Tropical Topics A n i n t e r p r e t i v e n e w s l e t t e r f o r t h e t o u r i s m i n d u s t r y

Mangroves I - the No. 19 April 1994 Mangroves - coping with salt Notes from the Mangroves are plants which live between the sea and the land. A mangrove is not a species, but rather the name given to a community of unrelated plants living in Editor areas which are inundated by tides. Thus a mangrove may be a tree but (like a Many people don’t like mangroves, ‘rainforest ’) may also be a shrub, palm, fern, climber, grass or epiphyte - regarding them as muddy, mosquito- all of them sharing the ability to live in salt water. and crocodile-infested swamps. Their removal is seen as a sign of progress. Do mangroves need salt? It seems that The first line of defence, for many So what is the point of preserving the answer is no. Some species have mangroves, is to stop much of the salt them? For a start, it has been estimated been kept in pots where they have from entering at all by filtering it out at that up to 75 percent of fish caught grown happily and flowered regularly root level. Some species can exclude commercially either spend some time in when given only fresh water. more than 90 percent of salt in sea the mangroves or are dependent on However, experiments have also water. (, Ceriops, food chains which can be traced back shown that the best growth occurs Bruguiera and Osbornia species are to these coastal forests. where the plants live in sea water all ‘salt-excluders’.) diluted by about 50 per cent with fresh Mangroves also protect the coast by water. Another trick, is to quickly excrete salt absorbing the energy of storm-driven which has entered the system. The waves and wind. The only two yachts One particular advantage to growing of many mangroves have undamaged by Cyclone Tracy in 1974 in a salty environment is the lack of special salt glands which are among had sheltered in a mangrove creek. competition! Only a limited number of the most active salt-secreting systems While providing a buffer for the land plants have invested evolutionary known. It is quite possible to see and/ on one side, mangroves also protect energy into adapting to such harsh or taste the salt on the surfaces of the sea on the other. Sediments trapped conditions. In the optimum conditions species which choose this method. by roots prevent siltation of adjacent of a tropical rainforest, diversity is (‘Salt-secreters’ include Aegiceras, marine habitats where cloudy water great and competition fierce. On the Avicennia, Sonneratia and Acanthus.) may cause the death of corals. In edge of the sea (in ) about 30 addition, mangrove plants and species of mangroves have exclusive A third method of coping with salt is sediments have been shown to absorb occupancy. to concentrate it in bark or in older pollution, including heavy metals. leaves which carry it with them when So how do mangroves manage to they drop. (Lumnitzera, Avicennia, Worldwide, vast tracts of mangroves flourish in an environment which Ceriops and Sonneratia species all have been destroyed so we are lucky to would kill most other plants? use this trick.) have relatively large areas of Australia’s tallest and best-developed mangroves As can be seen from the examples still existing on our doorstep. A token given, some mangroves use only one preservation of small parts of these, of these methods but many use two or however, would be similar to preserving more. just a few reefs. Now that their economic and ecological importance has been In addition, a number of features serve recognised we carry the responsibility to conserve water. These include a to look after our mangroves. thick waxy cuticle (skin on the leaf) or dense hairs to reduce transpiration — the loss of water. Most evaporation Mangroves are too interesting to loss occurs through stomata (pores in pack into one Tropical Topics. This the leaves) so these are often sunken topic will therefore appear in two below the leaf surface where they are issues dealing first with plants and protected from drying winds. then with animals. Mangrove leaves are also frequently succulent, storing water in fleshy internal tissue. Where are the mangroves? The necessities of life The warmer and wetter the climate, the richer the mangrove community to be found there.

The most diverse mangroves occur in gently-shelving shores allow mangrove tolerant of salt than others. Other factors tropical areas where the water seedlings to anchor, particularly in which affect their distribution include temperature is greater than 24deg. in estuaries, rivers and bays. wave energy, soil oxygen levels, drainage the warmest month, where the annual and differing nutrient levels. Where one rainfall exceeds 1250mm and mountain Mangroves exist in a constantly changing species finds its preferred conditions — ranges greater than 700m high are environment. Periodically the sea or at least those which it is able to tolerate found close to the coast. (The inundates the community with salty water better than other plants — it tends to proximity of mountains tends to while, at low tide, especially during become dominant. This has led to quite ensure the rainfall.) In addition, they periods of high rainfall, it may be exposed clear zones among mangroves. need protection from high waves to floods of fresh water. Apart from which can erode the shore and suddenly altering the salinity levels, these prevent seedlings from becoming fluctuations in water can alter established. In north Queensland the temperatures as well. Great Barrier Reef performs this function while to the south a chain of Different mangrove species have sand islands provide shelter. Shallow, different requirements. Some are more Orange mangrove Zones in the mangroves As a general rule bands of dominant mangrove (Ceriops species) may be flat zone where only mangrove species run parallel to the found in this zone, although the toughest shoreline or to the banks of tidal creek conditions may make it mangroves (for systems. The seaward side of the impossible for anything other example yellow community, where there is more than succulent plants to thrive mangrove (Ceriops Yellow salt water than fresh, is likely to here. The resilient grey mangrove tagal), club mangrove be dominated by a fringe of may appear again while less saline mangrove grey mangroves soils may be covered with a thick (Aegialitis (Avicennia marina). This forest of orange mangroves annulata) and

tough species is Orange mangrove (Bruguiera species). grey Australia’s most mangrove widespread due to its A number of factors may (Avicennia ability to tolerate low determine what happens to the landward marina) grow. temperatures and a side of this zone. In conditions of high variety of conditions. rainfall, such as exist in north Queensland, There is a similar change of species along Grey A pioneer, it is likely particularly in the Daintree, regular rivers, the zones corresponding roughly mangrove to be the first flooding may lead to freshwater swamp to decreasing salinity levels and ranges of species to grow on areas dominated by the less salt-tolerant salinity (among other factors). The ever- newly-emerged mangrove species (such as adaptable grey mangrove tends to be mud banks, putting up its distinctive peg freshwater mangrove found throughout river systems, including roots. Mangrove apple (Barringtonia the upper limit of tidal influence where (Sonneratia alba) often acutangula) and fresh water is abundant. The greatest grows in this zone too. cottonwood concentration of mangrove species is (Hibiscus usually at the mouth of tidal creeks and The red (stilt or spider) tiliaceus). Behind rivers where salt and fresh water mix in mangrove (Rhizophora this may be a zone ideal proportions and floodwaters deposit stylosa) is usually of paperbarks and plenty of material to build up the banks. found behind this the beautiful flaky- Red mangroves are zone where its long barked red beech or frequently found prop roots give it a golden guinea tree here. firm foothold in wind (Dillenia alata), as and waves. littoral (shore) While there are Red vegetation merges certain patterns to mangrove The next zone may be inundated only by into rainforest. the development of periodic spring tides at the time of the new mangrove zones, it must be remembered and full moon. As a result the soil In areas of very that local conditions will always dictate will be firmer but more saline seasonal rainfall, such which mangroves are due to the evaporation of as those in the found where. water leaving behind salt Gladstone to Cottonwood which will not be Townsville region, the reverse diluted until the may be the case, evaporation and little next spring tide. fresh water input leading to an increase in Grey The tough yellow salinity. This may be a salt marsh or salt mangrove Yellow mangrove Mangrove uses Mangroves at sea The mangroves have long functioned as a storehouse of materials Mangroves occur not just on the coast of the mainland. They also pop up, where providing food, medicines, shelter and tools. conditions are suitable, on the fringes of continental islands and on wooded coral Fish, crabs, shellfish, prawns as well as islands of the reef. In these situations edible snakes and worms are found among rainfall and nutrient levels are likely to be the mangroves. The of certain Blind-your-eye mangrove low so these communities generally lack species, including the Nypa palm, can be the diversity and luxuriance of those on eaten after preparation along with the the mainland. (Very large islands, such as nectar of some of the flowers. The best Hinchinbrook, are an exception.) honey is considered to be that produced from mangroves, particularly the river Mangroves of coral islands grow in an mangrove (Aegiceras corniculatum) environment where the main sediment (below). comes from coral and is thus high in chemicals in it can be used on sores calcium carbonate but low in the and to treat marine stings. They are also nutrients which come from the land. The used for fishing; when leaves are crushed more mature mangrove communities tend and dropped in water fish are stupefied to become established on the sandier lee and float to the surface. This sap is side, usually the northwest, while currently being tested for its medical stunted forms of some species may grow properties and may play a part in western elsewhere. Naturally, those species medicine. which require a greater degree of fresh water, are absent at sea. Certain tree species, notably the cedar mangrove and the cannonball mangrove (relatives of the red cedar) as well as the grey mangrove are prized for their hard Numerous medicines are derived from wood and used for boat building and mangroves. Skin disorders and sores, cabinet timber as well as for tools such as including leprosy, may be treated with digging sticks, spears and boomerangs. ashes or bark infusions of certain species. The fronds of the Nypa palm are used for Headaches, rheumatism, snakebites, boils, thatching and basket weaving. Various ulcers, diarrhoea, haemorrhages... and barks are used for tanning, many more conditions are traditionally pneumatophores (peg roots) make good treated with mangrove plants. The latex fishing floats while the wood from yellow from the leaf of the blind-your-eye mangroves (Ceriops species) has a mangrove (Excoecaria agallocha) can reputation for burning even when wet. indeed cause blindness but the powerful

More plants of the mangroves

A number of mistletoe species live on mangrove trees, parasitising their hosts by sending special roots into their living tissue and robbing them of nutrients. Like all ferns the mangrove fern Mistletoes also gain nourishment by (Acrostichum speciosum) has a relatively photosynthesising, so grow well where complicated means of reproduction. sunlight is available. Some species grow Known as cottonwood or river mangrove, Spores are produced underneath the only on mangroves while others may be this native hibiscus (Hibiscus tiliaceus) is fronds in reddish-brown sacs. They are found on other types of trees as well (and a marginal mangrove species, growing on dispersed by wind and then develop into some species are never found on the landward side of mangroves where tiny plants (prothalli). These, in turn, mangroves). Since all mangroves contain fresh water is abundant. The underside of produce reproductive structures which, in a high salt content in their sap those its leaves are densely covered with hairs this species, depend on water for mistletoes which choose them for hosts which may help to conserve precious fertilisation. The result is a mature fern have had to adapt themselves water by reducing loss through plant. appropriately. transpiration. Roots and shoots Apart from coping with salt, mangroves also face common problems of water-logged, unstable and oxygen- deficient soils. Despite belonging to many different families mangrove plants have come up with surprisingly similar solutions.

Roots Roots perform a number of functions for a plant. They support it and they obtain essential nutrients and oxygen.

Breathing roots Little oxygen is available in fine, often waterlogged, mud. The Ground Grey mangrove surface solution which many mangroves have come up with, is to raise (Avicennia part of their roots above the mud. These roots are covered with ) marina Cable root special breathing cells, called lenticels, which draw in air. They are connected to spongy tissue within the roots. When the roots are submerged in water, the pressure within these tissues falls as the internal oxygen is used up by the plant. The resulting negative pressure means that when the root is re-exposed, as the Anchor roots tide drops, more air is drawn in through the lenticels. There is always a danger that the breathing roots of In unstable, sometimes semi-fluid, soil an extensive root system is mangroves may become covered as sediments accumulate. necessary simply to keep the trees upright. As a result, most Under normal conditions sediments build up at the rate of mangroves have more living matter below the ground than above 1.5-2cm a year. To avoid being it. The main mass of roots, however, is generally within the top buried the roots can grow up two metres — mangroves do not seem to grow deep tap roots, vertically. Oil, however, probably because of the poor oxygen supply below the surface. can be fatal. Once covered with it the There are three types of roots with different functions. Radiating lenticels can no longer cable roots, punctuated by descending anchor roots, provide draw in air and the plant support. From this framework sprout numerous little nutritive may suffocate. roots which feed on the rich soil just below the surface. The third type of roots collects the oxygen.

Different mangrove species have developed different architectural designs to keep their roots in the air. The species shown here typify the different root arrangements. Red (stilt or spider) mangrove Grey mangrove (Rhizophora stylosa) is commonly found (Avicennia marina) close to the seaward side of mangroves. It grows a series of is therefore subjected to high wave energy snorkels, or peg/pencil and has developed a system of stilt, or prop, roots, known as roots. These spread far and wide, providing pneumatophores. numerous anchors for the tree as well as a Experiments with a large surface area for oxygen-absorbing related Avicennia lenticels. species have shown that those plants growing in In common with other species, coarse coral sand, with a this mangrove also grows aerial good air supply to the roots, extra stilts which arise roots, were able to survive after their pneumatophores were from the branches or trunk. Stud- removed. However, those living in poorly aerated soil died when ies have shown that these aerial the pneumatophores were covered. In one situation, where they roots alter dramatically in structure were covered with oil, the plants responded by growing when they reach the mud; above it aerial roots. they have about 5 percent air spaces but below this changes to 50 percent.

Orange mangrove Looking glass mangrove (Bruguiera (Heritiera littoralis) produces buttressed gymnorrhiza) roots which are like flattened, blade- develops knee like stilt roots. roots. These are cable roots which have grown above Cannonball mangrove the surface of (Xylocarpus granatum) is buttressed but the mud and then the cable roots also appear above the down into it again. ground in the fashion of knee roots. Shoots The and/or (ling)s of all mangrove plants can float, which is, of course, an Red mangrove excellent dispersal mechanism for plants (Rhizophora stylosa) which live in water.

Members of the family The production of live seedlings (Rhizophora, Bruguiera and Ceriops (known as vivipary) is very rare in species) have an intriguing method for plants other than mangroves and a successfully reproducing themselves. few seagrass species and the reason The fertilised do not drop from for it is unclear. It is possible that the the plants but begin to germinate, well-developed seedling has a greater growing out from the base of the chance of surviving, once it has taken root, fruits to form long, spear-shaped in a situation where it is likely to be battered by stems and roots, called propagules. water-bourne objects. They may grow in place, attached to the parent tree, for one to three The presence of many mangrove species which do not years, reaching lengths of up to one metre, produce viviparous seedlings shows that this strategy is not before breaking off from the fruit and falling into strictly necessary for successful reproduction. However, all the water. mangrove fruits and seeds are large, which suggests that bigger fruits and seedlings have a better chance of survival. It also means the seeds with a big storage capacity may survive longer. These seedlings then travel in an intriguing way. In buoyant sea water The cannonball mangrove (Xylocarpus granatum) (below) they lie horizontally produces a large fruit, 20cm in diameter, containing up to and move quickly. 18 tightly-packed seeds. On reaching fresher On ripening it (brackish) water, explodes, scattering however, they turn the seeds which Orange mangrove vertically, roots down float away on the (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza) and leaf buds up, making tide. They often it easier for them to lodge end up on in the mud at a suitable, less salty, site. Some species of beaches. these floating seedlings (Rhizophora) can survive, in a state of suspended animation, for up to a year in the water. Once lodged in the mud they quickly produce roots and begin to grow.

Some other species (Avicennia, Aegialitis and Aegiceras) also Cannonball mangrove produce live seedlings but these are still contained within the (Xylocarpus granatum) seed coat when it drops from the plant. The seed of Avicennia floats until this coat drops away. Interestingly the speed with which this happens depends on the temperature and salinity of the water. In water of high or low salinity the seed coat is slow to drop off but in brackish water it Grey is shed quickly allowing the seedling to The seed of the looking-glass mangrove lodge in the favoured habitat of this mangrove (Heritiera littoralis) has a (Avicennia species. Higher temperatures also favour prominent ridge on one side. This may marina) faster action. Avicennia seeds can stay act as a sail when the seed is in the water. alive for only four days in the water. Mangrove history It is thought that mangroves Desert plants of central Australia may also be seen as relict evolved somewhere between mangroves from the days when a vast inland sea covered the Australia and New Guinea, about 50- area. As it dried up, the plants which had adapted to those wet Red mangrove 60 million years ago, and spread out salty conditions found it relatively easy to adapt to a dry from there to tropical regions worldwide. In situation; salinity, in essence, causes drought by warmer periods of the earth’s history they probably covered a making it difficult to obtain water. As a result the much larger area than they do now — mangroves currently water-conserving strategies of the two growing in cool areas such as in Victoria and South Australia groups of plants, although separated by are probably relicts of that warmer time. great distances, are remarkably similar. Orange mangrove Questions & Answers Facts and stats Q Why are there more painted majority move to the outer edge of on mangrove plants crayfish in Torres Strait than, for the Great Barrier Reef. example, off Port Douglas and Worldwide there are 69 further south? Q Should we feed the brush turkeys recognised species of mangrove which come into Edge Hill? What do plants belonging to 20 families. Up to 34 mangrove species and A Painted crayfish (also known as they eat? three hybrids are known to occur ornate rock lobsters) prefer turbid in Queensland — although figures (cloudy) waters such as those A It is rarely a good idea to feed may change as the definition of a found north of Cooktown. wildlife artificially. There is always mangrove is not clearcut and some Sediments washed out by the rivers the danger of giving them unsuitable plants, such as cottonwood, may be of Cape York and PNG provide their food, for example bread might fill up regarded as a mangrove by some and favoured habitat - soft corals and the animal’s stomach but might, not by others. massive hard corals which offer because of its particular digestive more shelter than, for example, system, give it no nourishment at all. A study of Cairns mangroves staghorn corals. They may be found found 24 mangrove tree and shrub species while a further 18 in a range of turbid, rocky areas on Another problem is that of making species of flowering plants were the continental shelf including the wildlife dependent on your growing among the mangroves or spots which are exposed to oceanic source of food and then suddenly on salt marshes. An additional 42 waters to sheltered waters of withdrawing this if you go on species of epiphytic plants and 25 lagoons and back reefs to silted holiday or move house. By attracting species of fungi were identified rubble areas near river estuaries and wildlife to urban areas you may also growing on the mangroves. mangroves. Depths vary from one be putting it at risk from dogs and metre to 200 metres. cats. (This is a major problem for No mangrove species are Interestingly, some of the cassowaries coming into gardens restricted only to Australia. biggest crayfish but applies to possums and many Many occur widely throughout the Indo-West Pacific region. are found at other animals.) More specifically, Some, such as the red mangrove the edge of brush turkeys have a tendency to (Rhizophora stylosa) are, however, its range. kick up large amounts of leaf litter to best developed in Australia. build nesting mounds so there is the possibility that your neighbours The north-east coast of Australia might dislike the visiting birds and is home to the greatest diversity ask this Department to remove them! of mangroves and associated plants. This is because this The best way to attract wildlife safely region was close to the centre of to your garden is to plant native origin and dispersal of mangroves, because the climate is similar to trees, shrubs, etc., which provide that under which they first evolved From about July to November, each a source of natural food and and because the sheltered shallow year, mature crayfish migrate to shelter. Lists are available from waters of numerous estuaries are deep waters, sometimes in Department of Environment and ideal for growth. aggregations of up to 60 000 Heritage offices. individuals, for breeding purposes. Mangrove forests occupy Tagged animals have been shown Brush turkeys eat insects and native approximately 11,600 square to travel up to 511km. Some migrate fruits and seeds raked up from the kilometres in Australia, 4,600 of across the Gulf of Papua while the forest floor. these being in Queensland. The origin of the name ‘mangrove’ is not certain. It may be a combination of the Portuguese ‘mangue’, meaning an individual mangrove tree, with the English ‘grove’, although early versions were Tourist talk ‘mangrowe’ and ‘mangrave’. It may also be derived from the Malay ENGLISH GERMAN JAPANESE ‘manggi-manggi’ or ‘mangin’. mangrove Mangrove mangrove The colours included in the common salt water Salzwasser en sui names of many mangrove trees often fresh water Süßwasser tan sui refer either to the bark (for exclude ausschließen shya dan suru example, grey mangrove) or to the blaze — the colour which secrete absondern bun pi suru shows when the bark is scraped air Luft ku ki — (for example, the red leaf Blatt ha mangrove). root Wurzel ne seedling Samen, Trieb waka gi float treiben ukabu Nature notes A diary of natural events creates a pleasing journal which grows richer with the passage of time. Watching for the recurrence of an event after noting it in a previous year, and trying to understand what could have caused changes in timing, is intriguing.

These notes are from the author's own notebook, or were offered by researchers and fellow naturalists. Readers will, inevitably, note variations between their observations and those appearing here. If you do not keep a nature diary perhaps this will inspire you to begin one.

The showy fruit of cherry beech Also beginning to ripen this month are (left), the only Australian member the colourful fruit of a shrub or small of the camellia (and tea) family tree known as witches tongues, or should be on display from small flowers of magic. This shrub trees in rainforest understorey. (Clerodendrum tracyanum) produces The tree produces a yellow oval quite large creamy-white flowers fruit, about as big as a bantam's (below) followed by purple-black fruit egg, which splits open when ripe, contrasting strongly with a red star- revealing a few bright pink-red arils like calyx. Among the birds known to dangling out to attract passing birds. enjoy the fruit is the strikingly The for cherry beech is attractive purple-crowned pigeon Ternstroemia cherryi; Ternstroem was (superb fruit dove). a Swedish naturalist who died on (Acknowledgments to his way to China while in Linnaeus’ Ellen Terrell, employ and Thomas Cherry was Daintree) Baby estuarine crocodiles should be first professor of Botany in around this month and, like most infant Melbourne University. animals, they can look very cute. (Acknowledgments to Baines, J.A., However, anyone seeing a crocodile Australian Plant Genera) under about 30cm in length should be very much aware of the possibility that its large and protective mother is concealed close by.

Fruit from an interesting palm, Oraniopsis appendiculata, which has Chickens of the interesting red-necked no common name, is likely to be crake (or rail)will be getting about with ripening this month. Because less care from their parents. Although Oraniopsis can produce quite massive Hatchling crocodiles, which can make adult birds are normally secretive and fronds from a dense crown it looks soft yapping and croaking noises, tend hard to see, parents shepherding their rather like a stray coconut when to stay close to their mother for a week chicks in rainforest put on a brave encountered in rainforest, but the or two, perhaps gaining some show if surprised by humans. An adult former has fruit no larger than a ping- protection during their most bird will cluck and puff and dodge pong ball. Green at the outset, the fruit defenceless days. about in front of the intruder, turn bright yellow when ripe. The flesh seemingly torn between opposing is bitter and unappetising to human Insects, frogs, small crabs and shrimps urges ranging from fight to flight. tastes but this does not discourage are important in the diet of small During an alarm the coal black downy sulphur-crested cockatoos from crocodiles, which are quite capable of chicks scatter, crouch and remain attacking the fruit in order to devour jumping out of the water to snatch an immobile but they send out high the kernels. insect. An incident of this sort was pitched whistles from hiding. These observed one night when a man signals probably help the parents to shining a spotlight into the Daintree gather up their youngsters once River was surprised by a small danger has passed. Adult red- crocodile leaping up to catch in insect necked rails have a loud, fluttering in the spotlight beam. distinctive voice, a sort of manic (Acknowledgments to Dale Young, cackle, commonly heard at dusk Daintree River) and through the first hours after dark.

Illustrations by Anthony Roelofs Bookshelf Field Guide to the Mangroves of Mangroves of Australia Queensland Richard Lear and Tom Turner Catherine Lovelock University of Queensland Press Australian Institute of Marine (1977) Science (1993) Although out of print now this This useful pocket-sized guide excellent little book is still available shows 22 species of mangrove in libraries. plants illustrated in full colour, with identification notes, as well as Mangrove Boardwalk to Myall giving some good background Beach, Cape Tribulation information. Esther Cullen (1994)

Mangroves in Focus This useful and thorough guide is Dave Claridge and John Burnett available from the Department of Wet Paper Publications (1993) Environment office at Cape Tribulation. This book presents a great deal of information, in an easy-to-read Mangroves of the Northern format, on the mangrove Territory environment, its values and threats. Glenn M. Wightman One chapter gives species Conservation Commission of the descriptions while the final section Northern Territory (1989) is full of activities, games and ideas for excursions and projects making Many species described in this book it particularly useful for schools. also appear in Queensland. Many of the notes on each species include Ecology of Mangroves interesting Aboriginal uses. Patricia Hutchings and Peter Saenger Mangroves in New South Wales University of Queensland Press and Victoria (1987) Christopher Harty Vista Publications (1997) Intended for the scientist this very comprehensive book is packed with Although not covering Queensland, information. there is also good general mangrove information in this book.

This newsletter was produced by the Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage (now The Environmental Protection Agency) with funding from the Wet Tropics Management Authority.

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