Masarykova univerzita
Filozofická fakulta
Ústav jazykovědy a baltistiky
Magisterská diplomová práce
2018 Alikhan Ramazanov Masaryk University
Faculty of Arts
Department of Linguistics and Baltic Studies
General Linguistics
Bc. Alikhan Ramazanov
The Characteristics of Basic Food Names in Kazakh, Turkish, Russian and Czech
Master‘s Diploma Thesis
2018
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I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this work and that I have used only the sources listed in the bibliography.
Brno 01.04.2018
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I would like to thank my supervisor, PhDr. Pavla Valčáková, CSc., for her assistance, guidance, and support with my work. I would also like to thank my family for their endless love and support despite thousands of kilometers between us.
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Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION…………………….………………………….……………7 MILK………………………………………………………………………....11 1. Cow milk………………………………………………………………11 1.1. Kazakh sút/ Turkish süt…………………………………………..12 1.2. Russian молоко/ Czech mléko…………………………...………17 2. Fermented horse milk: Kumys. ………………….……………………25 3. Fermented camel milk: Shubat……………………..…………………29 CEREAL…………………………………………………..…………………31 1. Wheat…………………………………………………….……………32 1.1. Kazakh bıdaı/ Turkish buğday……………………………………32 1.2. Russian пшеница/ Czech pšenice………………...………………36 2. Barley……………………………………………………….…………….39 2.1 Kazakh arpa/ Turkish arpa…………………………...……………39 2.2. Russian ячмень/ Czech ječmen………………………..…………41 BREAD…………………………………………………………………...….43 1. Kazakh nan …………………………………………………………...44 2. Turkish ekmek …………………………………………………..……49 3. Russian хлеб/ Czech chléb………………………………………...….52 MEAT………………………………………………………………………..56 1. Kazakh еt/ Turkish et……………………………………….…………58 2. Russian мясо/ Czech maso……………………………………………61 CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………64 Language abbreviations……………………………………………...………68 Other abbreviations…………………………………………………..………71
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Works cited…………………………………………………………………..72 Internet sources ……………………………………………………………...79 Nominal index……………………………………………………………..…80 Resume……………………………………………………….………………89 Attachments……………...……………………………………………...……92
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INTRODUCTION
Food is one of the most vital needs of any human-being. Ancestors of the modern man consumed a lot of food of plant origin, mainly vegetables and fruits. As well, they started consuming meat of animals hunted by a special group of tribes. Throughout history people learnt and developed ways of using different ingredients to make food. Not only is food a biological substance providing nutritional support for an organism, but it is also a significant part of any culture. Food has always had an influence on cultural, economic, environmental, and sociological fields of a society. Since ancient times people have used some sorts of food in trading as a currency, some folks even had wars between each other for food.
Each culture has different names for kinds of foods. Some of them use the same word but different forms. This thesis aims to compare food names both in terms of etymology and their semantic motivation in the Turkic and the Slavic languages. We will try to distinguish the differences and similarities between the languages as well as investigate the role of food in cultures that these researched languages belong to. For this work we have chosen two Turkic and two Slavic languages for several reasons. First of all, I decided to choose my mother tongue, the Kazakh language. Secondly, during my Bachelor studies, I concentrated on the regions where the Turkic languages were/are spoken, therefore, I chose Turkish as the most spoken modern language among the others of the same language group. Thirdly, I selected Russian, the language I consider my second mother tongue. And last but not least, I would like to include the Czech language as the object of my work because it is the language my studies are in. Of course, we will be including other languages for comparison purposes too.
Turkic languages are a group of closely related languages that form a subfamily of the Altaic languages. Nowadays the Turkic languages are spoken in many countries like Turkey, Russia, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan, Northern Cyprus, Kyrgyzstan, Iraq, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, China, and Iran. We can classify the languages into four branches and separate branches consisting of one language only: Oghuz (Turkish, 7
Azerbaijani, etc.), Kipchak (Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Tatar, Bashkir, Karaim, etc.), Uighur- Chagatai (Uzbek, Uighur, etc.), Siberian (Khakas, Shor, etc.), and Chuvash and Khalaj as independent branches though the classification may differ from author to author. The earliest known records of Old Turkic proper are inscriptions on stone stelae erected in the 8th century in the Orkhon River valley (Mongolia) in honour of certain rulers of the Old Turkic Empire. In this thesis two Turkic languages will be used as the objects of the work. The modern Kazakh nation traces its roots to a loose confederation of Uzbek separatist tribes, which broke away from the main Uzbek Khanate the middle of the 15th century and from then on the formation of the modern Kazakh language takes place. Kazakhstan will start adopting a new version of the Latin-based Kazakh alphabet through to 2025. The new alphabet has already been confirmed and signed. Even though changing to another alphabet is a long process, the first steps have already been made. We would also like to make this first step towards the changes and will write all Kazakh words in Latin according to the new alphabet1. Turkish language is the major member of the Turkic language family. Turkish development can be divided into our periods: Old (Anatolian and Ottoman) Turkish, 13th–16th centuries; Middle (Ottoman) Turkish, 17th–18th centuries; Newer (Ottoman) Turkish, 19th century; and Modern Turkish, 20th century till present.
Slavic languages are a group of Indo-European languages spoken in eastern Europe, much of the Balkans, parts of central Europe, and the northern part of Asia. It is believed that each branch of Slavic originally developed from Proto-Slavic, which itself developed from an earlier language that was also the antecedent of the Proto-Baltic language. In our work we will consider food names in two languages belonging to this group: Russian, which is a part of the East Slavic branch, and Czech, the West Slavic branch.
Even though both Kazakh and Turkish belong to one language group as well as Russian and Czech belong to the same another group, each language has its own development history, therefore, completely different words can be used for food names, for instance, Kazakh nan and Turkish ekmek.
1 See official site of Akorda:
We will mainly concentrate on the very basic food names people used in ancient times. Therefore, our work will be divided into several parts depending on the type of food. For example, in the first part of this thesis, we will consider milk products such as cow milk, the first kind of dairy used by humans, in both Turkic and Slavic languages: MILK - kaz.sút, tur. süt, rus. молоко, č. mléko. We will try to define an etymological aspect in each language as well as look into the word in terms of semantic motivation. Moreover, the work aims to compare the role of milk in these cultures and see similarities and differences. Apart from cow milk, we will also investigate less common types of dairy as kumys - fermented horse milk and shubat (also known as chal) - fermented camel milk. In all four languages kumys and shubat are the same. In general, the thesis will include food names of dairy products (cow milk, kumys, shubat), some kinds of cereals like wheat – kaz. bıdaı, tur. buğday, rus. пшеница, č. pšenice; barley – kaz. arpa, tur. arpa, rus. ячмень, č. ječmen; bread – kaz. nan, tur. ekmek, rus. хлеб, č. chléb; some sorts of bread in Kazakh like zaǵara- nan, taba-nan, tandyr-nan, kúlshe-nan; and meat – kaz. ет, tur. et, rus. мясо, č. maso. As a result, we will consider both diachronic and synchronic aspects of these food names in four languages.
The main source for this thesis are dictionaries. For the Turkic languages we will mainly refer to “Etymological Dictionary of the Turkic Languages” by Ervand Sevortjan (Moscow 1974-2000), one of the most noticeable works in Turkology. As well, we will use an old dictionary on which most of the modern works on the Turkic languages are based, “Compendium of the languages of the Turks" (Dīwān-i Lughāt al-Turk) by Mahmud al- Kashgari, written approximately in the second half of the XI century. When looking at a specific word, we might need a help of a particular language. For example, Kazakh nan ‘bread’ differs from Turkish ekmek and does not appear in Sevortjan’s dictionary; nevertheless, we can use “Etymological dictionary of the Kazakh language” (Almaty 1966) by Akhmedi Iskakov where we will find information on the etymology of the form nan. For Russian words’ etymology we will refer to Vasmer’s “Etymological dictionary of the Russian language” (Moscow 1964-1973). Jiří Rejzek’s “Etymological dictionary of the Czech language” (Voznice 2001) and Václav Machek’s “Etymological dictionary of the Czech language” (Prague 1971) are going to help us with Czech words. Along with these 9 dictionaries, our work will use a number of online dictionaries, which, for some reason, were not published on paper, or are as popular as their published analogues. For example, we will quite often use “Oxford English Dictionary” and “An American Dictionary of the English language” because our work is written in English, and sometimes, to better understand the etymological or semantic aspect of a word in the researched languages, we might need their equivalents in English. Kazakh-Russian (Russian-Kazakh) Online Dictionary is nowadays the largest dictionary dedicated to these two languages and it will help us especially see some connections as a result of a long-time-period interaction between these cultures. Unfortunately, because it is quite challenging to find hard copy books regarding Kazakh and Turkish, our work used many Internet resources and some of the electronic books might not have pages. Nevertheless, all the materials taken from websites will be listed along with the links to those web pages.
We can see that even though these languages are related to each other, each of them has a specific, independent linguistic “path”. Some food names are very similar, some, in contrast, totally differ. It is quite challenging to use four different languages and then make a scientific conclusion in English, yet, we believe, it is an interesting topic that would show us the similarities and differences between languages belonging to one group, and then compare two language families to find the language/culture contact traces between Turkic and Slavic languages in the strict sense and between Altaic and Indo-European language families in the broad sense.
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MILK
1. COW MILK
Milk has been a part of humankind’s diet since an immemorial time. Among all peoples and religions milk plays an important role being a part of a culture, not only a part of nutrition. From very ancient times when people started domesticating animals such as the ancestors of modern cows, aurochs, they started also using their milk. In this chapter we will go through the history of cow milk, investigate the etymology of the word milk in our object languages (kaz. sút, tur. süt, rus. молоко, č. mléko), and see the semantic motivation of these words in each culture. We will in the end see that according to many phrases and idioms in different languages, milk is not only a name for a beverage, but also a part of people's association with their beliefs, social interactions, and culture in general.
Aurochs, ancestors of modern cows, were first domesticated 8 000 to 10 000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent area of the Near East during the Neolithic Revolution (also known as Agricultural Revolution2) when people started to transit from hunting to agriculture; therefore, societies started changing from nomadic tribes to those who settled in communities (Bellwood 2005, 44-68). With this came domesticated animals and the ingenuity for people to use by-products such as milk. Nevertheless, according to Sherratt, initially animals were kept for meat and that dairying, along with the exploitation of domestic animals for hair and labor, began much later in a separate secondary products revolution in the fourth millennium BC (Sherratt 1981, 261-305). Such development might have occurred in several geographically independent areas. From Southwest Asia domestic dairy animals spread to Europe. Through analyzing degraded fats on unearthed potshards, scientists have discovered that Neolithic farmers in Britain and Northern Europe may have been among the first to begin milking cattle for human consumption (Ant 2005 - JAS 2005). We can meet milk in later developed civilizations like Ancient Sumer (3 000 BC), Ancient Egypt (3 100 BC), Northern Indian Vedic (2 000 BC). Even though there are still a
2 See Brittanica.com:
1.1. Kazakh sút/ Turkish süt In majority of the Turkic languages the form süt is used: kaz., tur., tat., kir., nog., uzb., uig., khak., alt., čag., shor sút (süt). Some other forms are in az. сүд [süd], čuv. сёт [söt], bash. хүт [hüt], yak. үт [üt], turkm. süjt (Sevortjan 1980, 371).
Among the Turkic peoples milk plays a role not only as a beverage, but also it is a part of Turkic culture where milk is associated with purity, kindness, well-being, immaculacy, and even prosperity. Since ancient times, milk has become a part of collocations or a part of people's beliefs. Even before Islam became the major religion of the Turkic peoples, milk had been a part of Turkic mythology. Milk has also been a part of different traditions and customs in Tengrism, Shamanism, and other religions that existed in pre-islamic Turkic culture. Even though people’s beliefs differed, many believed milk to be a part of their superstitions. For example, when the first lightning appeared in the sky and the first thunder was heard in spring, women of Urenha (Tuva), Kazakh, Kirgiz folks would put white beverages like milk, kumys, ayran4 into a vessel and would organize the ceremony of giving a gift to the God of Thunder. Bashkir people also had a similar belief, but instead of putting the drinks into the vessels, they would spit them towards the sky as a gift to their God. However, this ceremony changed when Islam reached their lands. In Bashkir culture women would hide all the white beverages when there was a lightning as they believed that it would hit the white coloured drinks. Such controversial change probably happened because wasting food for nothing contradicts Islamic Shariat; therefore,
3 See greek-gods.info:
Inan suggest some examples from ancient Altaic Shamanism rituals for evoking ancestors’ spirit where Milk-lake is mentioned in one of the passages: ● “Altın kırlu Ak Yayıgım! üç müüstü Kara Kaya Altayim! Süt köldüng Kara Puura! Agararda ak yıldız” - “My golden edged Ak Yayik! My three-horn Kara Kaya Altay! Milk water Kara Puura, Stars brightening in the sky” (Inan 2006, 129).
The Milk-lake or Milk-sea is not only found in the Altaic shamanism rituals, but also in some other Turkic mythologies where it has a talismanic role (Doğru 2013, 119). In some Turkic myths about where a human comes from, we can find a lake made of milk. In Yakut myths the first man’s name on our Earth was Ak-Oğlan. Ak-Oğlan first spoke to the Life-tree that gave him water and milk, then showed him a path to the Earth. Therefore, we can conclude that milk as well as water were the most important drinks that were given to the first human ever because water would hydrate the body and milk would supply vital elements for body to function well (Ögel 1998, 102). In the legend “Er sogotoh” Milk-sea is mentioned: ● “Ak-Oğlan güneylere, ne var diyerek bakmış, Bir Süt-Denizi görmüş, rengi de sütten akmış, Denizin kenarında, beyaz çamurlar varmış, Sanki süt ekşimiş de, köpüklenip kabarmış.”
“Ak-Oglan went to South to see what he could find there, He saw Milk-sea, the color of it was even whiter than milk, On the bank of the water he saw white mud, Which he supposed: milk was poured on the mud, and it foamed and surged”.
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In pre-Islamic times milk took part also in Turkic funeral rituals. After the body is put into a coffin, they would keep it one evening at home. When on the next day the body was taken out of home, an old woman would take a jar of milk and would make three steps towards the body and shout out “kutumuz gitmesin, kuruy!” and would sprinkle the milk in the direction of the body (Inan 1986, 184). Milk is white and for Turks this color symbolizes brightness, innocence, goodness, and beauty. Therefore, their intention of sprinkling milk on the body was that the soul of the deceased would leave this world being clean and that in the world they were going to, only good things would meet them. Nowadays this tradition still exists in Turkey but instead of milk, now they use water. Even when somebody is heading off to a long journey, people in Turkey pour some water after the traveling person leaves home so that he or she will come back safely.
The word süt itself started to appear in the written records around 8-9th centuries. In one of the oldest Turkic written records, when Islam had become the main religion, the dictionary of Mahmud Kashqari, we can find some proverbs that exist even nowadays: ● “Suw içürmesge süt ber” - “Treat milk to somebody who will not treat you even water” (MK I, 218).
Compare to modern Kazakh and Turkish: ● kaz. “Su bermegenge sút ber.” ● tur. “Su içirmeyene süt ver.”
Yilmaz supposes that this proverb proves that old Turks consumed milk even more than water. The proverb that exists in both Kazakh and Turkish: “Sana taş atana, sen ekmek at” - “If somebody throws on you the stone, throw on them back the bread” has the same meaning. Both proverbs teach people to pay kindness even if someone makes you something bad (Yilmaz 2006, 80). Süt is also used not only as a beverage, but also as milk of the mother: ● “Uragut oglınğa süt emüzdi” - “A woman breastfed her son” (MK I, 180).
Another proverb where the word milk is used in a direct meaning: 14
● “Ewek sinğek sütge tüşür” - “A hurrying fly will fall into milk” (MK II, 13).
There also exists a derivative verb from the noun, meaning the condition when something becomes like milk: ● “Joγurt sütgardi” - “Sour milk became fresh milk” (MK I, 127).
Another example can be found in one of the greatest Turkic works “Kutadgu Bilig” (Qutadgu Bilig), written by Karakhani Yusuf Balasagun in the XI century, for the prince of Kashgar: ● “Qımız, süt ja jöŋ jaγ ja joγrut qurut” - “Kumys, milk, or slice of grease, or
curdled milk and cheese” (QB 2643)
Among later works we can mention, of course, one of the most famous Turkic works, “Book of Dede Korkut”, written around XIV century by an unknown author. The stories carry morals and values significant to the social lifestyle of the nomadic Turkic peoples and their pre-Islamic beliefs. Mostly, mother milk appears in the work more often, but we can find some examples of cow milk used: ● “Karanlık akşam olunca kaygılı çoban, Kar ile yağmur yağınca çakmaklı çoban, Sütü, peyniri bol, kaymaklı çoban.” - “... a shepherd that has a lot of milk and cheese” (Ergin 1999, 40).
Speaking of the etymology of the word, on the basis of Turkmenian, Khorasan, Khalaj, and Yakut forms as well as the forms in a number of written records, Sevortjan supposes that Turkic protoform *сү:т with a weakened end cons. (as in tof. language) can be reconstructed (Sevortjan 1980, 372). Scherbak reconstructs the protoform *сӱт (Scherbak 1970, 196). Turkic *сү:т is often compared with mong. sün ‘milk’ (Poppe 1925, 23). Nevertheless, Joki supposes that Turkic and Mongolian forms can be derived from the same root sü? (Joki 1952, 277). According to Doerfer, Turkic form is the original pl. form in relation to mong. sün (Doerfer 1967, 771).
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If taking into account the semantic derivative name for milk in evenk. from the v. uku ‘suckle breast’, Sevortjan makes a suggestion about the connection between turk-mong. *сү and the verbal core ‘suckle’ that can be found both in turk. and mong. For example, tur. süm ‘suckle breast rubbing a nose in the nipples’ (about lambs, sometimes other domestic animals); kalm. šimkh ‘suckle’ (Sevortjan 1980, 372). Based on the semantic parallel in Old Iranian, they suggest that there is a genealogical connection between süjt with v. süz ‘squeeze’ (Sevortjan 1980, 372).
Sút/süt in proverbs5: ● kaz. ananyń aq sútin aqtaý - meet the hopes and expectations of the mother (lit. to fulfil mother’s white milk); ● kaz. aq sútin keshý - when the mother forgives her children’s ungratefulness; ● tur. emdiği süt burnundan gelmek - to struggle a lot when doing something (lit. suckled milk going through nose); ● tur. kuş sütüyle beslemek - to feed somebody with the most expensive, rare foods and drinks (lit. to feed someone with a bird milk).
Apart from proverbs, sút/süt is used as a part of idioms or collocations: ● kaz. sút kenzhe - last born child in a family; ● kaz. ana súti auzynan ketpegen - very young, inexperienced (lit. milk in his mouth did not get dry yet); ● kaz. sút baýyrsaq - kind of bread, baursak6, made by putting dried pieces into milk; ● kaz. sút pisirim ýaqyt - around 30 minutes (lit. time needed to boil milk); ● kaz. sütten aq, sudan taza adam - honest person (lit. a person whiter than milk, clearer than water); ● kaz. süt aqy - gifts for the bride’s mother from fiance's family (Kazakh wedding tradition);
5 Further see Zharar.com for the proverbs in Kazakh:
● tur. ağzı süt kokan - very young, inexperienced (lit. with a taste of milk in a mouth); ● tur. helal süt emmiş bir adam - an innocent, good-natured person; as straight as a die (lit. a person who is still suckling milk); ● tur. süt liman olmak - calm; noiseless; ● tur. süt dökmüş kedi gibi - eng. with his tail between his legs; the feeling of embarrassment or shame, especially after losing or having to admit that one was wrong, likened to a dog literally putting its tail between its legs after being disciplined (lit. like a cat that spilled milk); ● tur. sütü bozuk kimse - immoral, bad-natured person (lit. somebody whose milk is spoilt); ● tur. çiğ süt etmiş olmak - to be degenerate, dishonest, faithless, rascal (lit. to be like suckling raw milk); ● tur. sütüne kalmak - to be up to someone’s honesty, fairness, humanity; ● tur. sütten ağzı yanmak - to learn a lesson from an incident (lit. one’s mouth burned from milk); ● tur. sütüne havale etmek - refer to one’s personality; ● tur. etliye sütlüye karışmamak - to try to avoid things that do not interest; to tyr to stay alone (lit. not interfere with anything made of meat and milk); ● tur. tekeden süt çıkarmak - to make impossible things happen (lit. to milk a male goat); ● tur. etinden, sütünden, kılından, tüyünden yararlanmak - to mock somebody who get benefit from anyone or any possible opportunity (lit. take benefit from one’s meat, milk, hair, bristle).
1.2. Russian молоко/ Czech mléko In Slavic languages a small alteration exists in the forms of one core: č. mléko, rus. молоко, ukr. молоко, bel. молоко, old sl. mlѣkо, mak. млеко, bulg. мляко, serb-cr. mlijèko; мле́ко, sln. mlé ko , slk. mlieko, pol. mleko, kaš. mlóu̯ ko, up. luž., l. luž. mloko (Vasmer 1986, 645).
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Ancestors of modern Slavic people had cattle farmings as early as in VIII-IX centuries. As a proof of it, Niederle refers to the Slavic mythology where Volos (Veles) or old sl. скотій богъ, one of the gods of Slavic Olymp, found in different old written records and who was believed to protect cattle: “Existence jeho jest zajisté jedním z argumentů, které nejvíce bijí do očí a ukazuje, že chov dobytka byl jedním z hlavních zaměstnání pohanských Slovanů, a to na všech stranách Slovanstva”. This God can also be referred to Saint Vlasij, later on even identified with the above mentioned Volos, the patron of cattle (Niederle 1911, 172).
Animals, mostly cows, goats, sheep, and even horses, were farmed mainly for their meat and for workload as well as their skin, wool, and fur. At the beginning these animals were not farmed for their milk. Nevertheless, as time went by, using milk started becoming popular and milk farming developed; food made of milk, mainly cheese and cottage cheese, joined the sorts food people used mostly. Several accounts between VI-XI centuries show that the Slavs had cattle farming from the old times, thus, it means that milk farming and the consumption of the products made of milk existed too (Niederle 1911, 166). Niederle gives examples from Prokopios (VI century) and Maurikios Strategikon (XI century):
● “Tito národové, Slované a Antové … uznávají, že je jediný bůh tvůrce blesku a všeho pán i obětují mu skot a všeliká obětní zvířata” (Niederle 1911, 25).
● “Národové slovanští a antští mají stejný způsob života … mají hojnost rozmanitého dobytka a plodin na hromady složených, hlavně prosa (dvou druhů)” (Niederle 1911, 28).
Niederle also attests this statement by referring to the occurence of the words in old sl. and com. sl. terminology of livestock farming and dairy farming such as krava (< *korva), ovьca, bravъ (<*borvъ), *mlězъ, mlězivo, mlěko, tvarogъ, syrъ. He mentions Peisker’s suggestion that the word mlěko comes from germ. and tvarogъ comes from turktat., and whose theory based on these borrowings says that old Slavs did not have cattle 18 farming. Nevertheless, Niedlerle does not agree with this statement and claims that dairy farming as well as livestock farming existed in old Slavic culture: “... i kdyby byla obě slova původu cizího, mohli bychom souditi jen tolik, že vznikly u Slovanů dva nové názvy na základě styků jednak s germánským, jednak s turkotatarským mlékařením … nevylučovalo by ani převzetí obou terminů z ciziny u starých Slovanů mlékaření se sladkým a sraženým mlékem v průběhu I. tisíciletí po Kr.” (Niederle 1911, 166-168).
Direct accounts that the Slavs consumed cattle meat and milk can be found at least from the end of Paganism period, for instance, in traveler Ibrahim ibn Yaqub’s works: “Slované zdržují se jídla kuřat, poněvadž jim škodí a růži podporují, ale za to jedí maso hovězí a husí, které jim vyhovuje”. Later, when bishop Otto turned Pomeranians and Lutici to leave their previous beliefs and convert to Christianity, he forbid eating any meat or milk on the sixth day of the week (Niederle 1911, 169).
Information on milk and food made of cow and other kinds of milk in XV-XVI centuries can be found in Zíbrt’s “Staročeské umění kuchařské”: “Mléko se jídalo jak bylo; pokrajovaly se žemličky do něho, neb také kyselého se požívalo; tvaroh, máslo, sýr dělaly se z něho ke každodenní potřebě” (Zíbrt 1927, 144).
In Slavic culture milk also was a part of different rituals, traditions, and beliefs. For example, in old Czech beliefs, a housewife would dip her finger in the milk and would make three crosses on her chin when taking out the milk from the house so that no witch would harm it. Another belief says that if on the Saint Valentine’s Day the peaks of the hills are still white, then the year will be rich with milk (Kott 1878n: I, 1042). Milk was one of the most important sources of food especially during the drought. Spilling milk on the ground was a very bad sign. In his work on the mythical aspects of some rituals and beliefs, Potebnja also mentions the connection between milk and witches. The witches caused droughts and crop failure, therefore, people were trying to protect their cows and milk, thus, milk became a part of different rituals among a number of Slavic folks: “Четвертая душа согрешила - Въ чистомъ поле корову закликала, 19
У коровки молочко отымала, Въ сырую землю выливала, Горькую осину забивала, Горькую осину засушивала, - т.е., выливши на землю молоко, (ведьма) забивала въ то место осиновый колъ, чтобы, какъ засохнет осина, такъ бы высохли у коровы сосцы … На это наводит следующее средство против порчи коров ведьмами … булавки и осколки стекла кладутся въ молоко испорченной коровы, чтобъ мучилась ведьма, по тому что это молоко находится ... въ ней самой” (Potebnja 1865, 291-292).
Speaking of the milk itself, let us first look at the definition of the word in Oxford Dictionary: “A whitish fluid, rich in fat and protein, secreted by the mammary glands of female mammals for the nourishment of their young, and taken from cows, sheep, etc., as an article of the human diet” (Oxford English Dictionary). Definitions in Czech can be found in Jan Otto’s encyclopedia (OtSN 1888n: XVII, 457), the dictionary of František Štěpán Kott (Kott 1878n: I, 1041); and in Sergei Ozhegov’s dictionary (Ozhegov 1992, 897), Maks Vasmer’s dictionary (Vasmer 1986, 645) for Russian.
Both Czech mléko and Russian молоко are the forms of one root, which is common for all Slavic languages, psl. core *melko. Nevertheless, there are several versions on the etymology of the word: 1) Traditional theory says the word comes from germ. form mel-(u)k, therefore, it is a borrowing. 2) Another theory claims that psl. form roots to ie. form *melģ, which had a meaning ‘to milk’, and before it, it meant ‘to suckle’. 3) According to the third theory, the word comes from ie. form *melk ‘wet, moist, damp’ (ESJS 1989n: VIII, 482).
Gebauer suggests old č. mléko near ger. Milch, old sl. mlěko, and psl. melko < germ. melk. He also includes derivatives from old č. mléko: ● old č. mléč (masc.), mléčie (fem.) ‘a plant; mléčí, mlíčí’; 20
● old č. mléčník, mlíčník ‘milky fish’; ● old č. mléčnicě, mlíčen ‘a dish used to make cheese from milk’; ● old č. mlékojěd ‘a bird’; ● old č. mlékonošě ‘a stone, that gives a liquid that looks like milk; most probably, speleothem’ (Gebauer 1970, 380).
In modern Czech we can find such forms as mlíko, mlíčko, mléčko, mléčný; č. mléč, č. dial. mlíčí, ‘sperm of fish’; č. dial. mléčnica ‘a childhood illness’; informal mleko, mlíko, mliko, mlyko (SSJČ 1960n: I, 1251; PSJČ 1935: II, 881-882; Machek 1997, 368; Rejzek 2001, 383). In Russian, the following forms are used nowadays: молочный, млечный ‘milky’; молочко (matočnoje) - ‘royal jelly’; молочай ‘euphorbia’ (see more on page …); молоковоз ‘vehicle for milk transportation’; молочка (gen. sin. from молочко); млекопитающее ‘mammal’; молокан ‘blue lettuce’; молокан ‘dissenter’ (Dal 2006, 341).
Valčáková suggests some food names made of milk such as č. dial. kulajda, slk. kuľastra ‘milk soup’; slk. zvara ‘soup made of reboiled milk’ (Valčáková 1986, 132-118).
Mléko/молоко in proverbs: ● č. také černá kráva bílé mléko dává - don’t judge things by its appearance (lit. a black cow also gives white milk); ● č. všeho u něho až na ptačí mléko - to have everything; to be wealthy (lit. to have everything but the bird milk); ● rus. обжегшись на молоке, дуют на воду - the feeling of wariness and caution caused by the previous negative experiences (lit. one who gets burn by milk, will blow on water); ● rus. черная корова да белое молоко - don’t judge things by their appearance (lit. a black cow also gives white milk); ● rus. сколько с быком ни биться, а молока от него не добиться - to do something in vain (lit. no matter how long you are fighting with a bull, you will never get milk from it);
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● rus. видит собака молоко, да рыло коротко - so near yet so far; something unreachable; comp. to eng. The elbow is near, but try and bite it (lit. a dog sees milk, but its snout is too short); ● rus. хлебал молоко, а отрыгается чесноком - when someone returns you bad for your kindness (lit. to drink milk but to burp with a garlic) (Dal 2006 - Zaorálek 2000).
Mléko/молоко as a part of idioms and collocations: ● č. mít mléko místo krve v žilách - a kind-hearted person (lit. to have milk in veins instead of blood); ● č. mít vlasy i bradu jako mléko - to have white like milk hair and beard (an older person); ● č. teče mu mléko po bradě - someone very young (lit. milk is running over his chin); ● č. být krev a mlíko - phrase used to describe healthy, rosy young girls and boys cognate with rus. phrase кровь с молоком (lit. blood with milk); ● rus. молоко на губах не обсохло - someone very young; cognate with the proverb above in č. (lit. milk on his lips did not get dry yet); ● rus. молочные реки и кисельные берега - careless, happy, prosperous life (lit. milky rivers and kissel river banks); ● rus. кровь с молоком - phrase used to describe healthy, rosy young girls and boys (lit. blood with milk); ● rus. птичье молоко - something unreal, impossible to reach, not existing (lit. bird milk); ● rus. птичьего молока захотел - to wish something impossible; to be too picky; to ask for something unreal (lit. to wish the bird milk); ● rus. как от козла молока - something completely useless (lit. something like milk of male-goat); ● rus. молоко от бешеной коровы - vodka (lit. milk of a crazy cow) (Dal 2006 - Zaorálek 2000).
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We can see an interesting parallel between Turkic and Russian languages if we look at the herb called euphorbia (spurge) English, a plant that shares the feature of having a poisonous, milky, white, latex-like sap (Webster Online Dictionary). In different Turkic languages word formations from the roots süt or süjt can be found as well as in Russian, the name of the herb derives from noun milk, rus. молочай. Let us look at some examples comparing the name of euphorbia and its sorts in Russian, Kazakh, and some other Turkic languages:
kaz. súttigen rus. молочай
talshyq súttigen молочай ложный jatag´an súttigen молочай приземистый názik súttigen молочай сестричный aqjemis súttigen 7 молочай светлоплодный batpaq súttigen 8 молочай болотный al´pa súttigen 9 молочай альпийский kúnshil súttigen 10 молочай солнцевидный bozg´ylt súttigen 11 молочай сереющий jartylaibuira súttigen 12 молочай полумохнатый oraqsha súttigen13 молочай серповидный
tat. sütlük, tat. dial. sütligän rus. молочай прутьевидный (DS 1958, 245)
bash. dial. sütlügän uläni, sütlükäi14 rus. молочай полевой (Bhh 1987, 235)
7 The first parts of the names in Kazakh are the translations from Russian so basically kaz. jatag´an = rus. приземистый. 8 kaz. batpaq = rus. болотный 9 kaz. al´pa = rus. альпийский 10 kaz. kúnshil = rus. солнцевидный 11 kaz. bozg´ylt = rus. сереющий 12 kaz. jartylaibuira = rus. полумохнатый 13 kaz. oraqsha = rus. полевой 14 In Bashkir, the word hütlügän with a root of bash. hüt ‘milk’ means another sort of herb, eng. creeping thistle, rus. бодяк полевой, kaz. egis qalueni (Bhh 1987, 293). 23
In other Turkic languages including Turkic, the root süt remains as well, tur. sütleğen, turkm. sütlennič (< sütlen + gič), kir. süttükon (< süt + tiken). In Kazakh, the word súttigen is not used only as a name for the herb, but we can also find a saying related to Kazakh’s household:
● “Súttigen súttesе, oraqqa shyq” - “If euphorbia starts giving milk, then go to haymaking” (Zharar.com).
Therefore, we can see that the time of year when euphorbia starts to bloom was associated in Kazakh household with the start of hay-harvest. We can also suppose that Russian name for euphorbia had an influence on naming this herb in Turkic languages. We, unfortunately, were not able to investigate what exact language influenced others and when exactly this could happen. Nevertheless, in Czech, we will not find any derivative from milk, instead, the word pryšec is used. Thus, we can suggest that the relation between Russian and other Turkic languages could have started after Russian and Czech started to become independent.
To conclude, we can confirm that in both Turkic and Slavic culture, cow milk was not only a significant part of the diet, but also a symbol of prosperity. People used the term milk in their beliefs, rituals, traditions, and customs. In all four object languages we can find some interesting parallels. For instance, milk is used in idioms and collocations to describe someone very young, inexperienced: ● kaz. ana súti auzynan ketpegen - lit. milk in his mouth did not get dry yet; ● tur. ağzı süt kokan - lit. with a taste of milk in a mouth; ● č. teče mu mléko po bradě - lit. milk is running over his chin; ● rus. молоко на губах не обсохло - lit. milk on his lips did not get dry yet.
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2. KUMYS
● Kazakh: qymyz; ● Turkish: kımız; ● Modern Russian: кумыс; ● Old Russian: комузъ, комызъ15; ● Czech: kumys (borrowing from Russian).
Horses for nomadic peoples, including Mongols and Turks, were the most important domestic animals. It is believed that the nomadic folks of Central Asia were the first to domesticate horses, perhaps, in Northern Kazakhstan steppes according to the article in the magazine “Science” in 2009 (Outram 2009). Even though it is a still disputed topic, the undoubted fact is that in nomads’ life horses played one of the most significant roles as they were used as a means of transport, warfare, clothing, food and drink.
Kumys is basically fermented mare’s milk which has a slightly sour taste with a small percentage of alcohol caused by the lactic acid fermentation. Kumis contains many vitamins such as A, B1, B2, B13, D, E, and C, as well as lactic acid and carbonic acid, which help activate the digestive system and improve the ability to absorb nutrients from food, thus, develop and enhance the immunity system16.
Kumys has a long history. The first mentions about the mare’s milk can be found in the works of the European historians like Herodotus’s “History”. In his fourth book called “Melpomene”, he was describing the Scythians who are believed to be the ancestors of the modern Turkic folks. He does not mention the name of the beverage but most scientists agree that it is the first description of ancient kumis-making: ● “Now the Scythians blind all their slaves, to use them in preparing their milk. The plan they follow is to thrust tubes made of bone, not unlike our musical pipes, up the vulva of the mare, and then to blow into the tubes with
15 Vasmer refers to “Ipat’evsk chronicles” where a drink of Cumans (Polovtsi) is mentioned; the work was written around 1425 and published by Archeographical Commission in Saint-Petersburg, 1908. 16 See
their mouths, some milking while the others blow. They say that they do this because when the veins of the animal are full of air, the udder is forced down. The milk thus obtained is poured into deep wooden casks, about which the blind slaves are placed, and then the milk is stirred round. That which rises to the top is drawn off, and considered the best part; the under portion is of less account” (Herodotus - R. 500 BC).
One of the first mentions of the term kumys in the Western written works was William of Rubruck's “Journey to the Eastern Parts of the World”: ● “In summer they care only for cosmos. This cosmos, which is mare's milk, is made in this wise... When they have got together a great quantity of milk, which is as sweet as cow's as long as it is fresh, they pour it into a big skin or bottle, and they set to churning it with a stick … and when they have beaten it sharply it begins to boil up like new wine and to sour or ferment, and they continue to churn it until they have extracted the butter. Then they taste it, and when it is mildly pungent, they drink it. It is pungent on the tongue like rapé wine when drunk, and when a man has finished drinking, it leaves a taste of milk of almonds on the tongue, and it makes the inner man most joyful and also intoxicates weak heads, and greatly provokes urine” (William - R. 1253-1255).
Describing the traditions of the Tartars, a group of different Turkic tribes, Marco Polo also mentions kumys in one of his works on the Eastern states: ● “Their drink is mare’s milk, prepared in such a way that you would take it for white wine; and a right good drink it is, called by them kemiz” (Polo - Y. - C. 13th century).
Kaz. qymyz, tat. kumyz are the same as bar., uig. kymys (Radlov 1899, 853; 1049). Kumys is also transliterated kumiss, kumiz, koumiss, kymys, kymyz, kumisz, kymyz, or qymyz. According to Tsintsius, based on the analysis of parallel semantic rows, the word qymy-z is close in meaning to mong. kimu-r (kumys). Moreover, kal. кимр [kimr] ‘milk 26 mixed with water’; кимрх [kimrh:] ‘to thrive’ (= to ferment). Mong. kimu-ra can also be found in other Turkic languages: kir. қымран [qymran] ‘boiled milk mixed with water’, uzb. qumran ‘mix of kumys with cow milk’ (Tsintsius 1984, 90-91). The most popular etymology is given by Vamberi, according to which, the word is a derivative from a verb qym (=kym) ‘touch, move, shake’ (Vamberi 1878, 91-92). Most of the linguists agreed that the word is a derivative from an older word qym/ kym (Melioranskii 1905, 122 - Ramsted 1957, 131 - Khussainov 2012, 236-237). We can also find some adj. in modern Turkic languages, kir. кымызды (-лы) [kymyz (-)dy; (-ly)] ‘rich with kumys’; kymyzdy baqyt ‘times, when there is a lot of kumys’ (Radlov 1899, 854).
As a borrowing, the word kumys is also used in Vasmer’s etymology dictionary, where he agrees with Vamberi: “Кумыс - перебродившее кобылье молоко, от “kymmak” - трясти, шевелить; мешать” (Vasmer 1986, 416). Earlier the word was also indicated in Shanskii’s “Brief Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language”, as a borrowing from Old Turkic (Shanskii 1971, 227).
Not in all Turkic languages though kumys meant fermented horse milk. In some of the languages this word and its forms were used to name some sorts of sour and bitter plants or in the meaning ‘sour’, for example, tat. dial. kymyzyk ‘bunias’; kymyzlyk ‘dock; sorrel’ (DST 1969, 598), az. dial. kımız ‘sour’ (Sevortjan 1997, 215).
In old works kumys appears not only in Turkic written records, but also in “Kiev Chronicle of XII century”, which itself, along with “Primary Chronicle” (The Tale of Past Years; old rus. Повѣсть времѧньныхъ лѣтъ) and “Galician-Volhynian Chronicle”, is a part of one of the oldest and the most important source of historical data for southern Rus’, “The Hypatian Codex” (or Hypatian Chronicle), where unknown authors describe a drink of Cumans (Polovtsi). Below three examples from the Turkic and Slavic old written records are given:
● “Тора с конемъ поводнымъ бѧшеть бо свѣчалъ с Лавромъ бѣжати в Роусь. в то же времѧ Половци напилисѧ бахоуть (бяше) коумыза (комоуза). а. и быс при
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вечерѣ пришедъ конюшии. повѣда кнзю своємоу Игореви” - “… with Lavr they run away to Rus and in the meantime Polovtsi were drinking koumyz …” (IL 1185)
Examples from Turkic written records: ● “Qımız süt ja jöŋ jaγ ja joγrut qurut” - “Kumys, milk, or slice of grease, or curdled
milk and cheese” (QB 2643) ● “Qımız almıla” - “Sour apple” (literally ‘kumys-apple’) (MK I 366)
The drink remains important to the peoples of the Central Asian steppes, of Huno- Bulgar, Turkic and Mongol origin: Kazakhs, Bashkirs, Tatars, Kalmyks, Kyrgyz, Mongols, and Yakuts. Kumys and horses are inseparable issues. One can’t be considered without other. All Turkic and other nomadic peoples as Mongols were closely connected to the universe of horses. They were born, lived and died on horseback. Horse for them was entire universe, almost everything: a true friend, home, transport, food, clothing, drink. Therefore kumys as a food appeared naturally in the process of mutual co-existence of human and horse.
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3. SHUBAT
Along with horses, camels were used by nomadic Turkic tribes as well. Original wild camels were wiped out during the spread of Native Americans from Asia into North America, 12 000 to 10 000 years ago. Although feral populations exist in Australia, India and Kazakhstan, the only wild camels left in present are the wild Bactrian camels of the Gobi Desert (National Geographic Magazine Online). Dromedaries, also known as Arabian camel, might have first been domesticated in Somalia and southern Arabia, around 3 000 BC; the Bactrian camel in central Asia around 2 500 BC (Mukasa-Mugerwa 1981, 20–21, 67–68).
Apart from commonly used kinds of milk, we would also like to mention shubat, also known as chal, the fermented camel milk. It is a popular beverage in Central Asia, especially in Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan. Nowadays, the camel milk is consumed mostly in the Arabian subcontinent.
Some features and benefits of the camel milk: ● The camel milk includes at least ten times more iron than the cow milk; ● It is rich with vitamins B and C; natrium, sodium, potassium, ferrum; ● It contains antibodies, therefore, it is used during the cancer; ● Comparing to other kinds of milk, the camel milk contains less fat; ● The structure of the milk is stronger, therefore, the milk can be stored longer and will get spoilt after other milk kinds; ● The camel milk cleanse the body both from inside and outside; ● Camel milk is lower in lactose than cow's milk; ● It modulates the immune system (Doğru 2013, 6).
According to Khazanov, camels started becoming popular during the Mongol period, therefore, it is very difficult to find fossil remains of camels before that period: “It would appear that the camel became more important for the nomads of the Eurasian steppes in the Mongol and post-Mongol periods. It has been maintained that Mongols began to herd 29 camels on a relatively large scale after they had seized herds of camels from the Tangut at the beginning of the thirteenth century” (Khazanov - C. 1994, 48).
Shulzhenko says that since camels like warmer climate, they were mainly herded in the South of Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan, but during the Mongol period mostly in the South of Mongolia with its dry, desert pastures: “The camel has almost completely taken the place of large stock and is even successfully competing with the horse” (Shulzhenko 1954, 38). In the Eurasian steppes camels were used mostly as a means of transport; however, nomad folks of the steppes used them also for milking. Turkmens call the camel milk chal and Adai Kazakhs call it shubat (Adai 1928, 146).
In Kazakh culture, camels were considered to be sacred animals. Unlike other domestic animals such as cows and horses, camels do not appear in Kazakh folklore very often. Nevertheless, according to one of the Kazakh superstitions, if a man rides a fat, healthy camel in his dreams, it means that spirits of the ancestors will support you, but if the camel is thin, something bad will happen (Zharar.com).
Unfortunately, regarding the etymology of the words shubat or chal, no information is given; neither in the materials we use for our work nor on the Internet resources. We can presume that shubat might be cognate with kaz. v. shubatu ‘drag something slowly’. However, there was no evidence found that would prove any relationship between these two words.
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CEREAL
Food made of cereals composes most of the human diet nowadays. Domesticating and harvesting of different kinds of cereals has a long history as well as farming animals and consuming their milk that we discussed in our previous chapter. In this chapter we are going to analyze the history of planting and harvesting such sort of cereals as wheat (kaz. bıdaı, tur. buğday, rus. пшеница, č. pšenice) and barley (kaz., tur. arpa, rus. ячмень, č. jačmen), their etymology in Turkic and Slavic languages as well as their role in people’s diet, economy, and culture.
Cereals are a vital source of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, oils, and protein. Throughout history, cereals were a significant part of human’s diet. The word cereal itself comes from lat. Ceres, a goddess of agriculture, grain crops, fertility and motherly relationships (Room 1990, 89-90).
Wessel says that grain agriculture played an important role in the establishment and development of societies: “Because grains are small, hard and dry, they can be stored, measured, and transported more readily than can other kinds of food crops such as fresh fruits, roots and tubers. The development of grain agriculture allowed excess food to be produced and stored easily which could have led to the creation of the first permanent settlements and the division of society into classes” (JAHV 1984). The increase of grain agriculture led to the population growth; societies and cities became larger. Such drastic changes required better political and organizational structures that would allow the government to make better decisions regarding the labor division, harvest allocation, access rights to water and land (Jordan 2012).
Semi-simultaneous rise of agriculture in at least 3 separate places, probably more: Southeast Asia, Mesopotamia and Central America roughly 10 000 BC – 7 000 BC. The wild progenitors of crops such as wheat and barley are traced to the Near East region. Cereals were grown in Syria about 9 000 years ago, figs were cultivated even earlier in the
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Jordan Valley some 11 300 years ago. Nevertheless, the transition from wild harvesting was gradual; the switch from nomadic to a settled way of life is marked by the appearance of early Neolithic villages with homes equipped with grinding stones for processing grain (National Geographic Magazine Online)17.
1. Wheat
Wheat is a major ingredient in such foods as bread, porridge, crackers, biscuits, muesli, pancakes, pies, pastries, cakes, cookies, muffins, rolls, doughnuts, gravy, beer, vodka, and breakfast cereals. Wheat nowadays is grown on more land area than any other food crop. World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined.
Emmer and einkorn wheat are among the first crops to be domesticated and cultivated. According to Diamond, the cultivation of wheat started even earlier in the hills and valleys of Syria, Jordan, Turkey and Iraq over 13 000 years ago by the earliest Neolithic farmers, though wild-growing wheat has since changed beyond recognition. Emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, and barley were three of the so-called Neolithic founder crops in the development of agriculture. The earliest known cultivated emmer wheat comes from the Fertile Crescent around 8 500 B.C. From Asia, wheat continued to spread throughout Europe. It reached Greece around 6 500 B.C., Germany around 5 000 B.C., by 3 000 BC, wheat had reached the British Isles and Scandinavia. One such hybrid among Fertile Crescent selfers, bread wheat, became the most valuable crop in the modern world (Diamond 1997, 97).
1.1. Kazakh bıdaı/ Turkish buğday The forms of the word in Turkic languages vary considerably: kaz. bıdaı, tur., alt. buğday, turkm., uz. dial., uig. dial., kum., uz. buγdaj, buγdai, khak. puγdaj, uig. buγudaj, az. buγda, sal. puγta, tur. dial. bıyday, kir. bujdaj, kaz. dial. bŭγdaj, bash. bujzaj, kbal. budaj, nog., kkal. bıjdaj, ktat. boγdaj, gag. boğdaj, some other dialectical forms are buγdej,
17 See National Geographic Magazine. Available online at www:
According to Joki, buγdaj ~ boγdaj comes from old chin. compositum *mwak ~ *mwok ‘wheat’ + syn. of the same word lậi < *mwak lậi ~ *mwok-lậi < *buγlai < buγdaj. He refers to archeological works held in Central and West Siberia throughout past years showing that cultivation of wheat in these steppes existed a long time before Turkic tribes moved over there (Joki 1952, 106-107). Sevortjan does not agree with Joki’s suggestion: “С фонетической стороны гипотеза А. Йоки имеет уязвимые пункты” (Sevortjan 1978, 233).
Another hypothesis says that turk. buγdaj is cognate with mong. buγudai ‘wheat’ (Vladimircov 1929, 230 - Lessing 1960, 131, 142). According to Ramsted, turk. buγdai is homogenic with kalm. būd’ā, būd’ǟ ‘seed’, ‘grain’, ‘bread grain’ originally meaning ‘wheat’ (Ramsted 1935, 64). About the relation between Turkic buγdaj and Manchu- Tungusic buda ‘grain, millet’ says Gombocz (Gombocz: BTLU 1912, 55, 117). Sevortjan supposes that the mong. form buγudai is older than turk. buγdaj (buγdaj < buγudai) (Sevortjan 1978, 234).
Farro is a kind of wheat - čuv. pări, tat., bash. bŭrai. According to Räsänen, Chuvash form comes from buγdaj, in which - γd - is the later form of - γδ - which caused the sound - r - in the Chuvash form. He draws a parallel between ie. languages forms, for example, old sl. pyro, lit. pūrai and suggest that these forms have definite Turkic origin (Räsänen 1955, 29). Benzing suggests that Turkic form *buγdaj was borrowed to old bulg. *buzaj: *buγdaj > *buδaj > buzaj > bulg. buraj ‘wheat’ (Benzing 1944, 25-26). The old bulg. buzaj later appeared in hung. buza ‘wheat’ (Gombocz 1912, 404).
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However, Sevortjan believes that more researches are needed to be made as there are not many facts that would prove the above mentioned hypotheses: “... переход общетюркского - γδ - в - z - (*buγδaj > *buzaj) или в - r - в древнечувашском нуждается в обосновании на достаточном числе фактов. Кроме того, в материалах, относящихся к buγdaj ~ boγdaj, нельзя найти прямых или косвенных данных в пользу исторической реальности формы с - z -. Поэтому вопрос о соотношении buγdaj ~ boγdaj ‘пшеница’ и bŭrai - pări ‘полба’ пока остается недостаточно определенным (Sevortjan 1978, 234-235).
The etymological aspects of this word are still the subject of debates; nevertheless, the semantic motivation is clearer as we can see that from old times wheat became one of the most important ingredients of the Turkic cuisine. Not only was it the main ingredient for making bread, but also Oghuz Turks had such dishes made of wheat as suma, awzurı, suruş, top, buxsı, ugut. Some of them exist even in the modern Turkish cuisine. Moreover, wheat was associated with wealth and prosperity. The importance of wheat can also be proved with the existence of many special tools used for wheat cultivation and harvesting like tagar ‘a special place where the harvested wheat was put’, oru ‘a special pit where wheat was collected’, yemeçük ‘a special bag for carrying wheat’, adhrı ‘a tool for cleaning wheat grains’ (Yimaz 2006, 90).
The word appears in earliest written Turkic records: ● “Uruγluγ buγdaj” - “wheat seeds” (MK I 149); ● “Bir juk buγdaj” - “one bag of wheat” (MK III 4); ● “Ol mana buγdaj jiγisti” - “He helped me to collect wheat” (MK III 73);
● “Livi aşı buγdaj tetir” - “His sacrifice wheat” (TT VII 1439). ● “Bugday katında sarkaç suwalur” - “Near the wheat even a corncockle will become watery” (MK III, 240).
This last saying exists in Turkish language even nowadays and it means that even a bad person can become better if he follows other good people. Therefore, we can see that
34 from the old times Turks believed that any human can change their behaviour if giving them a chance.
Buğday/bıdaı in proverbs: ● kaz. bıdaıdyń barar jeri dıirmen - the saying about girls who are meant to get married (lit. wheat is meant to go to grinder); ● kaz. soqyr taýyqqa bári bıdaı - not to see any difference; not to have enough skills (lit. for a blind hen everything is wheat); ● kaz. qara jerden áppaq bıdaı óńedi - do not judge things by their appearance (lit. from the black ground white wheat grows); ● kaz. kóp bıdaıdıń ishinde jalg´yz arpa - a small piece of something bad among the good (lit. to be one grain of barley among much wheat); ● kaz. bıdaıdı kórsetip, arpany satty - to say one thing and do another (lit. he showed wheat but sold barley); ● tur. buğday başak verince, orak pahaya çıkar (kıymete biner) - when something that usually no one pays attention to, becomes very valuable, for example, when in summertime no one needs coal or fire, their value grows up when winter approaches (lit. when the ear appears on the grain, the value of sickle grows up); ● tur. arpa eken, buğday biçmez - 1) a person found in a bad behaviour, will not end up well; 2) someone who does not notice the real things living in a dreamworld will someday have their dreams broken (lit. one who plants barley, will not get wheat in the end); ● tur. aç tavuk düşünde kendini buğday ambarında sanır - when someone suffering from poverty dreams of impossible things imagining that they have all they want (lit. a hungry hen in her dream is in the wheat warehouse); ● tur. buğdayım var deme ambara girmeyince, oğlum var deme yoksulluğa düşmeyince - this saying means that when parents are wealthy, children do not show their real nature, and only if parents become poor, the child shows his attitude to his or her parents by their behaviour, actions (lit. unless you
35
come into your warehouse, don’t say that you have wheat, unless you become poor, don’t say that you have a son); ● tur. buğdayı taşlı yerden, kızı kardaşlı yerden - a piece of advice to choose a future wife who has a brother because she will understand a man nature better (lit. wheat if it’s from the stony field, a girl if she has brothers); ● tur. şeytanla ortak buğday eken, samanını alır - do not make business with a crafty, foxy person because in the end, they will leave you with nothing (lit. one who planted wheat with a devil, will take your straw); ● tur. avrat var, arpa unundan aş yapar; avrat var, buğday unundan keş yapar - a skilled man makes a masterpiece from unfavorable things, a man without any skills won’t make anything even with the best tools; ● tur. bir ambar buğdayın örneği bir avuçtur - judge something common by its piece, part, element (lit. example of the whole warehouse is one palm) (Zharar.com – Dersimiz.com).
Other use of Kazakh bıdaı: ● kaz. bıdaı öñdi - usually a girl with a white face skin (lit. wheat face); ● kaz. Bıdaı bası - astr. Virgo (constellation) (lit. wheat head);
1.2. Russian пшеница/ Czech pšenice The Slavs in ancient time planted the number of cereal. Around the first millenium, Slavic folks started to settle down, which let the agriculture develop increasingly. Among the first and most popular grains planted by Slavs were žito ‘ray’, pьšenica, pyro, ‘wheat’, jęčьmy ‘barley’, proso ‘millet’, and ovьsъ ‘oat’ (Niederle 1912, 140).
Proto-Slavic *pьšenica expanded all over Slavic languages with the meaning ‘wheat’: rus. пшеница, oldrus. пшеница, č. pšenice, č. dial. pšence, bulg. пшеница, mak. пченица, serb-cr. пшеница, sln. pšeníca, slk. pšenica, up.luž. pšeńca, l.luž. pšenica, plb. pasinaićə, oldpol. pszenica, pol. pszenica, pszeńca, bel. пшаница, ukr. пшениця (ESJS 12, 742).
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Proto-Slavic *pьšenica is derived from *pьšeno, sln. pšéno ‘millet; grains peeled from rind’, oldč. pšeno, slk. pšeno, ukr. пшоно, rus. пшено ‘millet grain’, old rus. п(ь)шено, пшена, пшона ‘millet; rice grain’ (Kašpárková 2013, 28). Proto-Slavic *pьšeno is related to v. *pьchati ‘prick, stab’. According to Machek and Rejzek, the word previously had meaning ‘grains peeled from rind by grinding’ (Machek 1968, 496 - Rejzek 2001, 516).
Пшеница/ pšenice in proverbs: ● č. na černém poli pšenička se rodí - cognate with č. také černá kráva bílé mléko dává; don’t judge things by its appearance (lit. on the black ground wheat grows); ● č. až do skonání světa nebude pšenice bez koukole - the world is not perfect and will never be (lit. till the end of times, wheat will always have some corncockles); ● č. všude koukol mezi pšenicí (není pšenice bez koukole) - there is nothing perfect (lit. there is no wheat without corncockles); ● č. pšenička nedbá, zdali pátek nebo svátek; ● rus. пшеничка по выбору кормит, а матушка-рожь всех дураков сплошь - to be naive (lit. wheat chooses whom to feed, mother-rye feeds everyone including fools); ● rus. красно поле пшеном, а беседа умом - intelligence is beautiful (lit. wheat makes the field beautiful, intelligence does the conversation); ● rus. pастет не по дням, по часам, как пшеничное тесто на опаре киснет- phrase used in fairytales to describe something or someone growing up very fast; ● rus. в поле пшеница годом родится, а добрый человек всегда пригодится- appreciate a real friendship; do not betray real friends; ● rus. удобришь землицу — снимешь пшеницу - an exhortation to take care of the environment; ● rus. у того пшеница не родится, кто пахать лениться - a lazy one will end up hungry; 37
● rus. сеяли пшеницу, а косят лебеду- to get not what you expect (lit. planted wheat but harvesting quinoa); ● rus. слепой курице все пшеницa – comp. kaz. soqır tawıqqa bäri bıdaı; not to see any difference, not to have enough skills (lit. for a blind hen everything is wheat).
Looking back at the history, we can see that wheat played an important role for humankind along with other kinds of crops. Even nowadays, many proverbs and idioms about wheat exist in Turkic and Slavic languages. In Slavic languages the word wheat is often used in diminutive form: č. na černém poli pšenička se rodí or rus. пшеничка по выбору кормит, а матушка-рожь всех дураков сплошь. Some idioms were most likely borrowings, for example, rus. слепой курице все пшеница was borrowed to kaz. soqır tawıqqa bäri bıdaı. The importance of wheat left a significant influence in both Slavic and Turkic languages.
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2. Barley
Barley (Hordeum vulgare), a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally. Barley provides a range of important vitamins and minerals: fiber, selenium, B vitamins, copper, chromium, phosphorus, magnesium, and niacin. Barley has also been used as animal fodder, as a source of fermentable material for beer and certain distilled beverages, and as a component of various health foods. It is used in soups and stews, and in barley bread of various cultures. Barley grains are commonly made into malt in a traditional and ancient method of preparation. According to Diamond, it was one of the first cultivated grains, particularly in Eurasia as early as 10 000 years ago: “unconscious selection for non-shattering wheat and barley stalks was apparently the first major human "improvement" in any plant. That change marked the beginning of agriculture in the Fertile Crescent” (Diamond 1997, 120). Zohary and Hopf agree that barley and emmer wheat have been the more common crops (Zohary - Hopf 2000, 1).
Diamond also supposes that barley along with wheat were domesticated among the first because both were the most palatable and largest-seeded wild grasses: “initial selection of barley and emmer wheat rather than other cereals to collect, bring home, and cultivate would have been conscious and based on the easily detected criteria of seed size, palatability, and abundance. (Diamond 1997, 146).
2.1 Kazakh arpa/ Turkish arpa Barley appears in all Turkic languages with similar forms: kaz., tur., turkm., az., gag., kkal., kum., kbal., kir., nog., tat., bash., ktat., kar. arpa/arpa, lob. ajpa, turkm. dial. arfa, alt., khak. arba, tuv. abra, arwaj ‘barley’ in all languages. In tat., bash. arpa also means ‘stye, hordeolum’ (Sevortjan 1974, 176).
Turks, at least Uighurs, as early as before XI century were familiar with some kinds of agriculture as grain growing, gardening, and viticulture. Barley growing had such a long tradition that it has a reflection in proverbs:
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• “Arpasız at aşumas, arkasız alp çerig sıyumas” - “A horse will not run without barley, a warrior will not win the army without help of his warrior mates” (MK I 123).
The word also appears in Qutadgu Bilik: • “Tonum qoj juni tap jegum arpa aš” - “Of clothes, I need only sheep fur, of food, I need only barley” (QB 343-5)
The word arpa is believed to have an old history: it later was borrowed to mong. arbai ‘barley’ and man. arfa ‘barley; oat’ (Lessing 1960, 49). Ramstedt compares arpa to a wider range of languages, for instance, afg. orbusah and gr. alb’i both mean ‘barley’ (Ramstedt 1957, 15). Scherbak also agrees that man. arfa is a borrowing from Turkic; however, it was borrowed through mong. arbai (Scherbak 1970, 33-34). Doerfer, however, believes the fact that Greek name for barley sounds similar to the Turkic version is just a coincidence (Doerfer 1967, 25). Joki supposes that turk. arpa is derived from iran. *arba ‘barley’ (Joki 1952, 69-70). Old derivatives from *arpa can be found in kir. arpagan, tat. arpaγan ‘wild barley’ (DTTS 1969, 53). Even though the origin of turk. *arpa is still unclear enough, we still can make sure that the word has a long history and it was borrowed to such old languages as Mongolian and Manchu.
In Turkic languages both wheat and barley are considered to be one of the most important ingredients in the diet. Nevertheless, we can see an interesting fact that in both Kazakh and Turkish, barley and wheat are used in proverbs as comparisons, and wheat is more valuable as we can notice:
• kaz. bıdaıdy kórsetip, arpany satty - to say one thing and do another (lit. he showed wheat but sold barley); • kaz. kóp bıdaıdıń ishinde jalg´yz arpa - a small piece of something bad among the good (lit. to be one grain of barley among much wheat); • tur. arpa eken, buğday biçmez - 1) a person found in a bad behaviour, will not end up well; 2) someone who does not notice the real things living in a 40
dreamworld will someday have their dreams broken (lit. one who plants barley, will not get wheat in the end) (Zharar.com – Dersimiz.com).
2.2. Russian ячмень/ Czech ječmen Ječmen is derived from prsl. *(j)ęčьmy. Appears in all Slavic languages: rus. ячмень, č. ječmen, bulg. ечеми́ к, mak. јачмен, serb-cr. ječmen, sln. jéčmen, slk. jačmeň, up. luz. ječmjeń, l. luz. jacmjeń, pol. jęczmień, ukr. ячмі́нь. Prsl. ending –my can be found in bulg. ечеми́ к 'barley' or in č. dial. jačmyk 'stye, hordeolum' and pol. jęczmyk. Russian ячмень also means a bacterial infection on eyes 'stye, hordeolum'.
Prsl. -*ęč- is mostly associated with ie. *ank- 'bend; bow'. Machek supposes that the name is motivated by the fact that ears of barley are straight at the beginning, but as they ripen, the ears start bending towards the ground (Machek 1968, 219). To ie. root *ank- 'bend' also belong old hin. áñčati, áčati, lat. ancus 'bent, curved' and lit. ánka 'loop, eye’ (Chytková 2008, 26-27).
Russian ячмень is used in some proverbs. In the dictionary of Russian proverbs, we can see such uses of barley (BSRP, 1018): • rus. жать ячмень - нагибаться; • rus. когда ячмень колосится, соловей умолкает; • rus. ячмень сеют, пока цветет калина.
Wheat and barley were among the first domesticated plants. Both Turkic *arpa and Slavic *(j)ęčьmy as well as *bugday and *pьšeno are known from the ancient times. Comparing Kazakh, Turkish, Russian, and Czech, we can see that in Turkic languages wheat is more valuable even though both play a significant role in the Turkic cuisine. Moreover, in Turkic languages, wheat and barley are sometimes used as comparisons in some proverbs, whereas wheat means is of more importance or more highly-priced. This is, unlikely in Slavic languages, where barley has hardly become a part of idioms or collocations. In contrast, wheat appears in all four languages and is associated with wealth,
41 prosperity, richness, and well-being. This proves that for both Slavic and Turkic folks, wheat had a vital role and was considered the most valuable among other kinds of crop.
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BREAD
Throughout history bread has been popular around the world and is one of the oldest artificial foods. Even nowadays, bread, in all its various forms, is the most widely consumed food in the world. Bread is the very basic element of the family meal in all cultures, ancient or contemporary, its consumption being a symbolic act: a ritual. Believed to be imbued with beneficial power, bread is present in all the key moments of a man’s life. Bread as a part of agriculture, played an important role in the humankind history. From the western half of Asia, where wheat and barley were domesticated, cultivation spread north and west. This in return led to the formation of towns, as opposed to the nomadic lifestyle, and gave rise to more and more developed forms of different social organizations.
Types, shapes, sizes, and textures of breads differ around the world. The history of bread is lost in the depths of time just like human presence on earth. It is one of the oldest artificial foods: it was already prepared, in ancient Egypt, at the time of the dawn of civilization (Samuel 1994, 18). Notwithstanding, evidence from 30 000 years ago in Europe revealed starch residue on rocks used by humans for pounding plants18. It is possible that during this time, starch extract from the roots of plants was placed over a fire and cooked. The preparation of bread possibly began around 10000 BC, with the dawn of the Neolithic age and the spread of agriculture and grains. McGee suggest two possible reasons why people started cooking bread: “The first was that in addition to being cooked into a porridge, pastes of crushed grain and water could also be turned into an interesting solid by cooking them on hot embers or stones: the result was flatbread. The second was that a paste set aside for a few days would ferment and become inflated with gases: and such a paste made a softer, lighter, more flavorful bread, especially when cooked from all sides at once in an enclosed oven (McGee 2004, 517).
Technologies of bread making have also developed for many thousands years. Yeast production had become a specialized profession in Egypt around 300 BCE. Meanwhile grinding equipment progressed from the mortar and pestle to two flat stones and then,
18 https://phys.org/ - “Prehistoric man ate flatbread 30,000 years ago: study”. October 19, 2010. 43 around 800 BCE in Mesopotamia, to stones that could rotate continuously. Continuous milling made feasible the eventual use of animal, water, and wind power, and thus the grinding of grains into very fine flours with little human labor (McGee 2004, 517). The idea of a free-standing oven that could be preheated, with a door for access, appears to have been Greek (Toussaint‐Samat 2009, 202).
Just like everything else, bread has also adapted, and continues to do so until today, to scientific and technological developments, dietary trends as well as the peculiarities and preferences of different times and places. In this chapter we are going to look into the history of bread culture in Turkic and Slavic languages: kaz. nan, tur. ekmek, č. chléb, rus. хлеб.
1. Kazakh nan
Most of the peoples in ancient times used tree fruits and fruit juices. For example, Greeks consumed fruit of pine trees, Udmurt and Comi in the North consumed juice of linden, African folks used fruits of coconut trees, as well as other European folks used the juiceful fruits of different trees. Even nowadays, for instance, in Abkhazian language the word akakan means both ‘a nut tree’ and ‘bread’. Pers. nan, zyr. nan, vot. nan, arm. nakan mean the dishes made of dough. Iskakov in “Etymological dictionary of the Kazakh language” supposes that the words with the same meaning existing in different languages might have the same root (Iskakov 1966, 149). According to I. Dmitriev, the word nan in Turkic languages was borrowed from Persian, but the root of the Persian word nan might come from the Greek language because it seems that the ancient Greeks named the edible kind of tree with this word (Dmitriev 1930, 146-147). There are no works though that would prove the Greek origin of the word nan.
In the English language we can find the word naan which means round, flat, and soft Indian bread. It was first mentioned in the works of a British clergyman and historian of Russia William Tooke in 1810 who described the eating habits of the Central Turks: “The most common dishes are onoschi, or vermicelli; plav, or boiled rice; nan, pancakes, 44 and the meats which the law permits” (Tooke 1810, 168). Nan first recorded in “American Dictionary of the English language” by Noah Webster in 1828 (MWD 182819). According In the Middle Persian .(نان) to this dictionary, the word nan comes from Persian nān language the word had a form of n'n. The word can also be found in Hindi and Urdu. In the Oxford English Dictionary the word was first attested in 1979 with the spelling naan and became the normal English spelling. According to it, naan came to English from Urdu, itself influenced by Persian and Arabic (OED20).
Despite the fact that the word has the Persian origin, in English, it is associated with the Indian bread firstly. Let us take a little step back from Kazakh and turn our attention to naan in Indian subcontinent because it will help us see that there are more things in common between the Indian and the Turkic cuisines in general than just one word naan. Naan in parts of the Indian subcontinent usually refers to a specific kind of thick flatbread. Naan is cooked in a tandoor. Another kind of the Indian bread is roti. The difference between naan and roti is in the way of cooking. As we mentioned, the oven used for cooking naan is called tandoor. Roti is usually cooked on a flat or slightly concave iron griddle called a tava. What is going to interest us are the words tandoor and tava.
We are now again getting back to Kazakh nan. According to “The Book of Kazakh National Dishes” (KTK 2011, 237) there are different kinds of Kazakh nan depending on the way of cooking or the cereal it is made of: • báter/bátir/pátir/ • zag´ara • jappa • kómbe • taba-nan • tandyr-nan • kúlshe
19 MWD: Merriam-Webster Dictionary. [online] Available at www:
We are now going to look closer at the last three kinds of Kazakh bread. Let us start with taba-nan. The name of the bread is composed by the pan the bread is made in and the word nan, meaning nan made in taba. As we mentioned above, Indian roti is made in tava (which is of Persian origin. Tava(h ,(تاوه) see Figure 1). Both words have one root tāve) /tawa(h), tapa/ is used in South, Central, and West Asia, as well as in Caucasus, for cooking a variety of flatbreads and as a frying pan. In West Asia, tavas are invariably convex, while in the Indian subcontinent, both flat and concave versions are found. An iron plate or pan on which break-cakes are baked called tawaa in all Indo-Aryan languages such as Punjabi, Hindi and Urdu (DUHE21). The word tava is also used in Slavic languages like Bosnian and Croatian, and refers to any kind of frying pan, while in Bulgarian it means (тава) metal baking dishes with sides. In one of the Indo-European languages, in Alban, we can meet the word tapak which means ‘bread cooked on tapak’. The word came to Albanian culture in the process of contacting with old Turkic folks and is still used nowadays (Geibullaev 1991, 251). We, therefore, can make sure that Kazakh taba-nan is cognate with Persian, Georgian, and Indo-Aryan languages, thus, it has Indo-European origin.
Figure 1. Indian tava-roti Figure 2. Kazakh taba-nan
21 A dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindi, and English. Digital South Asia Library, University of Chicago. [online] Available at www:
Now let us talk look closer at tandoor. Tandoor22 is an oven on ground or dug into ground, usually built of clay. In different countries it is called – tundur, tunur, tanur, turn, Tandr, tendir, tandoori, tandyr, etc. This type of ovens is widespread in Turkey, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Pakistan, India, Iran, and China.
,(تنور) The form of this verb can be found in different languages like pers. tanūr urd., punj. tandūr, heb. tannūr ,(ت ّنور) arm. t’onir (Թոնիր), georg. tone (თონე), ar. tannūr .tandoor’. According to Oxford English Dictionary, tandoor was used in aram‘ (תנור) tannūrā, and earlier in assyr. tinūru with the meaning ‘furnace; oven’ in both languages. Nevertheless, it is believed that the word originates from akkad. tinûru -tin means ‘mud’ and -nuro/-nura means ‘fire’. The word first appears in the written form in the Akkadian “Epic of Gilgamesh”. Therefore, the word has Semitic origin (Dehkhoda 193123). We can, therefore, conclude that the word came to Turkic languages from Semitic.
Figure 3. Indian tandoori naan Figure 4. Kazakh tandyr-nan
A variation of naan in the Indian subcontinent is called kulcha. Kulcha is a essentially a Punjabi dish, invented as a local version of the naan. In Kazakh cuisine we can find the kind of bread - kulshe. Both kulcha and kulshe can be cooked in tandoor. Looking
22 see Tandoor at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tandoor. 23 Dehkhoda, A. A.: Dehkhoda Persian Dictionary. Tehran, 1931. [online] Available at www:
Figure 5. Indian kulcha Figure 6. Kazakh kulshe
An interesting fact that for the kind of bread made of maise, in Kazakh is used the word zag´ara, and as for the kind of cereal, the word júgeri is used even though both words sound very similar and both come from the same Persian zag´ara, meaning maise (KROD).
From the list of bread kinds mentioned above, we could see that majority of the words came to Kazakh whether from Persian or Semitic languages. Nevertheless, the only kind of bread seems to have the Turkic origin. Kombe-nan is a form of the verb kómu that in Modern Kazakh means ‘to bury’. The root *köm (*göm) can be found in almost all other Turkic languages (Sevortjan 1980, 70). The verb кúm can also be found in one of the earliest written works regarding the Turkic languages "Compendium of the languages of the Turks" written by Mahmud al-Kashgari approximately in 1072-74 where it had the meaning ‘dip; put’ (MK). According to Sevortjan though, Kashgari used the verb in the meaning of ‘bury’ but for the different environment, for example, ‘put into fire’ (Sevortjan 1980, 71). Kómbe nan actually means ‘buried bread’ as of the way of cooking. The dough is pummelled by hand and then rolled out using a rolling pin into a 1-2 cm-thick flat, round shape. Then it is buried in the special iron pan into hot ashes. According to “The Book of Kazakh National Dishes”, kómbe is the first kind of bread that appeared on the territory of the modern Kazakhstan, although no scientific proofs were provided (KTK 2011, 240).
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2. Turkish ekmek
As we know, the Turkic languages may be classified, using linguistic, historical, and geographic criteria, into a southwestern (SW), a northwestern (NW), a southeastern (SE), and a northeastern (NE) branch. Chuvash and Khalaj form separate branches (Brittanica.com24). In Turkish, which belongs to SW branch (Oghuz), for bread is not used the word nan but they use the word ekmek, which seems to have Turkic origin in contrary to Kazakh nan. Since geographically both states are located quite far from each other, the development of each language went with various differences. Turkish was able to keep to date the Turkic-origin ekmek.
Nevertheless, let us first of all consider all forms that can be found in Turkic languages divided into five groups: 1) turkm. eкмек, tat., bash. икмəк /ikmäk/; 2) jag., tuhs., og., kyp. еpmek, az. əппəк /äppäk/, khak. ипек; 3) kar. eтмäк, kum., osm. äтмäк; 4) tur. dial. өтмек /ötmek/; 5) nog. өтpек /ötpek/, alt. өтпөк /ötpök/. All five forms of the basic root are inter-Turkic and they have/had a various prevalence. The most common and quite old form is etmek. As well as ötmek they both are considered to be most distributed over other forms (Sevortjan 1980, 253).
The oldest form most probably is еpmek that can be found in Kashgari’s dictionary as well as in Oghuz, Koybal, and Kyzyl dialects (Joki 1952, 103). The fact that for defying a relatively ancient reality like bread only one form epmek was used in Kashgari’s dictionary, gives us a significant reason to discuss the historical age of this core. The author refers to Oghuz dialects, which can be confirmed by the existence of the core in modern Turkmen, Turkish, and Azerbaijan. Epmek is perhaps cognate with tat. ipi and bash. äpäi ‘bread’ connected by the root - -*ep and by the meaning (Sevortjan 1980, 255). *Ipi in ancient Turkic languages meant ‘bread; meal’ (Geibullaev 1991, 166). Less common forms are ekmek and ötpek. The latter does not appear in archeological records, thus it demonstrates the later period of formation.
24 see
The form ekmek known in three southwestern and in four northwestern Turkic languages, can barely be considered as old Zajączkowski refers to Jan Herbinius as to one of the earliest mentions of the form, dated back to VII century (Zajączkowski 1948, 216). On Turkic monuments it does not seem to appear. The interesting fact is that only about a hundred years ago Zenker supposed the word ekmek, which is now the most spread form in modern Turkic languages, to be vulgarism (Zenker 1866, 82). In French-Turkish Dictionary by Kieffer and Bianchi, the word ekmek is indicated as an “incorrect form”, and as the correct one they offer itmek (Kieffer - Bianchi 1835, 7). Therefore, not very long time ago the word was used in an ordinary conversation, or even as a vulgarism.
An alteration ö - e is old, thus the word ötmek should have been formed not so long after the formation of etmek. Both forms at least appear in “Codex Cumanicus”. Sevortjan and Joki suppose that based on this data, we can accept that *etmek, *ötmek are way earlier forms than *ekmek: “На основе всех приведенных данных можно принять, что етмек/өтмек более первичная форма, чем екмек. Так же думает А. Йоки, опирающийся на параллельные формы из тюркских, алтайских и финно-угорских языков” (Sevortjan 1980, 255).
Some examples of the forms from different historical works gathered in “Ancient Turkic Dictionary” (DTS 1969):
Еtmäk ● “Ol etmäkkä jaγ sürtti” - “He put butter on bread” (MK III 426); ● “Bu jaŋlïγ keräk bu qapuγ başlar er/ begi etmäkin jep işin işlär er” - “The head of guards on duty and eating bread of bek (king) must be like him” (QBN 193). Ötmek ● “Ol ötmekni quruγlandï” - “He thought the bread was dry” (MK II 268); ● “İşlar ötmek japtï” - “A woman made a bread” (MK III 57); ● “Bir ötmekäŋ bir saγar suvuŋ” - “One piece of your bread, one bowl of your water” (Man III 12). Ätmäk 50
● “Tuzï ätmägi käŋ, ajï käŋ käräk - adï, ton talumï aŋar täŋ käräk - He needs a lot of salt and bread, as well as he needs a lot of horses, dresses, and guns (QB 86).
Both in Kazakh and Turkish languages, as well as in all other Turkic languages bread is the most important food. The evidence of this can be found in hundreds of different proverbs, idioms that appeared in ancient times but are still actual even nowadays. Mostly, this was caused by the fact that during starvation, bread was more valuable than any gold or money. The ancestors of modern Turks taught their children that bread as well as milk were of sacral meaning. Pouring, wasting, throwing them was and still is considered to be an unacceptable behaviour. For example, Kazakh proverb “As atasy - nan” is one of the most popular proverbs meaning that bread is the head of food. If a guest comes to visit one, the owner has to treat the guest at least with a slice of bread, and the guest, otherwise, has to have at least a bite of it to show the respect to the owner of the house. Bread is the essential part of Turkic mentality, language, and culture in general. Below we can list some Turkish and Kazakh proverbs that show the importance of bread:
● kaz. nan bar jerde án bar - if there is a bread, there is a feast; ● kaz. as atasy – nan - bread is the main of food; ● kaz. dándi shashpa, nandy baspa - don’t scatter the grains, don’t tread the bread; ● kaz. dastarhanda nany joqtyń, tamag´ynyń sáni joq - a table without bread is a poor table; ● tur. sana taşla vurana, sen ekmekle vur - if somebody throws on you the stone, throw on back the bread instead. Proverb teaches people to pay kindness even if someone makes you something bad; ● tur. tuz, ekmek hakkını bilmeyen kör olur - if someone gives you bread and salt and you pay back with bad things to the person who shared food with you, you will be damned by god (lit. one who does not know the value of bread and salt is blind) (Zharar.com – Dersimiz.com).
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We can conclude that bread is a symbol of prosperity, appreciation, and respect. As in many other cultures, bread is vital for Turkic peoples. As evidence, we listed proverbs that contain this word in order to show how much Turkish and Kazakhs respect bread. We also showed the forms of the word bread written in old records. Therefore, we considered the term ‘bread’ both from diachronic and synchronic sides that proved the ancient origin and undoubtful importance of bread in Turkic languages.
3. Russian хлеб/ Czech chléb
In Central Europe bread was known as early as in Neolithic period as attested in the reports found in Switzerland and Austria. Beranová describes bread found over there: “[...] ve vlhkých bažinatých vrstvách uchovalo mnoho pozůstatků rostlin a výrobků z nich. Z období 3 700 př. n. l., z mladší až pozdní doby kamenné, byly nalezeny plackovité hrudky z navlhčeného obilí smíšeného s moukou, pečené buď přímo na ohništi, nebo v popelu“ (Beranová 2005, 39).
For Slavic peoples not only bread was an important part of their diet, but also it was used in different rituals of Slavic Paganism. According to “Národopisný věstník Českoslovanský”, bread for Slavs had even the magical significance: “Právě při polních pracích dobře pochopujeme magický význam chleba, který má působit na příští úrodu. Chléb, podle zákonů analogie, může povzbuzovati vzrůst semene a zdar úrody, aby se táž živina hojně urodila, ze které je sám zhotoven. Jestliže se položí na pole k semeni nebo na pluh, anebo jestliže se při první práci na poli sní, může vyvolávati ke vzrůstu novou úrodu, jejíž semeno je právě ukládáno v půdu25”. The importance of bread remained even when Christianity became the main religion. For example, chruch rituals in Czechia as chléb Páně, chléb andělský, chléb živý ‘holliness of the altar’ (PSJČ 1935, 1047).
Let us have a look at the etymology of the word bread in Russian and Czech. Proto- Slavic *хлѣбъ ‘bread; grain’ can be found in most of the Slavic languages: old sln. хлѣбъ, old rus. хлѣбъ, rus. хлеб, č. chléb, rusn. хлїб, ukr. хліб, bel. хлеб, bulg. хляб, slk. chlieb,
25 NVČ 223.
Czech language apart from other Slavic languages has several forms that are as popular as the formal form chléb. All over the Czech Republic forms like chleba, chleb, chlíb (Kašpárková 2013, 38).
The terms chléb and хлеб are also used to name some sorts of plants, for instance: ● rus. хлебное дерево 'Artocarpus' (Annenkov 1878, 50); ● rus. свиной хлеб 'Cyclamen' (Annenkov 1878, 118); ● rus. хлебушка 'Trifolium' (Annenkov 1878, 360); ● rus. бабочкин хлеб 'Trifolium' (Annenkov 1878, l0); ● rus. божий хлеб 'Trifolium' (Annenkov 1878, l0); ● rus. почельный хлебик 'Trifolium' (Annenkov 1878, l0); ● rus. полевой хлебник 'Trifolium' (Annenkov 1878, 360); ● old č. svinský chléb 'Cyclamen' (Gebauer 1970, 535); ● old č. pecenek 'Malva' (Machek 1954, 146), ● č. chlebík 'Malva' (Machek 1954, 146), ● č. chleboň 'Artocarpus' (Annenkov 1878, 50), ● č. dial. chléb svinský 'Cyclamen' (Machek 1954, 173),
Both Russian and Czech are rich with proverbs where the term bread is used: ● rus. его́ хлебом не корми́ то́ лько дай (что-л.) - there's nothing he likes better than (smth); ● rus. жить на чужи́ х хлеба́ х - be a dependant, live at smb else's expense ● rus. перебива́ ться с хлеба на во́ ду - live from hand to mouth ● rus. посади́ ть на хлеб и во́ ду кого́ -л - put smb on bread and water ● rus. лиши́ ть кого́ -л куска́ хлеба — deprive smb of a livelihood 53
● rus. хлеб — всему голова - bread is the head of everything; comp. kaz. ас атасы - нан (p. 52); ● rus. xлеб — батюшко, вода — матушка - bread is the father, water is the mother; ● rus. пот по спине — так и хлеб на столе - if you work hard, you will have bread; ● rus. чужой хлеб петухом в горле запоет - stealing somebody’s bread will not bring happiness; ● rus. горек обед без хлеба - no meal is good without any bread; ● č. kdo do tebe kamenem, ty do něho chlebem - if somebody throws on you the stone, throw on them back the bread, comp. tur. sana taşla vurana, sen ekmekle vur (p. 53); ● č. hosta chlebem, solí, a nezdvořáka odbývej holí; ● č. koho chleba jíš, toho píseň zpívej; ● č. když pere, čert ji bere, když chléb (koláče) peče, div se nevzteče! - a bad woman; ● č. chléb se nerodí - without working hard, you won’t get a bread (BSRP 2010 - Zaorálek 2000).
In Russian bread and salt are often interconnected and are used together as the generalization of food in proverbs: ● xлеб-соль — взаимное дело; ● xлеб-соль — конец обеду; ● xлеб с солью не бранится; ● xлеб-соль кушай, а добрых людей слушай; ● xлеб-соль вместе, а рыбка — в дель; ● без соли не вкусно, без хлеба — не сытно (BSRP 2010).
To conclude, in both Turkic and Slavic languages bread is used in many proverbs, collocations, and idioms. In general, bread has a significance beyond mere nutrition in these cultures because of its history and contemporary importance. Some similar proverbs show 54 the fact that in both different cultures people respect bread and carry this respect throughout ages from generation to generation through language: ● č. kdo do tebe kamenem, ty do něho chlebem (p. 54) ● tur. sana taşla vurana, sen ekmekle vur (p. 51). ● rus. хлеб — всему голова (p. 54) ● kaz. ас атасы - нан (p. 51)
55
MEAT
People and animals have lived together throughout the millions of years. Before people domesticated first kinds of animals, they were still hunting on them for their meat. The function of meat, unfolds a complex and long history, closely linked to power relations and social inequalities that went with it. The history of this food along with the agriculture development is closely interconnected to mankind’s history, which constitutes one of the basic elements, the cause or the effect of human affairs (Meat consumption in human history26).
Meat is defined as the flesh of animals used as food. It provides the majority of the nutrients required for health by human consumers. Nevertheless, there continues to be vigorous controversy about the effects on health of its long-term consumption, since it has been alleged to be associated with the development of carcinoma, cardiovascular disease and hypertension (Lawrie 2006, 352). Notwithstanding, meat was the main source of energy for ages, even with the possible influence on one’s health, in general, it had a revolutionary purpose in our history.
Around 2–3 million years ago the Homo sapiens and the wild ancestors of domesticated species of sheep, cattle and pigs were probably recognizable. Palaeontological evidence shows that there was a substantial proportion of meat in the diet of early Homo sapiens. To tear flesh apart, sharp stones – and later fashioned stone tools were used (Lawrie 2006, 1). Cut and percussion marks, which together are called butchery marks, may be the result of skinning, disarticulation, and bone breakage for dietary and non- dietary reasons (Journal of Taphonomy 2003). On the Figure 7, we can see fossil antelope date back to 1.5 million years ago with those butchery marks (see Figure 7 on p. 57).
Meat played a significant role for the whole humankind, as we mentioned above. Meat and marrow are calorie-dense resources with essential amino acids and
26 See at carnisostenibili.it. Available online at www:
The domestication of animals, of which we have evidence dating back to the end of the last glacial period approximately 10 000 BC. Domestication of cattle followed the establishment of settled agriculture about 5 000 BC (Lawrie 2006, 2-5).
Figure 727
27 Figure 7. (a) 1.5 million-year-old fossil antelope lower leg bone (metapodial) from Koobi Fora, Kenya, bearing cut marks; (b) close-up of these cut-marks. 57
The type of meat consumed varies much between different cultures, changes over time, depending on factors such as tradition and the availability of the animals. In both Turkic and Slavic culture, animals played an important role and the terms like kaz., tur. et, rus. мясо, č. maso ‘meat’ have a long history and in this chapter we will look closer on these forms and will try to investigate the etymology and the role of the term like meat in the object languages.
1. Kazakh et/ Turkish et
In majority of Turkic languages the form et is used: kaz., tur., turkm., kir., ktat., kar., kač., kbal., nog., kkal., uz., sg., yak. lob., alt., koj., sag. et ‘meat’; nevertheless, az., uig. ät ‘meat; meat dish’, tat., bash., khak. it ‘meat’, gag. iet ‘meat’, tuv. ȅt ‘meat’. In kar., yak. et also has a meaning ‘beef’; kir., uz., khak., yak., uig., alt., kkal. et ‘body, flesh’; yak., čuv. et ‘corpse of a killed animal’ (Sevortjan 1974, 311).
Ramstedt compared turk. *ät ‘meat’ with man. *feten ‘matter; material’ and kor. *pathan ‘substance; physical structure of something’ (Ramstedt 1949, 193-194).
The form et in early written records: ● tamïrlïγ et - sinewy meat (MK I 495); ● et šïšqa taqïldï - the meat was strung on skewer (MK II 29); ● jig et aš sürmä tilädi - he wanted raw food, meat, and wine (ЛОК 228); ● söŋükıŋa tegi eti jini söklünüp - his flesh came off his bones (Uig III 2429); ● et yer - soft ground (MK I 35).
Since meat made up the biggest part of Turks’ diet, many words to describe meat existed:
28 The Legend about Oghuz Khan. XIII century. An epic monument. The only copy from XV century written in old Uighur is kept in the National Library of Paris. 42 pages of text, 9 lines on each page. 29 A fragment of eight Buddha legends written in Uighur writing. 58
● kak et - dried meat (MK II 282); ● küwşek et - loose meat (MK I 479); ● kedrim et - meat with skin (MK I 485); ● tamırlığ et - venous meat (MK I 495).
Meat and food in general for Turkic folks are sometimes even sacral (Yilmaz 2006, 106). For example, Kazakhs suffered from starvation in 20th of the last century and many people died. Therefore, food was something more important than any gold There is a saying in Kazakh: ● arpa, bıdaı as eken, altyn, kúmis tas eken - which can be translated as “Barley and wheat are food, gold and silver are just stones”.
Thus, food is also the reflection of people’s life. Food was indeed an indication of richness, more important than gold and money; nevertheless, the phrase still exists in modern Kazakh and is meant to remind people that for someone the main goal is to earn as much material wealth as possible and they forget about simple things and do not appreciate what they have while some people still suffer from starvation. Phrases like this also remind people that our ancestors suffered a lot throughout history in order for our generation to have a bright presence, and we should not forget about it and appreciate even basic things as bread, meat, and milk.
Et in proverbs: ● kaz. esek mingen at suramaıdy, balyq jegen et suramaıdy - to be satisfied with what you already have and not to try to get more (lit. one who has a donkey, will not ask for a horse, one who eats fish, will not ask for meat); ● kaz. et – etke, sorpa – betke - rus. oт мяса тело наливается, от бульона щеки румянятся. This phrase does not have one exact meaning and can be interpreted differently. One of the meanings says that when you eat meat, it helps your body
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and your muscles get stronger and bigger, and when you drink broth (kaz. сорпа30, č. čorba), it helps your digestion and the skin of your face becomes healthy, rosy; ● kaz. jylqynyń etin jeseń – tisińe kiredi, jemeseń – túsińe kiredi - another interesting phrase that does not have a deep moral but rather has an ironic idea describing a condition when you find a negative sides in anything (lit. if eating horse meat, it will get stuck in your teeth, if not eating, it will get stuck in your dreams); ● kaz. etten dám ketse, urlyqtyń máni - if a result of something that you are doing does not make you happy, then that thing itself loses the importance (lit. if meat loses its taste, theft loses its meaning); ● kaz. qonaq kelse, et qyzyrar, et qyzarmasa, bet qyzyrar - in Kazakh culture hospitality is one of those things people are proud of the most. Showing respect, hospitality to your guests is what Kazakh is what people have been doing since ancient times. Even if you are not rich, treating your guest at least with a slice of bread and a cup of water is what any good host will make. If guests are visiting you, even unexpectedly, without letting you know in advance, you still should show your hospitality and prepare et-nan31 (kaz. бешпармақ, kaz. dial. ет-нан, rus. бешпармак) and if you don’t do that, you would feel very uncomfortable because you don’t want guests to leave your house hungry (lit. if a guest comes, meat gets red, if meat does not get red, the face gets red then); ● tur. et kanlı gerek, yiğit canlı - meat should not be overcooked, and a young man should not be inactive, immobile (lit. meat with blood, man with spirit); ● tur. arık etten yağlı tirit olmaz - it’s not possible to get a good result from torn-out staff (lit. you can’t get a fatty tirit32 from the skinny meat); ● tur. et kokarsa tuzlanır; ya tuz kokarsa ne yapılır? - no need to start the argues over again after coming to the final conclusion (lit. if meat starts to get spoilt, it gets salted, if salt starts to get spoilt then what?).
30 kaz. сорпа, č. čorba, rus. шурпа, tur. çorba - one of various kinds of soup or stew found in national cuisines across the Balkans, North Africa, Central Europe, Eastern Europe, Central Asia, South Asia and the Middle East (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chorba). 31 kaz. бешпармақ, бесбармақ, kaz. dial. ет-нан, rus. бешпармак, eng. beshbarmak - the national dish among nomadic Turkic peoples in Central Asia and Russia mainly made of horse meat (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beshbarmak). 32 Tirit - boiled minced meat sauce poured on diced stale bread. 60
Et as a part of different collocations and idioms in Turkish: ● tur. et bağlamak - to get fat (lit. to get meat); ● tur. et kafalı - not understanding, very narrow-minded (lit. meat-headed); ● tur. et tırnak gibi - to have a strong relationship with someone (lit. to be meat and nail); ● tur. et (can) tutmamak - to keep the same weight due to being very active, mobile (lit. to not keep meat); ● tur. etinden et koparmak - to grieve much (lit. to pull off oneself’s meat); ● tur. etliye sütlüye karışmamak - to stay away from things that do not interest (lit. to tyr to stay alone (lit. not interfere with anything made of meat and milk).
2. Russian мясо/ Czech maso
Proto Slavic and Common Slavic *męso appears in all Slavic languages: rus. мясо, old rus. мясо, č. maso, old č. maso, bulg. месо́ , mak. месо́ , serb-cr. ме̑со, sln. meso, slk. mäso, up. luž. mjaso, l. luž. měso, plb. mąsi (< *męsьje), old pol. mięso, pol. mięso, bel. мяса, ukr. мя́со ‘meat, flesh’. In some languages it might mean ‘pulp, flesh’ (bulg. месо́ , mak. ме́са, serbch. ме̑со, sln. meso, slk. mäso, č. maso, pol. mięso).
The Slavs have been consuming meat for many centuries. The term *męso ‘meat’ existed in Proto Slavic. The regions where old Slavic people lived, were rich with different kinds of animals. Before domestication and agriculture became common for the most tribes, people used to hunt on such wild animals as buffalo, roe deer, deer, elk, boar, and rabbits (Kašpárková 2013, 58).
In our chapter ‘Milk’ we already mentioned that ancestors of modern Slavic people in VIII-IX centuries already had cattle farmings. As a proof of it, Niederle refers to Slavic mythology where Volos (Veles) or old sl. скотій богъ, one of the gods of Slavic Olymp, found in different old written records and who was believed to protect cattle. This God can also be referred to Saint Vlasij, later on even identified with the above mentioned Volos, the patron of cattle (Niederle 1911, 172). 61
Animals, mostly cows, goats, sheep, and even horses, were farmed mainly for their meat and for workload as well as their skin, wool, and fur. Several accounts between VI-XI centuries show that the Slavs had cattle farming from the prehistoric times (Niederle 1911, 166). Meat was a typical part of different pagan rituals as a sacrifice to their gods. Nieder gives examples from Prokopios (VI century) and Maurikios Strategikon (XI century): ● “Tito národové, Slované a Antové […] uznávají, že je jediný bůh tvůrce blesku a všeho pán i obětují mu skot a všeliká obětní zvířata” (Niederle 1911, 25).
Some archeological findings show that Slavs buried animals, too, as they believed that the deceased would need their meat in the afterworld (Kašpárková 2013, 58).
Prsl. *męso is derived from ie. *mēmso ‘meat’. Ie. *mēmso is believed to have a nostratic origin (comp. old prus. mensá, menso, latv. mìesa, lit. dial. mensà, meisa, old hin. māmsá-, gót. mimz, alb. mish, arm. mis 'maso') (Kašpárková 2013, 59). According to Trubachev, the original meaning of the ie. root *mēmso was ‘raw meat’ (Trubachev 1992, 10). However, some linguists suppose that the original meaning regarding the semantic content ‘raw’ - ‘cooked’ of the root *mēmso was neutral (Gamkrelidze – Ivanov 1984, 698- 699).
Animals’ names have been used to name the kind of meat, therefore the names are motivated by the kinds of animals: rus. говядина, č. hovězí ‘beef’; rus. конина, č. konina ‘horse meat’; rus. свинина, č. vepřové ‘pork’; rus. телятина, č. telecí ‘veal’; rus. баранина, č. skopové ‘matton’; rus. курятина, č. kuřecí ‘chicken’; rus. козлятина, č. kozí ‘goat’; rus. собачатина, č. psí ‘dog meat’; rus. кошатина, č. kočičí ‘cat meat’; rus. крольчатина, č. králičí ‘rabbit meat’.
Different derivatives of the word мясо can be found in rus.: мяса́ , мясистость, мясище, мя́ско́ , мясник, мясничище, мясничок, мясность, мясоед, мясоедение, мясорезка, мясорубка, мясорубщик, мясосовхоз, мясохладобойня, мясоястие,
62
мясоястье, мясцо, мясница, мясопу́стье, мясови́ на, мясни́ чать, мясни́ цы, мясокра́ сный (Dal 2006, 376).
The word meat appears in proverbs: ● rus. ни рыба, ни мясо - indecisive; a person without any personal opinion (lit. not fish, not meat); ● rus. перья остались, а мясо улетело - to miss (about shooting, for example); ● rus. сырое мясо хоть морщится, да тянется - a human’s body is tenacious of life (BSRP); ● č. řezat do vlastního masa - to torture oneself; ● č. být z jiného masa - to have a different nature, personality; ● č. býti z masa a krve - to make mistakes as anz human-being; ● č. my o mase, on o kvase - misunderstand each other (Zaorálek 2000).
Some other idioms in Russian with мясо: ● rus. пушечное мясо - soldiers regarded merely as material to be expended in war; eng. cannon fodder; ● rus. вырвать пуговицу с мясом — rip out a button with a bit of cloth (Dal 2006, 376).
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CONCLUSION
Archaeological studies of food are developing year by year. The primary question about food in the past - the resources which were available and used - is being addressed through the analysis of plant remains and animal fossils found in archaeological records. This helps us see how a particular plant or animal spread across the world, how and where the first species were domesticated. On the other side of archaeological records we have ancient written records that help us analyze not only the food history itself, but also their name among different folks. The main goal of this thesis was to analyze some basic food names both in terms of etymology and their semantic motivation in Turkic and Slavic languages. We tried to distinguish the differences and similarities between the languages as well as investigate the role of food in cultures that these researched languages belong to.
In our work we analyzed the following food names: kaz. sút, tur. süt, rus. молоко, č. mléko; kumys - fermented horse milk; shubat – fermented camel milk; kaz. bıdaı, tur. buğday, rus. пшеница, č. pšenice; barley – kaz., tur. arpa, rus. ячмень, č. ječmen; bread – kaz. нан, tur. ekmek, rus. хлеб, č. chléb; some sorts of bread in Kazakh like zaǵara-nan, taba-nan , tandyr-nan, kúlshe-nan; and kaz., tur. et., rus. мясо, č. maso.
In the example of four languages belonging to two different language groups, we made sure that both in Turkic and Slavic languages foods like meat, milk, and bread were known for many centuries. At the beginning of each chapter we provided general information on each kind of food as our theoretical part. For example, the chapter dedicated to kumys, gave us some basic data on when and where horses were most probably domesticated. Then, as our practical part, we worked with the data from the old languages and compared it to the modern forms.
We were provided with extracts from the written archaeological documents where these words appear. We tried to give examples not only from Turkic languages, but we also tried to find the data in Slavic records, for instance, Ипатьевская летопись, as well as the works of European historians like Herodotus and Marco Polo. Therefore, we tried to show 64 the interconnection of our object languages through cultural exchanges that have been lasting from ancient times. Apart from the general information on food, we tried to distinguish the role of each food specifically in Turkic and Slavic cultures. We gave details according to discovered archaeological records on when Turks and Slavs started using the particular kind of food. With the help of different etymological dictionaries, we tried to give examples of the word use in the past and in the modern languages. We thus considered both diachronic and synchronic aspects of these food names in four languages. Some of the phrases used in ancient times are used even nowadays: ● old turk. “Suw içürmesge süt ber” ● kaz. “Su bermegenge, sút ber” ● tur. “Su içirmeyene süt ver.”
In modern languages we analyzed the semantic motivation of the food names while giving examples of their use in different proverbs, collocations, and idioms as they reflect the folk’s culture in general. Some of the proverbs turned out to be very similar between Turkic and Slavic languages: ● č. kdo do tebe kamenem, ty do něho chlebem ● tur. sana taşla vurana, sen ekmekle vur ● rus. хлеб — всему голова ● kaz. as atasy - nan.
Moreover, we can suggest that both in Turkic and Slavic culture some food names had the same association. Thus, not only cow milk was a significant part of the diet, but also it symbolized prosperity and people used the term milk in their beliefs, rituals, traditions, and customs. In all four languages we could find some interesting points, for instance, milk is used in idioms and collocations to describe someone very young or inexperienced: ● kaz. ana súti auzynan ketpegen - lit. milk in his mouth did not get dry yet; ● tur. ağzı süt kokan - lit. with a taste of milk in a mouth; ● č. teče mu mléko po bradě - lit. milk is running over his chin; ● rus. молоко на губах не обсохло - lit. milk on his lips did not get dry yet. 65
Each specific language has its own history even though some languages belong to the same language group, as some factors like geographical location of the folk, natural resources, or neighboring peoples have their influence on the language. Comparing four languages, we could also see interesting parallels between them. Thus, in Turkic languages the frequency of the word bugday ‘wheat’ in proverbs is higher than in Russian or Czech even though for all of them wheat is one of the most important foods. Some food names appear as a pair in the number of proverbs in order to describe the oppositions like bugday- arpa or, in contrast, as the generalization like xлеб-соль. Some languages seem to have an influence on naming some sorts of plants. For example, Russian name for euphorbia might have influenced Turkic languages as in both this herb is associated with milk: ● tat. sütlük - rus. молочай прутьевидный ● kaz. jartylaı buıra súttigen - rus. молочай полумохнатый ● kaz. oraqsha súttigen - rus. молочай серповидный.
We can identify in the end that food names are not only used to describe a vital physical substance for living, but they are closely related to the language, people’s beliefs, history, and culture. Many factors influencing the existence of language show incredible evidence of how food names might symbolize the whole culture. For example, Slavic bread каравай is associated with the cultures of Russian, Ukrainians or Polish. For Kazakhs bread is the main food. In the history, when people suffered from starvation, bread was even more valuable than gold or money. The ancestors of modern Kazakhs taught their children that bread, as well as milk, were of sacred meaning. Pouring, wasting or throwing them out was, and still is, considered to be unacceptable behaviour. This mentality of older generation, no doubt left a significant impact on the language. People nowadays do not starve yet these proverbs that call to respect bread, milk, or meat have not lost their importance. They still continue to carry this message from generation to generation, and have done so throughout many centuries.
In our work we have tried to use as many materials as we could to provide a wider outlook of the languages. Nevertheless, there are still many and many unclear theories and 66 linguists could have completely different opinions. This usually happens because of lack of evidence from the past that we could rely on to prove the particular theory. For Russian, Czech, and Slavic languages in general, there are more proved theories compared to Turkic languages. Even the Altai theory itself is not supported by most of the linguists. The question of how Turkic languages exactly appeared is still a subject of debates. Therefore, for us it was more challenging to analyze the etymological aspect of food names in Kazakh and Turkish as the origin of most words is still unclear. Nevertheless, we believe that we were able to achieve the goal we set at the beginning. We tried to analyze four languages from diachronic and synchronic perspectives, as well as define the importance of each kind of food through providing examples from both the old written records and the modern proverbs, idioms, collocations. In the meantime, we drew parallels between some food names and compared them between Kazakh, Turkish, Russian, and Czech. As a result, we have this thesis where we compare completely different cultures showing the similarities and the differences through analyzing the food names in Turkic and Slavic languages.
67
LANGUAGE ABBREVIATIONS akkad. Akkadian alb. Albanian alt. Altay ar. Arabic aram. Aramaic arm. Armenian assyr. Assyrian az. Azerbaijani bar. Barabian dialect of Tatar bash. Bashkir bel. Belarusian bulg. Bulgarian com sl. Common Slavic č. Czech čag. Chagatay čuv. Chuvash eng. English gag. Gagauz georg. Georgian ger. German germ. Germanic got. Gothic hung. Hungarian heb. Hebrew chin. Chinese ie. Indo-European jag. Jagma kač. Kachin (dial. of Khakas) kal. Kalmyk 68 kaš. Kashubian kaz. Kazakh kbal. Karachay-Balkar khak. Khakas kir. Kirgiz kkal. Karakalpak kkir. Karakirgiz koj. Kojbal (dial. of Khakas) kor. Korean ktat. Crimean Tatar kyp. Kypchak l. luž. Lower Sorbian (Luzhitskiy) latv. Latvian lit. Lithuanian lob. Lobnor man. Manchu mong. Mongolian nog. Nogai og. Oghuz old č. Old Czech old hin. Old Hindi old chin. Old Chinese old prus. Old Prussian old rus. Old Russian (Old East Slavic) old sl. Old Slavic osm. Osmanian pers. Persian plb. Polabian pol. Polish psl. Proto-Slavic punj. Punjabi 69 rus. Russian rusn. Rusyn sag. Sagai (dial. of Khakas) sal. Salar serb-cr. Serbo-Croatian sg. Saryg-Yugur slk. Slovakian sln. Slovenian tat. Tatar tof. Tofalar (Tofa) tuhs. Tukhsi tur. Turkish turk. Turkic turkm. Turkmenian turktat. Turkic-Tatar uig. Uighur ukr. Ukrainian up. luž. Upper Sorbian (Luzhitskiy) urd. Urdu uzb. Uzbek yak. Yakut (Sakha)
70
OTHER ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
* - reconstructed protoform < - the word is formed from adj. - adjective astr. - astronomy comp. -compare cons. - consonant dial. - dialect lit. - literally p. - page pl. - plural sg. - singular syn. - synonym v. - verb
71
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NOMINAL INDEX
A Ä abra äpäi tuv., 39 bash., 49 *arba äppäk iran., 40, 80 az., 49, 80 *áčati *ät old hin., 41 az., uig., 58, 80 *adhrı turk., 34 B ajpa barley lob., 39 eng., 9, 31, 32, 35, 36, 39, 40, 41, 43, 64, 80, 97 alb’i bater, batir, patir gr., 40 kaz., 80 ancus bıdaı lat., 41 kaz., 5, 9, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 38, 59, 64, 80, 97, 98, *áñčati 99 old hin., 41 bıjdaj *ank nog., kkal., 32, 80 ie., 41 bıyday ánka tur. dial., 32, 80 lit., 41 boğdaj *arba gag., 32, 80 alt., khak., 39 boγdaj arbai ktat., 32, 33, 34, 80 mong., 40 bread arfa eng., 9, 14, 16, 32, 33, 34, 39, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, man., 39, 40 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 59, 60, 64, 66, 80, 97 *arpa būd’ā, būd’ǟ kaz., tur., turkm., az., gag., kkal., kum., kbal., kir., kalm., 33, 80 nog., tat., bash., ktat., kar., 5, 9, 31, 35, 36, 39, budaj 40, 41, 59, 64, 66, 80, 97, 98, 99 kbal., 32, 80 arpagan buğday kir., 40 tur., alt., 5, 9, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 40, 64, 80, 97, 98, arpaγan 99 tat., 40 bujdaj arwaj kir., 32, 80 tuv., 39 bujzaj 80
bash. dial., 32, 80 Ȅ bŭrai bash., 33, 34, 80 ȅt buraj tuv., 58, 80 bulg., 33, 80 buza E hung., 33, 80 eкмек buzaj turkm., 49, 80 old bulg., 33, 34, 80 eтмäк buγda kar., 49, 80 az., 32, 80 *feten buγdaj man., 58, 80 turk., 32, 33, 34, 80 bŭγdaj H kaz. dial., 32, 80 buγdaj, buγdai *hlaiba turk., uz. dial., uig. dial., kum., uz., 32, 80 pr. germ., germ., 53, 80 buγudai hovězí mong., 33, 80 č., 19, 62, 80 buγudaj uig., 32, 80 Ch
C chal turkm., 9, 29, 30, 80 cereal chleb eng., 31, 36, 39, 45, 48, 53, 80 pol., 53, 80 cosmos chléb William - R, 26, 81 č., 5, 9, 44, 52, 53, 54, 64, 80, 97, 98, 99 chlíb E č., 53, 80 chlieb *ęč slk., 52, 80 psl., 41, 80 ekmek I tur., 5, 8, 9, 14, 44, 49, 50, 51, 64, 80, 97, 98, 99 *et iet kaz., tur., turk., kir., ktat., kar., kač., kbal., nog., gag., 58, 80 kkal., uz., sg., yak., lob., alt., koj., sag., 5, 9, 58, *ipi 59, 60, 61, 64, 80, 97, 98, 99 turk., 49, 80 it
81
tat., bash., khak., 7, 10, 12, 13, 14, 18, 19, 20, 21, kal., 26, 82 22, 24, 25, 26, 29, 30, 34, 36, 39, 40, 43, 44, 45, kimur 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 64, mong., 81 65, 67, 80, 97 *kloibho ie., 53, 80 J *köm/ *göm turk., 80 *(j)ęčьmy kočičí psl., 41, 80 č., 62, 80 jacmjeń kómbe l. luž., 41, 80 kaz., 45, 48, 80 jačmen kómu č., 31, 80 kaz., 48, 80 jačmeň konina slk., 41, 80 č., 62, 80 jačmyk kozí č. dial., 41, 80 č., 62, 80 jappa králičí kaz., 45, 80 č., 62, 80 jęczmień kulajda pol., 41, 80 č. dial., 21, 81 jęczmyk kuľastra pol., 41, 80 slk., 21, 81 ječmen kulcha s-cro., 5, 9, 41, 64, 80, 97, 98, 99 hin., 47, 48, 80 jéčmen kúlshe sln., 41, 80 kaz., 9, 45, 64, 80, 99 ječmjeń kumys, кумыс up. luž., 41, 80 eng., č., rus, 81 *jęčьmy kumyz com sl., 36, 80 tat., 26, 81 júgeri kuřecí kaz., 80 č., 62, 80 kymmak K turk., 27, 82 kemiz kymys Polo - Y., 26, 81 bar., uig., 26, 81 kımız, qımız kymyzyk, kymyzlyk tur., az., 81 tat. dial., 82 kimr
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L old pol., pol., 61, 80 milk *lậi eng., 5, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, old chin., 33, 80 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 51, 59, 61, 64, 65, 66, 80, 97 M mimz got., 62, 80 *māmsá mis old hin., 62, 80 arm., 62, 80 mąsi mish plb., 61, 80 alb., 62, 80 maso mjaso č., old č., 5, 9, 19, 58, 61, 62, 64, 80, 97, 98, 99 up. luž., 61, 80 mäso mléč, mléčie, mléčí, mlíčí slk., 61, 80 old č., 80 meat mléčnica eng., 7, 9, 11, 17, 18, 19, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, č. dial., 21, 80 64, 66, 75, 76, 79, 80 mléčnicě, mlíčen mel-(u)k old č., 21, 80 germ., 20, 80 mléčník *melģ old č., 21, 80 ie., 20, 80 mléčný, mléč *melk č., 80 ie., 20, 80 mleko melko pol., 17, 21, 80 psl., 20, 80 mléko *mēmso č., 5, 9, 11, 17, 20, 21, 22, 24, 37, 64, 65, 80, 97, 98, ie., 62, 80 99 mensà, meisa mle ̣́ko lit. dial., 62, 80 sln., 17, 80 mensá, menso mleko, mlíko, mliko, mlyko old prus., 62, 80 č., 21, 80 meso mlékojěd sln., 61, 80 old č., 21, 80 měso mlékonošě l. luž., 61, 80 old č., 21, 80 *męso *mlězivo com. sl., psl., 61, 62, 80 com. sl., 18, 80 mìesa *mlězъ latv., 62, 80 com. sl., 18, 80 mięso mlíčko, mléčko 83
č., 21, 80 P mlíčník old č., 21, 80 pări mlieko čuv., 33, 34, 80 slk., 17, 80 pasinaićə mlijèko plb., 36, 80 s-cr., 17, 80 *pathan mloko kor., 58, 80 up. luž, l. luž., 17, 80 *proso mlóu̯ ko com sl., 36, 80 kaš., 17, 80 pryšec *mlѣkо č., 24, 81 old sl., 17, 80 psí *mwak č., 62, 80 old chin., 33, 80 pszeńca pol., 36, 80 N pszenica old pol., 36, 80 nakan pšeńca arm., 44, 80 up. luž., 36, 80 nan pšence kaz., zyr., pers., 5, 8, 9, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, č. dial., 36, 80 60, 64, 65, 80, 97, 98, 99 pšenica slk., l. luž., 36, 80 Ö pšeníca sln., 36, 80 ötmek pšenice, pšenička tur. dial., 49, 50, 80 č., 80 O pšeno old č., 37, 80 *ovьca pūrai com. sl., 18, 80 lit., 33, 80 *ovьsъ puγdaj com sl., 36, 80 khak., 32, 80 orbusah puγta afg., 40, 80 sal., 32, 80 *oru *pyro turk., 34, 80 old sl., 33, 36, 80 *pьšenica com sl., 36, 37, 80 *pьšeno 84
psl., 37, 41, 80 süttükon kir., 24, 81 Q *syrъ com. sl., 18, 80 qumran uzb., 27, 82 Š *qym turk., 27, 82 šimkh qymyz kalm., 16, 80 kaz., 25, 26, 81, 99 T S t’onir shubat arm., 47, 80 kaz., 9, 29, 30, 64, 82, 97, 99 taba skopové kaz., 9, 45, 46, 64, 80, 99 č., 62, 80 tagar *süjt turk., 34, 80 turk., 12, 16, 23, 80 tandoor süm eng., 45, 47, 80 tur., 16, 80 tandūr sün urd., punj., 47, 80 mong., 15, 80 tandyr süt kaz., 9, 45, 47, 64, 79, 80, 99 tur., turkm., tat., kir., nog., uzb., uig., khak., alt., tannūr čag., shor., 5, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 23, ar., 47, 80 24, 28, 64, 65, 73, 80, 97, 98, 99 *tannūrā sút aram., 47, 80 kaz., 5, 9, 11, 12, 14, 16, 64, 65, 80, 97, 98, 99 tanūr sütgardi pers., 47, 80 turk., 15, 80 tapak sütlennič alb., 46, 80 turkm., 24, 81 tāve sütligän pers., 46, 80 tat. dial., 23, 81 tawaa sütlügän uläni, sütlükäi punj., hin., urd., 46, 80 bash. dial., 23, 81 telecí sütlük č., 62, 80 tat., 23, 66, 81 *tinûru súttigen akkad., 47, 80 kaz., 81 *tinūru
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assyr., 47, 80 Г tone georg., 47, 80 говядина *tvarogъ rus., 62, 80 com. sl., 18, 80 Е U еpmek unek jag., tuhs., og., kyp., 49, 80 khak., 80 ечеми̣́ к bulg., 41, 80 V И vepřové č., 62, 80 икмәк tat., bash., 49, 80 W Ј wheat eng., 9, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, јачмен 43, 59, 66, 80 mak., 41, 80
Y К yemeçük козлятина turk., 34, 80 rus., 62, 80 комузъ, комызъ Z old rus., 25, 81 конина zag´ara rus., 62, 80 kaz., 45, 48, 80 кошатина zvara rus., 62, 80 slk., 21, 81 крольчатина rus., 62, 80 Ž курятина rus., 62, 80 *žito кымызды com sl., 36, 80 kir., 27, 82 Б Қ баранина қымран rus., 62, 80 kir., 27, 82 86
Л rus., 80 мясник леб rus., 62, 80 mak., 53, 80 мясница rus., 63, 80 М мясни̣́ цы rus., 63, 80 месо̣́ мясни̣́ чать mak., bulg., s-cro., 61, 80 rus., 63, 80 млеко мясничище mak., 17, 80 rus., 62, 80 мле̣́ко мясничок s-cr., 17, 80 rus., 62, 80 млекопитающее мясность rus., 21, 81 rus., 62, 80 мляко мясо bulg., 17, 80 rus., old. rus., ukr., 5, 9, 58, 61, 62, 63, 64, 80, 97, молокан 98, 99 rus., 21, 81 мясови̣́ на молоко rus., 63, 80 rus., bel., ukr., 5, 9, 11, 17, 20, 21, 22, 24, 27, 64, мясоед, мясоедение 66, 80, 97, 98 rus., 62, 80 молоковоз мясокра̣́ сный rus., 21, 81 rus., 63, 80 молочай мясопу̣́ стье rus., 21, 23, 66, 80 rus., 63, 80 молочка мясорезка rus., 21, 81 rus., 62, 80 молочко мясорубка, мясорубщик rus., 20, 21, 80 rus., 62, 80 молочный, млечный мясосовхоз rus., 21, 80 rus., 62, 80 мяса мясохладобойня bel., 59, 61, 80 rus., 62, 80 мяса̣́ мясоястие, мясоястье č., 62, 80 rus., 63, 80 мясистость rus., 62, 80 Ө мясище
rus., 62, 80 өтpек мя̣́ ско̣́ , мясцо nog., 49, 80 87
өтпөк Т alt., 49, 80 тава П bulg., 46, 80 телятина п(ь)шено, пшена, пшона rus., 62, 80 old rus., 37, 80 пченица Ү mak., 36, 80 пшаница үт bel., 36, 80 yak., 12, 80 пшеница rus., bulg., old rus., s-cro., 5, 9, 31, 34, 36, 37, 38, Х 64, 80, 97, 98, 99 хлеб пшениця rus., bel., s-cro., 5, 9, 44, 52, 53, 54, 55, 64, 65, 80, ukr., 36, 80 97, 98, 99 пшено хліб rus., 37, 80 ukr., 52, 80 пшоно хлїб ukr., 37, 80 rusn., 52, 80 хляб С bulg., 52, 80
свинина *хлѣбъ rus., 62, 80 psl., 52, 53, 80 сёт хүт čuv., 12, 80 bash., 12, 80 собачатина rus., 62, 80 Я сүд ячмень az., 12, 80 rus., 5, 9, 31, 41, 64, 80, 97, 98, 99 ячмі̣́нь ukr., 41, 80
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RESUME The main goal of this thesis is to analyze some basic food names both in terms of etymology and their semantic motivation in the Turkic and the Slavic languages as Kazakh, Turkish, Russian, and Czech. We will try to distinguish the differences and similarities between the languages as well as investigate the role of food in cultures that these researched languages belong to. In our work we are going to analyze the following food names: kaz. sút, tur. süt, rus. молоко, č. mléko; kumys - fermented horse milk; shubat – fermented camel milk; kaz. bıdaı, tur. buğday, rus. пшеница, č. pšenice; barley – kaz. arpa, tur. arpa, rus. ячмень, č. ječmen; bread – kaz. нан, tur. ekmek, rus. хлеб, č. chléb; some sorts of bread in Kazakh like zaǵara-nan, таба-нан , тандыр-нан, күлше-нан; and kaz. ет, tur. et., rus. мясо, č. maso. At the beginning of each chapter we provided general information on each kind of food as our theoretical part. Then, as our practical part, we worked with the data from the old languages comparing it to the modern forms. Therefore, our thesis will analyze four languages from diachronic and synchronic perspectives, as well as define the importance of each kind of food through providing examples from both the old written records and the modern proverbs, idioms, collocations; in the meantime, we draw parallels between some food names and compared them between Kazakh, Turkish, Russian, and Czech. As a result, we have this thesis where we compare completely different cultures showing the similarities and the differences through analyzing the food names in Turkic and Slavic languages.
RESUMÉ Hlavním cílem této magisterské diplomové práci je analýza vzniku a pojmenování některých jídel a nápojů v kazaštině, turečtině, ruštině a češtině. Práce zachycuje etymologický původ a sémantickou motivaci následujících jednotlivých názvů: MLÉKO: kaz. sút, tur. süt, rus. молоко, č. mléko; KUMYS: zakysané konské mléko; ŠUBAT: zakysané velbloudí mléko; PŠENICE: kaz. bıdaı, tur. buğday, rus. пшеница, č. pšenice; JEČMEN: kaz. arpa, tur. arpa, rus. ячмень, č. ječmen; CHLÉB: kaz. нан, tur. ekmek, rus. хлеб, č. chléb; některé názvy druhů chleba v kaz. zaǵara-nan, таба-нан , тандыр-нан, күлше-нан; MASO: kaz. ет, tur. et., rus. мясо, č. maso. 89
Rámec těmto poznatkům tvoří teoretická část, která seznamuje s kulturně historickým pozadím nejstarších pokrmů. V praktické části se uvádí příklady ze starých písemných památek a příklady užívání názvů jídel ve zkoumaných moderních jazycích, například v příslovích. Naše práce analyzuje tyto jazyky jak z hlediska synchronického, tak i z hlediska diachronického pro lepší pochopení role těchto jídel a jejích názvů v turkických jazycích ve srovnání se slovanskými jazyky.
РЕЗЮМЕ Главной целью данной магистерской дипломной работы является анализ названий некоторых основных видов еды с точки зрения этимологии и их семантической мотивации в таких тюркских языках, как казахский и турецкий, в сравнении со славянскими языками, как русский и чешский. В работе рассматриваются следующие наименования: МОЛОКО: каз. sút, тур. süt, рус. молоко, чеш. mléko; КУМЫС: конское молоко; ШУБАТ: верблюжье молоко; ПШЕНИЦА: каз. bıdaı, тур. buğday, рус. пшеница, чеш. pšenice; ЯЧМЕНЬ: каз. arpa, тур. arpa, рус. ячмень, чеш. ječmen; ХЛЕБ: каз. нан, тур. ekmek, рус. хлеб, чеш. chléb; некоторые названия хлебов в казахском: zaǵara-nan, таба-нан , тандыр-нан, күлше- нан; МЯСО: каз. ет, тур. et., рус. мясо, чеш. maso. В теоретической части приводится краткая информация по истории каждого из продуктов, а также роль данных продуктов в каждом из исследуемых языков. В практической части мы приводим примеры из древних письменных источников и памятников, сравнивая их с современными формами. Таким образом, наш анализ рассматривает название еды, как с диахронической, так и с синхронической стороны. Для установления роли этих названий в языке, мы будем также приводить примеры из различных пословиц и поговорок, устойчивых выражений и идиом. В работе также проводятся параллели между языками, принадлежащими разным языковым семьям. В конечном результате мы нацелены получить комплексный анализ названий продуктов, благодаря которому мы сможем увидеть схожести и различия в языках, обычаях, поверьях, и культурах казахов, турков, русских и чехов.
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TÚIİNDEME Bul dıplomdyq jumystyń maqsaty - kóneden bastaý alatyn qazaq, túrіk, orys jáne cheh tіlderіndegі negіzgі taǵam ataýlarynyń etımologııalyq jáne semantıkalyq taldamasy bolyp tabylady. Jumysta kelesі taǵam attary taldanbaq: qaz. sút, tur. süt, rus. moloko, č. mléko; qymyz: jylqy sútі; shubat: túıe sútі; qaz. bıdaı, tur. buğday, rus. пшеница, č. pšenice; qaz. arpa, tur. arpa, rus. ячмень, č. ječmen; qaz. nan, tur. ekmek, rus. хлеб, č. chléb; qazaq tіlіndegі keıbіr nan túrlerіnіń ataýlary: zaǵara-nan, taba-nan , tandyr-nan, kúlshe-nan; qaz. et, tur. et., rus. мясо, č. maso. Jumystyń teorııalyq bólіmі retіnde ár taraýdyń basynda tańdalǵan taǵam ataýlarynyń qysqasha tarıhy, olardyń zerttelіp otyrǵan tіlderdegі rólі týraly maǵlumat berіlmek. Tájіrıbe retіnde taǵam ataýlaryna kóne jazba eskertkіshterіnen mysal bere otyra, olardy zamanı tіlderdegі qoldanystarymen - mysaly, maqal-mátelder - salystyratyn bolamyz. Osylaısha, bul taǵam ataýlarynyń tіlderdegі alatyn ornyn, túrlі tіldіk toptaryna jatatyn tіlder arasyndaǵy uqsastyqtar men aıyrmashylyǵyn tolyqtaı túsіný úshіn, tańdap otyrǵan tórt tіldі keshendі túrde dıahrondyq jáne sınhrondyq jaǵynan taldaıtyn bolamyz.
ÖZET Bu yüksek lisans tezinin amaçı eskiden meydana gelen kazak, türk, rus ve çek dillerindeki gıda isimlerinin etimolojik ve semantik açısından incelemektir. Çalışmamızda şu gıda isimlerini analiz edeceğiz: kaz. sút, tür. süt, rus. moloko, ç. mléko; qymyz: at sütü; shubat: deve sütü; kaz. bıdaı, tür. buğday, rus. пшеница, ç. pšenice; kaz. arpa, tür. arpa, rus. ячмень, ç. ječmen; kaz. nan, tür. ekmek, rus. хлеб, ç. chléb; kazakçadaki bazı ekmek çeşitlerinin isimleri: zaǵara-nan, taba-nan , tandyr-nan, kúlshe-nan; kaz. et, tür. et., rus. мясо, ç. maso. Çalışmanın teoretik bölümü olarak seçilen gıdaların kısa tarihi ve onların incelenen dillerdeki olan rolü hakkında bilgi verilecek. Tecrübe bölümü olarak gıda isimlerine tarihi anıtlardan örnek vererek, onları çağdaş dillerdeki biçimleri ile, mesela, atasözler ve deyimlerle, karşılaştıracağız. Böylece, dört dildeki gıda isimleri hem senkronik, hem artzamanlı analiz açısından incelenecektir. Dolayısıyla, şöyle araştırma yiyeceklerin dildeki önemini, farklı dil ailelerine ait diller arasındaki benzerlik ve ayrımlarını daha iyi anlamaya meydan verecektir. 91
ATTACHMENTS
Attachment 1. New Kazakh Latin-based alphabet. [online] Available at www:
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