COMMENTARY a full-time independent institution that the authority of the Court”, from the defi- Disclosure by New Appointees can methodically, systematically and nition of criminal contempt. This has de- As this goes to print, news has come that transparently go about the job of selecting terred public exposure of corrupt judges, five new judges have been recommended judges of the higher judiciary. and it is certainly not necessary to protect for appointment to the Supreme Court. We also need to get rid of the Veeraswami the honour or dignity of honest judges or Again, as always, the process of selection judgment which restrains criminal inves- of the judiciary. has been done without any transparency. tigation of judges without the prior written The road to securing judicial accounta- Though some of the judges nominated permission of the CJI. This has tied the bility, therefore, is still long and hard. But e njoy excellent reputations, some others hands of investigating agencies from in- proper accountability for such a powerful do not. One does not know how and on vestigating judges of the higher judiciary. and vital organ like the Indian judiciary is what basis the selection has been made. A Judicial Bureau of Investigation under absolutely vital for the survival of rule of The least that needs to be done in this con- an independent Judicial Complaints Com- law and of democracy in this country. The text is to publish their asset declarations at mission should be set up to investigate lessons from the asset disclosure contro- least some time before the appointments complaints against judges. versy are that an organised public cam- are notified. That is the minimum that the We also need to amend the Contempt of paign and galvanised public opinion can people of the country deserve. It is indeed Courts Act to do away with the colonial and sometimes does bring about funda- their fundamental right, declared by the and antiquated “scandalising or lowering mental institutional changes in a society. Supreme Court itself.

suffered such a socio-economic Will the Impact of the 2009 during 1998-2002; Baluchistan and Sindh during 1997-2002 (ibid). Drought Be Different from 2002? For millennia until the 1960s, a pro- longed meteorological drought readily turned into a hydrological or even a so- Tushaar Shah, Avinash Kishore, Hemant P cio-economic drought in resulting in famines and mass starvation deaths. A , which has emerged ssuming that the overall rainfall drought meant an entire crop year lost. as India’s prime adaptive deficit this year will hover The main kharif crop would of course be mechanism in times of drought, Aaround 20%, will the impacts of lost. Empty tanks and reservoirs would the 2009 drought on Indian agriculture also mean loss of rabi and summer crops. will play a crucial role this year be different from the 2002 and earlier During recent decades, however, Indian since the aquifers were recharged in their scale and severity? We agriculture has responded to droughts in 2006-08. The impact of the think yes; this year’s drought will have differently from the way it used to respond drought of 2009 will therefore significantly less impact on food produc- before, thanks to the spread of ground- tion and the livelihoods of the poor. We water irrigation. be less severe than the drought explain why things may not turn out to be of 2002. Beyond the immediate as bad as the doomsday stories suggest. Production versus Stabilisation response, we need to think Hydrologists categorise droughts into Compared to tanks and surface reservoirs, long term. Instead of pumping four types depending upon the severity of groundwater storage plays a much larger their socio-ecological impact. Mere lack of “stabilisation” role as distinct from the money into dams and canals, precipitation during a period is considered “production” role of irrigation in agricul- Indian agriculture will be better a meteorological drought, which if long- ture. When managed well, groundwater off investing in “groundwater lasting enough turns into an agricultural storage lasts long after all surface storages banking”. This involves storing drought as crops begin to suffer moisture dry up during a drought. This is why, stress. All available water in nearby stor- in the history of Indian agriculture, surplus flood waters in aquifers ages is marshalled to save dying crops. well-digging activity always peaked dur- which can be drawn upon in When water storages themselves dry up ing droughts (Shah 2009). Rapid ground- times of need. for the lack of replenishment, a hydro- water development has many cons; but it logical drought ensues, causing decline in has pros as well. One of these is drought food and fodder production. A succession proofing, especially after a series of of hydrological droughts can create havoc, good monsoons. leave a region’s economy sapped and cause This has been evident in the recent Tushaar Shah ([email protected]), Avinash misery all around. This phase is some- Indian experience. In 1965-66, when rain- Kisore and Hemant P are at the International times referred to as socio-economic drought fall was 20% below normal, India suffered Water Management Institute, Colombo. (IWMI 2005). In recent times, Afghanistan a 19% decline in foodgrain production

Economic & Political Weekly EPW september 12, 2009 vol xliv no 37 11 COMMENTARY over the previous year; but then, the None of the conditions that made A pecking order has now emerged in In- groundwater revolution was just begin- 2002-03 a serious drought are present dia with respect to drought-proneness of ning. In 1987-88, in the middle phase of today. The years 2005-06, 2006-07 and different areas. Rainfed agriculture areas the groundwater boom, rainfall once 2007-08 were all above normal monsoon are hit the hardest by a drought. These are again was 17.5% below normal; but this years, when depleted aquifers had time follo wed by areas dependent on tank irri- time, the foodgrain production was down and rainfall to recover. As a result, even if gation. Only well owners have some pro- by just over 2%. Groundwater irrigation 2009 ends up a meteorological drought, it tection in tank commands, these can played a big role in explaining this is unlikely to turn into a hydrological provide a life-saving irrigation. Canal change from the mid-1960s (Gandhi and drought as bad as in 2002 for the country commands under run-of-the river systems Namboodiri 2007). as a whole. Rainfed paddy will be hit hard; are better protected than tank commands But then we never paid much attention but wheat and other crops will suffer less, because of better-recharged aquifers, but to managing groundwater. Reckless ex- especially if increased energy for ground- command areas of reservoir-based irriga- pansion in groundwater irrigation without water irrigation is made available. tion systems are even better off as some of concomitant effort to replenish the resource Groundwater has emerged as India’s the reservoir storage would last even left many aquifers depleted. In 2002-03, prime adaptive mechanism in times of when rivers dry up. India received 22% less than normal rain- drought. Therefore, we need to better un- Dugwell irrigated areas dependent on fall. To add to this, the rainfall was 8% derstand and master the “stabilisation” natural recharge are greatly at risk, but less than normal in 2000-01 and 6% lower role of groundwater. During a drought, those in canal commands are less affe cted in 2001-02. Surface reservoirs were all but groundwater aquifers are doubly hit: there by drought due to continuous aquifer empty; and depleted groundwater storages is less rainfall and little recharge to aqui- recharge. By far the best protected areas had little chance to recover. Conditions fers but there is also additional demand are those irrigated by deep tubewells, were ripe for a meteorological drought to pressure on the resource as farmers strug- especially in canal-recharged areas like turn into a hydrological drought. Little gle to save their crops and livelihoods. upper Punjab and central . Equally surprise, then, that in the 2002-03 drought, During a good monsoon, the same factors well protected are regions like Saurashtra farm output fell significantly as in 1966. work in opposite direction. Demand for in Gujarat where dug well irri gation is The value of paddy output declined by 22%; groundwater is less and natural recharge now supported by hundreds of thousands oilseeds by 23.5% and wheat by 9.5%. is more. of check dams and perco lation tanks

12 september 12, 2009 vol xliv no 37 EPW Economic & Political Weekly COMMENTARY constructed by communities with govern- against drought in states like Gujarat than by the needs of the farmers. The ment support over the past two decades and . only storage that can provide some meas- (Shah 2009). These are least affected In many parts of India today, dairy pro- ure of drought proofing is groundwater by a single drought; but even deep tube- duction booms during a drought. During storage. Instead of pumping money on wells may dry up in a succession of the 2002 drought, the value of paddy and dams and canals, Indian agriculture will drought years. oilseeds output fell over 20% and of wheat, be better off investing in “groundwater Hard rock areas of peninsular region – nearly 10%; but the value of livestock and banking”. This involves storing surplus 65% of India’s landmass – are far more milk production grew nearly 3% on an all- flood waters in aquifers which can be dependent on tanks and dug wells which India basis. Thanks to the livestock econo- drawn upon in times of need. become useless during a drought in the my, India’s value of output from agricul- India needs to reinvent canal irrigation absence of aggressive groundwater re- ture and allied sectors fell only 6.3% in as a means to “bank” groundwater in charge in preceding years of good monsoon. 2002-03. In states like Andhra Pradesh, times of surplus surface water availability. Little surprise then that the 2002-03 the value of milk production – which is Instead, command areas of many existing drought hit the southern states much already approaching the value of crop irrigation projects are shrinking because harder than the tubewell irrigated states production – increased by 12%; and in of a variety of reasons (Shah 2009). Many of the Indo-Gangetic basin. Gujarat by 3.6%. tertiary canals are in disrepair. When water Dairying has emerged as the farmer’s does not reach tail ends, farmers flatten Managing Groundwater adaptive strategy during droughts. As canals and bring the land under plough. In the current as well as future droughts, crops fail, farmers divert land, water and Also, as farmers turn to groundwater, they those states will emerge unscathed that other resources to produce more feed lose interest in canals and their mainte- have learnt to master and manage the and fodder to preserve their livelihoods nance. According to government data, de- “stabilising” role of groundwater. Guja rat and income. And milch cattle respond spite massive investments in the so-called is the classic example. It has a rainfall strongly, and immediately, to better feed- Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme, deficit in roughly half of its farming are- ing by readily yielding more milk. India’s canal irri gation is in fact deceler- as, especially north Gujarat. The Gujarat But dairying works as a drought-buffer ating and has lost 3 million ha of canal ir- government has been making doomsday only where there exists a strong network rigated areas since 1991 (SANDRp 2006). predictions of a significant decline in farm of dairy cooperatives. These help convert This trend does not augur well for insu- production. Our prediction, however, is increased milk production into what lating the country from drought. The best that Gujarat will actually increase its farm Amar tya Sen called “exchange entitlements”.. thing we can do with our surface storages output this year. We expect milk production to be sustained is to maximise their use for groundwater The state has wisely invested in com- at 2008 levels or even increase this year in banking by spreading the water over as munity-based groundwater recharge. It Gujarat, , Andhra Pradesh, large an area as possible. has had four good monsoons in a row, giv- and Tamil Nadu; this will par- For the Indian water establishment, ing its aquifers opportunity to recover. tially compensate for the decline in crop however, the idea of using surface water Now, it has begun providing farmers 18-20 output. Eastern India does not have strong resources for groundwater recharge is hours of power per day instead of the nor- milk marketing institutions. As a result, blasphemy. But this is a common practice mal eight hours (Times of India, 19 August dair ying plays no drought-buffer role here. in arid and semi-arid regions like the 2009). This may increase its farm power The smallholder in Bihar or Orissa cannot western United States (US) and Australia. subsidy bill by some Rs 2,000 crore this rely on milk to tide over a drought quite In the western US, groundwater banking year; but this may be worthwhile if it helps like small farmers can in Gujarat, Andhra is done in two ways: first, by direct Gujarat farmers to produce Rs 50-55,000 Pradesh, Rajasthan or Tamil Nadu. aquifer recharge with surplus surface crore worth of farm and dairy output. water; and second, by providing farmers With these policies, the state may not only ‘Groundwater Banking’ imported surface water in lieu of ground- maintain but even surpass its 9.6% growth While the 2009 drought will have to be water pumping (http://www.docstoc.com/ rate in agricultural GDP. dealt with in a crisis mode, there is docs/3875990/The-Basics-of-a-Ground- In Rajasthan, one of India’s most renewed demand for more large-scale water-Banking-Study-An-Introduction-of). drought-prone states, people talk of four irrigation projects and inter-linking of riv- kinds of droughts: Annakal (shortage of ers as a long term response. However, by Style Sheet for Authors food), Jalakal (lack of drinking water), themselves, dams and canals have proved While preparing their articles for submission, Trinakal (shortage of fodder), and Trikal increasingly useless during droughts. Run- contributors are requested to follow EPW’s (shortage of all three) (Dalbir Singh n d). of-the-river irrigation systems have natu- style sheet. In the past, saving the cattle from starving ral limitations during droughts. And few The style sheet is posted on EPW’s web site at http://epw.in/epw/user/styletocontributors.jsp was as much a priority as saving the Indian dams have carry-over storage that It will help immensely for faster processing and family members from starvation deaths. is available to drought-proof agriculture. error-free editing if writers follow the guidelines Today, however, livestock and dairying Moreover, the use of dam storage is driven in style sheet, especially with regard to citation have emerged as a powerful bulwark more by the demands of power generation and preparation of references.

Economic & Political Weekly EPW september 12, 2009 vol xliv no 37 13 COMMENTARY Both these increase groundwater storage which evaporates far less than surface water. Stored groundwater is pumped to save crops during dry periods and replen- ished at the first opportunity. Such groundwater banking can insulate India from droughts. Groundwater banking is an idea whose time has come in India. We need to adapt the concept to fit our reality. India may not have vast unpeopled sandy-alluvial tracts that can serve as recharge basins; nor can we effectively use surplus surface water in lieu of groundwater pumping, given our vast number of irrigators and the absence of enforceable property rights. But we can certainly evolve re- charge technologies suited to our condi- tions. Groundwater banking can be done in a decentralised format as well; Sau- rashtra is a living example; and the Na- tional Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS) is an ideal vehicle for do- ing this country-wide. If the monsoon fails to revive, 2009 will be the year of the NREGS. Many states have not been able to use the resources available under this ambitious scheme to provide employment guarantee to rural poor. In a drought, however, demand for work will increase manifold. And the best works to undertake would be struc- tures to support groundwater banking. The NREGS can provide employment to the needy as well as prepare the ground for dealing with future droughts. If every village were to construct five new water harvesting and recharge structures, and desilt existing ones, it will be better prepared to survive the next drought when it comes.

References Gandhi, V and N V Namboodiri (2007): “Groundwater Irrigation: Gains, Costs and Risks” in R M Saleth (ed.), Water Policy in India: Context, Issues and Options, (Washington DC: Resources for the Future Press). IWMI (2005): “Drought Assessment and Mitigation in Southwest Asia: A Synthesis Report” (Colombo: International Water Management Institute). SANDRP (2006): “Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme: Why It Is a Complete Misnomer: No Accele ration, Little Irrigation, Minuscule Benefits”, Dams, Rivers and People, 4(7-8), pp 8-9. Shah, Tushaar (2009): Taming the Anarchy: Ground- water Governance in South Asia (Washington DC: The Resources for the Future Press). Singh, Dalbir (n d): “Survey of Drought Coping Mech- anisms and Institutions in Rajasthan” (Udaipur: Sewa Mandir).

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