Husbandry and Care of Hoofstock Brent A. Huffman in ZOOKEEPING, Chapter 27, Edited by Mark Irwin et al.

INTRODUCTION AND NATURAL HISTORY Hoofed , also known as , display an incredible diversity of forms, adaptations, and lifestyles— features which make them an enduring part of zoo collections around the world. More than 250 living are currently recognized (although recent revisions suggest that there may actually be more than 450 distinct species), with representatives found in nearly every zoogeographic together, they form the new order After studying this chapter, the region and biome on earth. Cetartiodactyla. reader will understand: They range in size from Despite the disparate origins of - anatomical terms specific to rabbit- sized hoofed , two common traits ungulates impacts of species- (family Tragulidae) to the six- warrant their treatment as a group specific biology on housing, nutrition, meter-tall (Giraffa for husbandry purposes. First, all and social management camelopardalis) and 3,600- ungulates feed primarily on , - effects of ungulate behavior and kilogram using specialized strategies to deal keeper demeanor on and (Ceratotherium simum), with with fibrous foods. Second, all keeper safety social groupings ranging from ungulates have similar physical and - best practices for encouraging solitary species like behavioral adaptations for avoidance species-appropriate natural (Tapirus spp.) to immense of predators. Although these behaviors herds of more than a million common traits have been - principal issues involved in the Serengeti ecologically successful, they present reproductive and medical (Connochaetes taurinus). challenges in the care of hoof stock management of ungulates. (as ungulates are called in captivity). Although united by their Hoofed mammals have a long history BASIC EXTERNAL common of of care: evidence of captive The basic four-legged (quadrupedal) enlarged, weight-bearing sheep exists in the remains of 9,000 mammalian body plan has evolved toenails (hooves), ungulates year old settlements (Herre and for a running (cursorial) existence in do not form a taxonomic Röhrs 1990, 585). More than a ungulates: elongated legs provide group: the hooves have dozen ungulates have since been speed when fleeing from predators. evolved several times domesticated, including the Because the limb joints of ungulates independently. Modern hoofed (Equus caballus), the (Sus and are in different relative mammals are classified either domesticus), the ( positions, the joints have specific as “odd- toed hircus), four species ( names, detailed in ungulates” (order spp.), the water ( Figure 27.1 along with other Perissodactyla) like , bubalis), (family ), important ungulate anatomical rhinoceroses, and tapirs, or as and the (Rangifer features. The threat of predation “even- toed tarandus). With 4.5 billion domestic has also molded keen threat- ungulates” (artiodactyls) like ungulates () worldwide (FAO detecting senses; sensory emphasis , , hippo- Database 2009, 2007 varies between species, but all potamuses, camels, and the figures), the experience with their ungulates have eyes on the sides of diverse (, husbandry is extensive. This their heads, providing an arc of cattle, , and giraffes, knowledge base is an important vision approaching 360 degrees. among others). Genetic resource for those caring for exotic evidence also includes ungulates. THE ZOO ENVIRONMENT and dolphins (formerly As a result of their cursorial Cetacea) within the even-toed This chapter will elaborate on the tendencies and relatively large body ungulate family tree (formerly challenges and techniques of size, zoos often exhibit hoof stock in Artiodactyla); combined working with ungulates in captivity. large outdoor enclosures (paddocks).

ZOO’s PRINT, Volume XXIX, Number 11 November 2014 5 Smaller yards and indoor housing are commonly the public side to prevent escape should an animal provided to facilitate animal management. Enclosure choose to swim or panic and jump into the water, and requirements vary greatly between ungulate species a sloped area is essential to provide an easy route and zoo locations, but several key considerations are back to the enclosure. By far the most popular hoof universal. stock barrier is wire fencing due to its availability, low cost, and ease of installation. Fences tend to SUBSTRATE “disappear” into land-scaping: a benefit for visitors, Local soil is the most common substrate in paddocks, but a potential hazard for hoof stock. Flexible since replacing large areas of ground is prohibitively fencing, like chain link, can stretch to absorb impacts expensive. However, rates of hoof growth are and thereby reduce the potential for injury; it is substrate-adapted: the coarser a species’ native generally preferable to rigid or ungiving fence substrate, the faster its hoof growth must be to materials. Keepers should check for containment compensate for wear. Ungulates adapted to rough weaknesses daily, as these may cause injury, permit terrain, like wild , are therefore prone to escape, or allow free- roaming predators and native overgrown hooves when kept on softer surfaces. species (which may bear disease) to enter the Hoof wear can be increased by adding abrasive enclosure. Barriers may be the target of open sheds, substrates like decomposed granite, limestone or enclosed barns. Group- housed ungulates screenings, or roughened concrete to high-traffic behaviors like sparring and ramming, so secondary exhibit areas, such as around feeders and along barriers like bumper rails can be employed to pathways. Holding yards are often covered minimize damage by keeping large, strong, or exclusively with rough substrates, in part because of belligerent ungulates back from the primary their relative stability in varying weather conditions. containment. Electric fencing (“hot wire”), which In all cases, the extent of this “hard- standing” delivers a shock on contact, is a common secondary should be determined on the basis of species’ biology, barrier choice due to its effectiveness and as ungulates with sensitive feet (e.g., hippos and unobtrusive appearance. The ease with which slender rhinos) may develop abrasions and injuries if hot wires are broken makes them generally confined on rough ground. Whatever the enclosure unsuitable for primary containment (especially for substrate, it should provide good traction and even large ungulates), while the low visibility increases the footing. Proper drainage is necessary to prevent chances of entanglement during panicked flight. The erosion ruts and areas of deep mud: these uneven risk of collision with barriers is highest when surfaces can cause injuries to the long, slender legs hoofstock are introduced to unfamiliar enclosures. of hoofstock. In cold climates, ice may form in poorly Burlap, shade cloth, and other materials are drained areas; similar slippery areas may form with commonly attached to fences during initial intro- compacted snow, and ductions to give them a solid appearance and reduce fresh snow from frequently-used areas should be a visual distractions from beyond. Electric fences are priority. Traction over slip hazards can be provided usually “flagged” by tying strips of cloth or plastic spreading sand, but rock and other potentially (e.g., caution tape) at regular intervals; for naive caustic or poisonous ice melters should be avoided. animals, the stress of initially encountering hot wire During spring thaws or after prolonged rain, even in a new exhibit can be reduced by exposing them to well-drained substrates may become waterlogged. If sections of flagged fencing in a familiar environment. this occurs, hoof stock should be held in barns or Further introductory precautions, such as reducing yards until the ground is dry and firm. Soft terrain is water depth in wet moats and pools, are covered in readily mired by hooves, creating potentially danger- detail by Kranz (1996). As the new animals become ous uneven surfaces when dry; uneven ground can established, hazard warnings can be gradually be smoothed with rakes or harrows, but prevention is removed until the exhibit returns to its normal preferable. appearance.

CONTAINMENT REFUGE Ungulates may jump over, crawl under, climb Flight responses, as well as stress and conflct among through, or dig beneath obstacles (Fitzwater 1972, group members, can be reduced by providing hoof 52), so it is vital to research physical adaptations and stock with options for privacy. Refuges for smaller behavioral repertoires when choosing barriers. individuals (called creeps) can be created using Visually solid barriers like walls and stockades are secondary barriers that exclude larger animals. “understood” by hoof stock; even fabric walls can be Visual barriers like plantings, exhibit furniture, and effective short-term barriers. Enclosure boundaries rolling terrain allow animals to retreat from their that can be seen through carry the risk of collision- exhibit mates, keepers, and the public, thereby related trauma, so injury- reducing features should imparting a sense of security. Man-made visual be employed whenever possible. Dry moats should barriers include wooden -tos, stacked straw slope gently downwards to solid walls; steep drops bales, and sections of wall, but these may be should be avoided, lest an ungulate run over the inappropriate in naturalistic exhibits. Fallen trees edge. A water moat requires an additional barrier on (deadfall) provide natural, multipurpose furniture,

ZOO’s PRINT, Volume XXIX, Number 11 November 2014 6 which—unlike live vegetation—does not need to soft “mattress” is formed using a layer of cohesive contend with soil compaction and frequent browsing. materials like soil, mulch, or moistened shavings over Live plants often need to be protected by secondary an entire stall; this base is usually covered with barriers such as electric fence (“hot wire”) or rings of regular bedding to facilitate cleaning. Similarly, “hot boulders if they are to survive in hoof stock exhibits; beds” have a base of bedding and manure which trunks of established trees are commonly wrapped produces heat as it decomposes. Helpful for with chain-link fencing to prevent bark abrasion and providing warmth in buildings without power, hot browsing. Thorny or unpalatable (but nontoxic) beds need proper ventilation to eliminate fumes and plantings (e.g., Barberry [Berberis spp.] and regular cleaning of the top bedding to maintain Hawthorn [Crataegus spp.]; Hohn 1986, 10) are used hygienic living conditions. with mixed success to create a natural look without protective barriers. However, grasses (including HUSBANDRY bamboos) tend to be the most resilient to damage Ungulate management practices vary depending on from ungulates, even without protection: some the local climate, facilities present, institutional goals, grasses grow tall enough to provide cover, and even and species’ natural histories. Regardless of whether short species can enhance enclosure aesthetics. hoof stock are loosely or tightly managed, the Wherever vegetation is present, regular checks for knowledge and skills of their keepers are universally and removal of toxic plants should be performed; important. The diversity of ungulates prevents a these may include nightshade (Solanum spp.) and one-size-fits-all approach to their management, and alsike clover (Trifolium hybridum). Extensive toxic one of the best investments a keeper can make is to lists are available online. research the species under their care.

SHELTER OBSERVATIONS Every enclosure should include protection from wind, Throughout the daily routine, keepers should be on precipitation, and sun, whether in the form of shade the lookout for slight changes in their charges, structures, should have numerous shelter locations; remembering that ungulates hide signs of weakness multiple entrances and visual barriers further ensure that might attract predators. Slower reaction times, that dominant individuals cannot exclude others. If glassy eyes, or ears that fail to prick up all indicate needed, supplemental heating (heaters, bedding) or that an individual may be feeling “off.” Subtle cooling (misters, fans) can keep animals comfortable, changes in locomotion, such as a barely perceptible while significant differences between local and native limp husbandry and care of hoofstock or a slight climates usually require temperature- controlled reluctance to rise, suggest a potential issue with indoor holdings. Delicate species, such as hooves, feet, or joints. Minor gastrointestinal upsets (Litocranius walleri), may need indoor may be evidenced by changes in fecal consistency, facilities regardless of the region. A typical hoof fecal volume, or appetite; visible bloating and stock barn has a series of box stalls with sliding doors awkward positioning may be seen in more advanced that connect pens and lead to outside yards. Floors cases. In herd situations, aggression may be must be slightly roughened to provide hooves with directed towards sickly individuals, causing them to traction, and good drainage is needed to prevent withdraw and isolate themselves. In all cases, water and urine from becoming slip hazards. Hard keepers must recognize changes—to do so, they floors can be made more comfortable (cushioned and must be familiar with what is “normal” with their insulated) through the use of bedded areas. These animals. Documenting observations for coworkers is are best located along walls or in pen corners — that important, regardless of whether or not a problem is impart a sense of security — and should be visible obvious; effective communication, such as identifying from keeper areas to permit observation. Wood the individuals involved and using proper anatomical shavings, straw, and (in some regions) grass hay are terms (figure 27.1), is essential. Early recognition of common bedding materials. Roughage - feeding issues greatly improves the prognosis of ill species like camels and horses may consume forage- individuals. Undertaking detailed visual checks and based bedding like hay or even coarse straw, and as separating animals of concern is easily accomplished a result can experience dietary upset, gain excess if hoof stock are brought into holdings on a routine weight, or contract parasites or diseases. Where basis; this practice also helps exhibits to recuperate these issues occur, other bedding options exist, such from grazing and trampling. Daily separation of as peat moss and mulch. Rubber mats, spray-on individuals permits keepers to monitor their food cushioned surfaces, and other novel livestock consumption and is also useful for delivering flooring products are also increasingly popular in zoo medications to specific animals. These shifting settings. Specifically developed for hoof stock, these routines are best established if new animals are given synthetic materials increase animal comfort and time to associate holdings with food and shelter reduce the need for disposable bedding. When extra before being introduced to larger exhibits. In more cushioning and traction are needed—for a sore or loosely managed species that do not shift off - unsteady animal, or in preparation for a birth or exhibit, keepers must be able to approach their immobilization—a “deep bed” can be made. A dense, animals close enough to identify and monitor

ZOO’s PRINT, Volume XXIX, Number 11 November 2014 7 individuals. Doing so safely and effectively requires an animal to another enclosure before servicing is the an understanding of ungulate behavior. best way to ensure keeper safety. Gates should be firmly latched and locked, since charging and butting FLIGHT RESPONSES may force unsecured doors open. When working Ungulates avoid predation by maintaining space close to barriers, keepers must remain aware that between themselves and predators; their flight charging animals may cause fences to bulge distances dictate how close a potential threat can outwards. Horns, antlers, mouths, and hooves can approach before they retreat. Daily nonthreatening also be extended into keeper spaces; as an extreme exposure to people habituates many zoo ungulates to example, the long horns of antelope (Oryx spp.) humans, reducing their flight distances and allowing can spear an object a meter away through a chain- closer approaches than would normally be possible. link fence. If keepers must enter an enclosure with Building (or rebuilding) this trust may take weeks hoof stock, they should pay constant attention to upon the introduction of new keepers, enclosures, or animal behavior—starting before entering the routines, but such tolerance needs only a split second enclosure and continuing until after servicing is to be overridden by wild instincts in novel or stressful complete and the enclosure is secured. The safety of situations. Ungulates inherently recognize being both keepers and animals depends on recognizing cornered, being approached rapidly, and being changes in behavior, responding proactively, and separated from their herd as predatory scenarios, knowing escape routes: keepers should immediately and they react with instinctive fight-or-flight remove themselves from any potentially unsafe responses. When there is space to flee, hoof stock situation. If necessary, servicing can be delayed to may run desperately or unpredictably to reach allow the animals to calm down, or other keepers can security or rejoin herd-mates. In captivity, barriers be sought for backup. The presence of two or more are a common source of trauma for panicked keepers provides increased opportunities for ungulates, and collisions may result in facial trauma, observation and an immediate source of assistance in broken limbs, or even death. With no option for case of emergency; in many cases, ungulates will escape, they may also show extreme aggression also keep a greater distance from multiple people towards the threat as a last-chance survival strategy. than from one. A keeper should never hesitate to Keepers should avoid creating these predatory ask a colleague for assistance if uncomfortable in the scenarios for the safety of humans and animals alike. presence of hoof stock. Ungulates normally tolerant Predictability in environments, routines, and keeper of keeper presence may be more flight-prone during movements allows hoof stock to anticipate future and after a traumatic event such as a severe storm, events and respond calmly. Wary hoof stock often construction, or veterinary work. Their temperament allow closer approaches if keepers walk a zigzagging may also be affected by changes in season, social path perpendicular to the direction of actual structure, and hormonal activity; male ungulates, movement. Surprise advances can be prevented by particularly deer, can be very aggressive during the creating deliberate noises like jingling keys, breeding season (rut). Space and social pronounced to provide constant background noise in considerations also play a role, and animals that are holdings, thereby reducing the impact of startling isolated or in confined spaces may behave differently sounds. Desensitization to keepers is advisable in than their counterparts in larger enclosures or more order to diminish flight responses during daily care; social settings. Habituated hoof stock are more likely animals in smaller enclosures will generally habituate to approach keepers when seeking food or attention, more readily than those that have extensive space to or when defending mates, infants, or territory. flee. However, there is a fine balance between Although keepers may desire this close footsteps, or desensitization and becoming overly friendly, and quiet talking. A softly-playing radio can be used fearless ungulates can draw keepers into dangerous connection, maintaining a healthy respect for—and situations. distance from—all ungulates is prudent, since all animals have the potential to be unpredictable. The KEEPER SAFETY best practice is to reduce the motivation for Ungulates have the potential to harm humans in a approaching closely, such as by cleaning around variety of ways. Horns and antlers are efficient and feeders before bringing food into the enclosure. Bold effective weapons. Strong, hoofed limbs can deliver keeper movements, which usually cause hoof stock crushing blows: horses kick backwards, giraff’s kick to flee, can invite combat in unafraid ungulates. forward, deer may rear up and “punch” with their Brooms, rakes, and other tools can be used as front feet, and camels can kick their legs in all passive barriers to keep animals back, but physical directions. Several ungulates, including pigs, tapirs, contact (striking an animal) may incite aggression camels, and tiny chevrotains, have sharp tusklike and should be avoided as a method of defusing a teeth. Body weight alone may pose a safety hazard, potentially dangerous situation. should part of a keeper’s body be caught between the animal and a solid object. It is vital for keepers to NUTRITION understand the potential dangers involved with their Most hoof stock are exclusively herbivorous, although animals, and to work wisely to avoid injury. Moving a few groups, like pigs () and antelope

ZOO’s PRINT, Volume XXIX, Number 11 November 2014 8 (Cephalophinae), will consume animal matter are available commercially to meet species-specific opportunistically. Since mammals do not produce requirements. For instance, Dall’s sheep ( dalli) fiber-digesting enzymes, ungulates rely on symbiotic do well on standard pellets, but European and (microbes) to digest (ferment) (Ovis aries musimon) require a low-copper plant fibers, gaining the added benefit of microbe- version. New browser formulas are also being produced vitamins and energy-rich fatty acids. These developed to address the common nutritional issues fermentation by-products are best absorbed in the of the group. Balancing nutritional and occupational upper intestines, so that species which accommodate needs of hoof stock requires an appropriate ratio of microbes in their enlarged multichambered stomachs hay and concentrate, typically 25 to 40 pellets by before the intestines (foreguts)—such as camels, weight (Lintzenich and Ward 1997). Drinking water hippos, and ruminants—are more efficient at must be provided for proper digestion of these dry extracting nutrients than those with expanded lower feeds: automatically filling reservoirs and manually intestines (hindguts), like pigs, peccaries, and all filled water bowls are two popular options. Where odd- toed ungulates. The result is that foregut freezing is a concern, heated water sources are fermenters typically require much less food than needed to ensure constant availability; ungulates are similarly- sized hindgut fermenters (monogastrics). also more likely to drink water that is not extremely Plant-produced fiber comes in many different forms, cold. Nutritional demands may fluctuate between which has led to a range of dietary specializations in seasons and (for females) may increase dramatically ungulates. Roughage feeders like wild horses (Equus during pregnancy and , thus requiring spp.) and (Connochaetes spp.) have keepers to adjust diets on the basis of their high-crowned teeth and muscular stomachs to cope observations of food consumption and body with fibrous plants like grasses. A reasonable condition. The amount of food offered can be easily approximation of a grazer’s diet can be achieved with increased or decreased, but changes to the diet’s fiber-rich grass hay like timothy or Bermuda grass. composition or to the relative proportion of feeds Conversely, browsers such as dik-dik antelope must be made gradually (over several weeks) to (Madoqua spp.) and (Moschus spp.) allow the gut microbes to adapt. Adding or removing selectively forage on leaves, buds, and other high- components too quickly—including giving unaccus- , low-fiber plant parts. These concentrate tomed animals free access onto rich pasture—can selectors have low-crowned teeth and smaller lead to diarrhea or constipation. Some nutritional stomachs, and therefore avoid fibrous stems and issues can be resolved with supplements like salt usually refuse grass hay. Legume hay like is a (sodium chloride) and coat conditioners; foregut better browser choice, but it is far from optimal due fermenters can also benefit from trace minerals like to the hay’s large stem fraction and small, sparse cobalt, thanks to their symbiotic microbes (mono- leaves. Ungulates with intermediate feeding gastrics cannot absorb mineral-based by-products). strategies, such as (Gazella spp.) and Père Fruits and vegetables (produce) are rarely used for David’s deer (Elaphurus davidianus), feed on a wide nutritional purposes, due to their high sugar levels variety of vegetation in the wild and benefit from a and low fiber content. However, their palatability can mixture of the two hay types in captivity. When both be used to encourage consumption of supplements or hays are fed together, the amount of protein-rich medication and to provide motivation during training (and therefore palatable) legume hay should be and enrichment. Since produce ferments rapidly restricted to encourage consumption of grass hay; for once ingested, only very limited amounts should be grazing species, legume hay should be fed only in fed. limited quantities to prevent digestive distress. Captive browsers frequently develop oral stereotypies FEEDING and digestive issues because of the poor match with Feeding captive diets in an appropriate manner is their natural diet: browse is their optimal fiber important for encouraging consumption. Exposed source. Formerly used strictly for enrichment, locations may discourage feeding in inclement browse is slowly being integrated into nutritional weather; sheltered locations have the added benefit plans thanks to production and preservation of minimizing nutrient leeching and spoilage (pellets innovations. Keepers should consult a horticulturalist in particular disintegrate when wet). Feeding or browse reference (see further reading) before methods should cater to a species’ foraging ecology: feeding any browse: toxic species may cause browsers like giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) may vomiting, inappetence, diarrhea, excessive or foamy be reluctant to feed at low feeding stations, and salivation, paralysis, or even death (Rietschel 2002, grazers like white rhinos (Ceratotherium simum) may 110– 12). Hay is the cornerstone of hoof stock diets, be unwilling or unable to feed from elevated feeders. providing fiber and occupation in the form of Ground-level feeding can result in substrate . However, local growing conditions often ingestion, a risk that can be minimized by feeding result in nutritional deficiencies. Supplementation pellets from troughs or bowls. Such feeders can also with pelleted concentrates (which contain all major discourage freeloading pests (e.g., rodents and nutrients) helps to ensure that captive diets are waterfowl) that might otherwise consume a large nutritionally balanced. A variety of pelleted formulas proportion of the rations. In group situations,

ZOO’s PRINT, Volume XXIX, Number 11 November 2014 9 multiple feeding sites are often needed to ensure that dominant animals do not exclude subordinates from HANDLING food or water. Creeps or exclusion feeders are Hoofstock instinctively avoid potential threats by another solution, using body size or the presence of maintaining their flight distance, and will typically horns or antlers to provide less competitive animals move away if approached by a keeper. Used with access to food. By confining feeds, feeders carefully, this innate avoidance behavior can be allow good estimations of food intake. Left over food harnessed as a low- stress handling tool to move should be removed daily and the amounts offered ungulates between enclosures and to recapture should be adjusted to prevent excessive waste. escaped individuals; Grandin (2005) provides an Feeders are usually dry-cleaned (swept out) and excellent perspective that all hoof stock keepers sporadically washed, but wet cleaning may be needed should read. Patience is necessary when working daily with animals that salivate copiously, like with ungulates. Walking at a slow pace behind hoof giraffes. Feeders should be dry before being filled, stock usually incites calm, directional movements, so since moisture accelerates spoilage of pelleted feeds. long as keepers approach only as close as is needed The variety of mouth sizes, feeding positions, and to get the animals moving forward. Trying to hurry and antler morphologies in exotic hoof stock ungulates by making loud noises or by approaching creates a number of species- specific challenges too closely or too quickly is counterproductive: fear when selecting feeders and waterers. Horns, antlers, increases stress, and results in erratic fight- or-flight and tusks are prone to entanglement. Hay nets are behavior. unsuitable for hoof stock with these features, and hayrack bars should be spaced to accommodate only RESTRAINT the muzzle (since horns and antlers can catch on Although hands-off handling is largely sufficient when wider bars, entrapping the head). Conversely, water managing hoof stock, physical handling is sometimes bowls often need larger openings and should be required, such as for medical purposes. To reduce located away from obstructions to ensure that horned the inherent stress of restraint, blindfolds and individuals can freely access water. Pigs, which tend earplugs can be used on the animals to minimize to root, should be fed and watered from weighted sensory input and thereby induce calm and minimize troughs to prevent overturning; a - style struggling. Keepers should also work waterer is another option successfully used with efficiently to prevent prolonged handling. Before any several wild pig species. Keepers should always pay restraint procedure, the staff involved should review close attention to food items. Pellets should be dry their individual roles, the intended movement of and firm; dustiness, clumpiness, and the presence of animals, and potential hazards (including horns, mold indicate spoilage. Flakes of hay should be tusks, and hooves) to ensure everyone’s safety. pulled apart and examined using sight, smell, and Understanding the risks to the animals is also vital. touch: it should optimally be soft, green, leafy, and Capture myopathy, in which extreme stress and sweet-smelling, while inferior hay may be brittle or exertion cause muscle cells to die, is a serious and brown. Quality checks will also highlight hazards like sometimes fatal risk in hoof stock restraint. wire, broken baling equipment, and baling twine, Treatment is difficult once the condition begins, which may cause trauma to the mouth or gut, or making preventative measures essential: high carcasses, bird droppings, mold, and weeds, which ambient temperatures, extended duration of chases may be sources of diseases or toxins. Problematic and restraint, and excessive restraining force should feeds should be discarded and reported; ingestion of all be avoided. Supplemental selenium and vitamin E inappropriate material can have severe health may be administered during restraint procedures to consequences. prevent deficiencies that can exacerbate muscle issues (CAZWV 2009, 9.20– 9.23). Another principal CLEANING concern is regurgitation and aspiration of The feeding ecology of ungulates makes cleaning an contents, which may cause fatal pneumonia in essential duty of hoof stock keepers. Parasites and restrained hoof stock; ruminants are particularly at diseases sustained by fecal-oral transmission are risk, due to their large foreguts. Veterinarians may easily passed among confined ungulates feeding from suggest that ungulates be fasted to reduce their fecally contaminated areas. Feces should always be regurgitation, particularly before being chemically removed daily from around feeders; regular removal immobilized. A 12- to 24-hour fast is typical for from the entire enclosure is also important, monogastric ungulates, but recommendations vary particularly for grazing species. Most hoof stock for foregut fermenters because their stomach produce hard, pelleted feces which can be raked or chambers always retain fluids. During restraint swept up easily, leaving minimal residue. Dry procedures, keepers should watch carefully for signs cleaning is often acceptable, conserving water, of regurgitation such as green froth in the nose or reducing potential slip hazards, and prolonging the mouth, or heavy, wet breathing (CAZWV 2009, 9.15). life of bedding materials. Species with soft feces or Whenever possible, hoof stock should be restrained messy toilet habits, such as hippos, are an exception: belly down (sternally); the head should be elevated, hosing and scrubbing may be needed daily. with the nose pointing downward to allow any fluids

ZOO’s PRINT, Volume XXIX, Number 11 November 2014 10 to drain out of the mouth. Lateral positioning carries regurgitation. This condition, observed as abdominal greater regurgitation risks for ruminants: when the bloating, can usually be resolved by shifting the animal’s left side is on the ground, downward animal’s body position to permit the gases to be pressure from the body’s weight can force stomach burped up (eructed). After the immobilizing drugs contents up into the esophagus, but when the animal are reversed, the ungulate should be kept in a dark, is restrained on the right side, the force of gravity quiet stall as its poor post-procedure coordination can draw fluids out. increases the risk of self-injury. Depending on the drug, the recovery period may last for up to 72 PHYSICAL RESTRAINT hours, as signs of sedation may reappear after an The capturing and handling of small ungulate species animal has apparently recovered (this is called is often done by hand; this method is faster and renarcotization or resedation). poses fewer risks to delicate limbs than the use of nets. Bush (1996, 33) suggests a 15 kg maximum BEHAVIOR TRAINING body size for manual restraint, although hoof stock While shifting can be accomplished using herding weighing 45 kg can be successfully restrained by a techniques, formal training programs can be used to coordinated team of keepers. Captures are quickest reduce flight responses and facilitate cooperative in small enclosures, which limit mobility; the natural medical treatment. Ungulates are adept learners and tendencies of hoof stock to move as a group and run can be taught numerous behaviors such as voluntary around the perimeter can be exploited to quickly blood draws, ultrasounds, semen collection, hoof catch individuals. Once the animals are in hand, care, and tusk trimming. A stumbling block in using their struggling can often be reduced by lifting at the positive reinforcement to train hoof stock is in finding groin, so that the rear hooves do not make contact effective reinforcers. Food may not be a strong with the ground; species or individuals that motivator, especially for ungulates with constant continually struggle are better suited to other access to forage. Common food rewards for restraint methods. Horns are convenient handles to ungulates include concentrates, browse, and produce. hold during catch-ups, but forceful twisting should be Other novel dietary items may also increase avoided lest the outer sheath detach from the bony motivation: primate leaf-eater biscuits, for instance, core beneath, particularly in young animals. Deer tend to be popular with many browsers. antlers, which are grown and shed annually, are Veterinarians and nutritionists can help adjust diets unsuitable handles: while growing they are sensitive, to accommodate training additions, and can also vascularized, and easily injured, and when mature highlight concerns (onions, for instance, are toxic to the gradual weakening of the connection to the skull most hoof stock). Other reinforcers can be found in may permit them to be broken off with minimal force. training articles and husbandry manuals (see Mechanical restraint devices are commonly used for additional readings); tactile reinforcement has proven larger and tough-to-handle ungulates. Standing effective with several ungulates, including pigs, chutes, essentially narrow hallways, are easily tapirs, and rhinos. The close proximity to animals created in existing corridors and work well with during training can pose a danger to keepers. This cooperative training programs. Physical restraint can risk can be reduced by minimizing opportunities for be performed using drop-floor chutes and hydraulic undesired contact (e.g., biting or crushing force), tamers, which gently squeeze an animal with such as by using long-handled brushes to touch moveable floors and walls, and have access panels to animals. When training without a protective barrier, reach various body parts. Restraint devices are a two-keeper policy is highly recommended. Training typically associated with a series of pens and alley- through a barrier is sometimes seen as a hindrance, ways to sort and separate animals. Walls in such but it can be a lifesaving precaution when keepers facilities should be solid (with peepholes for work with large or aggressive hoof stock. The monitoring) to eliminate external stimuli that may training of timid species may even be accelerated cause ungulates to balk; similarly, curved runways with a barrier, as physical separation from keepers promote better forward movement than those with can give the animals a sense of security, reducing visible dead ends. flight distance and nervousness.

CHEMICAL RESTRAINT BEHAVIORAL ENRICHMENT For situations in which physical restraint is impossible Encouraging natural behavior is a principal goal of or invasive procedures are involved, immobilizing enrichment, and Burgess (2004) provides a wealth of drugs may be used. Anesthesia should be performed enrichment ideas for hoof stock. Occupied animals by a veterinarian, and keepers should be prepared to are less likely to exhibit stereotypical behaviors as a follow their directions throughout the procedure. By result of their captivity. Severe problems such as disrupting muscular function, immobilizations can self- mutilation are rarely seen in hoof stock, but hamper normal processes, leading to regurgitation or captive ungulates spend far less time feeding than stalled breathing. On occasion, fermentation gases their wild counterparts, and may therefore develop may build up in the stomachs of foregut fermenters oral stereotypies like object-licking and tongue- and may further hamper breathing and stimulate rolling. Multiple feedings per day and the use of

ZOO’s PRINT, Volume XXIX, Number 11 November 2014 11 feeders (from simple hay racks to more complex pose to existing hierarchies. In contrast, new adults puzzle toys) help eliminate these issues by promoting are often harassed, especially by individuals of the foraging. Providing additional hay or browse also same sex, in order to establish dominance. helps by increasing chewing opportunities. Aggression in the initial introduction stages can be Many natural behaviors can be stimulated environ- buffered by allowing restricted contact through a mentally. A variety of substrates provides options for barrier. Even after ungulates have become dust bathing, mud wallowing, and grazing; accustomed to each other’s presence, sparring topographical diversity increases exercise while matches and chases are common when they are creating lookout points and sheltered refuges; and introduced to the same space for the first time. exhibit furniture like rubbing posts and deadfall Introduction locations should have sufficient space for encourages grooming and play. In addition to these the animals to get away from each other, with choices, movement and exploration can be circular routes to prevent individuals from being encouraged by thoughtfully positioning food, water, cornered. Agonistic encounters help establish social and shelter around the enclosure. Safety concerns order and should be allowed to occur; separating must be addressed before enrichment is offered. animals during a fight or chase can increase their Hanging items should be used with caution; lengths aggression in later introduction attempts. However, of rope, chain, and cable should be sheathed with excessive aggression between incompatible pipe to prevent strangulation and entanglement. For individuals may lead to injury or death. Keepers the safety of the public, heavy enrichment and should therefore closely monitor introductions and furniture for powerful species should be anchored to keep records of behavior. Dominant or aggressive prevent them from being tossed wildly around. individuals can be preemptively impeded by blunting their tusks, sawing off their antlers, or sheathing The alertness and suspicion of ungulates can make their horn tips with rubber hose, tennis balls, or resin providing them with novel stimuli a challenge. New spheres. Tranquilizing drugs can be used to disrupt objects may be viewed as a threat, and should not be social patterns and permit new animals to integrate placed near gates through which animals are into a group, but timing introductions with the expected to move. Nervous animals may derive animals’ reproductive cycles—when their sexual enrichment from observing items placed outside of activity overrides other social factors—is often the their enclosure; this is a good initial step before the most successful method. objects are brought into the enclosure. As ungulates gain experience with novelty, their suspicion towards new things becomes less severe: enrichment makes Captive environments do not always suit innate change a part of their routine and helps reduce stress reproductive cycles: hoof stock infants born during in unplanned unusual situations. freezing winters or scorching summers may experience high mortality. To maximize infant Group housing is arguably the best enrichment for survival, it is common practice to time breeding herd- living ungulates, as it encourages social introductions so that, based on the species’ gestation behavior like herding, hierarchical establishment, and period, births occur during the optimal birthing breeding. Social interactions can also enrich typically season (often in spring). Males are usually added to solitary species, and need not be limited to the same a group when females begin to enter their period of species: mixed- species exhibits, in which hoof stock reproductive receptiveness (called estrus or “heat”). are housed with other animals, are common in A variety of physical and behavioral signs can be modern zoos. Several databases (e.g., on the AZA used to detect estrus, including swelling and mucus Antelope TAG website) document experiences with discharge from the vulva, mounting by other females, mixed- species combinations. Mixing of ungulates and often increased vocalization. The behavior of should be attempted with an understanding of risk, males can also provide important clues: they are as some groupings may be ill-advised due to adapted to detect subtle reproductive signals, and behavioral incompatibility, enclosure setup, or even often show increased agitation and competitiveness possibilities of hybridization. when near a receptive female.

HOOFSTOCK INTRODUCTIONS PREGNANCY AND BIRTHING Understanding a species’ natural social tendencies After breeding introductions occur, recorded and the demeanor of the animals involved is key to observations of are useful for determining planning a successful introduction. For many species, when males can be separated, which females may be females tend to be easier to maintain in groups; pregnant, and when births should be expected. males, which must compete for access to mates in Among pregnant ungulates, physical signs of the wild, are usually more aggressive and may be impending birth (parturition) include a prominent intolerant of other males. Young ungulates are easier udder, a swollen vulva, and a shift in how the fetus is to integrate into established herds, on account of carried. Hoofstock births usually occur at night or in their sexual immaturity and the minimal threat they the early morning, and as labor begins, expectant

ZOO’s PRINT, Volume XXIX, Number 11 November 2014 12 mothers tend to seclude themselves and become involved, the dam and any other group members restless. Females near parturition are sometimes should first be separated into another enclosure. If kept in maternity stalls, which should be well bedded this is not possible, the infant should be taken to a to provide cushioning to the newborn and to absorb protected area for the examination. fluids discharged during birth; these might otherwise cause infants to slip or splay, potentially causing life- Young infants usually require minimal restraint. threatening injuries. Single infants are typical of Smaller hoof stock will often rest quietly when held in many ungulates, but twins, triplets, and (in the case a keeper’s arms, while larger individuals are usually of wild pigs) litters up to twelve may occur. held in a prone position. During the examination, Hoofstock infants are universally precocious, able to veterinary staff will confirm the infant’s gender, stand and nurse soon after birth. This is obvious in apply permanent identification (such as ear tags, ear “follower” ungulates like wildebeests (Connochaetes notches, or microchips), and check for congenital spp.), in which infants closely accompany their problems like cleft palate or imperforate anus. A mothers (dams) from the moment they gain their small blood sample is frequently drawn to test for footing. In contrast, the monitoring of mother-infant glucose and levels (to confirm nursing), and interactions is more challenging with “hider” species injections of antibiotics, vaccines, and other like white- tailed deer ( virginianus), in supplements may be given. The way an infant is which the dam leaves the infant in a concealed spot returned to its mother after the examination depends and visits it two to four times per day for nursing; on the species. Followers set down in view of their only after a period of days, weeks, or sometimes mothers will usually run directly back to them, while months is the infant consistently seen in its mother’s hiders should be returned to their caching spot. presence. Knowing the species’ biology is therefore Keepers should then watch to ensure that the infants essential in interpreting whether an isolated infant are successfully reunited with their mothers and that has been abandoned or is acting normally. maternal care has not been disrupted.

Identifying the dam (and the sire, if known) is Difficult decisions must occasionally be made during important for management programs; in herd neonatal checkups. Untreatable conditions may situations, new mothers can be identified by physical warrant euthanasia; culling is also used by some evidence, like stains on the hind legs and institutions for population management, especially afterbirth hanging from the vulva, and behaviorally, with surplus males. Treatable medical concerns or using cues such as nursing and defensiveness. maternal neglect may require infants to be hand- Observations of nursing are important for assessing raised. Some zoos also purposely hand-rear skittish the infant’s health, as the neonatal immune system species like (Cephalophus spp.) and gazelles depends on -borne during the first few (Gazella spp.) to facilitate their habituation and days after birth (the antibody-rich milk is called reduce trauma-related mortality. Hand- raised ). Proper positioning at the udder does not infants can become imprinted on humans if reared in itself indicate nursing; milk acquisition is better isolation, preventing successful integration with inferred from an enthusiastically wagging tail during conspecifics. Socialization with other ungulates is nursing or a milky muzzle afterward. Maternal important in promoting species-typical behaviors, and behaviors to watch for include grooming, tolerance of it reduces the likelihood that aggression or courtship nursing, and licking of the neonate’s anogenital will be directed towards humans in adulthood. To region to stimulate defecation. Keeper observations this end, keepers should avoid “roughhousing” with should be made from a respectful distance, since young ungulates, since it can encourage habits that perceived threats can discourage normal mother- are dangerous in adults. If hand-raising is needed infant interactions. Remote video may be the best for reasons besides desensitization to humans, it may option for monitoring highly sensitive species. be possible to maintain an infant in its natal group while providing it with supplementary feedings or INFANT CARE treatment (Read and Meier 1996, 43); this strategy Hoof stock neonates usually receive a veterinary minimizes the potential for imprinting. Several exam 24 to 48 hours after birth. Performing the resources are available for hand-rearing hoof stock exam any sooner risks disrupting the mother-infant (e.g., Greene and Stringfield 2002), providing bonding process, and performing it any later can guidance on milk formulas and amounts, feeding allow the cursorial skills of infants to outmatch those schedules, nipple sizes, and weaning times. As of keepers. Infants are almost always caught and juveniles transition onto solid foods, they must restrained by hand; the capture should be done acquire fiber-digesting microbes. Many of these and quickly, since neonates tire easily and can severely fecal consistency suggest that an infant is not injure themselves while running on unsteady legs. digesting fiber properly, its gut can be inoculated by Defensive mothers pose a risk to keepers during adding a sample of screened feces or stomach infant capture and examination, and even typically contents (for ruminants) from the natal group to the shy animals may be very bold in response to an infant’s food. infant’s distress cries. For the safety of everyone

ZOO’s PRINT, Volume XXIX, Number 11 November 2014 13 CONTRACEPTION TRANSPORTATION The limited space in zoos requires planning to avoid Transportation options are limited for most exotic the production of surplus animals, but preventing hoof stock. Crates are the most practical method for reproduction can cause physical and behavioral transporting powerful ungulates, and are usually issues. Indeed, female ungulates that do not necessary for moving animals by airplane. A crate for several years may become effectively sterile with should be sized appropriately to allow the animal to the onset of physical and hormonal changes that stand up and lie down, but too much space can allow prevents conception; this phenomenon nearly a stressed individual to injure itself. Horns and destroyed the American population of Przewalski’s antlers also need to be considered, as they may horses (Equus ferus przewalskii). Because each require significant additional height or width. When contraceptive option has different costs and benefits, groups need to be relocated, livestock trailers provide a combination of methods is the best choice for an efficient way to move compatible individuals sustainable population management. Breeding is together. Bedding should always be provided to most readily controlled by separating males and provide cushioning and traction in transportation. females. However, disrupting natural mixed-sex herd Most ungulates will not willingly enter a strange structures can lead to unstable hierarchies and transportation container, but can be gradually increased aggression among females. Similarly, desensitized to do so using dietary rations. isolated males may lose normal social behaviors; if Desensitization to the closing of crate doors is separated from the herd at a young age, they may beneficial, but must be done slowly and well in become socially incompetent and unable to advance of shipment; following a negative successfully court or breed females when eventually experience, hoof stock often balk at re-entering an placed into a breeding situation. Bachelor groups enclosed environment. When training is not feasible, comprised solely of males are one way to provide manual handling can be used to crate smaller socialization, and short-term successes have been species. Larger species may require mild sedation or achieved with several ungulates, including Speke’s closer approaches within their flight zone to get them (Gazella spekei) and Grevy’s zebra (Equus to enter a confined transportation space. During grevyi). To circumvent natural aggressive tendencies transportation and after arrival at the destination, among males, these groups are best created with darkness and quiet can help calm hoof stock. Mild similarly-aged, sexually immature animals, and sedation of nervous individuals can further reduce should optimally be kept away from visual, auditory, stress. Excited individuals should be given time to and olfactory contact with females. Monitoring the calm down before being offloaded, to prevent them behavior of these groups is important as males age from rushing blindly into the new environment. and mature: bachelor herds are rarely stable over the Crated hoof stock should be released from the rear of long term. Surgical contraception of males the crate: backing them out minimizes the chances (castration or vasectomy) eliminates the need to that a traumatic collision will occur. As further separate the sexes to prevent reproduction. insurance, some arrival stalls have padded walls to Castrated males do not develop testosterone-induced reduce the risks of trauma; unpadded walls can be characteristics; this reduces aggression but also lined with straw bales if it is deemed necessary. reduces sexual markings, manes, and musculature. Vasectomised males, on the other hand, retain these VETERINARY CARE physical and behavioral traits; their aggression can The veterinary care of exotic hoof stock draws heavily even be increased, since they often become on the techniques developed for domestic livestock, competitive and aggressive to other individuals although the similarities between these groups must whenever a female comes into estrus (a frequent be considered alongside significant and sometimes occurrence when pregnancy is prevented). Surgical unexpected differences. Injuries are particularly contraception of females is significantly more challenging to treat, making the elimination of invasive, and is usually done only for medical potential sources of trauma (e.g., uneven substrates reasons. Chemical contraception is currently only and unsafe barriers) the better option. Proactive effective for female hoof stock, where most options training is highly recommended to facilitate medical work by interrupting estrus cycles. This not only management. allows the sexes to remain together, but eliminates many of the behavioral consequences described GASTROINTESTINAL ISSUES above. However, while usually reversible in the short The most frequently encountered hoof stock health term, some contraceptives can cause sterility when issues occur along the digestive tract. Colic is an used for extended periods, thus tempering their umbrella term for symptoms such as bloating, social benefits. The AZA’s Contraception Center abdominal discomfort, and diarrhea or constipation. (listed in suggested websites) is a primary resource Colic has many causes, including impactions of for chemical contraception. substrate, hair, and other foreign materials; insufficient water consumption; rapid dietary changes; excessive fermentation; or twisting of the

ZOO’s PRINT, Volume XXIX, Number 11 November 2014 14 intestines. In mild cases, keepers can relieve the should be shaved down in numerous thin passes to symptoms by withholding highly fermentable foods prevent the sensitive living tissues within the hoof (e.g., produce and concentrated feeds), providing from being exposed. warm water to stimulate drinking, and encouraging exercise. Severe cases may require emergency DISEASES surgery. Colic tends to be acute, while intestinal Exotic ungulates are susceptible to many of the same parasites are often a chronic problem. Many diseases that affect domestic livestock, and the risk ungulates harbor parasites without showing ill of transfer between these two groups (and to effects, but high parasite numbers may cause loose humans) has resulted in tight medical regulations for stool, poor body condition, weight loss, or even hoof stock. Zoos that house multiple ungulate sudden death, feces for eggs and parasites prior to species must also contend with the transfer of treatment with medications like fenbendazole or disease (e.g., malignant catarrhal fever) from ivermectin. Prophylactic treatment in temperate asymptomatic carrier species to neighboring climates is often performed in spring and late susceptible species. Important hoof stock diseases summer when parasite egg counts typically rise. (Rovid-Spickler and Roth 2006, 113– 245; Junge After medication, follow-up tests will confirm whether 2007, 1– 2) include the treatment was effective and whether additional - transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (prion treatment is needed. Parasites are best controlled diseases), like bovine spongiform encephalopathy with good hygiene around feeding areas. In severe (BSE or “mad cow disease”), scrapie, and chronic cases, parasite transmission can be hindered by wasting disease (CWD) restricting the animals’ grazing opportunities, - bacterial diseases, including anthrax, , regularly mowing grass, providing rocky or sandy leptospirosis, bovine (TB), and Johne’s terrain, and bringing the ungulates off paddocks at disease (paratuberculosis) night. Moving animals to different enclosures can -viral diseases, including foot and mouth disease also break the cycle. If an ungulate has trouble (FMD), bluetongue, malignant catarrhal fever (MCF), eating, salivates excessively, or chews more , equine encephalitis, and West virus. frequently than usual, there may be issues with its teeth. Older animals are more prone to overgrown These diseases are rarely seen in healthy, well- teeth, which are corrected by rasping (or “floating”) managed zoo collections due to government- excess enamel ridges to realign the chewing surfaces. enforced quarantines, which maintain new animals in Other oral issues, like gum abscesses or trauma to isolation for a period of testing lasting at least 30 the mouth, may develop into extensive swelling, days. Permanent quarantines, like Permanent Post- known as “lumpy jaw.” Because swelling is seen only Entry Quarantine (PPEQ) in the United States, may in chronic cases, early diagnosis is challenging; be mandated for ungulates arriving from the wild or treatment usually requires that teeth from the other high-risk areas. Quarantine regulations are in affected area be removed. place to ensure the health and safety of human and animal populations, and they must be closely HOOF CARE followed. Activity levels, genetics, and injuries may make some animals prone to hoof problems even if they are MEDICATING housed on appropriate substrates. If left untreated, When an illness or disease requires treatment, a an overgrown hoof may crack or separate from the principal challenge is delivering medications to hoof sole of the foot, thereby straining the underlying stock. Noninvasive oral medications are usually structures. Vascular issues, including high offered on favored foods like pellets or produce; blood acidity levels from the rapid fermentation of consumption can be further encouraged by holding rich feeds, may cause the hoof structures to become back other rations until the medication is consumed. inflamed and to separate from each other. In severe Oral medications tend not to be used with foregut cases, this can develop into a painful fermenters, as their stomach volume hampers timely condition known as founder, in which the terminal absorption and the foregut microbes may neutralize bone of the foot rotates away from the hoof. Hoof drugs. Long-term oral antibiotics also risk destroying problems can affect an animal’s quality of life and its the microbial population, requiring gut inoculation ability to breed, and may even result in death. Early after treatment. In contrast, injectable drugs ensure detection and treatment is far easier than dealing that therapeutic levels are achieved without harming with progressed hoof disease. Exotic ungulates can the digestive microbe balance, but regular delivery be trained to allow voluntary footwork, but usually can be nearly impossible unless animals have been this work is performed under anesthesia. The trained for voluntary injections. Where nervous resulting unusual positions and species-specific ungulates require extended treatment, long- lasting morphologies can make trimming overgrown hooves tranquilizing (antipsychotic) medications can make a challenge even for experienced personnel (in some the procedures safer and less stressful. regions, all hoof work must be performed by licensed farriers). When a hoof is trimmed, its keratinous wall

ZOO’s PRINT, Volume XXIX, Number 11 November 2014 15 CONSERVATION AND RESEARCH Susan Lumpkin, 25– 40. Chicago: University of Many wild ungulates are of conservation concern, as Chicago Press. their relatively large size makes them vulnerable to CAZWV (Canadian Association of Zoo and habitat loss and . Unfortunately, several Wildlife Veterinarians). 2009. The Chemical recent ungulate species are already extinct: in 1883 Immobilization of Wildlife, 3rd Edition. Winnipeg: the last quagga (Equus quagga quagga, a relative of Canadian Association of Zoo and Wildlife the zebra) died at the Artis Zoo in Amsterdam, and in Veterinarians. 1938 the last Schomburgk’s deer ( FAO (Food and Organization of the schomburgkii) was killed in a temple zoo in . United Nations) Database. 2009. Global Stocks of Despite these losses, several ungulates owe their Domestic Hoofed Mammals for the Year 2007. continued existence to captive breeding, including the Available online at http://faostat.fao .org/site/573 / Przewalski’s horse (Equus ferus przewalskii), the Père default .aspx. David’s deer (Elaphurus davidianus), the Arabian Fitzwater, William D. 1972. “Barrier Fencing in oryx (Oryx leucoryx), and the European (Bison Wildlife Management.” Proceedings of the 5th bonasus). These species were once extinct in the Vertebrate Pest Conference, 49– 55. Available online wild, but zoos have preserved them all and reintro- at http://digitalcommons.unl .edu/vpc5/. duced them to their native ranges. Zoos are deve- Grandin, Temple. 2005. “Principles for Low Stress loping more partnerships with in situ projects, Cattle Handling.” Utah State University Cooperative providing funding and expertise to help conserve Extension Paper AG//06. Available online at ungulates in the wild. In captivity, research is being http://extension .usu .edu/fi les/publications / conducted on assisted reproductive technologies like beef6stress .pdf. been developed for several Greene, Kelley, and Cynthia Stringfield. 2002. exotic ungulates including the ( “Exotic Ungulates.” In Hand- Rearing Wild and eurycerus), the (Bos javanicus), and the Domestic Mammals, ed. Laurie J. Gage. 256– 61. gerenuk (Litocranius walleri). Their widespread use Ames: Iowa State University Press. is limited by the species-specific nature of hormones, Herre, , and Manfred Röhrs. 1990. “Domestic anatomy, and physiology, as well as by the expense Mammals.” In Grzimek’s Encyclopedia of Mammals, involved. Once developed, however, these assisted Volume 5, ed. Sybil P. Parker, 529– 35. New York: reproductive techniques allow zoos to transfer McGraw- Hill. gametes instead of animals and, through gamete Hohn, Timothy C. 1986. “A Brief Survey of Plants preservation, involve deceased individuals in Used in Hoofed Stock Exhibits.” Longwood Graduate breeding programs. In the future, gamete transfer Fellowship Report. Available online at http:// may permit between zoos and the wild, dspace.udel .edu:8080/dspace /bitstream/ although tight quarantine regulations on biological 19716/3140/1/hohn_1986 .pdf. samples (including semen) remain a major hurdle. Kranz, Karl R. 1996. “Introduction, Socialization, and Crate Training Techniques.” In Wild Mammals in SUMMARY Captivity: Principles and Techniques, ed. Devra G. The diversity of ungulates makes generalizing many Kleiman, Mary E. Allen, Katerina V. T h ompson, and aspects of their husbandry a challenge. Providing Susan Lumpkin, 78– 87. Chicago: University of appropriate care in regard to housing, group size, Chicago Press. and diet requires hoof stock keepers to research and Lintzenich, Barbara A., and Ann M. Ward. 1997. understand the natural history of the species they “Hay and Pellet Ratios: Considerations in Feeding care for. Keepers must work in a calm, predictable Ungulates.” Nutrition Advisory Group Fact Sheet 006. manner and develop keen observational skills to Available online at http://www .nagonline .net/ overcome the survival adaptations of ungulates. Technical/20Papers/technical_papers .htm. Although hoof stock is sometimes challenging to work Read, B. W., and J. E. Meier. 1996. “Neonatal Care with, the benefits of maintaining these species in Protocols.” In Wild Mammals in Captivity: Principles zoos are immense, and captive conservation and Techniques, ed. Devra G. Kleiman, Mary E. Allen, programs continue to directly enhance populations of Katerina V. Thompson, and Susan Lumpkin, 41– 55. ungulates in the wild. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Rovid-Spickler, Anna, and James A. Roth, ed. REFERENCES 2006. Emerging and Exotic Diseases of Animals, 3rd Burgess, Amy. 2004. “The Giraffe in Captivity: Edition. Ames, IA: Institute for International Enrichment.” In The Giraffe Husbandry Resource Cooperation in Animal Biologies, Iowa State Manual, ed. Amy Burgess, 139– 52. Silver Springs, University College of Veterinary Medicine. MD: Association of Zoos and Aquariums Antelope/ Giraffe Taxon Advisory Group. Bush, Mitchell. 1996. “Methods of Capture, Handling, and Anesthesia.” In Wild Mammals in Captivity: Principles and Techniques, ed. Devra G. Kleiman, Mary E. Allen, Katerina V. Thompson, and

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