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Subject Name < Botany>

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Pre-requisites About ecology and distribution

Objectives To make students aware on the conservation efforts of Tiger in Keywords Project Tiger, Tiger reserves, Management issues

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Project Tiger 1. General Introduction 2. The role of the Tiger in the ecosystem 3. Launch of project Tiger 4. Steps to Strengthen success of project Tiger 5. Global conservation efforts

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Subject Coordinator Savitribai Phule Pune University Paper Coordinator MS University Baroda

Content Writer/Author (CW) < Dr. Deepa Gavali> Gujarat Ecology Society Vadodara Content Reviewer (CR) < Prof. NSR Krishnayya > Language Editor (LE) < Prof. NSR Krishnayya >

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TABLE OF CONTENTS (for textual content)

1. General Introduction 2. The role of the Tiger in the ecosystem 3. Launch of project Tiger 4. Steps to Strengthen success of project Tiger 5. Global conservation efforts

1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION Tiger range countries [TRCs]: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Lao, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand and Vietnam). The tiger population is dwindling at an alarming rate and now reported in only 13 countries. The major environmental challenges include degradation from the effects of human population growth, brisk economic expansion, rapid urbanization, massive infrastructure development and climate change. The overarching challenge of , and the conservation of biodiversity generally, is that there is insufficient demand for the survival of wild living in natural landscapes. This allows the criminal activities of poaching wild tigers and their prey and trafficking in tiger derivatives to flourish and tiger landscapes to be diminished. The geographical distribution of tigers spans large parts of Asia, although it has greatly reduced in the last 50 years. Tigers are still found in a wide variety of forests, including dry-deciduous, moist- deciduous, evergreen, riverine, and mangrove. Tigers unlike lions do not live in families. They are largely individualistic and usually move around on their own. Although not much is known of their dispersal capabilities, it has been found that males disperse three times farther than females. While the males disperse over 33km, females have an average dispersal of less than 10 km. Indeed, male tigers control stretches ranging from 200km in thick forests to nearly five times in dry and arid regions. About eight subspecies of tigers have been recognized, out of which three are extinct. 1 Pantheratigristigris(Linnaeus, 1758). . Indian subcontinent. 2 P.t.virgata(Illiger, 1815). Caspian tiger. Turkey through central and west Asia. (extinct since the Seventies).

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3 P.t.altaica(Temminck, 1844). Amur tiger. Amur Rivers region of Russia and China, and North Korea. 4 P.t.sondica(Temminck, 1844). Javan tiger. Java, Indonesia. (extinct since the Eighties). 5 P.t.amoyensis(Hilzheimer, 1905). South China tiger. South central China. 6 P.t.balica(Schwarz, 1912). Bali tiger. Bali, Indonesia. (extinct since the Forties). 7 P.t.sumatrae(Pocock, 1929). Sumatran tiger. Sumatra, Indonesia. 8 P.t.corbetti(Mazak, 1968). IndoChinese tiger. Continental southeast Asia. Based on molecular markers, six subspecies are now recognized: (1) Amur Tiger (Pantheratigrisaltaica) (2) Northern IndoChinese Tiger (P.t.corbetti) (3) South China Tiger (P.t.amoyensis) (4) Malayan Tiger (P.t.jacksoni) (5) Sumatran Tiger (P.t.sumatrae) (6) Bengal Tiger (P.t.tigris) The Indian subspeciesis Pantheratigristigris.Wild tigers are found in 18 of our States, viz. , , , , , , , , , Maharashtra, , , , , , , and . Project Tiger is being implemented in these States in collaboration with the respective State Governments.

2 THE ROLE OF THE TIGER IN THE ECOSYSTEM

Tiger, being at the apex of the food chain, can be considered as the indicator of the stability of the eco-system. For a viable tiger population, a habitat should possess a good prey base, which in turn will depend on undisturbed forest vegetation. Thus, 'Project Tiger', is basically the conservation of the entire eco-system and apart from tigers, all other wild animals also have increased in number in the project areas. The tiger is a very important member of the ecosystems that it inhabits. It shares a symbiotic relation with the jungles that harbour it. The tiger needs a minimum density of herbivorous ungulates to sustain it. The herbivores in turn need vegetation to sustain their population. There is a limited area of forest, and hence foliage, available. This means that there is limited food for the herbivores to feed on. This is turn implies that a given forest area can sustain only a certain maximum number of tigers. Thus, conserving the tiger is not just about the number of tigers. It is a much broader concept that required the conservation of the entire eco-system. Irrespective of the role of tiger in ecosystem it was hunted for various reasons initially as game animal during the era of kingship and then by poachers who smuggled the body parts out of the country. A tiger may fetch as much as Rs. 6,000,000 for a wildlife trader in India; part of the tiger’s

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body is marketable- $6,000 per kg for tiger bones, $270,000 per kg for tiger penis, $20,000 for the tiger skin, $1,000 per tiger skull, $900 per tooth, $100 per kg of tiger fat.

3 LAUNCH OF PROJECT TIGER

There were an estimated 40,000 tigers in India at the beginning of the twentieth century. This number had continually decline with the hunting of tigers in the absence of any legal restraint. The gravity of the situation was realized when the first all-India tiger census in 1972 revealed only 182711 tigers in India. It was then when the government of India realizedthe gravity of the situation. The Government reacted to the situation by imposing a ban in 1970 on the killing of tigers. Hitherto, there existed only the Indian Forest Act of 1927. It brought forests and wildlife under the concurrent list in 1976. The Government further enacted the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972. A ‘Task Force’ was also formed to solve the problem of the declining tiger population. The Project had been drawn to cover a six-year period from April 1, 1973 to March 31, 1979, thus covering the last year of the Fourth Plan and the entire Fifth Five Year Plan.The total projected fund requirement was Rs 58 million. The Central Government was responsible for planning, coordination and part financing while the State Government was responsible for only execution and financing a part of the recurring cost of the project. The various reasons that were responsible for the fall in tiger population in India were: • Shrinkage of tiger land • Excessive disturbance in tiger habitat • Destruction of prey animals • Poaching of tigers • Poisoning for protection of cattle The Task Force (1972) laid out guidelines for the formulation of management plans for various tiger reserves. Project Tiger was launched in 1973 with 9 tiger reserves- Bandipur, Corbett, Kanha, Manas, Melghat, Palamau, Ranthambore, Similipal, and Sunderbans. The basic philosophy was to not interfere with nature. The survival of the tiger was looked at from the logic of it being at the apex of the food chain and hence it followed that the natural habitat was to be sustained. A ‘core- buffer’ model was followed. The core areas were freed from all sorts human activities and the buffer areas were subjected to 'conservation oriented land use'. Each tiger reserve had management plans in accordance with the following principles 1. Elimination of all forms of human exploitation and biotic disturbance from the core area and rationalization of activities in the buffer zone.

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2. Restricting the habitat management only to repair the damages done to the eco-system by human and other interferences, so as to facilitate recovery of the eco-system to its natural state. 3. Monitoring the faunal and floral changes over time and carrying out research about wildlife sustained. Initially, the Project started with a Tiger Reserve covering an area of 16,339 sq.km with a population of 268 Tigers. At present there are 44 Tiger Reserves covering an area of 70,244.10 sq. km with a population of 2,226 Tigers (2014).

Core Buffer Total Area S.No. Tiger Reserve State Area(km2) Area(km2) (km2)

1 Bandipur Karnataka 872 584 1,456

2 Jim Corbett Uttarakhand 822 466 1,288 Madhya

3 Kanha 917 1,134 2,052

Pradesh

4 Manas Assam 840 2,311 3,151

5 Melghat Maharashtra 1,500 1,268 2,769

6 Palamau Jharkhand 414 716 1,130

7 Ranthambore Rajasthan 1,113 298 1,411

8 Similipal Odisha 1,195 1,555 2,750

9 Sunderbans West Bengal 1,700 885 2,585

10 Periyar Kerala 881 44 925

11 Sariska Rajasthan 881 332 1,213

12 Buxa West Bengal 391 367 758

13 Indravati Chhattisgarh 1,258 1,541 2,799 Arunachal

14 Namdapha 1,808 245 2,053

Pradesh

15 Dudhwa Uttar Pradesh 1,094 1,108 2,202 Kalakkad-

16 Tamil Nadu 895 707 1,602

Mundanthurai

17 Valmiki Bihar 598 301 899 Madhya

18 Pench 411 768 1,180

Pradesh

19 Tadoba Maharashtra 626 1,102 1,728

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Core Buffer Total Area S.No. Tiger Reserve State Area(km2) Area(km2) (km2) Madhya

20 Bandhavgarh 717 820 1,598

Pradesh Madhya

21 Panna 576 1,022 1,579

Pradesh

22 Dampa Mizoram 500 488 988

23 Bhadra Karnataka 492 572 1,064

24 Pench Maharashtra 257 484 741 Arunachal

25 Pakhui 683 515 1,198

Pradesh

26 Nameri Assam 200 144 344 Madhya

27 Satpura 1,339 794 2,133

Pradesh

28 Anamalai Tamil Nadu 959 521 1,480

29 Udanti-Sitanadi Chhattisgarh 851 991 1,843

30 Satkosia Odisha 524 440 964

31 Kaziranga Assam 626 548 1,174

32 Achanakmar Chhattisgarh 626 288 914

33 Kali Karnataka 815 283 1,098 Madhya

34 Sanjay-Dubri 813 862 1,675

Pradesh

35 Mudumalai Tamil Nadu 321 368 689

36 Nagarahole Karnataka 643 562 1,206

37 Parambikulam Kerala 391 253 644

38 Sahyadri Maharashtra 600 565 1,166

39 Biligiriranga Karnataka 359 216 575

40 Kawal Telangana 893 1,126 2,019

41 Tamil Nadu 793 615 1,408

42 Mukandra Hills Rajasthan 417 343 760

43 Nawegaon-Nagzira Maharashtra 654 654

Nagarjunsagar-

44 Telangana 2,596 701 3,296

Srisailam

45 Amrabad Telangana 2,166 445 2,611

46 Uttar Pradesh 603 127 730

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Core Buffer Total Area S.No. Tiger Reserve State Area(km2) Area(km2) (km2)

47 Bor Maharashtra 138 678 816

48 Rajaji Uttarakhand 820 256 1,075

49 Orang Assam 79 413 492 Total 39,669.12 30,574.98 70,244.10 (GOI 2016)

Karnataka has the highest number of tigers in the age group of 1.5 years with more 408 big cats. Other states with significant populations included Uttarakhand (340), Madhya Pradesh (308), Tamil Nadu (229), Maharashtra (190), Assam (167), Kerala (136) and Uttar Pradesh (117).

4 STEPS TO STRENGTHEN SUCCESS OF PROJECT TIGER

The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) is a statutory body of the Ministry, with an overarching supervisory / coordination role, performing functions as provided in the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. The day to day administration / management / field interventions / protection are done by the State officials in field formations (tiger reserves), as the land belongs to States. The role of Project Tiger / NTCA is to provide technical guidance and funding support. The All India tiger estimation is carried out once in every four years. Based on the Tiger Task Force approval, a refined double sampling method using camera traps in a statistical framework was first used in 2006 country level tiger assessment. The second round of such an assessment was completed in 2010. Besides the once in four years snapshot country level assessment, the tigers are monitored in tiger reserves through a special field protocol (PhaseIV monitoring) which involves recording day to day field evidences in prescribed format, collating camera trap pictures of tigers, collection of scat samples in difficult areas, besides using smart patrolling protocols like MSTrIPES in some reserves. Every tiger reserve has a catalogue of camera trap photo capture of individual tiger. Due to concerted efforts under Project Tiger since 1973, India alone has the maximum number of tigers and its source areas amongst the 13 tiger range countries. Project Tiger has been more than successful in its endeavour and has put the endangered tiger, our national animal, on an assured path of recovery. In the contemporary global scenario, this effort hardly has any parallel.

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Recognizing the need to protect tiger, government initiated several measures aimed at conservation and protection of the species. Besides, efforts were made to prevent illegal wildlife trade to ensure a viable population of tiger in India. The main activities of project tiger include wildlife management, protection measure, and specific eco-development activities. Twenty eight tiger reserve were created in 17 states between 1973-74 and 1999-2000. the project tiger directorate (PTD) in the ministry of environment and forests (MoEF) at New Delhi is responsible for providing technical guidance, budgetary support, coordination, monitoring, and evolution of project tiger while the management and implementation of the project rests with the state government concerned. The India eco-development project (IEDP) was a pilot project initiated with the assistance of the World Bank and the global environment facility to conserve biodiversity through eco-development. The project addressed both the impact of the local population on the protected areas and the impact of the protected areas on the local population and envisaged to improve the capacity of the protected area management to effectively conserve biodiversity and support collaboration between the states and the local communities in and around ecologically vulnerable areas. Tiger now need a “preservationist” approach. Regional planning is important around Tiger Reserve to foster ecological connectivity between protected areas through restorative inputs with integrated land use planning. The management plan of a Tiger Reserve, therefore, needs to be integrated in larger regional management plans. Apart from this, certain suggestions are maybe the core outcome of this assessment of the Protected Area in conservation of biodiversity- Finalization of legal status of core and buffer area as National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary respectively. Establishment of strike force to strengthen protection. Rehabilitation of few villages from buffer on priority, Eco- development in villages in the Multiple Use Area., Joint Forest Management., Staff orientation and training to improve the management capabilities and to provide them adequate essentialities to get their commitment. Building up of research and monitoring database to support conservation activities. Wildlife protection and crime risk management in the present scenario requires a widely distributed Information Network, using state-of-the-art information and communication technology. This becomes all the more important to ensure the desired level of protection in field formations to safeguard the impressive gains of a focused project like Project Tiger. The important elements in Wildlife protection and control are: Mapping/Plotting the risk factors, sensitivity categorization, crime mapping and immediate action for apprehending the offenders based on effective networking and communication. Space technology has shown the interconnectivity of natural and anthropogenic phenomena occurring anywhere on earth. Several Tiger Reserves are being liked with the Project Tiger Directorate in the GIS domain for Wildlife Crime Risk Management. Tiger habitats exist in environment of thousands of indigenous communities that depend on them. Therefore we cannot view these protected areas in isolation from the surrounding socio-economic realities and developmental priorities of theGovernment. This calls for a cross-sector and cross- disciplinary approach.

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Several research findings exist on the tiger and the ongoing research broadly include: spatial use pattern studies using radio telemetry, predation, population estimation, gene flow through scatology and ethology. Research studies are being undertaken to improve the tiger population for example the reintroduction of tiger in Sariska. Since the tiger population is dwindling drastically in its entire distribution range and Sariska which is the western most distribution of tigers (Wikramanayaka et al., 1999) has seen its complete extinction once, over time, it has grown even more necessary to monitor and study the relevant holistic, ecological and socio-economic aspects that will address important issues like population dynamics, demography, territory size, dispersal, food habits and response to anthropogenic disturbance of the introduced tigers. Likewise, for Melghat Tiger Project Reserve monitoring tiger and its prey population for assessing the impacts of management interventions of protected areas as an effective tool for biodiversity conservation was undertaken (Kazi 2012). Tiger conservation / protection is a collective responsibility between the Centre, tiger States and country citizens. To attract participation of the citizens for tiger conservation, following points are suggested: (a) Learn as much as you can about wild tigers (b) In case information on poaching is available, inform the local Wildlife Warden / forest department without delay (c) In case of forest fire, inform the local forest office (d) Foster awareness about tiger conservation by participating in discussions, exhibitions and local campaigns (e) Focus on rural areas close to tiger reserves for motivating local people to desist from sudden changes in cropping patterns, land uses, polluting wetlands and rivers (f) In collaboration with likeminded people, participate in veterinary camps for vaccinating domestic dogs and livestock against diseases which may spread to wild animals (or viceversa) (g) Interact with local schools for mainstreaming conservation as an important curricular/ extracurricular activity (h) Collaborate with the nearest Wildlife Warden in conservation events during the wildlife week (i) Learn about the human wildlife interface in your area and suggest innovative safeguards (j) Help the wildlife authorities during capture of wild animals by convincing local people against crowding near the capture area (k) In case butchery garbage is not disposed, inform the local authorities for the needful (l) Volunteer to assist the tiger reserve management in addressing problems relating to floods / fire / drought

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(m) Become eyes and ears of tiger reserve management on issues like poaching, encroachment and habitat destruction (n) Stay informed about tiger issues

5 GLOBAL CONSERVATION EFFORTS The Global Tiger Recovery Program will support scaling up of practices already proven effective in one or more tiger range countries that need wider policy support, usually resources, and new transnational actions that enhance the effectiveness of individual country actions. The program is built on robust National Tiger Recovery Priorities that are grouped into themes: (i) strengthening policies that protect tigers; (ii) protecting tiger conservation landscapes; (iii) scientific management and monitoring; (iv) engaging communities; (v) cooperative management of international tiger landscapes; (vi) eliminating transnational illegal wildlife trade; (vii) persuading people to stop consuming tiger; (viii) enhancing professional capacity of policy-makers and practitioners; and (ix) developing sustainable, long-term financing mechanisms for tiger and biodiversity conservation.

References 1 Varun Khandelwal. Tiger . Summer Internship Program May-July 2005. Centre for Civil Society. 61 pp 2 Kazi N.M. A case study of Melghat Tiger reserve as a protected area, India (2012). Research Journal of Recent Sciences Vol. 1 (ISC-2011): 265-269 3 Payal Pandey. Jim Corbett national park of India.- a case study on project tiger reserves. 70 JOHAR – Journal of Hospitality Application & Research Vol. 3 No.1 4 National Tiger Conservation authority. Ministry of Forest, Environment and Climate Change, GOI 5 John Seidensticker (2010). Saving wild tigers: A case study in biodiversity loss and challenges to be met for recovery beyond 2010. Integrative Zoology; 5: 285-299

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