DOCSLIB.ORG

Development Cooperation to Ensure That None Be Left Behind

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Development Cooperation to Ensure That None Be Left Behind Department of Economic & Social Affairs CDP Background Paper No. 39 ST/ESA/2018/CDP/39 March 2018 Development cooperation to ensure that none be left behind José Antonio Alonso* ABSTRACT Te development cooperation system is undergoing a dramatic process of change. New actors are on stage, new instruments (beyond ODA) are being used, and the felds of work have been clearly widened. Te enlargement of the development cooperation system is in line with the ambitious and comprehensive 2030 Agenda. However, those changes also imply massive ten- sions and challenges to the current development cooperation system in terms of its objectives, procedures and narrative. Tis paper presents some of these challenges in light of the “leaving no-one behind” mandate. Te paper discusses, frstly, how the development cooperation system can be brought up to date, taking into account massive changes in the international landscape; secondly, it argues why development cooperation may be still useful and efective in supporting an Agenda that goes beyond ODA; and fnally, it discusses some dilemmas around the way in which resources should be allocated in order to preserve the distributive purpose of develop- ment cooperation. Keywords: foreign aid, development cooperation, South-South cooperation, fnancing for development, 2030 Agenda JEL Classifcation: F02, F35, O10, O15, O19, O20 * Professor of Applied Economics (Universidad Complutense de Madrid), member of the Committee for Devel- opment Policy (CDP) ([email protected]). I would like to thank comments from Marc Fleurbaey, Margarita Flores, Sakiko Fukuda-Parr, Jesse Grifths and Rashid Hassan. All errors remain those of the author, CONTENTS 1. Introduction........................ ............................................... 1 2. Reshaping the development cooperation system ......................................... 2 A new international landscape ..........................................................3 New actors in the field ................................................................3 New fields of action ..................................................................6 Rebuilding development cooperation policy ..............................................8 3. Is still ODA required? ................ ............................................... 9 The role of ODA .....................................................................9 The evolution of official financing resources ..............................................11 Allocation of resources ...............................................................14 4. Some dilemmas on resources allocation . .............................................. 17 Quantity vs. quality ..................................................................17 Poor people vs. poor countries ........................................................18 Efficiency vs. equity .................................................................20 Social sectors vs. productive sectors ....................................................21 5. Final considerations ................. .............................................. 21 References ............................ .............................................. 23 CDP Background Papers are available at https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/ cdp-background-papers/. Te views and opinions expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily refect those of the United Nations UNITED NATIONS Secretariat. Te designations and terminology Committee for Development Policy employed may not conform to United Nations prac- UN Secretariat, 405 East 42nd Street tice and do not imply the expression of any opinion New York, N.Y. 10017, USA whatsoever on the part of the Organization. e-mail: [email protected] Typesetter: Nancy Settecasi http://cdp.un.org 1 Introduction rather vertical decision-making structures (all char- 3 Te 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development acteristics of ODA) seems to have come to an end . obliges the international community to move Te emergence of new ofcial providers from the towards a radically new Financing for Development South, the more active involvement of private actors framework. Tentative estimates put the amount in development activities, the advent of new instru- of resources required for meeting the Sustainable ments in felds heretofore insufciently considered Development Goals (SDGs) at between one and four (such as environmental fnance), and the shrinking trillion dollars annually1, a magnitude unattainable relative weight of ofcial funds in total development from current ofcial fows (SDSN, 2015; UNCTAD fnancing are all factors in the tectonic process of 2014). In accordance with its ambition and com- change that the system for development coopera- plexity, the 2030 Agenda will require a mobilizing tion is currently undergoing (a process analysed by of resources and capabilities from highly distinct Severino and Ray, 2009, Alonso, 2014, Kharas and sources, public and private, domestic and interna- Rogerson, 2012 and Lin and Wang, 2017, among tional. Te Addis Ababa Action Agenda, approved others). In the presence of emerging actors, new pri- at the Tird International Conference on Financing orities, procedures, and narratives have won traction for Development, follows in this line when stating in development cooperation policy, challenging the that achievement of the Agenda “will require an traditional discourse and practices of ODA. equally ambitious, comprehensive, holistic and Te aforementioned changes ofer a valuable oppor- transformative approach with respect to the means tunity for building a more open, inclusive, and of implementation, combining diferent means complex system of development cooperation that of implementation and integrating the economic, embraces all providers across more horizontal and social and environmental dimensions of sustainable cooperative relations, aligning resources and eforts 2 development”. around a set of shared goals. Tat is what the 17th In this holistic approach, development cooperation Goal of the 2030 Agenda proclaims when it seeks policy (a concept wider than, and distinct from, of- to “revitalize the global partnership for sustainable cial development assistance, or ODA) is expected to development”. However, making this change a real- play a modest but relevant role (see Box 1 for a clari- ity will further imply massive tensions and challenges fcation of these concepts). Its contribution could be for the current development cooperation system. signifcant, particularly if resources and policies are As the number of involved agents and instruments to address the demand of those social sectors and increases, the process of international coordination countries most in need, to guarantee that “no one will become more difcult, and the defnition of is left behind”. But in order to do that, the devel- common standards and rules for shaping individual opment cooperation system will have to undergo actions more arduous. Moreover, the enlargement of radical changes, given the new levels of complexity the development cooperation ecosystem is making it and interdependency in the world. Te realm of more difcult for recipient countries to govern the “donors and recipients”, unilateral transfers of con- fows of international support received. Additionally, cessional funds frequently under conditionality, and severe trade-ofs can emerge between the objectives of engaging new actors in the development cooper- 1 Te estimates are still too rough, although they coincide ation system and preserving its focus on people and in placing the resources required for meeting the SDGs in countries most in need. Finally, in the new interna- an order the magnitude of “trillion” dollars annually. For tional context, certain dilemmas arise around how example, the Sustainable Development Solutions Network resources and means of support should be allocated (2015) estimated this amount in 1.4 trillion dollars; and the UNCTAD (2014) climbed this amount up towards a fgure among countries and sectors. between 3.3 and 4.5 trillion dollars. 2 http://www.un.org/esa/fd/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/ 3 Te Paris Agenda has tried to transform these kinds of rela- AAAA_Outcome.pdf (par. 11) tionships with very partial success. 2 CDP BACKGROUND PAPER NO. 39 Tis paper attempts to present some of these dilem- (a big push) to break out the “low-level equilibrium mas and challenges in light of the “leaving no-one trap” and achieve self-sustained growth. International behind” mandate that the 2030 Agenda advances. fnancing (mainly through ofcial channels) was Te text is organized into three main sections fol- thought an essential ingredient in funding the lowing this introduction. In the second section, we investment required for enabling the world’s poorer discuss how the development cooperation system countries to escape poverty. In accordance, aid was can be brought up to date, taking into account considered temporary: once a country overcame massive changes in the international landscape; the the poverty trap, aid would become unnecessary; third section is oriented toward answering whether additionally, aid transfers were left to discretionary ODA is still useful and necessary; and the fourth decisions by donors, conditioned only by voluntary section considers certain dilemmas related to the standards agreed to within a committee of the way in which resources and means of support should OECD (the Development Assistance Committee, be allocated. A brief concluding section ofers some DAC).
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Trade and Labour Mario Pianta
    University of Urbino From the SelectedWorks of Mario Pianta 2001 Trade and labour Mario Pianta Available at: https://works.bepress.com/mario_pianta/62/ Global Trade and Globalising Society Challenges for Governance and Sustainability: the Role of the EU Proceedings of a dialogue workshop held in Brussels on 14-15 December 2000 Edited by Angela Liberatore and Nikolaos Christoforides Brussels, November 2001 PREFACE Preface Fostering dialogue between researchers, policymakers and citizens The European Union is undergoing radical changes in its social, economic, political, technological, demographic, cultural and institutional structure. These changes range from the establishment of a common currency to the introduction of a European citizenship, from new family structures to new ways of working, all this while Europe is enlarging and acting in a global context. Research can play a constructive role in understanding those changes, identifying opportunities and risks, assessing the feasibility, acceptability and impacts of different policy options. Such constructive role however can only be played if research enters in sustained dialogue with those who are at the same time potential users of research, actors of change, and holders of important forms of practical knowledge. In other words, research should not only aim at ‘communicating its results’ to the people ‘outside’ the research system, but should also ‘listen to and learn from’ the experience and concerns of the various social actors or- as it is often said- the various ‘stakeholders’. The ‘dialogue workshops’ series organised within the Key Action ‘Improving the socio-economic knowledge base’ intends therefore to improve multidirectional communication –as opposed to unidirectional diffusion of information- in relation to a number of different but related issues and functions.
    [Show full text]
  • Inequality on the Rise?
    Inequality on the rise? An assessment of current available data on income inequality, at global, international and national levels. Background document for the WESS 2013 Sergio Vieira Economic Affairs Officer – DESA December 2012 Inequality on the rise? Summary 1. Inequalities at national level are increasing in developed and developing countries, despite some exceptions in Latin America. 2. Inter-country inequalities were increasing until recently, but convergence of national mean incomes between developing and developed economies has been more evident in the last few years (before the global financial crisis in 2008). 3. International inequalities present a similar pattern than inter-country inequalities, when excluding populated countries such as China and India. The general picture of international inequalities will continue to be influenced by developments in these two countries, including in the aftermath of the global economic crisis. 4. In recent times, global inequalities have in fact increased due to the higher effect of inequalities within countries. Although national GDP per capita may have seen some convergence, inequalities within countries have increased as much. 5. There are many driving forces behind recent inequality trends that are summarized at end. Depending on how inequalities will be linked to other chapters, it will be relevant to discuss some of these driving factors in detail. 6. A last section discusses the implications of inequalities for sustainable development, which may be relevant for other chapters in the WESS. 1. Inequalities within countries, clearly on the rise: - Income inequalities in OECD countries have been increasing in recent years in almost all countries. In OECD countries, the Gini coefficient rose on average from 0.29in the mid-1980s to 0.316 in the late 2000s.
    [Show full text]
  • Changes in Income Inequality from a Global Perspective: an Overview
    Changes in income inequality from a global perspective: an overview Thomas Goda April 2013 PKSG Post Keynesian Economics Study Group Working Paper 1303 This paper may be downloaded free of charge from www.postkeynesian.net © Thomas Goda 2013 Users may download and/or print one copy to facilitate their private study or for non-commercial research and may forward the link to others for similar purposes. Users may not engage in further distribution of this material or use it for any profit-making activities or any other form of commercial gain. Changes in income inequality from a global perspective: an overview Abstract: Rising income inequality has recently moved into the centre of political and economic debates in line with increasing claims that a global rise in income inequality might have been a root cause of the subprime crisis. This paper provides an extensive overview of world scale developments in relative (i.e. proportional) income inequality to determine if the claims that the latter was high prior to the crisis are substantiated. The results of this study indicate that (i) non-population adjusted inequality between countries (inter-country inequality) increased between 1820 and the late 1990s but then decreased thereafter, while there was a steady decrease after the 1950s when population weights are taken into account; (ii) income inequality between ‘global citizens’ (global inequality) increased significantly between 1820 and 1950, while there was no clear trend thereafter; (iii) contemporary relative income inequality within countries (intra-country inequality) registered a clear upward trend on a global level since the 1980s. Keywords: Personal income distribution; trends in income inequality JEL classifications: D31; N3 Acknowledgements : I would like to thank Photis Lysandrou, John Sedgwick and Chris Stewart for their helpful comments.
    [Show full text]
  • Income Inequality in an Era of Globalisation: the Perils of Taking a Global View1
    Department of Economics ISSN number 1441-5429 Discussion number 08/19 Income Inequality in an Era of Globalisation: The Perils of Taking a Global View1 Ranjan Ray & Parvin Singh Abstract: The period spanned by the last decade of the 20th century and the first decade of the 21st century has been characterised by political and economic developments on a scale rarely witnessed before over such a short period. This study on inequality within and between countries is based on a data set constructed from household unit records in over 80 countries collected from a variety of data sources and covering over 80 % of the world’s population. The departures of this study from the recent inequality literature include its regional focus within a ‘world view’ of inequality leading to evidence on difference in inequality magnitudes and their movement between continents and countries. Comparison between the inequality magnitudes and trends in three of the largest economies, China, India, and the USA is a key feature of this study. The use of household unit records allowed us to go beyond the aggregated view of inequality and provide evidence on how household based country and continental representations of the income quintiles have altered in this short period. A key message of this exercise in that, in glossing over regional differences, a ‘global view’ of inequality gives a misleading picture of the reality affecting individual countries located in different continents and with sharp differences in their institutional and colonial history. In another significant departure, this study compares the intercountry and global inequality rates between fixed and time varying PPPs and reports that not only do the inequality magnitudes vary sharply between the two but, more significantly, the trend as well.
    [Show full text]
  • Title Page Name: Jacob Richard Thomas Affiliation: Sociology, UCLA, Los Angeles, United States Postal Address: 500 Landfair
    Title Page Name: Jacob Richard Thomas Affiliation: Sociology, UCLA, Los Angeles, United States Postal Address: 500 Landfair Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024 Telephone number: +1 773 510 6986 Email address: [email protected] Word Count: 9959 words Disclosure Statement: I have no financial interest or benefit arising from all direct applications of my research. Whither The Interests of Sending Communities In Theories of a Just Migration Policy? 1 Abstract When democratic, liberal, and communitarian political theorists make normative claims about what a just global migration policy should be, they usually focus on issues of admission, undocumented or irregular immigrants, border control, and membership, and ignore the impact of international human capital movement on countries of origin. I scrutinize this neglect with respect to the case of Filipino medical professionals, a particularly astonishing example of human capital flight from a country of origin, or brain drain, since it deprives such countries of returns from investments they made in human capital, deprives them of public goods, and leads them to cumulative disadvantage in development. In light of this empirical example, I then critique Arash Abizadeh, Joseph Carens and Michael Walzer for not reflecting on how accounting for the impact of brain drain would force them to re-evaluate what is a just immigration policy in three ways: 1) They would have to think about social justice not only in nationalist terms as being relevant to those inhabiting the migrant receiving state but also those in sending states. 2) They could no longer ignore the way in which migration and economic development of poorer areas in the world are related.
    [Show full text]
  • Global Earnings Inequality, 1970–2015
    DISCUSSION PAPER SERIES IZA DP No. 10762 Global Earnings Inequality, 1970–2015 Olle Hammar Daniel Waldenström MAY 2017 DISCUSSION PAPER SERIES IZA DP No. 10762 Global Earnings Inequality, 1970–2015 Olle Hammar Uppsala University Daniel Waldenström IFN and Paris School of Economics, CEPR, IZA, UCFS and UCLS MAY 2017 Any opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and not those of IZA. Research published in this series may include views on policy, but IZA takes no institutional policy positions. The IZA research network is committed to the IZA Guiding Principles of Research Integrity. The IZA Institute of Labor Economics is an independent economic research institute that conducts research in labor economics and offers evidence-based policy advice on labor market issues. Supported by the Deutsche Post Foundation, IZA runs the world’s largest network of economists, whose research aims to provide answers to the global labor market challenges of our time. Our key objective is to build bridges between academic research, policymakers and society. IZA Discussion Papers often represent preliminary work and are circulated to encourage discussion. Citation of such a paper should account for its provisional character. A revised version may be available directly from the author. IZA – Institute of Labor Economics Schaumburg-Lippe-Straße 5–9 Phone: +49-228-3894-0 53113 Bonn, Germany Email: [email protected] www.iza.org IZA DP No. 10762 MAY 2017 ABSTRACT Global Earnings Inequality, 1970–2015* We estimate trends in global earnings dispersion across occupational groups using a new database covering 66 developed and developing countries between 1970 and 2015.
    [Show full text]
  • D6be1b2c030417f409810bed7f9
    Global Social Movement(s) at the Crossroads: Some Observations on the Trajectory of the Anti-Corporate Globalization Movement¹ Frederick H. Buttel & Kenneth A. Gould INTRODUCTION ne of the most distinctive aspects of late-twentieth century globalization Ois that many of its predominant features—especially the reinforcement of trade liberalization institutions and the growing ability of national-states and corporate capital to exercise off -shore veto of domestic social and environmen- tal legislation—are challenged directly and aggressively by a global-scale social movement, the anti-corporate globalization movement. Previous world systems of globalization such as British global hegemony of the nineteenth century (roughly 1870–1914) involved no global-scale organizations, and no social move- ments aimed at curbing one or another of the processes of international integra- tion (with the partial exception, of course, of attempts to create an international working class or socialist movement). Indeed, a growing number of social sci- Frederick H. Buttel Kenneth A. Gould Department of Rural Sociology Department of Sociology abstract and Institute for Environmental Studies St. Lawrence University Th is paper examines the major structural the “Washington consensus” and the resulting University of Wisconsin, Madison Piskor Hall characteristics of the anti-corporate globaliza- environmentalization of the trade and global- 1450 Linden Dr. Canton, NY 13617 tion movement, its key bases and antecedents, ization issue were critical to the “Seattle coali- Madison, WI 53706 [email protected] its relationship with other global social move- tion,” there has been a signifi cant decline in the [email protected] http://it.stlawu.edu/~sociology/ ments (GSMs) and the key challenges it faces in movement’s embrace of environmental claims http://www.drs.wisc.edu/personnel/faculty/buttel/buttel.htm the post-9/11 period.
    [Show full text]
  • Proquest Dissertations
    INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note vrill indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6" x 9" black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. Bell & Howell Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600 UMI' GLOBALIZATION AND FOOD SECURITY IN LESS INDUSTRIALIZED SOCIETIES: AT-RISK POPULATIONS AND THE SOCIOLOGY OF HUNGER DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Stephen J. Scanlan, M.A. ***** The Ohio State University 2000 Dissertation Committee Approved by: Professor J.
    [Show full text]
  • Global Production Networks and International Inequality: Making a Case for a Meso-Level Turn in Macro-Comparative Sociology
    Global Production Networks and International Inequality: Making a Case for a Meso-Level Turn in Macro-Comparative Sociology Matthew C Mahutga1 University of California, Riverside [email protected] Abstract In this article, I extend recent macro-comparative empirical research on the developmental implications of global production networks. I draw from theories of commodity/value chains, global production networks and economic sociology to identify three contending theoretical perspectives for exactly how the developmental returns to network participants should be distributed—cooperation, exploitation and differential gains—and derive testable hypotheses for each. Adding to recent empirical advances for measuring the average network position of firms at the country level, I evaluate these hypotheses by way of dynamic panel regression models of hourly wage rates in the garment and transportation equipment industries. The results suggest that macro-sociological theories linking underdevelopment to the structure of the world- economy, as well as theories of the distribution of the gains from network participation, miss important variation at the industry level. Cooperation provides a poor account of the distribution of the gains from network participation. Instead, both industries appear to distribute the gains from network participation differentially across network participants. However, the extent of this inequality increases, and the garment industry transitions to exploitation, when global production networks become entrenched organizational logics. Variation in the distribution of the returns to network participation is explicable only by accounting for production-network governance as it varies across industries and over time. I conclude by highlighting the analytical utility to macro-comparative sociology of a turn toward the meso-level of global industries.
    [Show full text]
  • Globalization and Income Inequality
    IZA DP No. 2958 Globalization and Income Inequality Elena Meschi Marco Vivarelli DISCUSSION PAPER SERIES DISCUSSION PAPER July 2007 Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit Institute for the Study of Labor Globalization and Income Inequality Elena Meschi Marche Polytechnic University, Ancona and CSGR Warwick Marco Vivarelli Catholic University of Milan, CSGR Warwick, IPTS (European Commission, Seville) and IZA Discussion Paper No. 2958 July 2007 IZA P.O. Box 7240 53072 Bonn Germany Phone: +49-228-3894-0 Fax: +49-228-3894-180 E-mail: [email protected] Any opinions expressed here are those of the author(s) and not those of the institute. Research disseminated by IZA may include views on policy, but the institute itself takes no institutional policy positions. The Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) in Bonn is a local and virtual international research center and a place of communication between science, politics and business. IZA is an independent nonprofit company supported by Deutsche Post World Net. The center is associated with the University of Bonn and offers a stimulating research environment through its research networks, research support, and visitors and doctoral programs. IZA engages in (i) original and internationally competitive research in all fields of labor economics, (ii) development of policy concepts, and (iii) dissemination of research results and concepts to the interested public. IZA Discussion Papers often represent preliminary work and are circulated to encourage discussion. Citation of such a paper should account for its provisional character. A revised version may be available directly from the author. IZA Discussion Paper No. 2958 July 2007 ABSTRACT Globalization and Income Inequality* This paper discusses the distributive consequences of trade flows in developing countries (DCs).
    [Show full text]
  • Inequalities and Their Measurement
    IZA DP No. 1219 Inequalities and Their Measurement Almas Heshmati DISCUSSION PAPER SERIES DISCUSSION PAPER July 2004 Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit Institute for the Study of Labor Inequalities and Their Measurement Almas Heshmati MTT Economic Research and IZA Bonn Discussion Paper No. 1219 July 2004 IZA P.O. Box 7240 53072 Bonn Germany Phone: +49-228-3894-0 Fax: +49-228-3894-180 Email: [email protected] Any opinions expressed here are those of the author(s) and not those of the institute. Research disseminated by IZA may include views on policy, but the institute itself takes no institutional policy positions. The Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) in Bonn is a local and virtual international research center and a place of communication between science, politics and business. IZA is an independent nonprofit company supported by Deutsche Post World Net. The center is associated with the University of Bonn and offers a stimulating research environment through its research networks, research support, and visitors and doctoral programs. IZA engages in (i) original and internationally competitive research in all fields of labor economics, (ii) development of policy concepts, and (iii) dissemination of research results and concepts to the interested public. IZA Discussion Papers often represent preliminary work and are circulated to encourage discussion. Citation of such a paper should account for its provisional character. A revised version may be available on the IZA website (www.iza.org) or directly from the author. IZA Discussion Paper No. 1219 July 2004 ABSTRACT Inequalities and Their Measurement This paper is a review of the recent advances in the measurement of inequality.
    [Show full text]
  • Offshoring and the Internationalization of Employment: a Challenge
    Are job losses and the degradation of working conditions in the developed world due to globalization and the offshoring of jobs? Contrary to popular beliefs and fears, most economic analysis evaluating the long-term and global implications of the internationalization of employment does not support this view. Yet for workers who have been displaced, a positive global and long-term impact does not remove their immediate loss. Offshoring and The Proceedings of the Third Annecy Symposium, which took place in April 2005, discuss this paradox: globalization may have enhanced the overall well-being of the Internationalization those countries that have participated, and globally reduced poverty, but it looks more and more like a monster that devours jobs as there are few mechanisms to compensate those that have suffered. The book analyses trends and patterns in of Employment the internationalization of employment, looks at losers and winners, and proposes new policies of compensation. The latter are based on rights and international la- A challenge for a fair globalization? bour standards, and on a new effort to build an effective employment adjustment system that accompanies a fair globalization. Proceedings Peter Auer, Geneviève Besse and Dominique Méda of the France/ILO s y m p o s i u m A n n e c y 2 0 0 5 International Institute for Labour Studies Offshoring and the internationalization of employment France/ILO symposium 2005 ILO ( ISBN 92-9014-783-0 Liberté • Égalité • Fraternité RÉPUBLIQUE FRANÇAISE Ministère de l’emploi, de la cohésion
    [Show full text]