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R. B. Mcconnell Streatwic\, Streat Near Hassocks, Sussex, United Kingdo Geological Development of the Rift System of Eastern

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R. B. Mcconnell Streatwic\, Streat Near Hassocks, Sussex, United Kingdo Geological Development of the Rift System of Eastern R. B. McCONNELL Streatwic\, Streat near Hassocks, Sussex, United Kingdo Geological Development of the Rift System of Eastern Africa ABSTRACT canism of continental type affects the northern part of the eastern rift lineament, but this The active East African Rift System forms a restricted volcanic sector contrasts strongly belt of anastomosing faults extending 4,000 km with the major nonvolcanic portion of the rift south-southwest from the junction of the Red system. The lack of spreading of the rifts may Sea and Gulf of Aden to the Zambezi River. be due to the compression of the African'Plate The presence of certain ancient features, in- between the spreading Mid-Atlantic and Mid- cluding the Great Dyke of Rhodesia and an Indian Ocean Ridges. alignment of Bushveld-type igneous complexes, Long fault lineaments are features of the indicates that the system formerly extended as earth's crust, and a review shows that intra- an infracrustal lineament another 1,500 km continental rift valleys of East African type south-southwest down the eastern half of occur where such lineaments must cut through Africa to the Orange River. The rift system is particularly resistant cratonized massifs, form- entirely intracontinental, and formed in the ing wide zones of fracturing and shearing with ancient African Precambrian platform with blastomylonites, flaser gneisses, and migmatites whose 3-b.y, geological history it is intimately in the plastic infracrust. The mobile belts of the associated. The Cenozoic rift faults follow system may thus be compared with orogenies in mobile belts moulded upon ancient shields and which plastic deformation and migmatization formed during at least seven major orogenic at deep levels are succeeded by isostatic uplift, cycles affecting pre-Silurian "assemblages" but the linear Cenozoic arches thus produced in comprising complex rock groups characterized East Africa are affected by typical rift valley by structural and metamorphic similarities but faulting at the brittle surface levels and are including units of greatly differing ages. An thus genetically associated with infracrustal analysis of major structural features moulded Precambrian structures and continued high on the Tanganyika Shield indicates that the heat flow while reflecting supracrustal mechan- belts may have originated at about 2.7 b.y. by ics. The lineaments do not always follow fold dextral transcurrent movement between the belts but may cut obliquely across their grain. ancient shields, but horizontal movement was Although the most superficial rift faulting is subsequently impeded by cratonization and steeply normal and antithetic, observations replaced by vertical displacement. suggest that the deeper faults are vertical, and The nature of the rifted belts indicates con- it is proposed that subsurface plasticity and ex- trol by mantle mechanisms and repeated re- pansion due to heat flow is a causative factor in activation, so the term perennial deep linea- the sinking of strips of cool surface rock in a ment is proposed. Comparison with other intra- shield environment. continental rift systems and preliminary geo- physical results in East Africa strongly suggest INTRODUCTION lithospheric states similar to those underlying The early explorers Livingstone, Burton, the mid-ocean ridges, implying high heat flow Speke, and Stanley, while searching for the restricted to the lineaments in a generally cool sources of the Nile and Congo Rivers, noted continental environment. Geological mapping the remarkable fjordlike character of Lakes proves, however, that no formation of new Nyasa, Tanganyika, and Albert. Douville re- oceanic crust has taken place in spite of the lated the great scarps of northern Ethiopia to great age of the lineaments. Profuse rift vol- the Jordan Valley-Red Sea system. It was not Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 83, p. 2549-2572, 6 figs., September 1972 2549 Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-pdf/83/9/2549/3417643/i0016-7606-83-9-2549.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 2550 R. B. McCONNELL until von Teleki had discovered Lake Rudolf in Mapping in southwest Tanzania led to the 1887, however, that the true course of the hypothesis that the rift system had originated main rift (Briiche) system of East Africa was as a series of fundamental faults, associated with outlined by Suess (1891) as stretching from metamorphism and granitization in an early Ethiopia through Kenya to Lake Manyara and Precambrian Ubendian orogeny (McConnell, then jumping to Lake Nyasa and extending 1950, 1951). The Cenozoic rift faults would southward through the Shire valley to the then be the latest rejuvenations, displaying Zambezi. In 1893, J. W. Gregory visited Kenya vertical faulting in the rigid surface zones of (then British East Africa) and gave the first the crust but genetically related to earlier detailed description of "The Great Rift infracrustal dislocations, and rift volcanism Valley" (1896), also describing the Western might be due to renewed magmatic activity in Rift Valley. Bailey Willis (1936) stressed that the deep crust. the rift valleys were merely features of the Dixey (1956) supported the notion that the broad uplift of the East African plateau and pattern for the later rift faulting originated in always associated with the formation of arches. Precambrian times. He regarded the develop- Whereas formation of the rift valleys by the ment of the whole of eastern Africa as being downfaulting of the keystone of an arch by related since Jurassic times to the uplift of a tension, as proposed originally for the Rhine- swell concomitant with the downwarping of a graben, had been supported by Gregory and Mozambique geosyncline which affected the many other geologists, Willis developed the whole of Africa from the Mozambique Channel compression hypothesis, introduced by Way- to Somalia. Brock (1955) and Dixey (1959) land (1930), that the floors of the rift valleys have emphasized the vertical character of were depressed by reverse faults disguised by supracrustal rift tectonics. later slumping of the steep walls. Bullard (1936) Recent emphasis in rift valley studies interpreted gravity measurements across East (UMC/UNESCO, 1965) on the Cenozoic and Africa, showing considerable negative Bouguer Holocene rifting and volcanism in the northern anomalies over the rift valleys, as indicating half of the rift system has been accentuated by compression. There thus developed two op- the discovery of the world-wide mid-ocean posed schools of thought, one attributing the ridge system with central rift valleys (Heezen, formation of rift valleys sensu stricto (see Ap- 1969), which closely resemble those of East pendix) to compression, while most geologists Africa in morphology. A revolution in geo- regarded them as the result of tension; in this logical thinking has given rise to a global view paper I will offer evidence indicating that the of tectonics and much interest has centered on evolution of the rift system has been long and the northern sector of the East African Rift complicated, and dependent on many factors System as representing an easily accessible other than simple tension or compression. example of rifting. In previous papers (Mc- E. O. Teale (1936) was probably the first to Connell, 1967, 1969a, 1970) the conception of suspect that the East African Rift System the Precambrian origin of the East African might have had an early origin, as he noted Rift System and its genetic association with that certain Karroo basins in Tanzania were ancient mobile zones has been brought up to aligned parallel to the rift system. Geologists date, and evidence has been presented (Mc- have also noted that some rift faults were Connell, 1969b) that intracontinental rift parallel to Precambrian features, but assumed zones in the Guiana (South America) and West that the later faulting had simply followed African Shields may project into the ancestral older zones of weakness. Dixey (1939) showed axes of the spreading and drifting apart of the that many of the features of the Malawi trough American, Eurasian, and African crustal plates. dated from the early Cretaceous. He later As many authors have described the northern emphasized the importance of erosion in the volcanic sector of the East African Rift System, formation of Cenozoic and Recent rift valley this paper deals mainly with sectors in which scarps and suggested that the major part was the older rocks are visible, and its purpose is to due to a "far earlier set of features, probably in present briefly the fundamental geological the main of post-Karroo or Jurassic age" evidence for the Precambrian origin of the (Dixey, 1946, p. 342). He also showed that the basic pattern of the whole rift system of eastern rift faults in Zambia were intimately associated Africa, as shown in Figure 1, and for the man- with Karroo structures. ner of its evolution as follows: (a) The East Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-pdf/83/9/2549/3417643/i0016-7606-83-9-2549.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 GEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE RIFT SYSTEM OF EASTERN AFRICA 2551 African Rift System proper between the Red The junction of the eastern and western Sea and the Zambezi River.(Fig. 2). Most of branches is obscured by the Rungwe Volcanics the faults of this system are still intermittently of Pleistocene to Holocene age, but the Rukwa active, (b) A southern sector that includes the Rift Valley (Figs. 3 and 4) continues south of rift valleys and faults surrounding the Rhodesian the junction (Bloomfield, 1968), and paired Shield, the branch of dislocations turning rift faults can be traced, with some zigzags, to southwestward along the Damaride trend, and the Zambezi River at 18° S. (Fig. 2). The the belt in southern Africa of geological features southern portion forms the Shire Rift Valley, continuing the main north-northeast axis of the accentuated by the erosion of the Shire River, rift system from the Zambezi to the Orange and continues to the south of the Zambezi by River.
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