? Apply the same test to any other To ascend fromillustrations the least equivo- species of animal; and in what measure would cal, let me here cite the nidificationof the feath- the progenybe affected? ered tribes. Who, that considersthe wonderful I wish not to defend the untenable doctrine, fact, that not only genera, but even species, of that the highergroups of animals do not indi- birds are for the most part distinctlyindicated vidually profit by experience; nor to deny by their nests, can fail to recognisein this the to them the capability of observation and operationof a principleessentially distinct from reflection,whereby to modify,to a considerable that which we understandby the word reason? extent, their instinctiveconduct: neitherdo I which latter, in human beings, can of course, assert that the human race is totally devoid of be only the resultof observationand reflection.* intuition,when I see the infanttake naturally We observe a similar marked uniformityin the to the breast; when I perceive the forceof the fabricsand operationsof all animals of identical maternal attachment, and the ardour of the species (man only exempted), endless examples several passions: which latter, however,are, of of which will instantlyrecur to the reader in course, but incentives to conduct common to the insecttribes; and, if we considerthe beaver, both man and animals. In only the human and othersof the highergrades of animals which species are the actions resulting from them join their labours for mutual advantage, or are unguided by intuitive knowledge. All I con- otherwiseremarkable for what has thoughtlessly tend for is, that the ruling principleof human been deemed their ingenuity,the same truth actions is essentially distinct from that which will be found still to hold just as obviously mainly actuates the brute creation,whence the apparent, and forbids us to attribute their general influenceof the two is diverse in kind; proceedingsto aught else than the dictates of and I mistake if I cannot establish the position. intuition. The brief period that elapses before most It is most commonly,however, in the resource animals are compelled to perform the part of brute creatures,the wisdom they display in allotted to theirspecies, precludes the possibility theirexpedients, that unreflectingpersons fancy of their attaining sufficientinformation from they discernthe proofsof intellectidentical with external sources, and renders, therefore,the human; but, even here,this does not necessarily possession of a substitute for knowledge so follow; for it is sufficientto referto the cases obtained absolutelyrequisite. We have already which I commencedby detailing,to be assured seen that such a substitute is not wanting; that Providence has conferredinstinctive wiles but that all the knowledgenecessary to insure on animals as a resourceagainst contingencies; their general welfare is intuitively conferred the legitimate actions resulting from which on the brute creation. Their various actions, according, perhaps, with what reason might in wild nature, are consequentlybased on this dictate in like circumstances,we are therefore innate knowledge; which, being the same in apt to conclude must necessarilyhave been in- everyindividual of the same species,in a natural duced by reasoning. To illustratewhat I mean, state (that is, as completely uncontrolledby let me adduce the simulationof death practised those peculiar changes of condition which man by so many species, with intent to weaken the only, the exception of all other animals, can instinctivevigilance of theirfoea or prey. (That bringabout), superinducesa normal uniformity another animal, it may be remarked, should of habit throughoutthe membersof a species, sufferitself to be thus duped, is most probably which is rarely modified to any considerable a result of acquired experience.) A cat has extent by individual experience. Now, this been seen to feigndeath, stretchedon a grass- uniformityis at variance with what reasoning plot, over which swallows were noticed sailing from observation could possibly lead to; and, to and fro; and by this ruse to succeed in cap- as it extends even to the resourceof creatures turing one which heedlessly approached too of the same species, when driven to emergency, near it. The fox has been known to personate we have herein sufficientintimation that their wiles and stratagems,however consonant with * Brutes appear to reason from innate knowledge, and of the cerebrum; what reasoningfrom observation might suggest, this in proportion to the developement but the extreme promptitudeof their expedients (as will may neverthelessbe purelyinstinctive, perfectly be shown), in cases of emergency,often prohibitsus from unalloyed with any wisdom resulting from inferringthat these can be the result of aught else than experience. intuitive impulse.

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions VOL. 103, NO. 1, 1959] CHARLES DARWIN AND EDWARD BLYTH 139 a defunctcarcass, whensurprised in a hen-house; and wash; and a young wren or lark will avail and it has even suffereditself to be carried out itself of the earliest opportunity to dust its by the brush, and thrown on a dung-heap, feathers on the ground, the exact purport of whereuponit instantlyrose and took to its heels, which is not yet definitely understood. If, to the astounding dismay of its human dupe. therefore,the latter be thus obviously instinc- In like manner,this animal has submittedto be tive, what reason have we to esteem the former carried for more than a mile, swung over the otherwise? The uniformityof all these habits shoulder,with its head hanging; till at length, and propensities, in creatures of the same probably getting a little weary of so uncom- species, tends ratherto intimatethat in neither fortablea position,or perhaps reasoningthat its case are they the resultof reasoning. instinctivestratagem had failed in its object, To inferreflection on the part of brutes, as it has very speedily effected its release, by many have not scrupledto do, as the motivefor suddenly biting. The same animal has been whatever in human actions could only be the known,when hunted,to crouch exposed upon a resultof reasoning,one would imagineto be too rock of nearly its own colour, in the midst of a palpable a misapprehension to need serious river,and so to evade detectionby its pursuers; consideration; yet some writers have gone so and we perpetually hear such cases brought far as to attributeforethought to the dormouse, forwardas decisive proofsof its extremesagac- and other species which provide instinctively ity. However, as regards the latter instance, against the winter season.* Perhaps it might will not a brood of newly hatched partridges be deemed a sufficientoverthrow to this most instantlycower and squat motionlessat sightof shallow notion, to call in mind the migrative a foe*? and, as concernsthe former,do we not impulse; to enquire how the untaught cuckoo find that many beetles, though just emerged (raised by permanentlyresident foster-parents) from the pupa state, will simulate death could reason that in another clime it should every bit as cleverly as a fox or corn-crake? escape the rigoursof a season that it had never Whence it surely follows that there can be no experienced? But hereinwe have an additional occasion to attribute the act to a reasoning principleinvolved, which will requirea separate process in the one animal, any more than in the consideration. Proceed we, then, to examine other. into the presumed sagacity of those provident It would be unnecessaryto enter here into creatures,as the ant and harvest mouse, that any details on the obvious correlativenessof the habitually lay up a store for futureneed, and dominantinstincts of animals to the mode of life even provide against all possible injury from most congenial to theirconstitution, to remark germination, by carefully nibbling out the on the mutual relationsof habit and structure, corcule from each grain. Can any thing be and the exquisite adaptation of structure to more truly wonderfulas a matter of instinct? locality. Hence, the natural habits of species All instincts are, indeed, equally wonderful. of necessity bear referenceto their indigenous But it would certainly be even more extraor- haunts, as manifestlyas their structural con- dinary, if every member of these species were formation. Thus, the elephant,which, like the to be alike induced to pursue the same course other great Pachydermata, affectsthe vicinity by a process of reasoning. The followinganec- of riversand marshes,delights to relax its rigid dotes will sufficeto probe the intellectof these hide in the stream; and afterwardscovers it animals:-I have a tame squirrel,which, though with a thick plastering of mud, probably to regularlyfed all its life fromday to day, never- retard its too rapid desiccation: the which theless displays the intuitivehabit of its race, has been deemed an incontrovertibleproof in always hoardingthe superfluitiesof its food. of its reasoning from observation. A young Now, in its mode of effectingthis, a superficial robin,however, the firsttime that it sees water, observer might fancy that he discerned a fair will, if it be not too deep, fearlesslyplunge in share of intelligence. Carrying a nut, for in- * I have noticed a remarkableinstance of this,on placing stance, in its mouth, it scrapes a hole with its down a stuffedpolecat before a yound brood, tended by a forepaws in the litterat the bottomof its cage; bantam hen. A rail or gallinule will also run towards a and then,after depositing its burthen,scratches bank approximatingto theirown colour; and, if no hiding- togetherthe hay, or whateverit may place be discoverable, will insert the head into a crevice, be, over it, and, remaining motionless, sufferthemselves to be taken. and pats it down with its naws. Moreover. it * Of this I have known many instances. See Mag. Nat. Hist. (old series), vol. ix. p. 611. 1. 15.

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never fails to remember the spot, and will but little to stimulate the exercise of their occasionally,when not wishingfor food, examine reflectivefaculties; and, accordingly,their general the place to ascertain whetherit be safe. But agency may be consideredas passive, in effect mark the sequel. I have repeatedly seen the analogous to the operationof the laws of matter. same animal act precisely thus on the bare Even the "half-reasoningelephant," in the wild carpet, and upon a smooth mahogany table; woods, is but a creatureof unreflectingimpulse, yes, upon a table I have frequentlyseen it to an extent which wholly disseversit fromall depositits nut,give it a fewquick pats down,and communityof mental attributewith the lowest finallythus leave it wholly unconcealed.t The grade of mankind. Witness the subdued tamed tits (Phri), also, evince a like propensity of animal, which, travellingalong its accustomed hidingfood, one of theirmany resemblancesto route,suddenly broke loose fromits attendants, the C6rvidax;and a tame marsh tit that I once affrightedat the near yell of a tiger. At once its possessed used habituallyto drop the remainder formersubmissiveness was forgotten:it rejoined of the almond, or piece of suet, that he had the wild troops,and was again a freetenant of been picking, into the water-glassattached to the jungle. Years rolled on, and it was retaken the cage, although he never could thence re- by the ordinary method. The sight of the obtain it, and though his water was thus daily stakes never sufficedto awaken its recollection; rendered turbid. I could narrate analogous nor did the mode employed to secure it when instanceswithout number. entrapped. It was sullen and savage, and Thus it plainly appears, that the instinctof acted in nowisedifferently from its companions. each animal is adapted to its proper sphere; By chance, however, its former keeper was for the mode of life it was destined to pursue, present,who, after a while, recognisedthe ani- and forthat only. With thisrestriction (if such mal. He gave the word of command, and it it can be called), it is in each case perfect. The was instantlysubmissive; all traces of its wild actions of everycreature uncontrolled and unin- nature suddenly dissipated; its previous habits fluencedby man are invariablysuch as tend to were forgotten;it was once more a reclaimed the general welfare of its species; sometimes animal, and suffereditself to be led tractably collectively,however, rather than individually* to its place of confinement.* Would a rational (whence we hear of what have been termed being have acted like this elephant? "mistakes of instinct"). They evince superhuman wisdom,because it is innate,and, there- Vol. 1 (n.s.) (1837), pp. 77-85: ART. IV. On foreinstilled by an all-wiseCreator. Indeed, the thePsychological Distinctions between Man and unpremeditatedresource of animals, in cases of all otherAnimals; and theconsequent Diversity emergency,is oftentimesdecidedly superior to of Human Influenceover the inferiorRanks of that of man; and why? Because they need Creation, from any mutual and reciprocal not experiencefor their guide, but are prompted Influenceexercised among the Latter. to act arightby intuition. (Continued) In wild nature, this inborn knowledge of brutes thus abundantly sufficingfor the attain- MAN only, by the habitual exercise of his mentof all theyrequire, there is, in consequence, reasoning powers, appears to be competent to trace effectsto their remote causes; and is t It is no new remark,that rodents are much below the thereby enabled to recognise the existence of Carnivora in the scale of intelligence; a necessary conse- abstract laws, by assuming the guidance of quence of their inferiorlydeveloped brain. Yet few ani- which he can intentionallymodify their opera- mals have more instinctivecunning and resource than the convert them to a common rat: but this is not intellect,of which it displays tion, or, from observation, scarcely any when brought up tame; a condition which, means of accomplishinghis various ends. It is as will be shown, is sure to call forth the non-instinctive thus he wields the principleof gravitation; and intelligenceof animals. Judging from my own observa- it is thus, fromstudying the inherentpropensi- tion, I should say that the rat was mentally superior to ties and consequenthabits of otheranimals, that, the house mouse, but inferiorto the squirrel; which, in its he contrivesto sub- turn, must yield in intellectto the hare; and, I believe the by judicious management, comparative structure of their brains will be found in due theirinstincts (as in the case of the elephant accordance. just mentioned),or to direct theirforce towards * As in the contests of animals forthe other sex; whence affectingother purposes than those for which that the breed is chieflytransmitted by the most it follows * stout and healthy. I shallhave occasionto revertto thispresently.

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they were more legitimatelydesigned. But a But here a question arises, that, as numerous moreremarkable sequence of human interference instincts in domestic animals, which are now is, that, by removinganimals fromtheir proper hereditary,are known to have been originally place in nature, and training them to novel habits superinducedby man's agency, to what modes of life,wherein the field for the exercise extent may not all the innate propensitiesand of theiroriginal instincts becomes much limited, consequent habits of animals have originated their facultiesof observationand reflectionare, in the acquired experienceof theirpredecessors? in consequence, brought more into play, in As with all other subjects, we must trace the proportionas the formerare renderedinefficient; series upward from its more simple phases. till, at length, experience not unfrequently In the insect world, we discern the most com- supersedes innate impulse as the main spring plicated instincts;modes of procedureof which of theiractions; moreespecially where they have the consummate wisdom excites our admira- become attached to a human master, and pass tion and amazement, and bearing referenceto much of their time in his society. Yet even a future generation, in beings which are but here the differencebetween man and brute is creatures of an hour. Can it be supposed still manifest,in the transmissionof acquired possible that the progenitorsof these derived knowledge by generation,in the offspringin- their habits from acquired experience, and heriting as innate instincts the experience of transmittedthem as innate instincts to their their parents*; so that the tendency of brutes posterity? Here we must ascend to a higher is ever to become slaves to a certain amount of source, which, being admitted, the marked intuition,rather than beings dependenton their uniformity,also, of the instinctivehabits of all own intelligence. wild animals, before commented on, warrant And herewe recognisea fundamentalprinciple us in concludingthat these were fromthe first of domestication,which is only gradually in- imprintedin theirconstitution, and may, there- duced to any extent througha series of genera- fore, be legitimatelyesteemed as formingpart tions. Thus the elephant,though tamed, is not of the specificcharacter.* domesticated,for every individual is separately The tendency of human influenceis every captured in a wild state; and we have seen that, whereto destroywhatever conduces not to man's when one of these returnsto its proper haunts, enjoyment,as superfluous,and only cumbering its natural instincts having been only for a the ground; but to secure, by every means time subdued and rendered subservient (not the reasoning faculties can suggest, a due eradicated), these have again become the incen- continuance and never-failingsupply of all tives to its conduct, to the exclusion of those that tends to the gratificationof our species. reasoningfaculties which had only been excited Brutes, on the contrary,evince indifferenceto into action under circumstancesadverse to the whatever does not immediatelyconcern them; efficientoperation of the former. Far other- and although, practically,their influenceupon wise is what we observe in animals trulydomes- theirprey is forthe most part decidedlyconserv- ticated: witness the opposite conduct of even ative, yet they individuallycontinue to destroy the newlyhatched progenyof a wild and domes- without reflection,and endeavour not, by any tic duck, though incubated by the same bird-. forbearance,or plan resultingfrom reasoning, to insure the perpetuityof their provision. * That Propensities are similarly transmitted in the human the squirrel or jay should instinctivelyplant race, but certainly not the knowledge of how these are to acorns is, of course, nothing be gratified. It is true, however, that our observation in whatever to the these matters is too much confinedto cultivated, domesti- purpose: we have already tested the sagacity cated man, who is, consequently, farthestremoved from of the formeranimal; and we know that the the brute creation. The Australian savages are known to latter, removed from its proper officein wild have a great penchant for snails and caterpillars; and I nature,will bury a bit of glass or clippingof tin have somewhereread of one of these who had been brought up in a town, and carefullykept away fromall communion as carefullyas it does a seed. with others of his race, who, nevertheless,exhibited the It may be worth while to devote a few re- same fondness for these dainties, despite the abhorrence marks to the considerationof the unintentional with which all his companions regardedthem. His goi2tfor agency of brutes, towards not only preventing them must thus unquestionably have been hereditary; though it is probable he may have learned the fact of their * The readerwill observethat the doctrinehere con- being eaten by his race, which, likely enough, induced him trovertedis but an applicationof the explodedhypothesis to taste and try them. of M. Lamarck.

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SOC. the over-increaseof their prey, which would to amplifyon the concomitanteffects produced only lead to too much consumptionof the food by domesticationon the changes in the physical of the latter, and so bring about famine and constitutionand adaptations of the corporeal consequent degeneration from insufficiencyof frameof animals, which oftentimesrender them nutriment,but likewise towards preservingthe dependent on human assistance for continuous typical characterof theirprey in a more direct support, in the degree of their domesticity. manner,by removingall that deviate fromtheir Such changes are equally imposed on the normal or healthy condition, or which occur vegetable world by cultivation; and they every- away from their proper and suitable locality, where mark the progressof man, and exhibit rather than those engaged in performingthe in indisputable characters the diversityof his office for which Providence designed them. influenceover the inferiorranks of creation, In illustration,it will be sufficientto call atten- from any mutual and reciprocal influenceob- tion to the principleon whichmany birdsof prey servable among these latter. are enabled to discerntheir quarry. When the I may cursorilyallude to hybridismalso, as a tyrantof the air appears on wing, his dreaded phenomenon,as far as can yet be shown, at formis instantlyrecognised by all whose ranks least in animals, where fecundation cannot are thinned for his subsistence; and instinct happen fortuitously,in every instance referable promptsthem to crouch motionless,like a por- to human interference. As yet, I have failed tion of the surface,the tint of which all animals to meet with a single satisfactory instance, that inhabit open places ever resemble; so that wherein commixtureof species could not be he passes over, and fails to discriminatethem, directlytraced to man's agency, in superimpos- and seeks perchance in vain for a meal in the ing a change on the constitutionof the female very midst of abundance; but, should there parent. This is a subject of exceedinginterest; happen to be an individual incapacitated by and I am glad to avail myselfof everyoccasion debility or sickness to maintain its wonted to endeavour to incite some to undertake its vigilance, or should its colours not accord furtherinvestigation. There can be littledoubt sufficientlywith that of the surface,as in the that certain of our domestic races, as the com- case of a variety,or of an animal pertainingto mon fowl, are derived from a plurality of otherand diversehaunts, that creaturebecomes, species, which, however, do not blend in wild in consequence, a marked victim, and is sacri- nature; so that their union (assuming the ficed to appease the appetite of the destroyer: hypothesis to be correct) may here, at least, so profoundlywise are even the minorworkings be fairlyascribed to domestication. Still, when of the grand system; and thus do we perceive we consider that separate species (i.e. races one of an endless multiplicityof causes which not descended from a common stock) exhibit, alike tend to limit the geographical range of as is well known,every grade of approximation, species,and to maintaintheir pristine characters fromobviously distinct to doubtfullyidentical, without blemish or decay to their remotest thereappears, I think,sufficient reason at least posterity.'29 to suspect that circumstancesmay sometimes Thus it is that, however great may be the combine to induce those nearest allied to com- tendency of varieties to perpetuate themselves mingle. That the mixed progeny,too, would by generation,we do not find that they can in some instancesbe mutuallyfertile, I know in maintain themselvesin wild nature; nor do the the case of the hybrid offspringof the A'nser causes which induce variation, beyond the cygn6ides,and the commongoose; but, in birds occasional and very rare occurrenceof an albino, generally, the converse nevertheless obtains, prevail in those natural haunts of species to as is particularlyinstanced, I have learned, by which their structuraladaptations bind them. the hybrid Fringillidaereared in confinement; We have already noticedthe anomalous influence and also the mule betwixt the common fowl of human interferencein -alteringthe innate and pheasant; the males of all which appear instinctsof the lower animals, therebyunfitting (froma varietyof instancesI have been fortun- them to pursue the mode of life followed by ate in collecting) to have been incompetentto their wild progenitors. It would be needless fecundate the eggs produced.* Perhaps the * a 129This paragraph is a very clear and precise statement Since writingthis, I have been informedof solitary with of the conservative aspect of natural selection as it was instance of a male goldfinchmule producingoffspring seen by Blyth. L. C. E. a hen canary.

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superior size, too, of these hybrids generally The question, in short, resolves itself into one to that of eitherof theirparent species may be of time. explicable on the principlewhich occasions the It has already been intimated,that man is the large growthof capons. However, none of the only species that habitually destroys for other species here alluded to are by any means so purposesthan those of food. This leads me to a closely allied as many that are known to exist; fewremarks on the extinctionof species. With- and, therefore,as in the vegetable world the out alluding, however, to the more direct degreeof fertilityin hybridsis in the ratio of that agencyof the humanrace, towards accomplishing of affinitybetween the parents, those derived the destructionof every terrenespecies which fromvery approximate species being, apparently, conduces not in some way to our enjoyment, quite as prolificas the pure race, analogy would we will merelyconsider the naturalcauses which lead us to inferthat the same law holds in the suffice to extirpate all other races, but are animal creation. At present,we have no proof inadequate to effectthe extinctionof the human of it: and I may conclude the subject by observ- species. We have already seen that brute ing that the cases of supposed union (apart animals,in a state of nature,are merelybeings of fromhuman influence)betwixt the carrion and locality, whose agency tends to perpetuate the hooded crows, so often insisted on, are incon- surroundingsystem of which they are members. clusive, inasmuchas it does not appear that the It tends to do so, but is insufficientto effect individuals were ever examined and compared, this permanently; because, in the immensity although black varieties of C6rvus C6rnix have of time importantchanges are brought about been several times known to occur. Indeed, I in every locality, by causes ever in operation, have myself examined a female specimen, on to which the facultiesof the inferioranimals are which were several black feathersintermingled blind. They must, therefore,perish with their with the ordinaryash colour on the back.* locality,unless distributedbeyond the influence The agency of the human race has been of the change; for theiradaptations unfitthem likened to that of brutes,in the particularthat, to contendfor existence with the morelegitimate as man effectsthe destructionof one species, habitants of diverse haunts, in proportionas he necessarilyadvances the interestsof another.t they were suited to their formerabode: and it How far he may permanentlybenefit the latter, must be necessaryfor creatures of instinctto be mightbe discussed on principlesthat have been thus expressly organised in relation to their already expounded. More able writers,how- specific haunts, even to all the minutiae we ever, have put the enquiry whether man, by perceive, in order to enable them to perform taking certain plants, for instance, under his efficientlytheir destined office;which exquisite protection,and greatly extendingtheir natural adaptation, however, cannot but of course range by cultivation, does not thereby unin- disqualify them for maintainingtheir existence tentionallypromote the welfare of the various elsewhere. In man only we discover none of species which subsist upon them. But, will it these partial adaptations, furtherthan that he be argued that man, by vastly increasingthe is intended to exist upon the ground; and the breed of sheep, is unconsciouslylabouring for human race alone, in opposition to all other the advantage of the wolves? As little can it animals, takes cognisance of the progressive be concluded, regarding the human race as changes adverted to, and, from reflection, progressive(in which it differsfrom all other intentionallyopposes obstacles to their course, species), that any race hostile to man's interests or systematically endeavours to divert their can be permanentlybenefited by his agency. energy. Man's agency, indeed, tends everywhere to alter, rather than to preserve, the * A friendinforms me that he has repeatedly noticed, in indigenousfeatures of a country; those features Aberdeenshire,the pairing of a black crow with an ordi- which natural causes combine to produce: in nary individual of C. Cornix; and he furtherassures me short,he strivesagainst the that, to judge fromits most commonlysitting, the former united effortsof all was in every instance the female bird. (Are not the black other agents, insomuch that, whereverhe ap- individuals noticed in Ireland, and assumed to be C. pears, with his faculties at all developed, the Corone, in reality varieties of C. Cornix?) It may be aspect of the surface becomes changed: forests added, that the circumstances occasioning the alleged yield to his perseveringlabours; the marshes union, stated by Temminck,betwixt the Motacilla lCugubris and M. 'alba require much additional investigation. are drained, and converted into fertilelands; t Vide IX, p. 613. the very climate, accordingly,changes under

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 144 LOREN C. EISELEY [PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC. his influence,which every way inclines to ex- this scene of existence, whenever that shall tirpatethe indigenousproducts of the soil, or to happen, will probably be brought about on reduce them, by domestication,to a condition anotherprinciple: how, it would be most useless subservientto the promotionof human interests. to enquire. There is no reason, however,hence Does not, then,all this intimatethat, even as a mundane being, man is no componentof that happened in 1825. How far it extended I do not know; system to which all other species but, formany miles round us, we had in that year scarcely reciprocal any female calves born. Dairies of forty or fiftycows appertain? a systemwhich forcountless epochs produced not more than fiveor six; those of inferiornum- prevailed ere the human race was summoned bers in the same proportion;and the price of female calves into being. His anomalous interference,there- for rearing was greatly augmented. In a wild state," he fore (for this work most aptly expresses the justly observes, "an event like this would have considerable influenceupon the usual product of some futureherd." bearingsof human influenceupon that system), (Note to p. 138.) This occurred in Gloucestershire. The essentially differingfrom the uniformagency character of the preceding season is not stated; but, most of all the rest, in not conducing to the general probably,it was one of scarcityto the parent animals. The welfare,is thus shown to be in no way requisite followinglist exhibits the proportion of the sexes in the to filla gap in the vast systemalluded to. All annual produce of generally six cows, of the Ayrshire breed (four being the same individuals throughout, the rather tends alike to indicate him a being of remaindertheir produce), kept in a park in this neighbour- diverse, of higher destiny; designed, in the hood. It commences with the year in which the present course of time, with the aid of physical causes superintendenttook charge of the stock; and there is no ever in operation, and the presumed cessation question but that, if the stock-books of other persons who have the care of cattle were to be duly looked over for a of the creative energy, to revolutionise the series of years, many similar and equally interestingfacts entire surface of our planet. I will presently would be brought to light:- recur to this subject as regardsmarine produc- In 1826, from6 cows, were born 6 male calves, 0 females. tions. It is sufficientlyevident, that, as the 1827 - 6 - - 6 - - 0 human species is bound to no descriptionof lo- 1828 - 6 - - 6 - - 0 cality, but alike inhabits the mountainand the 1829 - 5 - - 4 - - 1 plain, and is, by self-contrivance,enabled to 1830 - 6 - - 3 - - 3 1831 - 5 - - 0 - - 5 endure the fervid heats of tropical climes, 1832 - 5 - - 0 - - 5 equally with the witheringblasts of a polar 1833 - 6 - - 0 - - 6 winter, it is consequently proof against the 1834 - 6 - - 0 - - 6 underminingeffects of those surface changes 1835 - 6 - - 3 - -- 3 - - 2 - - 4 which suffice to effect the exterminationof 1836 - 6 every other.* Its future removal, then, from Thus it appears that, for the firstfour years, but one female calf was produced out of twenty-threebirths; that * There is no occasion, here, to followout all the causes in the succeeding year the proportionswere equal; that in which combine to bring about the extirpation of species; the next four years, out of twenty-twobirths, there was but I will mentionone which appears not to have been duly not a single male; and that in the followingyear, again, consideredby those who have writtenon the subject. We the sexes were in like proportions. The present season, have every reason to believe that the original germ of an alone, has formed an exception to this remarkable regu- animal may be developed into either male or female; and larity,which I have in vain endeavoured to solve by mak- it is certain, that external circumstances exercise a very ing every enquiry concerningthe male parents. There is considerable influencein determiningthe sex of the future some reason, also, to suspect that the same phenomenon being. Now, the results of experiments instituted on will be found to obtain among wild birds. The Hon. sheep by the AgriculturalSociety of Severac fullywarrant and Rev. W. Herbert remarks, incidentally, that he has the conclusion, that, where species exist under circum- found in the nests of whitethroats (Curriuca cinerea) a stances favourable for their increase, a greater number of great predominanceof males, and the contraryin those of that sex is produced, which, in polygamous animals is whinchatsand stonechats; which latter I have also noticed most effectualfor their multiplication; whereas the con- myself;but cannot say that I have remarkedit in a sufficient trary obtains, probably, in proportionto the difficultyof numberof instances, nor over a sufficientextent of ground, obtaining a livelihood. The relative age and constitu- nor for a sufficientlyprotracted period, to be enabled to tional vigour of the parents is likewise an importantele- deduce any general or satisfactory conclusion: the fact ment in this problem; and, combined with the former,will can, in most instances, be only ascertained (without enable us to calculate an average with tolerable precision. slaughteringa great number) by raising them to maturity I have collected some very curious facts bearing upon this in confinement. But the young stonechat may be readily subject, some of which are extremelydifficult of explana- distinguishedeven in the nest: the immature males have tion. Mr. Knapp, in his Journal of a Naturalist,has the a large pure white spot above their wings, which in the following,which is worthyof close attention:-"The most females is pale brown. The subject is extremelyworthy remarkable instance," he observes, of variation in the of furtherinvestigation, and it is needless to point out its relative proportionof the sexes, "that I rememberof late, importantbearings in wild nature.

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to anticipate that supernatural means mus4 and I may cursorilyremark that, from much necessarilybe resortedto, as a malignantdisease careful and attentive observation, I have might sufficeto level all ranks in the dust. determined,at least to my own satisfaction, It is enough formy presentpurpose, to indicate that, as a general rule, it is in autumn mainly in this the diversity of the human from all influencedby decline of temperature,and in otherspecies. spring by the breedingstimulus: the period of Some have argued the connexionof man with the incidenceof which latter (though,undoubt- the reciprocal system to which the inferior edly, somewhat affected by temperature) is animals pertain,because, forsooth,he sometimes primarilydependent on specificpeculiarity, and, is annoyed by parasites. Without dwelling secondarily, on constitutional vigour.* It is upon this topic, I may be allowed to say that it not the erraticimpulse, however, so much as the remains to be shown that any are peculiar to guidingprinciple, that we have here to do with; the human species. The certain fact, that that wonderful, most inexplicable principle, differentraces of mankind are infested by on which a diurnal migratorybird is not only, distinctspecies, ratherpoints to the conclusion, and by night,enabled to soar foreven thousands that, as the bed cimex can subsist and thrive of miles, over seas and continents,surmounting away from human habitations, so also may every obstacle, even lofty mountain ridges, in even those species which abide on the person.* its course, impelled always in one unvarying direction, till it arrives at the proper winter Vol. 1 (n.s.) (1837), pp. 131-141: ART. VI. On quarters of its species; but, at the ensuing sea- PsychologicalDistinctions betweenMan and son, is also led back to its formerabode, to the all otherAnimals; and theconsequent Diversity precise locality that it had previouslyset out of Human Influenceover the inferior Ranks of * Creation, from any mutual and reciprocal The direct influence of decline of temperature in promptingthe equatorial movementsof the featheredrace, Influenceexercised among the Latter. may be observed in the fluctuations in intensity of the (Concluded) erratic impulse, throughout the greater part of winter, exhibited by migrantbirds in a state of confinement;such I WILL now proceed to notice, and follow to variations being constantly found to accord with thermo- its bearings,that mysteriousimpulse (if possible, metrical changes. It may be added, that the degree of temperature which incites them to migrate varies con- even more incomprehensible than ordinary siderably in differentspecies; and in some instances, also, instinct) which guides a migrantanimal to its it must not be concealed, that the impulse to quit the destinedhaven; whichalso propelsa bee towards breeding station is entirely independent of decrease of its hive, and a pigeon homewardfrom one ex- temperature; as is exemplified by the swift and adult tremityof Europe to another; a principle,as cuckoo retiringsouthward at the hottestperiod of the year: so powerful,too, is this impetus in the first-namedspecies, will be shown,not whollyabsent fromthe human and others of the Hirundinid&e,that these have been constitution. The migrative restlessness dis- many times knownto leave a brood of half-fledgednestlings played so forciblyby birds of passage, even to perish. As regards the polar movement,the proximate when raised in confinement,and plentifully cause will appear on considerationof the followingfacts:- supplied with the nourishmentthey have been It is known that, in the feathered race, the enlargement of particularorgans in springsuperinduces, in most groups, accustomed to (thus showing that insufficiency some considerable change in the external aspect; fre- of food is not the predisposingcause, as is also quently altering, for instance, the colour of the bill, and intimated by the early departure of certain occasioning (in single-moultingspecies) the rapid disap- species from their summer haunts, after per- pearance of those deciduous edgings to the feathers,which formingthe duties of the oftentimesconceal, for a while, the brightertints of sum- season), is merelyon mer; which latter, also, are, in addition, commonly more a par with all other instinctivemanifestations: or less heightenedat this period. Now, all these changes are in two nearly allied species, the chaffinch * observable It is amusing to observe how gravely the loss of these and bramble finch,both of which pass the winter in the parasites is commentedon in Vol. IX. p. 612. as a necessary same localities; but it uniformlyhappens that the vernal consequence of the exterminationof human beings. Let change takes place in the former species several weeks us suppose they were to perish; what then? Have not earlier than in the latter. In the beginning of March, myriads upon myriads of every class of beings become every chaffinchis found to exhibit its complete summer extinct,as species, without affectingat all the workingsof aspect; whereas, late in April, I have watched, with a the mighty system? Why, then, should the dreaded loss glass, a flockof bramble finchesfeeding on elm blossoms, of a few parasites, the sphere of whose influencecannot be in none of which had the bill acquired its blue colour; supposed to extend beyond that of the species to which coincident with which change this species always leaves their adaptations link them? the country. The fact is equally noticeable when they

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 146 LOREN C. EISELEY [PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC. from, having been known even to return to that it was at lengthresolved to cast what few confinement. I conceive it unnecessary to remainedof them, includingthe lame one, into detail observed instances of this astonishing the sea, to give them,as was said, a chance for fact, because, in the featheredrace, it is well their lives. Three years afterwards,this same known to every student of natural history. It turtle,with its three fins,and the marks of the will be enough to mention,that I have an in- hot iron beneath, was found again upon Ascen- stance, on indisputable authority, of a lame sion Island. redstartreturning regularly for sixteen summers It is sufficientto referto the resultsof numer- to the same garden. ous experimentswhich have been institutedon Amongmammalians, numerous instances have the fryof the Salm6nidae,to be convincedof the been recorded,resting on unexceptionabletesti- prevalence of the same surprisingimpulse also mony, of animals returningstraight to their among fishes. accustomed haunts, over pastures and across In the invertebrateanimals, we have, ap- streams they could not possibly have ever parently,proof of the existenceof this principle, traversed before, and by a nearer and very in the fact of the great distances to which differentroute from that by which they had many hymenopterous insects are known to been drivenor carried. To these I will add the range for food. A decisive experiment,how- following, which occurred to the personal ever, is still needed to renderthe inferencecon- knowledgeof my informant. A cat, from the clusive; and I venture to suggest, to whoever centre of an intricate and populous seaport may have the opportunityand inclination,that town*,was shipped on board of a vessel bound of markinga numberof bees fromthe same hive, forthe Brazils; and, afterperforming the voyage and sufferingthem to flyfrom, say, a hundred to and fro,contrived to escape, on returningto miles' distance. There is hardly a doubt that its native port, and found its way, through they would be found to regain their abode; several streetsto its formerdomicile. and it would be interestingto ascertain the Mr. Jesse,in the thirdseries of his Gleanings, time they would requireto do so. has related a like anecdote of a reptile. Of a Some migratorybirds are observed to resort numberof turtles,captured on AscensionIsland, annually to the exact same winter quarters; chanced to be an individual which, to use the forillustrative proof of which,refer to Bewick's technicalphrase, had lost one of itsfins. It was description of the woodcock. Other species marked in the ordinary manner on the under would seem to wander through the winter,of shell,which marks are well knownto be indelible. which the waxwingmay be cited as an example. The vessel, on arriving in the Channel, was They all, however, appear to return to their long detained by contrarywinds, during which former breeding haunts, where dispersion is time a great mortalitytook place among tha effected,in those species which do not nidificate turtles; these dying one after another so fast, in society, by the older individuals (which are always the firstto return) driving away their are kept in confinement. Fieldfares and redwings, also, young of a formeryear; which latter,however, linger in our fields till long after their resident congeners not commonlyretire farther than they can it is on dissect- do have been engaged in breeding; and found, to notice in some ing these, at this period, that they are comparatively very help, as I have had occasion backward in their seasonal developments, the attainment instances. of which immediately prompts the migrative impulse. The bearings of this law on the geographical Of course, the breeding station is the proper home of a distributionof species do not appear to have species, and thereto do all its adaptations directly refer; into consideration. For and thus we findthat even the genial influenceof a more been sufficientlytaken equatorial abode fails to excite the breeding energies of instance,Mr. Selby remarks,as an extraordinary migrant birds, until such time as their distant summer circumstance, tending to show within what haunts become fitted for their reception. To conclude abrupt boundariesthe natural range of particu- this subject, it may be added, that the migratoryrestless- is confined,the abundance of the at the time lar species ness in caged birds does not dissipate in spring, rarity of the reappearance of theirwild brethren,but is occasion- white stork in Holland, and its excessive ally evinced throughout the summer, till its cessation on the opposite English coast. In Holland, follows the decrease of those organs which had all along be it remembered,it meetswith encouragement; stimulated its manifestation;a constitutionalchange which whereas, in this country, no sooner does an autumnal likewiseputs a stop to song, and bringsabout the individual make its appearance, than it is renovation of plumage. * St. Helier's, Jersey. immediatelyshot down. Once allowed to settle,

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions VOL. 103, NO. 1, 1959] CHARLES DARWIN AND EDWARD BLYTH 147 it would doubtless soon colonise our fenny of what are consideredspecies have descended counties. froma commonparentage? Some years ago, a considerableflock of spoon- I would brieflydespatch this interrogatory, bills settled in a part of Aberdeenshire;whereas abler writershave oftentaken the subject in upon the whole neighbourhooduprose in arms, hand. It is, moreover,foreign to the professed till every bird of them was killed. Here, prob- object of this paper. There are mfianyphe- ably, we have an instance of another phenome- nomena which tend, in no small degree, to non in the animal world, which should not be favour the supposition,and none more so than overlooked in this treatise. When a species what I have termed the localising principle, increases numerically in any habitat beyond which must occasion, to a great extent, what what the latter is adequate to sustain (a cir- is called "breedingin and in," and, therefore,the cumstance which, in the higher groups, can transmission of individual peculiarities. We hardlyhappen, except in those of social habits), have seen, however, the extreme difficulties either their ranks are mysteriouslythinned by which most species have to encounter when what is termed epizooty,or an erratic impulse occurringbeyond the sphereof theiradaptations; (unrestrained by the localising principle we difficultieswhich must require human aid, in have been considering) instinctivelyprompts general,to rendersurmountable. But, without a portionof them to seek freshquarters. This re-enteringinto the details of this subject, it is observed more in mammalians than in birds, will be sufficientlyclear to all who considerthe but is particularly noticeable in the insect matter, that, were this self-adapting system tribes; various species of which,though solitary to prevail to any extent,we should in vain seek in theirusual habit,have been knownto assemble for those constant and invariable distinctions at times in prodigiousmultitudes, prompted by which are foundto obtain. Instead of a species a generalimpulse, which, however, appears to be becoming gradually less numerous where its less conferredwith intentto extend the previous haunts grade imperceptiblyaway, we should range of their distribution,than to preserve discovera correspondinggradation in its adapta- the species within due bounds in its native tions; and, as the most dissimilarvarieties of one locality; for the numerousdangers with which species (those of the dog, forinstance) propagate these wanderers are necessarily every where as readily togetheras individuals of the same beset absolutely appear to suffice, in most variety, producingoffspring of blended charac- instances, to prevent their permanentlyestab- ters*, so much so, that human interferenceis lishingthemselves in other places; a remarkable requisite to preserve a breed unadulterated, fact, notoriousto all who have attended to the the unbendingpermanency of the distinguishing subject. So many causes are therein operation characteristicsof all wild animals becomes of which combine to circumscribethe geographic double import. Moreover, the characters in range of species. which these differare of a diverse kind from A variety of important considerationshere these observable in any but the most distant crowd upon the mind; foremostof which is the of mere varieties; for they rarely agree in the enquiry, that, as man, by removing species relative proportions of parts, which are the from their appropriate haunts, superinduces most fixed of all specific distinctions. It is, changes on their physical constitution and adaptations, to what extent may not the same among whichwere two nests of very rufousbirds, and three take place in wild nature, so that, in a few of a much darker colour: the former,he assured me, were generations,distinctive characters may be ac- found in a gravelly situation; the others on a dark soil. Some cases I have since noticed have verifiedthe observa- quired, such as are recognisedas indicative of tion. On another occasion, I may probably bring together specific diversity? It is a positive fact, for a numberof analogous facts, in the formof a paper; but it example, that the nestling plumage of larks, would occupy too much space to do so here. It may, hatched in a red gravelly locality,is of a paler however,be added, that the agency of many species confers and more rufous tint than in a reciprocityof adaptation; thus, the mode in which sheep those bred upon graze has a decided tendency to reduce a country to that a dark soil.* May not, then,a large proportion bare and bleak state which suits best with their healthy condition. Hence would accrue a * necessary return of Such is, at least, the uniformresult of my experience; varieties to their normal characters. though I could never discern a correspondingdifference in * Individuals of very diverse breeds mostly do so: where the adults. This curious fact was firstintimated to me the parents more nearly approximate, the young often by a person who had a number of young larks for sale, entirelyresemble one or the other.

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 148 LOREN C. EISELEY [PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC. therefore,advisedly that we are enabled to tion of the vital functions.t Analogy would state that the raven of the Cape is distinct lead us to inferthat such antagonist principles from the raven of South America; that both obtain throughout creation, whether or not are again differentfrom that of the South Sea human observationmay have yet detected their Islands and from that of Europe. The com- existence. It would be easy to point out mon jay is diffusedover a wide rangeof latitude. additional hindrances to the more extensive but is the same in Italy as in Sweden: this spread of species of fixed habit, by treatingon would not be were it affectedby locality or the fractionwhich are allowed to attain maturity, climate; the very trivial distinctions,therefore, even in their normal habitat, of the multitude which characteriseit apart fromthat of Japan, of germs which are annually produced; and in and fromthat of Asia Minor, we are warranted what ratio the causes which preventthe numer- in esteemingof specificvalue. Until the jays ical increaseof a species in its indigenouslocality of interveninglocalities present inosculant char- would act where its adaptations are not in strict acterst, or until preciselyanalogous diversities accordance will sufficientlyappear, on consider- are, in wild nature,observed to be produced by ing the exquisite perfectionof those of the locality or climate, the above conclusion is as races with which it would have to contend. irresistibleas it is incontrovertible. If there is a probabilitythat any species has When, too, we perceive that species so very become naturally of general distribution,it is general in their adaptations as the typical in the case of two lepidopterousinsects, Acher6n- C6rvidae are limitedin theirrange, it behooves tia A'tropos and Cynthia cardui, both of which us to be most cautious in assumingthe specifical are of peculiarly erratic habits; and it is said identityof the most similaranimals fromwidely that these are found throughout the world: separated localities. Let it be rememberedthat yet the differenceswhich exist in specimensfrom no reason can be assigned why those originally diverse localities are hard to reconcile with distinct should not exactly resemble. Human specificvariation, at least to judge fromwhat agency apart, I do not think there is a single tropical specimens I have seen of the former; species which even approximates to universal and an eminent entomological friend has re- distribution. Of course, we can only judge markedto me, in conversation,that he is equally from probabilityand analogy. Great locomo- sceptical, judging from his own experience,of tive power, even the maximum, by no means many Cynthiaeassumed to be cardui. It will necessarily implies an extensive distribution: be borne in mind, however, that man has witness the common swift, and its American unintentionallycarried with him the seeds of analogue*, neither of which have been known the very prolificplants on which the painted- to straggleacross the Atlantic,like many birds lady butterflyfeeds, wherever he has introduced of far less power of wing, but are bound by the CereAlia. the localisingprinciple. It is true,this principle But to return to that mysterious guiding principle, so important,as we have seen, in can apply only to such species as are locomotive; regulatingthe distributionof species; and which that other causes analo- but it is equally true, I have asserted to be not wholly absent from gously restrain the undue diffusionof those the human constitution. It has been stated which are individuallyfixed. Thus we hear of of many savages, and more particularlyof the the agency of sea currentsin transportingseeds, aborigines of Australia, that they are enabled which must abundantly be carried out into the to return for even hundreds of miles to their ocean by the action of rivers; but it appears homes, though totally unacquainted with the not to have been rememberedthat steeping in route,being led by an intuitiveimpulse that they sea water destroys the vital principle; that cannot explain. This seems incredible: but moisture induces germination, which, once we know that diurnal birds will returnby night excited,can only be checked by the finalcessa- fromthe heart of Africato theirformer abode,

t Here the very remarkable fact, however, is not to be t This observation is, however, intended to apply overlooked, that the solitary African species of trogon merelyto those of inland plants; forsome maritimespecies, presents a combination of those colours and markings as the PandAnex and cocoa palms, have their seeds en- which uniformlydistinguish apart its numerous congeners cased in sea-proofcoverings, especially adapted forfloating in the Oriental isles fromthose of South America. uninjured on the waves: the restricteddistribution of such * ChatCurapelasgica. vegetables is provided for on another principle.

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions VOL. 103, NO. 1, 1959] CHARLES DARWIN AND EDWARD BLYTH 149 markedindividuals having done so; and we also sufficientlyto be in nowise referableto instinct, know that a pigeon, carried from Paris to inasmuch as it is contrary to the ordinary Constantinople,has flown back to the former habit of the species upon such occasions. It city: these facts will tend to diminish our will be readily admitted, however, that such scepticism. I have two instances, however, instances are extremelyrare exceptions to the of the manifestationof this principleby Euro- general rule; and I imagine there are few who peans, when in a state of insensibility;for both will be disposed to referthe ordinaryhabits of of which I am indebted to the parties them- any species of the lower animals to aught else selves, gentlemen of unimpeachable veracity: than originalintuition. both of themreturned, in this'condition, to their I have yet anotherphenomenon, which is now, temporary homes (one in the dark, and for I believe, forthe firsttime introducedto notice. upwards of a mile, having been thrownfrom his It is the occurrence,in domesticated animals, horse, which remained on the spot till found of what is analogous to idiocyin the human race. next morning),by routes with which they were Of this I have several instancesin poultry,and quite unacquainted. I am not disposed to one in a sheep. It consists in the privation;of enlarge at presenton this subject, by enquiring more or less of that intuitiveknowledge which to what extent numerous phenomena recorded is needed to enable an animal to maintain its of somnambulists may be explicable on this existence amid the numerous dangers with obscure principle. We hear continually of which it is naturally surrounded; dangers surprisinginstances of blind men findingtheir against which no experience could sufficeto way, with a degree of accuracy very difficult fortifyit. The creatures I allude to evinced to comprehend; and, also, of drunkardsstum- a listlessness in their deportment strikingly bling home, when apparently unobservant of similarto what is commonlyobserved in human external objects. It will be sufficientif these idiots: they sought not the society of their hintsserve to awaken the reader'sattention, and companions; and one of them, a hen (of which so, peradventure,elicit some additional facts. only I can speak from personal observation), We have now traced to theirultimate results would heedlesslywander close beforethe kennel certain of the bearingsof the intuitiveinforma- of a fiercedog, which the otherfowls constantly tion conferredon brutes,which, in wild nature, avoided. Whetherthe dog would have attacked mainly influencestheir actions. We have seen another fowl, I cannot say; very likely not: that man is denied innateknowledge of the prop- but it is a well knownfact, that the most savage erties of objects, and is, therefore,necessitated of the canine race will never attack a human to observe and reflect; in a word, to learn. idiot, nor a child, nor a person stupifiedby Hence the necessityof a long infancyand su- intoxication:of the truthof whichlatter, a most perior intelligence; hence that progressiveness remarkable exemplificationlately happened in which so eminentlydistinguishes him fromall this neighbourhood;a drunkenstranger having other races. I have nowheredenied that other been absolutely permittedto share the straw animals are capable of reflection;but I assert of a very fiercewatch-dog, which those it knows that, unrestrainedby human influence,their can hardlyapproach with safety. inherentinstincts sufficing to insure their weal In the foregoingpages, I have all along been and maintenance,these, in consequence, super- considering the diversity of human influence sede the necessity of habitual observation; from that of all other organised races, rather whencetheir reasoning even may be independent in its effects towards these latter, than by of experience. Indeed, it is hard to instance taking the higher ground of natural theology a case whereinthe conduct of trulywild animals in referenceto human kind, and recognising, may not be satisfactorilyreferred to instinctive in the grand aggregate of all that has been motives; but that such cases do occur is shown effectedin past ages by the joint influenceof by eaves swallows (Hiriundo uirbica) having everycause that has been in operation,not only been known to immure a sitting sparrow that a gradual prospectiveadaptation to the welfare had usurped their nest*; which fact is proved of each succeeding race, but an ulteriorobject * Even here it might be objected that man's influence in capacitating the globe for the residence of could alone have brought these species into contact; so human beings. A new era commencedwith the hard is it to disentangle ourselves entirely from the meshes of human interference. Such an objection would, introductionof man upon thisworld: a secondary however, in this instance, be frivolous. intelligencewas permittedto assume the domin-

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 150 LOREN C. EISELEY rPROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC. ion over matter,in so far as, by experimenting nature, in so far as this system is concerned, upon its properties,it can elucidate the unvary- have sunk in years; when the stupendous cycle ing laws which regulate these, a knowledgeof shall have been accomplished. Then, and with which is indispensableto empower intellectto humblereverence let the mightyacts of Supreme direct their operation.* To man it was given Omnipotencebe spoken of, it may be that the to "conquer the whole earth and subdue it;" eternal and ever-gloriousBeing which willed and who can ventureto aver the ultimatelimits matter into existence shall pronounceon it the of those changes which he every where superin- finaldoom of annihilation;and changes which, in conjunctionwith the duces; "the greatglobe itself physical laws which wear away the land and shalldissolve, uplift the bed of the ocean, may, in time, be And,like the baselessfabric of a vision, graduallyfatal to the normalcondition of every Leave nota rackbehind." other race, and to the existenceeven of by far the greater number? that is, assuming, what Or, what is farmore probable, to judge fromthe there is every reason to infer,that the human universal analogies of all that is within our species was the last act of creation upon this grasp, its elements shall again be called forth world, and that it will continue to be so until into light and life, and blaze forththe recom- its removal. It is needless to add, that a pro- mencementof the same system. digious lapse of time is here required; and, to It is inconsistentwith our notions of divine judge fromdata which the past historyof the benevolence, to suppose that the human race globe abundantly furnishes,in legible records, shall be sufferedto lingerhere upon earth, till whereverwe turn our eyes; to judge fromthe such secondary causes as we have been con- progressivenessof human intellect,and the long, sidering should sufficeto gather the last man long while that must yet transpireere man can to his fathers. hope to assume that rank,as a consistentbeing, Tooting,Surrey, Dec. 1. 1836. for which his faculties clearly show that he was intended,the durationof his existenceupon APPENDIX B this planet would appear likely to bear propor- MEMOIR OF EDWARD BLYTH BY ARTHUR tion to that immenseperiod that the globe will GROTE, PUBLISHED IN THE JOURNAL it OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETY OF continue fitted for his reception; a period, BENGAL,AUGUST, 1875 may be presumed,that will abundantly suffice to alternate the land and sea, as we know has More than one obituary notice of Blyth and repeatedlyhappened heretofore,and which may his scientificlabours, by competentand kindly sweep from existence the inhabitants of the pens, has already appeared in the columns of present ocean, as those of which the exuviae those Journals to which he had been in the occur in the chalk have become extinct before habit of contributing. This seems a fitting them.t The past affordingthe only record place for collecting in a brief memoir such fromwhich we are competentto judge rationally particulars as are obtainable of his early life, of the future,this inverseanalogy would argue and such as I can myselfsupply of his long a continuanceof the refrigerationof our planet, career in our Society's service. My personal till it shall be again unfittedfor the existenceof acquaintance with him commenced on my organic beings. As by a catenation of obvious returnto India fromfurlough in 1848. He had and palpable factswe can trace back the history then been Curator of our Museum for seven of thisworld to a state of fusion,if not of general years,and my officialconnexion with the Society, nebulosity,so are we warrantedin anticipating combined with a taste for his pursuits,brought its futurecongelation, when old age shall have me into frequentand close relationswith him. come over it as barrenness,and the gases shall Of the incidents of his pre-Indian life some have solidifiedby intensityof cold; when,it may knowledge has been obtained from his sister, be, the sun himselfshall have grown dim, and who has kindly given me access to such of his lettersas are in her possession. * "Homo, natura ministeret interpres,tantum facit et The carbon print which accompanies this intelligitquantum de natura ordine re vel mente observa- memoir has been prepared by the Autotype Bacon. verit; nec amplius scit aut potest."-Lord from a photograph taken of Blyth t Except man shall have domesticated some of these, Company and artificiallytransferred them to new localities. when he visited Dublin some ten years ago.

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It has been kindly contributedto me by Miss fianceof many obstacles and interruptions,and Blyth and her relative Mr. R. Loder, of High eagerly avails itself of every occasion to con- Beeches, Crawley,Sussex. tributea mite to the stock of general informa- Edward Blyth was born in London on the tion." Young as he was, Blyth had at this 23rd December, 1810. His father was of a timeearned forhimself a reputationas a diligent Norfolkfamily, and fromhim the son appears and accurate fieldobserver, and he corresponded to have inheritedboth his taste for nature and with many of the leading naturalistsof the day. the retentive memory for which he was so He seems to have been a contributorto both remarkable. Blyth's fatherdied in 1820, leav- Loudon and Charlesworth'sseries of the Maga- ing four children, whose care and education zine of Natural History from 1833 till his de- now devolved on the widow, a Hampshire lady, parture for India, and in one of his papers of who at once sent Edward, the eldest boy, to the volume for 1838 he proposeda new arrange- Dr. Fennell's school at Wimbledon. Here ment of Insessorial birds. Rennie enilistedhim the boy seems to have made unusual progress as a writer in the "Field Naturalist," and he in his books, but the school reportsdescribe him was associated with Mudie, Johnston, and as of truant habits, and as being frequently Westwood, in an illustrated translation of found in the woods. He left school in 1825, Cuvier, which was published by Orr and Co. and his motherseems at firstto have intended in 1840. Blyth undertookthe Mammals, Birds, him for an University career, and ultimately and Reptiles in this work,adding much original for the Church,but at Dr. Fennell's suggestion matter of his own, which is inclosed within she sent her son to London to study chemistry brackets. A new and enlarged edition of the under Mr. Keating, of St. Paul's Churchyard. workappeared in 1854,with importantadditions He did not,however, long persevere in thisstudy, to the Molluscs and Fishes by Dr. Carpenter. being dissatisfiedwith his instructor'smode of The Proceedings of the Zoological Society teaching. His enthusiasmfor Natural History from1837 to 1840 contain a few papers read by pursuits disinclined him for any ordinary Blyth at their meetings. One of these, on the employment,and on comingof age he embarked Osteology of the Great Auk, observes on the the little means he had in a druggist'sbusiness distinctive characters of Auks and Penguins. at Tooting. To this he seems to have given In another he draws attention to peculiarities little personal attention. The management of in the structureof the feetof the Trogons. But the business was left to another, while Blyth the most importantof these contributionswas devoted all his timeto the studywhich engrossed his Monograph of the genus "Ovis," read in his thoughts. "Never," says his sister, "was 1840.* He here describes fifteen species of any youth more industrious;up at threeor four Sheep, includingthe then newly discovered 0. in the morning,reading, making notes, sketching poli, from Pamir. At the same meeting he bones, colouring maps, stuffingbirds by the exhibited drawings and specimens of the Yak, hundred, collecting butterflies,and beetles- Kashmir Stag, Markhur, Himalayan Ibex, and teaching himselfGerman sufficientlyto trans- other Indian ruminants,his remarkson which late it readily, singingalways merrilyat inter- show the attentionwhich he had already begun vals." He took a room in Pall Mall, to have to give to the Zoology of India. readier access to books, and passed much of his Just at this time our Society had obtained time in the British Museum, in which, or in fromthe Court of Directors a grant for a paid *somekindred institution,he tried hard to find Curator of its Museum, which had grown into employment. a collectionbeyond what was manageable by the Naturally the Tooting business did not thrive honoraryoffice-bearers who had hithertolooked under such fitful management. Blyth soon after it. The labours of Hodgson, Canitor, foundhimself in seriousdifficulties; such literary M'Clelland, and others,had filledit with valu- work as offereditself in his own special line of able Zoological specimens,which with important study supplied him with but precariousmeans. * In the Introduction to his edition of White's Proc. Zool. Soc., July 28. This was an "Amended 'Selborne,' which bears date fromLower Toot- List" of species, of which he had enumerated nine in a ing, 1836, he alludes to the anxieties which summary Monograph in the previous February. This paper was then surrounded him, though "his mind," he reprinted in Taylor's Mag. of Nat. Hist. in 1841, and again with additional matter in J.B.A.S. vol. x. adds, "cleaves to its favourite pursuit in de- pt. 2, p. 858.

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fossil and other contributionswere fallinginto had engaged, there were not wanting to him great disorder. Prof. H. H. Wilson, then our opportunitiesof findingfar more remunerative honoraryagent in London, was asked to select employment in other quarters. The Dutch a competent man to undertake the general authoritiesin Java seem to have about thistime charge of the Museum, and the appointment made him a very temptingoffer. was offeredto and accepted by Blyth, then in The Proceedingsof the Zoological Society for weak health, and professionallyadvised to seek 1841 and 1842 contain two lettersfrom Blyth, a warmer climate. Provided with passage of which one was writtenon the voyage out to and outfitby the Court of Directors,the latter India,* and the other shortlyafter his arrival.t arrived in Calcutta in September, 1841. His The latter contained remarkson various species letter to Mr. H. Torrens, published in our of birds found in India and Europe. Nothing Society's Proceedings for that month (vide fromhis pen appears in the Calcutta Journalof Journ. Vol. X. Pt. 2, p. 756), expresses the Natural History, of which the publication had diffidencewith which he entered on the charge just commenced when he reached India, and of the Mineral Department of the Museum; whichwas broughtto a close in 1847. He found but of this duty he was largelyrelieved in-the time, however,to send home several papers for following year on the appointment of Mr. the Annals of Natural History in 1844-48, as Piddingtonto all the Departmenitsof Economic will be seen in the List appended to this Memoir, Geology. He still retained the custody of the in which I have endeavouredto collect the titles Palaeontologicalspecimens. of all his publishedwritings. One of the duties impressedon him by our The unpleasantepisode in regardto the publi- then President,Sir E. Ryan, was that of furnish- cation of the Burnes Zoological drawings with ing monthlyreports at the Society's meetings; Dr. Lord's notes had occurred before I joined and in October, 1841, he accordinglysubmitted the Society. The materials, which consisted the firstof that long series of useful reports of certain wretched figuresby a native artist, which appear in our Proceedingswith scarcely and some descriptions of already well-known any intermissionfor the next twenty years. species, the Afghanistanlocalities of which were Each of the monthlyissues of this Journal for alone new, had been made over to us by the the remainderof 1841 containsa paper by Blyth. Governmentbefore Blyth became our Curator. In the firstof these, 'A general review of the The lithographer'sdeath had broughtthe work species of True Stag,' etc., he committedhimself to a stand, and when inquirywas made in 1844, to an opinion, shared with him by Ogilby, the notes which were to furnishthe letterpress regarding Hodgson's Cervus affinis,which, as were not forthcoming. Blyth's explanation of Jerdonhas pointed out (Mamm. p. 252), he did his share in their disappearance will be found not recant till 1861. in our Proceedingsof October, 1844.t This was Many of Blyth's reports fill from fifteento followed by a controversywith Mr. Torrens,? twenty pages, and his remarkson the various then our Secretary; and the financialembarrass- contributionswhich reached him were just what mentsof the Societysoon afterwardsnecessitated were wanted by the fieldobservers who supplied the abandonment of the publication. Of the them. The active correspondence which he fourteencoloured copies of the completedplates, set on foot with these and with sportsmen,all I possess one, and I quite agree with Blyth that more or less naturalists, throughout India, their issue would have broughtridicule on the encouraged their useful pursuits, and brought Society. him a largeaccession of -specimens. He received The heavy outlay incurred on this under- in July,1846, the thanksof the monthlymeeting taking, and on the publication of Cantor's of our Society for his exertions"in opening out Chusan drawings,was unfortunatelythe cause, new channels of scientificintercourse."* He not only of the embarrassmentsjust noticed, had already found it necessary to apply for but of a temporaryestrangement between the assistance in his Museum duties,but the Society Philologicaland Physicalclasses of our members. had not the means of supplementingthe Govern- Funds which had been assigned by the Govern- small allowance which ment grant beyond the * they gave him forhouse rent. Had Blyth been P.Z.S. 1841, p. 63. to the service in which he t idem. 1842, p. 93. less devoted special t J.B.A.S. xiii. pt. 2, p. 51. *J.B.A.S. xv. p. 51. ? idem. xiv. pt. 2, p. cvi.

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions VOL. 103, NO. 1, 1959] CHARLES DARWIN AND EDWARD BLYTH 153 ment for furtheringOriental literaturehad no Blyth availed himselfof every opportunity doubt been appropriated to other objects. which offeredof escape fromhis closet studies Blyth came in for a share of this discontenton to resume his early habits of field observation. the part of the Orientalists,and some Naturalists Frequent mention will be found in his reports also complainedthat he was enrichingthe Mam- of the little excursionsinto the countrywhich mal and Bird departmentsof the Museum at the he thus made, and of the practical results ob- expense of those of the shells,fossils, and insects. tained fromthem. The genialityof his disposi- The want, too, of a Catalogue of the collections tion and the large store of general information had been long felt, and the Curator had been at his command insured him a warm welcome repeatedly urged to supply it. The Council in all quarters. One of his favourite resorts refersto his delay in performingthis duty in was Khulna, on the edge of the JessoreSunder- their Report* of 1848, while commending"his buns, where the indigo factoryof an intelligent regularityof attendance and remarkableindus- and untiringobservert offered him a favourable try." His application for increased pay and a station forfield pursuits. retiringpension was referredto the Society at Several contributions from Blyth on his large with the followingguarded remarks:-"It special subject will be found in the pages of the must be admitted that for any scientificman differentsporting Journals which have appeared capable of dischargingthe duties on which Mr. in Calcutta. He was on the regularstaff of the Blyth is employed, and of performingthem 'Indian Field.' In the 'India Sporting Review' with activity and zeal, for the advancement of he published a sketch of 'The Osteology of the science,etc., the [monthly] salary of 250 rupees Elephant,' and a seriesof papers on 'The Feline is a very inadequate compensation. But the Animals of India.' For the 'Calcutta Review' Council cannot but regard the present as an he wrote an article on the 'Birds of India.' inauspicious period to address the Honourable It gives the results of his latest experienceon Court in furtheranceof any pecuniary claim. the subject of the communicationmade in 1842 The diversionof the Oriental grant to so large to the Zoological Society,which has been noticed an amount as has but lately been brought to above, and shows that of 353 species of birds notice, cannot be regardedwith indifferenceby admitted by Yarrell into the English avifauna, them,nor can it have disposed themto entertain no less than 140 are foundin India. with much favour any freshdemand on their In 1854 Blyth was marriedto Mrs. Hodges, munificencepreferred by the Society." The a young widow whom he had known as Miss application was then referredfor report to the Sutton, and who had lately come out to join Natural History Section, and notwithstanding some relatives in India. This step on his part the stout struggle made on his behalf in the necessarilyaggravated the embarrassmentsen- Section, theirreport was unfavourableto Blyth's tailed on him by his inadequate income,and on claims, whichwere finallynegatived at the Julyt completinghis fourteenthyear of servicein 1855, meetingin 1848. he memorializedthe Court of Directors for an In the following year Blyth published his increased salary and for a- pension "after a Catalogue of Birds, which had in fact long been certainnumber of years' service." In the second ready for issue in a form which would have paragraph of his memorial he observes, "that satisfied the Council. It had been constantly howeverdesirous the Asiatic Society mightbe of kept back for the Appendices, Addenda, and augmentingyour memorialist'spersonal allow- "FurtherAddenda," whichdisfigure the volume, ances, the ever-increasingdemands on its in- and seriouslydetract fromits value as a work come, consequent on the extensionof its collec- of reference. This habitual reluctance of his tions among other causes, altogether disables to part with his compositions till he had em- it from so doing." On this memorial being bodied in them his latest gained informationis submitted to the meeting* of May, 1856, it conspicuous throughouthis contributions,and was agreed to forwardthe documentto Govern- it is in fact partly due to this habit that these ment, "with the expression of the high sense Burman Catalogues form a posthumous pub- entertainedby the Society of the value of Mr. Blyth's labours in the Department lication. of Natural Our common * t friend Robert Frith, whose name is of J.B.A.S. xvii. pt. 1, p. 10. frequentoccurrence in the Curator's reports. t J.B.A.S. xvii. pt. 2, p. 122. * J.B.A.S. xxv. 237.

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History,and of its hope that the memorialmay Difficultiesunfortunately occurred in finding be favourably considered by the Honourable ships forthe transportof the animals, and their Court." detention in Calcutta caused furthercasualties The extract just given will show, in Blyth's and heavy charges, which his partner would own words,that he had no complaintsto make not face. The speculation collapsed, but one of our Society's treatment of him. Mr. A. of the tigers which reached England realized Hume, who seems to have firstjoined our Society ?140. in 1870, has gone somewhatout of his way in his In December, 1857, Blyth had the misfortune 'Rough Notes't to do justice to Blyth's merits to lose his wife. His shortmarried life had been as Curator, at the expense of older members. of the happiest,and the blow fellheavily on him. The language used is in Mr. Hume's character- His letters to his sister for the early months istic style, and is as offensiveas the charge of 1858 are painfulto read. The shock proved brought against the Society is unjust. The too much for him, and brought on a serious same charge is implied in the use of the words attack of illness; it threatenedparalysis of the "neglect and harshness"in the "In Memoriam" heart, and he seems to have been subject to with which vol. ii. of 'Stray Feathers' opens, partial returns of similar attacks for the rest and which, with this exception, describes with of his life. His health too sufferedmuch from much truthand feelingthe life-longstruggle in the isolation imposed on him by his straitened India, as at home, which Blyth's scientific means,and fromwant of properexercise. Some ardour supported him in maintaining against distractionfor his thoughtswas luckilyafforded the most depressingobstacles. at this time by the openingup of a new fauna in That nothingcame of this memorial is due the Andaman Islands, which Dr. Mouatt had probably in some measure to the movement been sent to report on before their occupation which commenced in 1857 for transferringour as a penal settlement. To this Report Blyth collectionsto an Imperial Museum, but mainly contributed an interesting chapter on the to the great convulsionwhich shook our empire Zoology of the Islands, so far as it was then in that year. I findno recordin our Proceedings known. of any reply having been made to our recom- The China expeditionof 1860 was considered mendation,and the negociationsfor the founda- both at home and in India a good opportunity tion of the new museum were not resumed for for obtaininginformation regarding the natural some threeyears. historyof North China. Blyth's name was put Blythmade a shorttour in the N.W. Provinces forwardas that of a naturalistreadily available in July, 1856. He spent some six weeks in and eminentlyqualified for the post of naturalist Lucknow, Cawnpore, Allahabad, and Benares. to the expedition. Replyingto Lord Canning's Oude had just been annexed,and the sale of the objections that scientific observations in a Royal Menagerie at Lucknow had been deter- hostile countrywould have to be carried on at mined on. The tigers were the finest caged much personal risk, our Council,* while urging specimensin the world, and to one who under- the importance of the mission in a scientific stood their value in the European market, the point of view, stated on Blyth's behalf that inducementto buy and ship the animals was "he was quite willingto encounterthe danger, the irresistible. A German friend joined in whatever it might be." The application, how- and found the necessary funds. speculation, ever, failed: no naturalistwas appointed. This Blyth was to do the rest,and as no competitors result was to be regretted,as it affectedBlyth offered,he bought the bulk of the collection his health was failing,and the for a trifle. Eighteen magnificenttigers were personally,for the stimulus affordedby so sold at 20 rupees (?2) a head! Some casualties sea-voyage, with mission, would have been most occurredon the passage down the river; but his interestinga and would probably have collection,when exhibited in Calcutta, contained beneficial to him, utter breakdown which was now sixteentigers, one leopard,one bear, two cheetas, averted the It is doubtfulwhether he was equal three caracals, two rhinoceroses,and a giraffe, at hand. task which he offeredto which carried a saddle and was daily ridden. to the more laborious undertake in the following year, when the Notes on Indian t See note to AMy Scrap Book or Rough * Oology and Ornithology,'No. 1, p. 181. J.B.A.S. xxix. p. 82.

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions VOL. 103, NO. 1,1959] CHARLES DARWIN AND EDWARD BLYTH 155 scientificexpedition into Chinese Tartary was province,from which, and more especially from projectedby the Government. the Yonzalin River, he communicated several Blyth was a staunch adherent of Darwin's interestingletters. His camp life there agreed views, and an opportunityof thus declaring with him, and he had kind friendslike Phayre, himself offeredat our November meeting in Fytche, and Tickell to associate with and take 1860, when Mr. H. Blanfordread his paper on care of him. His returnto Calcutta was always the well-knownwork of Dr. Broun on the laws attended by a relapse, and the hot season of of developmentof organizedbeings. The value 1862 broughhim to a state forwhich therewas attached by Darwin to Blyth's observationsis no alternativebut instantdeparture for Europe. shown by the frequentreference made to them, As yet, however, no orders had been received moreespecially in his 'Animals and Plants under from home in regard to the pension. It was Domestication.' His firstcitation of Blyth in clear that for these it would not do to wait, the latter work describes him as an "excellent and the Council* under the emergency gave authority," and the many quotations that Blyth a year's leave on full pay. He had follow in these interestingvolumes show how hardlygone whenthe expected reply was received carefullyhe read and noted all that fell from and this,notwithstanding the Viceroy'sstrongly Blyth, even in his contributionsto sporting expressedopinion, provedt an unfavourableone. journals. Eventually: a pension of ?150 a year was In 1861 Blyth's health fairlygave way, and conceded, owing, I believe, mainly to the unin July of that year a second memorial was tiringefforts made in London on Blyth's behalf submittedto Governmenttwith a view to ob- by the late Sir P. Cautley and Dr. Falconer. taining a reconsiderationby the Secretary of By the end of 1864 our Society's negociations State forIndia of his claims to a pension. Lord with the Government for the transferof its Elgin, the New Viceroy, took up the subject collections to the Indian Museum had been warmly,and pressed it on the attention of the broughtto a successfulclose, and at the Novem- Home authoritiesas a special case :t "the case," ber meetingthe followingjust tributewas paid as he observed, "of a man of science who had to our late Curator in the formof a resolution, devoted himselffor a very small salary to duties which,on the Council's proposition,was carried in connexion with the Asiatic Society, a body unanimously:- aided by and closelyidentified with the Govern- "One the eve of transferringthe zoological ment of India, from which the public have collections of the Society to Government,to derived great advantage." After describing form the nucleus of an Imperial Museum of Blyth as "the creator of the Natural History Natural History, the Society wishes to record Museum, which has hithertosupplied the place its sense of the importantservices renderedby of a public museum in the Metropolis of India, its late Curator, Mr. Blyth, in the formation and which will probably soon be made over to of those collections. In the period of twenty- Government as part of a national museum,' two years duringwhich Mr. Blyth was Curator and referringto the importance of Blyth's of the Society's Museum, he has formeda large labours in zoology in maintainingand extending and valuable series of specimensrichly illustra- the characterand standing of our Society, this tive of the ornithologyof India and the Burmese dispatch concludes thus: "His Excellency in Peninsula,-and has added largely to the Mam- Council considers,therefore, that if under such malian and other vertebrate collections of the circumstancesMr. Blyth should, after twenty Museum; while, by his numerous descriptive years' service, be compelled to retire from ill papers and catalogues* of the Museum speci- health, broughton very much by his exertions mens, he has made the materials thus amassed in pursuitof science, it would not be creditable by him subservientto zoological science at large, to the Governmentthat he should be allowed and especially valuable to those engaged in the to leave withoutany retiringpension." * Meanwhile,Blyth was only enabled to remain The Council's action in anticipation of the vote of a meeting was cordially approved at our annual meeting of at his post by the facilitieswhich the Council 1863, but was protested against as illegal by Mr. Oldham. affordedhim of makingshort successive visits to t J.B.A.S. xxxii. 32. Burma. He was for some five months in that t J.B.A.S. xxxiii. 73. * Blyth's Catalogue of Mammalia was published in 1863, t J.B.A.S. xxxi. 60. its last sheets being carried throughthe press by his friend t Idem. xxxi. 430. Jerdon.

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 156 LOREN C. EISELEY [PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC. study of the vertebratefauna of India and its which was to prefacethese catalogues, for in a adjoining countries."t letter to me dated 15th July of that year he Blyth was elected an Honorary Member of refersto this MS. as follows:- the Society in the followingyear. The Museum "1 suppose that Phayre showed you my was now under a Board of Trustees, and a new sketchof what I conceive to be the true regions Curator,better paid, and withall the prospective and sub-regionsof S. E. Asia, and I expected advantages of a governmentofficial, had taken that he would have modified somewhat my charge of it. Writingto me fromMalvern, in notionswith regardto the provincesinto which June, 1865, Blyth says: "I had always a pre- I ventureto divide the Indo-Chinesesub-region, sentiment that my successor in the Museum but he seemsto have assentedto themaltogether. would be more adequately remunerated,begin- Only yesterdayI receivedthe 'Proceedingsof the ningwith just double what I had aftermore than Asiatic Society' forApril and May last, and the twenty years' work, with an additional ?50 'Journal of the Asiatic Society' for April and yearly, and house accommodation! How very May last, and the 'Journalof the AsiaticSociety much morecould I have accomplishedwith such of Bengal,' Part II., No. 1, 1871, and in p. 84 an income!" With this mild explosion he of the 'Proceedings' I find some remarks by brushed offdiscontent, and strove to make the Stoliczka which quite confirmmy views, only most of his small means. His lettersto me, and that I think that, with regard to the extension these were frequentup to the timeof my leaving of the Malayan fauna into India, he should India in 1868,were full of his own special subject; rather have said Southern India, because the som. of them are published in our Society's Africanaffinities of Central and NorthernIndia, Proceedings. inclusiveof the Siwalik Deposits, are of ancient In January,1864, Blythvisited Dublin, where date, as shown by the occurrenceof Bos nama- he read two papers beforethe Royal Irish Acad- dicus in Central India, which is barely separable emy. The firstof these was 'On the True Stags from the European B. primigenius(a type of or Elaphine division of genus Cervus,'and does Bos whichis elsewhereonly knownfrom Europe), not appear to have been printed in extensoin and by the presenceof giraffesand of antelopes the Academy's Proceedings.: His other paper, of Africantype in the Siwalik Deposits. I have 'On the Animal Inhabitantsof AncientIreland,' such an enormousmass of valuable facts to deal was published at length in the Academy's with, that I gave over making them public in Proceedings? of January 25th. What the ex- driblets at the meetings of the Zoological traordinarybones were which he exhibited at Society; and I have now time and undisturbed the meeting,and which he referredto as "prob- leisure to treat of them in a work which I am ably Tibetan," was not explained in any of his preparing on 'The Origination of Species,' letters. a subject upon which I think I can throwsome At a meeting of the Geological Society of light."* Dublin, he made some remarkson a paper of As pointed out in a note, Blyth's 'Austral- ProfessorHaughton's 'On Geological Epochs,' Asian region' is generally the same with Dr. and expressed his concurrencein Dr. Carte's 'Indian region,'minus Hindustan proper identificationof the bones of the Polar Bear Sclater's or the plains of Upper India east and southof the discovered in Lough Gur, in County Limerick. north-westdesert-the Dukhun or tableland On furtherexamination, however, these bones of the Peninsula with the interveningterritory, have been pronounced-by Mr. Busk to be in- inclusive of the Vindhyan Ghats-the Coro- distinguishablefrom those of Ursusferox. mandel Coast and the low northernhalf of of zoological distributionwill The question Ceylon-all of which Blyth places in his Ethio- have been treated in a be found to by Blyth, pian region. What remains of India after this to 'Nature' in 1871 paper which he contributed large deduction Blyth distributesthrough three He had been led to consider it (March 30). sub-regions,viz. the Himalayan, Indo-Chinese, while drawing up the introductorychapter * Amongthe papers left by Blythis one headed'Origina- 582. tion of the VariousRaces of Man,' whichhe may have t J.B.A.S. xxxiii. It 1 Vol. viii. Jan. 11, 1864, p. 458. intendedto formpart of the book here referredto. ? Id. qu. sup. p. 472. containsnothing original, but bringstogether numerous the I!Proceedings G. S. D. for January 13, 1864, Journ. points of resemblanceand contrastobservable in p. 173. severalgroups of theorder Primates.

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions VOL. 103, NO. 1, 1959] CHARLES DARWIN AND EDWARD BLYTH 157 and Cinghalese. India cannot, he argues, be service to the advancement of scientifictruth. treated as a natural zoological province: it is a No pen so ready as his to expose currentfallacies border-landin which differentzoological regions or sensationalannouncements in worksof travel meet, and one, therefore,"of extraordinarily of the resultsof loose and careless observations. complexzoological affinities." Burma of course Very many of his 'scraps' are worthyof being falls within his Indo-Chinese subregion,which collected and preserved,for such use as we see extendssouthward as faras Penang and Province they have been turned to by Mr. Darwin. Wellesley, where his Malayan sub-regioncom- These columns occasionally contained more mences. elaborate papers, such as the series in the The interestwhich Blyth had always taken in 'Field' for 1873, on 'Wild Animals dispersed the Rhinoceros group was revived by the safe by human agency,' and 'On the Gruidae or arrival at the Zoological Gardens of the Chit- Crane family.' This monograph, for such it tagong individual,the Ceratorhinuscrossei of the amounts to, was its writer'slast utterance. He presentCatalogue. In his paper contributedto had long been ailing, and in the autumn of this the 'Annals' in 1872, he argues against Gray's year he became very ill, and went to Antwerp assignmentof this species to Rhinocerossuma- for a change. On his returnhe called on me, trensis,and in favour of its identitywith the feeling,as he said, better,though complaining of fine Tavoy specimen shot by Col. Fytche, and great prostration. He seemed full of what he figuredin thisJournal, vol. xxxi. p. 156. Blyth's had seen in the Antwerp Zoological Garden, conjecture that the Arakan Hills is one of the where he thought he had found another new habitats of this species is borne out by the letter species of Rhinoceros. This was our last inter- in which Capt. Lewin, the superintendentof the view. Though nursed by a tenderly-attached Hill Tracts of Chittagong, first reported to sister, his weakness increased, and he died of me in 1867 the capture of the animal.* After heart disease on the 27th of December, within givingher measurements,which were then 6 feet a day or two of his 63rd birthday. fromcrown of head to root of tail, and 4 feet 2 More competent authoritiesthan I can pre- inchesin height,and otherwiseminutely describ- tend to be have done justice to the high intel- ing her horns, Capt. Lewin adds: "You are lectual powers which Blyth displayed fromthe mistakenI thinkin supposingthat she has come outsetof his careeras a naturalist,to the wonder- fromthe TenasserimProvinces-the two-horned fulcapacity and accuracy of his memory,which, species is found in my hills. I have seen one unassisted by any systematicnotes, assimilated alive, and several of my men have seen a dead the facts once stored in it, and enabled him one." readilyto referto his authorityfor them; to his In the Journalof Travel and Natural History, great power of generalization,and to the con- No. 2,t of 1868, will be found a letter from scientioususe which he made of it. Abundant Blyth in explanation of some remarkswhich he proofof the highrespect with which his opinions had made at the Zoological Society on the were always listened to, and of the careful occasional shedding or loss by violence of considerationgiven to them even where they rhinoceros' horns, followed by their renewal. were not accepted, is to be foundin the published In this he takes the opportunityof pointingout works of his brother naturalists. No higher the tendency which some species have to de- testimonyto his habitual scientificcaution need velope a rudimentaryhorn on the forehead, be adduced than that of Mr. Darwin, but it is and argues for the possible explanation in this equally borne by Jerdon throughouthis pub- manner of cases of three-hornedrhinoceroses lished writings. Gould* refersto him as "one being reportedby travellers. of the firstzoologists of his time,and the founder The connexion which Blyth established,first of the study of that science in India." I confine with'Land and Water,' and laterwith the 'Field,' myselfhere to puttingon recordthe tributeof an gave him interestingliterary occupation; and old and intimatefriend, to the excellentqualities the 'Naturalist' columns of both these journals of heart possessed by Blyth. The warmthand in abound scraps by 'Zoophilus,' which did real freshnessof his feelingswhich firstinspired him * The date of capture is erroneouslygiven, both by Mr. with the love of Nature clung to him through Blyth and by Dr. Anderson in his cited communication to his chequered life,and kept him on good terms the Zoological Society. t Page 130. * 'Birds of Asia,' Pt. XXVI. Trochalopteronblythii.

This content downloaded from 150.135.118.112 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 12:44:27 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 158 LOREN C. EISELEY [PROC. AMER. PHIL. SOC. with the world, which punished him, as it is was at the service of everybody. No one wont to do, fornot learningmore of its wisdom. asking him for information asked in vain. Had he been a less imaginative and a more Among the many pleasurable reminiscencesof practical man, he must have been a prosperous my own long residence in India, few are more one. Few men who have writtenso much have agreeable than those which recall his frequent Sunday visits to me. leftin theirwritings so little that is bitter. No A. GROTE. man that I have ever known was so freeas he LONDON, August 27, 1875. was from the spirit of intolerance; and the absence of this is a marked feature in all his The manuscript of the article by Dr. Eiseley was sub- controversial papers. All too that he knew mitted to the Society, September 4, 1958.

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