PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE William James Symposium WILLIAM JAMES AND ; A Centennial Reflection John F. Kihlstrom^ and Kevin M. McConkey^ "University of Arizona and ''Macquarie University

Like many other early psychologists, orders of consciousness—as observed, search, and left a legacy of 142 unper- William James was fascinated by hypno- for example, in the "somnambulistic" formed experiments that would make a sis and related phenomena. For James, states of hysteria and delirium. serviceable grant proposal even today. hypnosis was both an experimental tech- Soon after publication of the Princi- Except for its use as an adjunctive nique for creating divisions of conscious- ples, hypnosis entered the modern pe- technique in psychotherapy, interest in ness, and a laboratory model of natu- riod of its history, which brought the in- hypnosis waned in the years surrounding rally occurring disorders of awareness. terest of psychodynamic psychiatry in World War II. But beginning in the late James' treatment of consciousness in unconscious mental life in contact with 1950s and early 1960s, there occurred a hypnosis presages contemporary inter- the interest of experimental psychology virtual explosion of activity, with the es- ests in dissociation and implicit cogni- in methodological rigor and quantifica- tablishment of several major laboratories tion, and underscores the role ofthe self tion (for comprehensive reviews, see devoted to hypnosis research (for an in conscious mental life. At the same Hilgard, 1987; Shor, 1979). At the very overview, see Sheehan & Perry, 1977). time. James recognized the complexity beginning, this period was marked by a At Stanford, the laboratory led by E.R. of hypnosis as an interpersonal process. high level of clinical activity centered Hiigard and J.R. Hilgard conducted sys- In the end. James' views suggest how a around , James' colleague tematic investigations of individual dif- rapprochement between the cognitive at Harvard. Prince founded both the ferences in hypnotizability, their corre- and social approaches to hypnosis might Harvard Psychological Clinic and the lates, the hypnotic control of pain, and be achieved. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psy- many other topics. Other laboratories chology (now the Journal of Abnormal were established at Harvard and later at Psychology). The Clinic declared the in- Pennsylvania, by M.T. Orne; at the The -theory may therefore dependence of personality and abnormal Medfield Foundation near Boston, by be approved as correct, provided we psychology from psychiatry and medi- T.X. Barber; at Sydney, Australia, by grant the trance-state as its prerequi- cine; the Journal was the first periodical J.P. Sutciiffe; and at Berkeley, by T.R, site. (William James, 1890/1981, p. devoted to experimental psychopathol- Sarbin. Interest in hypnosis remains 1201) ogy, and served as the prime venue for high, and nearly all of the currently ac- the publication of clinical and experi- tive investigators in the field can trace Like many other psychologists at the mental studies of hypnosis—a tradition their intellectual lineage more or less di- tum ofthe century, including Pavlov, Bi- that continues today. rectly to to one of these major enter- net, Janet, and Freud, James was fasci- In 1923, a surge of experimental work prises. nated by the phenomena of hypnosis and began with a Harvard doctoral disserta- related states. With his students in the tion by P.C. Young (supervised by THE MAJOR PHENOMENA Harvard Psychological Laboratory, he WiUiam McDougaii), consisting of 21 ex- carried out experiments on sensory and periments on various aspects of sensa- OF HYPNOSIS motor functions in hypnosis; and he em- tion, perception, and memory. Later, ployed hypnosis in the investigation and James construed hypnosis as a social Henry Murray, Prince's successor at the interaction in which one person (the hyp- treatment of certain cases of mental ill- Harvard Psychological Clinic, instigated ness that came to his attention. For notist) offers to another (the a series of studies relating hypnosis to subject) for experiences involving alter- James, hypnosis was the technique of personality functioning. Other investiga- choice for creating divisions of con- ations in perception, memory, and vol- tors, such as George Estabrooks (at Col- untary action. In his discussion of these sciousness in which two or more streams gate) and Milton Erickson (at Worcester of thought proceeded simultaneously, "symptoms of the trance," James cov- State Hospital), also developed exten- ered all the classic phenomena: ideomo- one in awareness, the others not. For sive programs of hypnosis research. The this reason, James considered hypnosis tor and challenge suggestions, positive early phase of modern hypnosis research and negative hallucinations, age-regres- to be a sort of laboratory model for the culminated in Clark Hull's massive pro- investigation of naturally occurring dis- sion and other delusions, posthypnotic gram, largely carried out at Wisconsin, suggestion, and posthypnotic amnesia. and leading to 32 published papers and In discussing the sensory alterations in- many more unpublished experiments, all duced by hypnosis (grouped under the Correspondence and reprint requests to: of which were summarized in his book John F. Kihlstrom, Amnesia and Cognition broad category of anesthesia), James Unit, Department of Psychology, University (Hull, 1933). Hull introduced the concept noted that hypnotic analgesia is powerful of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721. of hypothesis testing to hypnosis re- enough to employ in surgical proce-

174 Copyright © 1990 American Psychological Society VOL. l.NO. 3, MAY 1990 PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

John F. Kihlstrom and Kevin M. McConkey dures. And he correctly discounted pur- search concerned with the effects of hyp- a state of affairs is not possible given ported demonstrations that hypnotic nosis on learning and memory. theories of the mind that identify con- suggestion can coerce antisocial or self sciousness with attention, and the higher injurious behavior. He was also aware, mental processes involved in perception, as many others of his time were not, that COGNITION AND ALTERED memory, and thought (Kihlstrom, 1987). all the effects of hypnosis are the result CONSCIOUSNESS IN HYPNOSIS The problem continues to vex psychol- of suggestion, and that little or nothing of James was quite clear that the phe- ogy today, as seen in the current contro- interest happens if subjects are merely nomena of hypnosis represented disrup- versy over the limits of preconscious se- given a without fur- tions of the monitoring and control func- mantic processing. ther intervention or instructions from the tions of ordinary waking consciousness. James wrestled with this paradox, but hypnotist. In the case of hypnotic anesthesia (by he did not solve it. Based on the doctrine Occasionally, James' description which he meant the abolition of felt sen- of esse est sentiri (to be is to be sensed), went wide ofthe mark. For example, he sation in any modality, not just tactile), James held that the idea of unconscious appears to have thought of posthypnotic he noted that they were frequently con- thought was a contradiction in terms. amnesia as a spontaneous, rather than tent specific—for example, it can be sug- But he was equally clear that conscious- suggested, phenomenon. Perhaps for gested that the subject is blind to one ness—thought—could be divided into this reason, he repeatedly identified hyp- object, or one class of objects, but not two or more streams. Each stream of nosis with sleep and somnambulism—a others. In a clever series of demonstra- consciousness is identified with a self reasonable error, given the fact that the tions, James suggested blindness for a that can engage in the full range of men- analogy with sleep gave hypnosis its single line drawn on a sheet of paper. tal life. However, only one self can be very name. And while he made passing When the retinal image of the line was represented in phenomenal awareness at mention ofthe difficulties encountered in doubled by means of a prism, the subject any time; the others may be thought of as hypnotizing young children, the mentally was able to see the duplicate but not the dissociated. The self that is accessible to ill, and the mentally retarded, James original; when the prism was removed, awareness at any given moment may be largely failed to appreciate the impor- the duplicate disappeared from view. thought of as primary, the others second- tance of individual differences in hypno- Nevertheless, the subject was able to see ary, tertiary, etc. Thus, in contemporary tizability (Hilgard, 1965b)—a fact that other lines subsequently drawn around terms, infonnation can be processed by plays a critical role in contemporary re- the original; and when the unseen line these dissociated selves that is unknown search, whatever the predilection of the was incorporated into the drawing of a or unappreciated by the primary self. In investigator. new object, it was seen clearly. order to avoid the negation of conscious- By and large, however, James' de- On the basis of evidence such as this, ness implied by the adjective "wncon- scription of hypnosis would seem famil- James inferred that such effects were not scious." James preferred to speak of iar to any contemporary observer. One sensory in nature. Of the anesthetized "co-conscious" or "•5'«/?-conscious" mark of the advances made by the field subject, James concludes: mental states. over the past 100 years is the develop- Like Janet, on whose work he drew, ment of a large experimental literature He has felt it, but not perceived it. ... James believed that such a division in that attempts to understand these effects [PJaradoxical as it may seem to say so, he consciousness, so dramatically apparent and their underlying mechanisms using must distinguish it with great accuracy ... in in cases of hysteria and multiple person- the conceptual and methodological tools order to remain blind to it. ... He "apper- ality, occurred to a lesser degree in hyp- of modem experimental psychology (for ceives' it, as a preliminary to not seeing it al nosis. More recently, Hilgard (1977) has periodic reviews of this literature, see all! . . . We have, then, to deal in these cases revived this viewpoint in his "neodis- Hilgard, 1965a, 1975; Kihlstrom, 1985). neither with a sensorial anaesthesia, nor wLth sociation theory of divided conscious- For example, we now know that James' a mere failure to notice, but with something much more complex; namely, an active ness." According to Hilgard, conscious- enthusiasm for sensory hyperesthesia, counting out and positive exclusion of certain ness may be divided into multiple, and for the ability of hypnotized subjects objects. (1890/1981, pp. 1206, 1207-1208, em- simultaneous streams of information- to transcend their normal cognitive and phasis in original) processing activity; dissociation occurs motor capacities, was misplaced. On the when one or more of these streams influ- positive side, there are a number of psy- James wryly remarked: "How to con- ences experience, thought, and action chophysical and psychophysiological in- ceive of this state of mind is not easy" outside of phenomenal awareness. The vestigations ofthe reductions of felt pain (1890/1981, p. 1207). Here, then, James shift in awareness is exemplified by the reported by subjects given suggestions noted the paradox of the "Judas eye" anesthesias, negative hallucinations, and for hypnotic analgesia. There is another that was later to plague Freud, Bruner, amnesias of hypnosis; the information- body of research comparing the behavior and others working in the area of percep- processing activities of the dissociated of age-regressed adults to that of actual tual defense and repression: identifica- stream of consciousness are seen in the children, studies ofthe effects of positive tion of an object or event—what James, contradictions and paradoxes so appar- and negative hallucinations on sensory- following Herbart and others, referred to ent in the hypnotic subject's behavior. perceptual tasks, investigations of the as apperception—is a necessary precon- There has been some tendency among impact of hypnotic suggestions on emo- dition to excluding it from conscious contemporary psychologists and cogni- tion and mood, and a vast amount of re- awareness (see Hilgard, 1969). But such tive scientists to regard the concepts of

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.lames oi\ Hypnosis

consciousness and awareness as a parl of denced especially by chapters 8-!0 of and the cognitive strategies deployed by an outmoded folk-psychology that is ripe the Principles, dealing with conscious- subjects in response to explicit and im- lor discard. At the same time, however, ness and the self; see also James, 1902; plicit experimental demands (see also the need lor psychologists to take phe- Tuylor, 1983), the wide variety of claims Barber, Spanos, & Chaves, 1974). nomenal awareness seriously has been (hat James endorsed for Ihe powers of Barber's position has been expanded underscored by recent studies of both hypnosis might seem to mark him as an and refined by Spanos (1986; Spanos & brain-damaged patients and intact sub- extremely credulous observer of the phe- Chaves, 1989), who has developed a so- jects. For example, patients suffering bi- nomenon. To the contrary, James' treat- phisticated "cognitive-behavioral" ac- lateral damage to the medial temporal ment of hypnosis shows him to be an as- count of hypnosis in terms of attribution lobe or diencephaton display a gross an- tute observer of the subtle interactions theory and other elements of contempo- terograde amnesia, meaning that they between hypnotist and subject. Familiar rary cognitive social psychology. Like cannot remember events that occurred with Bernheim's critique of Charcot (El- Sarbin and Coe (1972), Spanos begins postmorbidly. Nevertheless, these pa- lenberger, 1970). James clearly under- with the proposition that the hypnotic tients show priming effects and other ev- stood that the major phenomena of hyp- subject is actively engaged in strategic idence that some information about nosis may be shaped by expectations and self-presentation, the goal of which is to these events has been encoded in mem- communications arising from the hypno- respond positively to the suggestions by ory, and actively influences subsequent tist, from other subjects, and from the the hypnotist. Thus, hypnotic behavior experience, thought, and action. On the genera! cultural milieu. is shaped by such contextual cues as the basis of such evidence. Schacter (1987) precise wording of suggestions, knowl- and others have drawn a distinction be- edge derived from precept and example, Any sort of personal peculiarity, any trick ac- tween explicit and implicit memory: Ex- cidentally fallen into in the first instance by and any other information available in plicit memory involves the conscious re- some one subject, may, by attracting atten- the situation at hand. Subjects do what- experiencing of a past event, while im- tion, become stereotyped, serve as a pattem ever they can to achieve the suggested plicit memory is revealed by a change in for imitation, and figure as the type of a effects. Further, while much ofthe sub- task performance that is attributable to school. The first subject trains the operator, jects' behavior is intended to convince such an episode, regardless of whether the operator trains the succeeding subjects, the hypnotist that they are, in fact, hyp- the event is consciously recollected. all of them in perfect good faith conspiring notized, certain features of the hypnotic together to evolve a perfectly arbitrary result. context lead some subjects to deceive The concept of implicit memory may With the extraordinary perspicacity and sub- be expanded to cover a wide range of themselves about their behavior. Thus, tlety of perception which subjects often dis- the subject who actively distracts him- complex mental processes that take play for all that concems the operator ... it is place outside of conscious awareness hard to keep them ignorant of anything which self from a pain stimulus may come to (Kihlstrom, 1987, in press): in implicit he expects. Thus it happens that one easily believe that he actually feels no pain; and memory, we see the influence of a past verifies on new subjects what one has already the subject who deliberately responds to event in the absence of conscious recol- seen on old ones, or any desired symptom of a posthypnotic suggestion may come to lection of that event; in implicit percep- which one may have heard or read. (James, believe that she did so involuntarily. tion, the conceptually similar impact of a 1890/1981, pp. I20I-I202) A large amount of empirical research current event; and in implicit thought, in- by Spanos and his colleagues, as well as cubation and feeling-of-knowing effects This passage represents a number of other investigators, provides support for suggestive of problem-solving outside of themes that have emerged over and over the social-psychological view (Spanos, awareness. Evidence in support of these in the modern period of research, and 1986; Spanos & Chaves, 1989). For ex- concepts is rapidly accumulating from that have formed the basis for a thorough ample, performance on scales to mea- studies of both brain-damaged and nor- social-psychological approach to hypno- sure hypnotizability, self-reports of in- mal subjects and is prompting renewed sis (for a review, see Spanos & Chaves, voluntariness in response to suggestion, speculation about the biological basis of 1989). Thus, Ome (1959) showed that the and subjective judgments of hypnotic conscious awareness (Schacter, in hypnotic subject's behavior was strongly depth, all are influenced by the context press). However, it should be noted that influenced by demand characteristics in- in which the tests are given, the manner much of this contemporary work across herent in the experimental situation, and in which the questions are worded, and psychology as a whole reflects James' developed the "real-simulating" para- the subject's goal of convincing observ- early ideas about conscious awareness— digm to disentangle the essence of hyp- ers that he or she is truly hypnotized. ideas that were stimulated, first and fore- nosis from sociocultural artifact. Sarbin Other effects, such as analgesia, halluci- most, by his observations of hypnosis and Coe (1972) argued that hypnotic sub- nations, and amnesia, are infiuenced by and related states. jects strive to enact the role ofa hypno- the precise wording of the suggestions, tized person, as it is defined by the hyp- as well as by the subject's interpretations notist and the culture at large, and iden- of these suggestions, and expectations SUGGESTION, EXPECTATION, tified a number of contextual variables derived from the wider context in which AND EXPERIMENTAL that are important to the success of this the experiment takes place. Moreover, DEMANDS role enactment. Barber (1969) empha- careful questioning often reveals that Coupled with his fascination with sized the importance ofthe subject's at- subjects deliberately deploy cognitive parapsychology and the occult (as evi- titudes, motivations, and expectancies. strategies (e.g., self-distraction) in an at-

176 VOL. 1,NO. 3, MAY1990 PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIHNCK

John F. Kihlstrom and Kevin M. McConkey tempt to achieve the effects suggested to these alternative accounts of hypnosis: form ofthe hypnotist's commumcations them. Taken together, these sorts of nor should we. The real theoretical ad- motivate subjects and potentiate events findings strongly indicate that hypnotic vance will not come when one account in their thought processes that ultimately behavior is. as James clearty understood lies dead on the fioor, but rather when shape the experience and behavior of it to be, appreciably influenced by social the two positions are reconciled in a way hypnotized subjects. The hypnotic set- processes. that recognizes the inherent value of ting is created by the people in it and it them both. Some moves toward this rec- necessarily reflects their thoughts, feel- onciliation are already apparent. Thus, ings, and motives. And the hypnotic ex- COGNITIVE AND SOCIAL Coe (1978) distinguished between hyp- perience is created by the words of the PROCESSES IN HYPNOSIS notic doings, in which the subject is an hypnotist, translated by the subjects' active participant who makes things hap- ways of thinking in a manner that refiects Some contemporary investigators ar- pen; and hypnotic happenings, in which their skills and allows shifts to occur in gue that hypnosis reflects a special men- the subject is a passive participant to their phenomenal experience. tal state characterized by a division of whom things happen. Possibly, under consciousness, and a dissociation of one some circumstances, the subject's active stream of thought from phenomenal participation in the hypnotic encounter UNTIL CONVERGENCE COMES awareness. Others deny the importance leads the hypnotic experience to take on of special mental mechanisms, and argue a life of its own, as it were, in which Ultimately, the convergence of the that hypnotic behavior can be under- hypnotic phenomena are experienced as two viewpoints that exist today—and stood in terms of conventional social in- happenings rather than doings. Simi- that existed at the time of James—into a fiuence processes. On the surface, it lariy, Kirsch and Council (1989) argued comprehensive, unified account of hyp- would seem difficult to have it both that hypnotic subjects are motivated to nosis requires a Jamesian ability to see ways. Because of this, perhaps, these al- experience the effects that are suggested hypnosis as a complex phenomenon in- temative viewpoints have stimulated an to them, as they understand the hypno- volving both cognitive and social mech- expanding literature involving competi- tist's intentions, and that their deliber- anisms. Until such a convergence is tive (and sometimes retaliatory) hypoth- ate, strategic actions are executed in or- achieved, the best approach would seem esis testing, played out as a zero-sum der to experience the effects, rather than to be a pluralistic one, in which propo- game ruled by principles of strong infer- to persuade an observer (or themselves) nents of the two viewpoints freely con- ence, in which a point scored by one side that they are deeply hypnotized. duct reseach in a way that optimally tests their own hypotheses. We need to de- is automatically toted as a strike against Signs of a rapprochement between velop the best understanding possible of the other, and vice-versa. the special-state and social-infiuence the underiying processes, and to link By contrast, one of the salient fea- views of hypnosis are most apparent in what is known about hypnosis to what is tures of James' treatment of hypnosis in the work of McConkey and Sheehan known about other aspects of mental Principles is that he simultaneously ac- (McConkey, 1983; Sheehan, 1989; Shee- life. Certainly, such an approach would knowledged the validity of both view- han & McConkey, 1982), who emphasize be well within the spirit of insatiable cu- points. On the basis of his observations, that cognitive and social factors interac- riosity, and open inquiry, that James James concluded that hypnosis involves tively shape the subjective experience of brought to psychology in the earliest genuine, subjectively compelling, alter- hypnosis. The essential variability and days of our science. ations in conscious awareness; but he individual differences observed in hyp- also acknowledged that hypnosis is pow- notic behavior underscore the need to erfully shaped by the social context in understand when and how one type of Acknowledgments—^The point of view rep- which the hypnotic encounter takes process is exerting a major influence, resented herein is based on research sup- ported in part by Grant #MH-35856 from place. For James, there was no contra- and when and how it is the other. Thus, the National Institute of Mental Health, diction between these two conclusions. hypnotic subjects are seen as cognitively and by grants from the Australian Re- As indicated by the epigram to this pa- active participants who process the in- search Council to Kevin M. McConkey. per, he felt that the induction of a trance formation they receive from the hypno- We thank Terrence M. Bamhardt, Bema- tist and other sources in a way that al- dette C. Bibb, Richard A. Bryant, state, characterized by dissociation, was Lawrence J. Couture, Martha L. Glisky, necessary for suggestion to have its ef- lows them to experience the suggested Sheila Mulvaney, Daniel L. Schacter, fect. Modem research shows, however, effects and enact the desired behavior in Douglas J. Tataryn, and Betsy A. Tobias that some subjects can experience hyp- the hypnotic setting. for their comments at various stages. Ref- notic effects without benefit of an induc- erence citations in this essay are necessar- In turn, the hypnotic setting is recog- ily selective. tion procedure. Thus, we might want to nized as a social context of some com- reverse James' epigram: perhaps sugges- plexity. Just as outside the hypnotic set- tions, administered to individuals with ting, however, behavior in the context of particular cognitive capacities or dispo- hypnosis is ultimately the outcome of a sitions, eventuate in a state of divided reciprocal interaction between intemal REFERENCES consciousness refiected in some aspects personal factors and external environ- of hypnotic experience and behavior. Barber, T.X. (1969). Hypnosis: A scientific ap- mental influences. As James essentially proach. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. James felt no need to choose between viewed it, social processes in the major Barber, T.X., Spanos, N.P., & Chaves, J.F. (1974).

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James on Hypnosis

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