DOCSLIB.ORG

Location and Design of a Weather Station

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Location and Design of a Weather Station A PAPER ON LOCATION AND DESIGN OF A WEATHER STATION BY AJILORE YEJIDE ARC/O5/5583 AJAO OLAWALE ARC/05/5581 AJIBOLA YEMI ARC/05/5582 Submitted to the Department of Architecture In partial fulfillment of the course Environmental Control (CLIMATE) ARC 309 April, 2008 TABLE OF CONTENT 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 WEATHER STATION 2.0 TYPES OF WEATHER STATION 3.0 INSTRUMENT IN A WEATHER STATION 3.1 THERMOMETER 3.2 BAROMETER 3.3 RAIN GUAGE 3.4 WIND VANE 3.5 ANEMOMETER 3.6 STEVENSONS SCREEN 4.0 FACTORS AFFECTING THE DATA GOTTEN FROM A WEATHER STATION 4.1 DIFFERENCE IN ALTITUDE 4.2 COASTAL OR INLAND NATURE OF LOCATIONS 4.3 NEARNESS TO URBAN CENTERS 4.4 OBSTRUCTION CAUSED BY GROUND COVER AND TOPOGRAPHY 5.0 LOCATION AND DESIGN OF A WEATHER STATION REFERENCES 1.0 INTRODUCTION Weather is measured so as to determine the changes weather elements and variations in factors affecting climate which cannot be achieved without the use of a Weather Station which houses the various instrument that measures the various weather elements .there are various types of weather stations with respect to their functions-synoptic Synoptic Agricultural weather station, Climatological weather station, Rainfall weather station. The design of a weather station involves locating a suitable environment and siting the needed instrument using the appropriate design. 1.1 WEATHER STATION A weather station is a facility with instruments and equipment to make Observations of atmospheric conditions in order to provide information to make weather forecasts and to study the weather and climate of a particular area. It could also be defined as a meteorological observation post where meteorological conditions are observed and recorded. 2.0 TYPES OF WEATHER STATIONS . Measurement of weather elements or weather observations are carried out at various weather stations .there are specifically four types of weather stations which can be recognized depending on the number of weather elements measured, the frequency of measurement ,and the status of the observer whether professional or amateur. There specifically four types of weather station which includes: 1. Synoptic weather station 2. Agricultural weather station 3. Climatological weather station 4. Rainfall weather stations 1. Synoptic weather station : these are stations manned by full-time a Professional observers who maintain continuous weather watch and make Hourly instrumental observations of the weather elements on which information is required for the compilation of the synoptic charts or weather maps used in weather forecasting. Synoptic weather stations typically report near real-time (hourly, 6-hourly, daily) automated weather information using a communication system (satellite or modem). they collect detailed data on air temperature, precipitation amount and intensity, wind speed and direction at a height of 10 m above the ground, atmospheric pressure, visibility, cloud cover and type, hours of bright sunshine, solar radiation ,humidity, dew point temperature and, in a few cases, snow depth and evaporation. The information from these stations is used in preparing weather forecasts and in calculating climatic information. 2. Agricultural weather station : These are stations manned by part-time observers making at least twice daily instrumental observations of the major weather elements: evaporation, grass and soil temperatures, and solar radiation are also usually measured in view of their obvious importance in agriculture 3. Climatological weather station : These are stations manned by part-time observers making only once or twice daily instrumental observations of temperature, humidity, rainfall, and wind . Climate stations typically report less frequently (daily, twice-daily, weekly, monthly) and may be automated or manually operated by professionals. These stations collect daily temperature and precipitation information, and some used to collect precipitation only. 4. Rainfall weather stations : These are stations manned by part-time observers who take daily readings of rainfall only. Rainfall is measured by catching it in a calibrated rain gauge. At most climate stations, a volunteer observer measures rainfall intensity using a standard Canadian rain gauge called a type b rain gauge. The gauge sits about 40 centimeters (cm) above the ground and has a circular opening 11.3 cm in diameter. The rain is funneled into a clear plastic cylinder which measures the contents to the nearest 0.2 mm. the majority of climate station observers measure the depth of new snow using a ruler. They estimate the amount of moisture in the snow by assuming a snow density of 100 kilograms per cubic meter. Snow depth is read to the nearest 0.2 cm with less than 0.1 cm is recorded as a trace. The Canadian nipper shielded snow gauge system is the standard instrument for measuring fresh snowfall water equivalent. It is used at a limited number of stations. 3.0 INSTRUMENTS USED IN A WEATHER STATION The typical weather station has the following instrument -Thermometer for measuring temperature -Barometer for measuring barometric pressure -Hygrometer for measuring humidity -Anemometer for measuring wind speed -Wind vane for measuring wind direction -Rain gauge for measuring precipitation Except for those instruments requiring direct exposure to the elements (i.e anemometer, rain gauge), the instruments should be sheltered in a vented box, called a STEVENSON SCREEN, to keep direct sunlight off the thermometer and wind off the hygrometer. The instrumentation may be specialized to allow for periodic recording otherwise significant manual labor is required for record keeping. 3.1 THERMOMETER A Clinical Thermometer A thermometer is a device that measures temperature or temperature gradient, using a variety of different principles. The word thermometer is derived from two smaller word fragments: thermo from the Greek for heat and meter also from Greek, meaning to measure. A thermometer has two important elements, the temperature sensor (e.g. the bulb on a mercury thermometer) in which some physical change occurs with temperature, plus some means of converting this physical change into value (e.g. the scale on a mercury thermometer). Industrial thermometers commonly use electronic means to provide a digital display or input to a computer. Thermometers can be divided into two groups according to the level of knowledge about the physical basis of the underlying thermodynamic laws and quantities. For primary thermometers the measured property of matter is known so well that temperature can be calculated without any unknown quantities. Examples of these are thermometers based on the equation of state of a gas, on the velocity of sound in a gas, on the thermal noise (see Johnson–Nyquist noise) voltage or current of an electrical resistor, and on the angular anisotropy of gamma ray emission of certain radioactive nuclei in a magnetic field. Secondary thermometers are most widely used because of their convenience. Also, they are often much more sensitive than primary ones. For secondary thermometers knowledge of the measured property is not sufficient to allow direct calculation of temperature. They have to be calibrated against a primary thermometer at least at one temperature or at a number of fixed temperatures. Such fixed points, for example, triple points and superconducting transitions, occur reproducibly at the same temperature. Internationally agreed temperature scales are based on fixed points and interpolating thermometers. The most recent official temperature scale is the International Temperature Scale of 1990. It extends from 0.65 K to approximately 1358 K (−272.5 °C to 1085 °C). 3.2 BAROMETER A barometer is an instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure. It can measure the pressure exerted by the atmosphere by using water, air, or mercury. Pressure tendency can forecast short term changes in the weather. Numerous measurements of air pressure are used within surface weather analysis to help find surface troughs, high pressure systems, and frontal boundaries. Schematic drawing of a simple mercury Barometer with vertical mercury column and reservoir at base. WATER-BASED BAROMETERS This concept of "decreasing atmospheric pressure predicts stormy weather" was invented by Lucien Vidie and is the basis for a basic weather prediction device called a weather glass or thunder glass. It can also be called a "storm glass" or a "Goethe barometer" (the writer Goethe popularized it in Germany). It consists of a glass container with a sealed body, half filled with water. A narrow spout connects to the body below the water level and rises above the water level, where it is open to the atmosphere. When the air pressure is lower than it was at the time the body was sealed, the water level in the spout will rise above the water level in the body; when the air pressure is higher, the water level in the spout will drop below the water level in the body. A variation of this type of barometer can be easily made at home.[3] Mercury barometers A standard mercury barometer has a glass tube of about 30 inches (about 76 cm) in height, closed at one end, with an open mercury-filled reservoir at the base. Mercury in the tube adjusts until the weight of the mercury column balances the atmospheric force exerted on the reservoir. High atmospheric pressure places more force on the reservoir, forcing mercury higher in the column. Low pressure allows the mercury to drop to a lower level in the column by lowering the force placed on the reservoir. Since higher temperature at the instrument will reduce the density of the mercury the scale for reading the height of the mercury is adjusted to compensate for this effect. Torricelli documented that the height of the mercury in a barometer changed slightly each day and concluded that this was due to the changing pressure in the atmosphere[2]. He wrote: "We live submerged at the bottom of an ocean of elementary air, which is known by incontestable experiments to have weight". The mercury barometer's design gives rise to the expression of atmospheric pressure in inches or millimeters (torr): the pressure is quoted as the level of the mercury's height in the vertical column.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Climate Data Sources in Connecticut Patricia A
    University of Connecticut OpenCommons@UConn College of Agriculture, Health and Natural Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station Resources 1-1982 Climate Data Sources in Connecticut Patricia A. Palley University of Connecticut - Storrs David R. Miller University of Connecticut - Storrs Follow this and additional works at: https://opencommons.uconn.edu/saes Part of the Climate Commons, Environmental Monitoring Commons, and the Meteorology Commons Recommended Citation Palley, Patricia A. and Miller, David R., "Climate Data Sources in Connecticut" (1982). Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station. 80. https://opencommons.uconn.edu/saes/80 Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 461 Climate Data Sources in Connecticut By Patricia A Palley, Assistant State Climatologist and David R. Miller, Associate Professor of Natural Resources JAN 1982 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERI MENT STATION COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES THE UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT, STORRS. CT 06268 TABLE OF CONTENTS Int roduction . 1 Types of Weather Stations 2 Parameters Measur ed 3 Summary of Climate Observations in Connecticu t 5 How to Use the Maps and Site Reports • • • • • 7 Table I Record Lengths, by parameter, of all weather stat ions i n Conn., state summary 8 Table II Record Lengths , by parame ter, of all weather stations in Conn . , by county . 9 Table III Record Lengths, by paramet er, of Nationa l Wea ther Service operat ed and coope rative stations in Conn., by county . • . 10 Table IV Re cord Lengths , by par ameter , of pr ivate data collect ors i n Conn ., by county . • . 11 Figure I Distribution of stations t hat measure rainfall . 12 Figur e II Distribution of stations t hat meas ure s nowf all .
    [Show full text]
  • Handbook for the Meteorological Observation
    Handbook for the Meteorological Observation Koninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch Instituut KNMI September 2000 Contents Chapter 1. Measuring stations – General 1 Introduction 2 Variables 3 Type of observing station 4 Conditions relating to the layout of the measurement site of a weather station 5 Spatial distribution of the measuring stations and the representativeness of the observations 6 Procedures relating to the inspection, maintenance and management of a weather station 6.1 Inspection 6.2 Technical maintenance 6.3 Supervision 1. MEASURING STATIONS - GENERAL 1.1 Introduction The mission statement of the KNMI1 (from their brochure “KNMI, more than just weather” of August 1999) reads: “The KNMI is an agency with approximately five hundred employees that is part of the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management. From its position as the national knowledge centre for weather, climate and seismology, the institute is targeted entirely at fulfilling public tasks: weather forecasts and warnings monitoring the climate acquisition and supply of meteorological data and infrastructure model development aviation meteorology scientific research public information services” The tasks mentioned above are split across a number of sectors within the KNMI. One of the sectors is WM (Waarnemingen en Modellen = Observations and Models). This particular sector’s mission has been formulated as follows: “The Observations and Models sector (WM) is responsible for making the basic meteorological data available and for provision of climatological information to both internal and external users. The basic meteorological data, both current and historical, contains: - observations made by measurement, visual observation, using remote sensing or acquired from external sources - output from atmospheric and oceanographic models, acquired by processing the sector’s own models of acquired from institutes abroad.
    [Show full text]
  • Kentucky Mesonet Weather Station Moves to Ephram White Park
    Home / News https://www.bgdailynews.com/news/kentucky-mesonet-weather-station-moves-to-ephram-white- park/article_5c142169-496b-5905-90c0-fb3ac31cfab0.html Kentucky Mesonet weather station moves to Ephram White Park By AARON MUDD [email protected] 9 min ago A Kentucky Mesonet weather station was recently relocated to Warren County’s Ephram White Park from its previous location near the General Motors Bowling Green Assembly Plant. Submitted photo courtesy of WKU Visitors to Ephram White Park might notice a new feature – a Kentucky Mesonet weather station has been relocated to the park from its previous location near the General Motors Corvette plant. Stuart Foster, director of the Kentucky Mesonet and the Kentucky Climate Center, said the move comes after the station was damaged during a lightning strike. He said the new location shouldn’t afect forecasting in the area. On the contrary, the real- time weather information the station ofers could become even more valuable in its new location at the park at 885 Mount Olivet Road. “With the growing population, nearby schools and industrial park, we felt it was important to keep coverage in that area so we worked with Chris Kummer and Warren County Parks and Recreation and partnered with them on the site at Ephram White Park,” Foster said in a news release. Part of a statewide network of 71 stations in 69 counties, the Mesonet station collects real- time data on temperature, precipitation, humidity, barometric pressure, solar radiation, soil moisture, soil temperature, wind speed and direction. That data is transmitted to the Kentucky Climate Center at WKU every fve minutes, 24 hours a day throughout the year, and is available online at kymesonet.org.
    [Show full text]
  • Lesson 6 Weather: Collecting Data GRADE 3-5 BACKGROUND Meteorologists Collect Weather Data Daily to Make Forecasts
    Lesson 6 Weather: Collecting Data GRADE 3-5 BACKGROUND Meteorologists collect weather data daily to make forecasts. With the aid of high altitude weather balloons, weather equipment and gauges, satellites, and computers, accurate daily forecasts can be made. Collecting weather data in just one location and making a forecast requires a great deal of skill. Since air travels from one location to another, it is helpful to know what the approaching weather will be. In this investigation, the students will collect data for two weeks. At this time they will start seeing patterns in each of the areas. They can predict what the weather will be like the next day and for the next few days. They will also write if their predictions were correct from the previous day. Collecting the data for this lesson can be done instead of collecting the data separately in lesson 1-4. BASIC LESSON Objective(s) Students will be able to… Collect data for two weeks and use the information to detect patterns and predict weather around their location. State Science Content Standard(s) Standard 4. Students through the inquiry process, demonstrate knowledge of the composition, structures, processes and interactions of Earth's systems and other objects in space. A. 4.4 Observe and describe the water cycle and the local weather and demonstrate how weather conditions are measured. A. Record temperature B. Display data on a graph C. Interpret trends and patterns of data D. Identify and explain the use of a barometer, weather vane, and anemometer E. Collect, record and chart data from each weather instrument F.
    [Show full text]
  • Soaring Weather
    Chapter 16 SOARING WEATHER While horse racing may be the "Sport of Kings," of the craft depends on the weather and the skill soaring may be considered the "King of Sports." of the pilot. Forward thrust comes from gliding Soaring bears the relationship to flying that sailing downward relative to the air the same as thrust bears to power boating. Soaring has made notable is developed in a power-off glide by a conven­ contributions to meteorology. For example, soar­ tional aircraft. Therefore, to gain or maintain ing pilots have probed thunderstorms and moun­ altitude, the soaring pilot must rely on upward tain waves with findings that have made flying motion of the air. safer for all pilots. However, soaring is primarily To a sailplane pilot, "lift" means the rate of recreational. climb he can achieve in an up-current, while "sink" A sailplane must have auxiliary power to be­ denotes his rate of descent in a downdraft or in come airborne such as a winch, a ground tow, or neutral air. "Zero sink" means that upward cur­ a tow by a powered aircraft. Once the sailcraft is rents are just strong enough to enable him to hold airborne and the tow cable released, performance altitude but not to climb. Sailplanes are highly 171 r efficient machines; a sink rate of a mere 2 feet per second. There is no point in trying to soar until second provides an airspeed of about 40 knots, and weather conditions favor vertical speeds greater a sink rate of 6 feet per second gives an airspeed than the minimum sink rate of the aircraft.
    [Show full text]
  • Snow Nowcasting Using a Real-Time Correlation of Radar Reflectivity
    20 JOURNAL OF APPLIED METEOROLOGY VOLUME 42 Snow Nowcasting Using a Real-Time Correlation of Radar Re¯ectivity with Snow Gauge Accumulation ROY RASMUSSEN AND MICHAEL DIXON National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado STEVE VASILOFF National Severe Storms Laboratory, Norman, Oklahoma FRANK HAGE,SHELLY KNIGHT,J.VIVEKANANDAN, AND MEI XU National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado (Manuscript received 21 November 2001, in ®nal form 13 June 2002) ABSTRACT This paper describes and evaluates an algorithm for nowcasting snow water equivalent (SWE) at a point on the surface based on a real-time correlation of equivalent radar re¯ectivity (Ze) with snow gauge rate (S). It is shown from both theory and previous results that Ze±S relationships vary signi®cantly during a storm and from storm to storm, requiring a real-time correlation of Ze and S. A key element of the algorithm is taking into account snow drift and distance of the radar volume from the snow gauge. The algorithm was applied to a number of New York City snowstorms and was shown to have skill in nowcasting SWE out to at least 1 h when compared with persistence. The algorithm is currently being used in a real-time winter weather nowcasting system, called Weather Support to Deicing Decision Making (WSDDM), to improve decision making regarding the deicing of aircraft and runway clearing. The algorithm can also be used to provide a real-time Z±S relationship for Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler (WSR-88D) if a well-shielded snow gauge is available to measure real-time SWE rate and appropriate range corrections are made.
    [Show full text]
  • Weather Station Handbook
    PART 2A. MANUAL WEATHER STATIONS: MEASUREMENTS; INSTRUMENTS This portion of the handbook focuses on manual 5. Mechanical wind counte r equipped with a timer wea ther station instru ments and thei r operational fea ­ (Forester IO-Minute Wind Counter), or other suitable tures. The individual chapters first define and describe read out device, such as the Forester (Haytronics) Total­ the weather elements or parameters that are measured izing Wind Counter. The counter enables measurement at fire-weather an d other stations. of average windspeed in miles per hour. The generator Observers with a basic understanding of weather in­ an emometers mentione-d above have a n electronic accu­ struments, and wha t the measurements re present, are mulator or odomete r that can give a digital readout of better prepared toward obtaining accurate wea ther data. IO-minute average windspeed. They will be better able to recognize an erroneous rea ding 6. Wind direction system-including wind vane and or defective instrumen t. Similarly, persona assigned the remote readout device. Again, no particular model has task will be more likely to properly install and maintai n been adopted as the standard. the instrume nts. 7. Nonrecording ("stick") rai n gauge, with support; In addition. a n increased understandin g of the instru­ gauge has 8-inch diameter and may be either large capac­ ments may bring greater satisfaction to what might other­ ity type or Fores t Service type. Measuri ng stick gives wise become a routine, mechan ical task. An understand­ rainfall in hundred ths of an inch. ing of the weather elements and processe s may further 8.
    [Show full text]
  • National Data Buoy Center Command Briefing for Marine Technology Society Oceans in Action
    National Data Buoy Center Command Briefing For Marine Technology Society Oceans in Action August 21, 2014 Helmut H. Portmann, Director National Data Buoy Center To provide• a real-time, end-to-end capability beginning with the collection of marine atmospheric and oceanographic data and ending with its transmission, quality control and distribution. NDBC Weather Forecast Offices/ IOOS Partners Tsunami Warning & other NOAA River Forecast Centers Platforms Centers observations MADIS NWS Global NDBC Telecommunication Mission Control System (GTS) Center NWS/NCEP Emergency Managers Oil & Gas Platforms HF Radars Public NOAA NESDIS (NCDC, NODC, NGDC) DATA COLLECTION DATA DELIVERY NDBC Organization National Weather Service Office of Operational Systems NDBC Director SRQA Office 40 Full-time Civilians (NWS) Mission Control Operations Engineering Support Services Mission Mission Information Field Production Technology Logistics and Business Control Support Technology Operations Engineering Development Facilities Services Center Engineering 1 NOAA Corps Officer U.S. Coast Guard Liaison Office – 1 Lt & 4 CWO Bos’ns NDBC Technical Support Contract –90 Contractors Pacific Architects and Engineers (PAE) National Data Buoy Center NDBC is a cradle to grave operation - It begins with requirements and engineering design, then continues through purchasing, fabrication, integration, testing, logistics, deployment and maintenance, and then with observations ingest, processing, analysis, distribution in real time NDBC’s Ocean Observing Networks Wx DART Weather
    [Show full text]
  • Lecture Notes on Marine Meteorology
    Lecture notes on Marine Meteorology By Shri S. P. Joshi Assistant. Meteorologist Office of DDGM (WF) India Meteorological Department Pune-5 Preface The aim of these lecture notes is to provide training to the marine observers in handling and maintenance of meteorological instruments and collect meteorological observations in the form of logbooks. The chapters included in these lecture notes are from the Basic and Intermediate training courses of the department. The present lecture notes are merely a collection of information available on Internet and are compiled from various WMO sites, freely available, keeping in view the up-and-coming trends and new technological advancements. This collection is for private circulation for trainees of Basic and Intermediate training courses of the department and the author do not intend to violate copyrights of anybody what so ever. Port Meteorological Officers in the immediate future have to deal with the modernization of the marine equipments and automation of Marine Data collection, its transmission and archival by observing minimum quality control through the in-built software like TURBOWIN. These lecture notes will also be useful to Port Meteorological Officers in understanding the nature of work of PMOs and will provide them the useful guidelines. A separate chapter on installation of Turbowin is also included in these notes. S. P. Joshi. 9th April 2005. Gudhi Padva Table of contents Chapter no Contents Page no. 1 WMO Voluntary Observing Ships’ Scheme 1 2 Meteorological Instrumentation on board ships 8 3 Port Meteorological Office ( PMO ) 15 4 The Ship Weather Code 19 5 Broadcast of weather bulletins for Merchant shipping 24 6 Broadcast of weather bulletins for Indian navy 28 7 Warnings to Ports and Storm Warning Signals 30 8 Broadcast of weather warnings for fishermen through 34 All India Radio.
    [Show full text]
  • The Impacts on Flow by Hydrological Model with NEXRAD Data: a Case Study on a Small Watershed in Texas, USA Taesoo Lee*
    Journal of the Korean Geographical Society, Vol. 46, No. 2, 2011(168~180) The Impacts on Flow by Hydrological Model with NEXRAD Data: A Case Study on a small Watershed in Texas, USA Taesoo Lee* 레이더 강수량 데이터가 수문모델링에서 수량에 미치는 영향 -미국 텍사스의 한 유역을 사례로- 이태수* Abstract：The accuracy of rainfall data for a hydrological modeling study is important. NEXRAD (Next Generation Radar) rainfall data estimated by WRS-88D (Weather Surveillance Radar - 1988 Doppler) radar system has advantages of its finer spatial and temporal resolution. In this study, NEXRAD rainfall data was tested and compared with conventional weather station data using the previously calibrated SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) model to identify local storms and to analyze the impacts on hydrology. The previous study used NEXRAD data from the year of 2000 and the NEXRAD data was substituted with weather station data in the model simulation in this study. In a selected watershed and a selected year (2006), rainfall data between two datasets showed discrepancies mainly due to the distance between weather station and study area. The largest difference between two datasets was 94.5 mm (NEXRAD was larger) and 71.6 mm (weather station was larger) respectively. The differences indicate that either recorded rainfalls were occurred mostly out of the study area or local storms only in the study area. The flow output from the study area was also compared with observed data, and modeled flow agreed much better when the simulation used NEXRAD data. Key Words : Local storm, NEXRAD, Radar, Rainfall, SWAT 요약：강수량 데이터의 정확성은 수리모델링에서 중요하다.
    [Show full text]
  • A Study on Snow Density Variations at Different Elevations
    Brian Miretzky 1 A Study on Snow Density Variations at Different Elevations and the Related Consequences; Especially to Forecasting. Brian J. Miretzky Senior Undergrad at the University of Wisconsin- Madison ABSTRACT With observations becoming more common and forecasting becoming more accurate snow density research has increased. These new observations can be correlated with current knowledge to develop reasons for snow density variations. Currently there is still no specific consensus on what are the important characteristics in snow density variations. There are many points of general agreement such as that temperature and relative humidity are key factors. How to incorporate these into snowfall prediction is the key. Once there is more substantiated knowledge, more accurate forecasts can be made. Finally, the last in the chain of events is that society can plan accordingly to this new data. Better prediction means less work, less time, and less money spent. This study attempts to determine if elevation is an important characteristic in snow density variations. It also looks at computer models and how snow density is used in conjunction with these models to make snowfall projections. The results seem to show elevation is not an important characteristic. The results also show that model accuracy is more important than snow density variations when using models to make snowfall projections. 1. Introduction volume of the sample. Snow densities are typically on an order of 70 to 150 kg The density of snow is a m-3, but can be lower or higher in some very important topic in winter weather. cases. This is because the density of snow The fact that snow densities can helps determine characteristics of a vary makes them one of the most given snowfall.
    [Show full text]
  • Ships Observing Marine Climate a Catalogue of the Voluntary
    WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION INTERGOVERNMENTAL OCEANOGRAPIDC COMMISSION (Of UNESCO) MARINE METEOROLOGY AND RELATED OCEANOGRAPHIC ACTIVITIES REPORT NO. 25 SHIPS OBSERVING MARINE CLIMATE A CATALOGUE OF THE VOLUNTARY OBSERVING SHIPS PARTICIPATING IN THE VSOP-NA WMO/TD-No. 456 1991 NOTE The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression ofany opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariats of the World Meteorological Organization and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation ofits frontiers or boundaries. Editorial note: This publication is an offset reproduction of a typescript submitted by the authors and has been produced withoutadditional revision by the WMO and IOC Secretariats. SHIPS OBSERVING MARINE CLIMATE A CATALOGUE OF THE VOLUNTARY OBSERVING SHIPS PARTICIPATING IN THE VSOP-NA Elizabeth.C.Kent and Peter.K.Taylor .James .Rennell. centre for Ocean Circulation, Chilworth Research Park. Southampton. UK PREFACE Meteorological observations made onboard merchant vessels of the i'H) vollIDtary observing shipa (ves) scheme, when transmitted to shore in real-time:J are a substantial canponent of the Global Observing System of the World Weather Watch and are essential tc> the pr<>vision of marine lleteorological services ~ as well as tc> ID€:teorol.ogical analyses and forecasts generally. These observations are also recorded in ships r meteorological log1xx>ks:t for later exchange., archival and p:roc-essing -through the i'H) Marine CliJDa.tc>logical StlJllDa'ries Scheme, and as such. they conatitute an equally essential source of data for determining the cliJDa.tc>logy of the marineatlooaphere and ocean surface, and 'for OJIIIPUt.ing a variety of air-sea fluxes.
    [Show full text]