Dolores Hayden t, The IdealCommunity: L Garden,Machine or Model Home?

Now if we can' with a knowledge of true architectural principles, build one houseri$rtly, convenient- ly and elegantly, we can, by taking it for a model and building others like it, make a perfect and beau. tiful city: in the samemanner, if we can, with a knowledge of true social principles, organizeone township rightly, we call, by organizingothers like it, and by spreadingand rendering them universal, establisha true Social and political order.

-Albert Brisbane,A ConciseExposition of the Doctine of Association, or Plan for a Reorganization of Society, 1843

2,1 "We are all a little wild here with numberless projectsof socialreform"; locationsof United States communitariansettlements by type and decadeof founding, to 1860, are shown here and on followine pages"Present state lines are drawn to aid identifical tion; seeAppendix B for exactlocations, keyed to numberson maD. , i i

l

1663- 1780

I ilon-sctaria; io.rlgn taadeA a Non-!.ataris; Aaaia l@E l S€ct.rian; forrign lad66 0 Saclaaian: Amriceh badard

from: Dolores Hayden, Seven American Utopias: The Archltecture if Communitarian Socialism, 1790-1975. Cambridge: MfT press. 1976.

a Ameri' idealism which characlerized numberless nological i1d'here with land and life' In the rg/s 0r€ttt . Emer- ?rntOts toward Tt:t:^I"it,, n"rnnwaldo "u* the ideal com' of soctal:tHilerlyte rq*UV powerful symbol of projects in 1840. hoPed to fuse ;;; as model home, theY son cornmentt_o-t: draft of a new in ;;; a family and society displayed iNot a readtns.'1,:;;;;;o.k.t."' Emerson idealism about facade,hearth, and Plan' comrn'nitY of-*r,,rr, several phases of "'t]Jul,.ondt" were precedentsfor c31- wasreferring swept the Althougir there f; lT^,:;;;;exclt establishedin cornmunitarian munitarian strategy-monasteries durinsthe nineteen:n Christian sodety' U"itu t*es 't:yl Europe as models for a new founded in and Puritan covenant communities ,.'',;;'';""i; 1 Y1":il.lTi::Jl"#:llut period-wide' :l idealistic citizens *.* t,Ufu"cl in the colonial these idealist:-::"t co1- '"."rr#"tt' Although and religious acceptanceof . intense ,pr.ua s.lulu, as dreamers'their first time in ,' tactics occurred for the H;;;;;lismissed designdemon- munitarian , with environmental first half of the ir""i"r*rnt the United States during the -j behind their move' practical enersv Settlers were pushing the ,l ;;;;;; pro' *r*"n,n century' advocateddiverse and ,ir* Tt"t frontier westward very rapidly' " "fot*ers to anarchy' line of the 'unging from absolutism reformers that a mobile' .. ;;;; devel- it seemed to many speculativeland easily be spiritualism to ailrersm' society existed which could but they ageed e-xpanding r: to collective industry' concepts of community spmglt change influenced by new All believedthat social ;:il ,u"ttry' Considdrant' a French socialist the organiza' ;e.s.ign'Victor be-stimulated ttuough expressedthe ;ffi; disciple of CharlesFourier' of a single iileal com' and"a ii*-"na construction view of America's development be duPlicated communitarian model which could the new soci' ;;;-. quii, ptuinty: "If the nucleus of throughout the countrY' soils' to'day a Ut implanted upon these of model communities' some .1, int creators "iV which to'morrow will be as "Social *rld".nrrr,- and *ritnun.ra, described themselves sf analo' flooded with population' thousan6s. .ti'.' redesigtingsociety' They proposed arrtit"rts" will rapidly arise without of city and country in gous organizations a complete restructuring enchantment around the created Itsta.te ana as if by ,.rponr. to the environmentalproblems incor' firstsPecimens''''"2-- Industrial Revolution' Their goals i" bv the thinking was most p:l:tij and physical desigr' They Communitarian porated both social 1820 and 1850 (Fig' philoso- the United Statesbetween iri.a ,o equal the visionary scope of labor of agitation for abolition' to define human nature i.t;, A.r.O.s . ,. phers who attempted distribution policies' ' equitable land and describeprograms for its finest expression' ffi*, .ducational reform' and penal ' promotional *"o.n"n', rights, *U they wanted to match the various pet- Citizens and reformers of entrepreneurswho reform. ,' successesof inventors and experiments to suasions chose communitarian had influenced Americanland developmentand about social changebecause ' the encompass- expresstheir ideas , Americanindustry. By adopting dissent' revo' alternative strategiesof individual ineffectual' lution, or gradualist reform seemed non' reform was novel' It was . synthesizemany aspectsof pastoral and tech' Communitarian

The Ideal Community 2.1,continued

1781-1790

The IdealCommunity l80l-1810

rSll - 1820

The ldeal CommunttY ,:

2.1,continued llt

r83l-l840

The Ideal Community l84l -1850

r85l-1860

13 The ldeal CommunitY appeal of communistic slcieties was no! yet total in scope' Thus it offered hope The violent, or tourrng violent conflict restricted to American reformers to those Americans,skeptical of The ideal community became a the wars of 1775 and 1812' who were Europeans. after be institutions symbol of broad persuasivepower' It could committed to developing new by presentedas "garden," in terms of horticultural througtr reasonedchoice. It was supported new com- and agicultural productivity and its placement those conservativeswho believedthat as a in an idealizedlandscape. It could be presented munities founded in the West would serve generated as "machine," in terms of its efficient design, safety valve to preclude classconflict time industrial productivity, and its relationship to by urban workers in the East' At the same social an American tradition of political inventiveness; it appealedto activists who felt that the could be presented as "model home," in and environmental problems created by indus- or it or of its desigr and life style. Sectarian trialization were beyond individual effort terms tended to emphasize pastoral gradual reform. The stratery gained adherents communities nonsectarian ones, technological L tirn., of economicdistress-after depressions themes; experimentsunited . of 1837, 1854, 1857, 1873, and 1893- themes;but most successful and technological symbolism in sup' when desperationmotivated farmers and work- pastoral of the larger goal of an ideal home' If they ers to call for complete social reorganization' port joined design practice to theory, their ideals Middle-class citizens were more curious than surprisingly real. desperate.Two Presidentsand variousmembers sometimesbecame ' of the SupremeCourt, the Cabinet,and Con' gress attended addressesby Robert Owen in 1825; business leaders and intellectuals fol' lowed Fourierist propagandaon the front page of the New Yo rk T?ibunein the I 84Os' Not only Americans felt encouraged to launch communal ventures. Although most American communards were native born, a substantial minority were emigrants from England, Ftance, Germany, Scandinavia,and eastern Europe, whose leaders considered the United Statesthe best location for their experi' ments. Frequent encouragem€nt came from European tourists like James Silk Buckingham and Harriet Martineau. Although the seaboard cities offered educatedEuropeans limited enter' tainment, experimental communities provided them with lively anecdotesand the occasional profound insight. Journalists' firsthand reports of successfulventures then encouraged other Europeangroups to follow theseexamples'

The Ideal CommunitY The CommunitY as Garden

or European against the vices of the American continent waq often conceivedof The American of the communitarian settlement or rediscovered city. tmages as heaven on earth, a new by the as a pastoral retreat were introduced C. W' Dana, for example' in an essay paradise' contrast to the "great and wicked o'The of the World' or Shakers in if f gSOentitled Garden in cities" of the world, and by the Fourierists Great West," described the area between o'unnatural The the life of our crowded the Pacific Ocean contrast to the Allegheny Mountains and in cities."6 Yet settlementswere alsodescribed of homise' and the Cannanof u'lfr" to"d of the Sermon on the fertile than the religious tradition tlme.. - . with a soil more our the light of the world' A city yet with a climate Mount: "Ye are human agriculture has tilled; upon a hill cannot be hid'"? The such as no other land in that is set balmy and healthful, city Shakers deaQ with the conflict between dy neatly, by giving each of their century this was a land scarcely and country nineteenth corresponding to trails cut by settlements two names, one . known, mapped along a few the rural village where it was located, and the and explorers, a spatial vacuum on traDpers of the imaginary other, a "spiritual name" suggestive which hopeful idealists imposed an HeavenlyJerusalem, such as "City of Peace,"or geographj of fecundity, equality' and self' "City of Love." A similar uncertainty existed' sufficiencY. of and but was not resolved,among the members Such idealism could be rather literal the anarchist Kaweah colony, who built inhibiting to communal groups' Some German and "Progrpss" side by side' ' were anxious to locate their experi' "Arcady" ' , pietist sects groups of With the exception of a few religious ;.. ments on the site, of the original Garden eschewedindustry as worldly or corrupt' Eden. The spiritualistswho founded a com- which communards wished to establishself' 'munity at Mountain Cove, West Virginia, in ing, rnost settlernents,based on both industry 5l also claimed that their site was Eden's sufficient offering the advantagesofboth nal location.a In an equally literal vein, and agriculture, country. For many early sectirians' ders of a Los Angelescommunitarian paper city and was a tidy village with a rangeof craft re encouragedto join the "People's-Army" *e iael but later experiments sttempted w-ould cultivate a farm of 1,000 acres industries, more elaborate settlements with commutal .,the People's Garden, also called the dwellingsand factories surrounded by collective rn of ' !ev'tEden," where they would enjoY i:rY..-,i gardensand fields. Even the most isolated com- in the -garb of play."s Recruits joining munes created centersof community life which ::n Colony- of Greeley,Colorado, were in characterthan the iso- 'analogr between their irrigation were far more urbane surrounded them' the river which watered Eden. And lated homesteads which joumalist, cited :olonywas describedas a gardenin Charles Nordhoff, a traveling and musical where the residencelots were flower cheerful, busy people, small shops, : streets,garden paths. performances as communal assets,and claimed Zoar' Ohio; ng literal Edenic referencesin favor that in the 1870s Amana, Iowa; were all pastoral fervor, many com- Icaria, Iowa; and Aurora, Oregon of a city the virtues of the cowrtry "more like a small section cut out

15 The Community asGarden ;::,,., i4 :

than like villages(Figs. 2.2, 2.3). to the careful, balanced land use practicedbr At leastpart of the conflict betweenpastoral- the seventeenthcentury puritan groups thano1 ism and urbanism was resolved by where the the more careless,individualisti. approachtypi communards chose to locate. Expansionist cal of many nineteenth century nornestraOarC communesbased their optimism on the idea of In the first half of the nineteenth century, 6l a spatial vacuum beginning at the frontier and difference between communitarian attitudel extending west, but they did not often establish toward the land and the attitudes of other themselvesthere. Most groupsselected sites in Americansseems striking. In that period mosl the settled areas short of the frontier, some- American farmers made money through the times moving their communities farther west rising prices of land, not tfuough successfulcul with each succeedinggeneration. They had to tivation. Thus, while many farmerswaited for.a be close enough ta civilizatiori to proselytize chanceto sell out at a favorableprice and mow new recruits and to demonstratethe superiority west, they impoverishedtheir land by cropping of their way of -, life to that of the cities which it constantlyto its most lucrativestaple.to they denounced. But they could not risk being In contrast to mobile, independentfarmers. overrun with visitors.A few communes, suchas the communards became very skillful culti. Oneida and the North American phalanx, set up vators, concentrating their energies in chosen urban branches as agencies marketing their places.Nordhoff observed: products, but urban-basedcommunes, like I know of someinstances in which Stephen Pearl Andrews's "Unitary Home" in the exist- enceof a communehas New York, were very rare. Most groups settled addedvery consider- ably to the price of real into the "middle landscape"of agrarianrepubli- estatenear its boundar. ies.. . . Almost without canism, that area of cultivated farms, midway exceptionthe commu- nistsare carefuland thorough between the cities and the wilderness.which farmers.. . . Their tillageis cleanand has been described by ko Marx in The Ma- deep;in their orchards bne alwaysfinds the best varieties chine in the Garden as representing the ideal of fruits. . . .: A communeis a fixture;its people life style of the colonial period.e But instead of build and arrangefor all time; a middle landscape of independent farmers, and if they have an ideal comfort they work up to each pursuing his or her own livelih6od, the it.rl communitarians wanted a collectively owned Communitarians could not always afford to and organized middle landscape with industry purchasegood land, but they almost always to complement agriculture, a middle landscape transformedthe land they were able to obtain. oryanized on a scale to resist the pressuresof In successfulcommunes, scientific methods changeand urbanization. agriculture and horticulture were studied dili: lVlratever form a communitarian group de- gently. The most up-to-datepractices were put cided that its settlement was to take, the mem- into effect by the Shakers, the Mormons, the bers committed themselves to developingland, Perfectionists,the membersof the North Amer- which they saw as unique and perfectible, ican Phalanx, and the Greeley Union Colony something for wfuch they were accountable.In (among others). Experimentsto developnew this respect communitarian practice was closer techniques were also conducted. Sometimes

The Ideal Community r!7o- r' cs EKtcteD- l'AtlA

oixrNc ROOH ^it xltctFd

2,3 A communaTvlllage centered on a symbolic garden wlth evergreentrees representing eternal life and the 'ffiffi twelvegates ofheaven: Zoar,Ohio, founded1817.

?ffi

lsciFl-fil ^r,.rr lE. lo . ,a. *"",- oau.ltsiteti*t

'/4!r ,'" E I fli{,,$uthFtrr ios.-?_ 1..", j !ii11;i{!hl___L

Community,Corning, lowa, I 8?0-1871.

The Community asGarden t'l communards made mistakes-the Harmonists first revisedtraditional utopian thinking in light thought Lombardy poplars would improve the of their collective vision of the American land. fever-ridden Indiana climate and the Silkville scape,then enriched and developedthe Amer. Fourierists followed the silk culture fad of the ican landscapewith their collective efforts. The 1870sin Kansas-butmisconceptions were clar- ideal of a paradisiacalgarden provided a sym- ified when communal groups joined in public bolic explanationfor eachsettlement's location debates on agricultural and horticultural top- and sustained the members' commitment until ics.r2 The Shakerspublished guides to farming their domains had been developed. Then the and gardening; other groups submitted articles communards could draw strength and inspira- journals.r3 to well-known agricultural tion from their own landscapes,the real gardens The art of landscape design also interested which they had developed. communards. Oneida Perfectionists were con- stantly involved with dmamenting as well as im- proving their land. Theosophistsin Point Loma, California, collected exotic plants from all over the world to develop their domain as a replica of Eden, although their technique was more suggestiveof Noah filling up the Ark.ra Mor- mons, who were also preoccupiedwith Edenic imagery, planted thousandsof fruit trees. Har- monistsbuilt greenhousesand developedelabo- rate gardenplans (Figs. 2.4,2.5) symbolic of the community's relationship with the outside world; a Zoar garden reflected the members, religious beliefs with a radiating geometricai pattern (Fig. 2.3). Residentsof Zian City,.Illi- nois, combined radiating streets with pictur- esque landscapeelements reminiscent of Fred- erick Law Olmstedt plan for the suburb of Riverside,Illinois.rs Cemeterieswere another preoccupation of bommunitarian landscapede- signers,and communal projects included Hope- dale's attempt to imitate the picturesqueplant- ing of Mount Aubum Cemetery,r6 Amana's even rows of identical graves surrounded by evergreens,and Salem'sreflection of the Mora- vian choir systemin cemeterylandscaping. In all these practical ways, communistic soci- eties planted and pruned their way to earthly paradise.Thus the founders of communes who

The ldeal Community 'r::;#tr hut'New Y;lr;editation

2.5 Harmonistgarden, meditation hut, Economy, Pennsylvania,founded 7824.

The Communityas Garden t9 .ryf.9:3.,r I I

The Community as Machine

\ When communitarians describeda model settle- reflectedAmericans' wider confidencein ment as an "invention," it was as a social inven- ronmentalinventions. Jefferson's l7g5 tion, analogous to a mechanical invention Ordinance established a physical grid as which could be designed and then mass pro- socialequalizer. Between 1820 and lg50 duced. kr 1820 the British social theorist. reformers vaunted the social and moral Robert Owen, presenteda plan for a model of more architectural "inventions," the puni .,If community (Fig. 2.6) in this light: the in- designs of the Auburn and pennsvl vention of various machineshas multiplied the penitentiaries.American mental asylum power of labour . . . THIS is an invention which tors inventedcurative environments during will at once multiply the physical and mental sameperiod, often basedon qualitiessought powers of the whole society to an incalculable communalexperiments: isolated sites. extent, without injuring anyoneby its introduc- designedto expressstability, and advanced tion and its most rapid diffusion."rT In the chanicalequipment.2o Communitarianshad same vein Albert Brisbane prophesied that advantageof belongingto voluntary Fourier's theory of communal "Association" which could resist inappropriate desi (Fi1.2.7) would do for household organization prisonersand the mentally ill were, in sofi "what the mariner's compassdid for navigation, cases,helpless victims of mad inventors(Fi the telescopefor astronomy, and steamfor ma. 2.e). chinery."ls If the modelcommunity plan represented In terms of pottics, the communitarian anal- inyentor's theory, the settlement itself ogy between social ,.patent and mechanical inventions sented a working prototype, a had been drawn before. The Constitution had model"2r which proved that the theory been described by its framers ,,the as most work in practice. A pioneeringspirit, beautiful system which has yet been devisedby andpractical, sustained experimental the wisdom of man."re Severalheroes of t}te ties in the short run. In the long run, as an revolutionary period were inventors in a broad tension of the "invention" simile. the sense: Thomas Paine (who designed bridges), prototype was expected to inspire national Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson. mand. Here theory changedfrom practicalit/ Thus, the communitarian socialist Robeit Owen vagueness.withgroups like the Oneida was more credible in American society as an in- tionists, who ultimately relied upon .,the ventor than asa corporate manager;.andCharles action of truth and the Providenceof God." Fourier ,.Social carried more weight as a Archi- Only communitieswhich activelv tect" than as a psychologist. In terms of the duplication of the model. such as the physical environment, tlte invention analogy, the Moravians,and the Mormons. succeeded popularized by the Utilitarian Jeremy Bentlam reproducingthe originalsettlement to anygfea with his "Panopticon', n l79l (Fig. 2.g), en_ extent. joyed credibility untamished by the confusion Like the concept of the community as gar- of physicsand psychology. den, the ideal of the model community as in: The assertion that the invention of a settle- ventionfound its best expressionin ment pattern could solve social problems also direct efforts. The communitarianswho be:

The ldeal Community -fl??Hddx*'$:i:1'"'1$t ffr#*fl*liliiliffil#if*tr

Fourier' vie-w.by 2.7 Phalansterydesigned by Charles buildings and dove- ;;i"r;;;;;1,, ca. td'+4. Industrial open squarefrom ;;t.*;;;i";eground, across courtYards' ffi;;;;i ;;;1i.1 with enclosed

)l The CommunitY as Machine 2.8 Sectionand plan ofa "Panopticon,"designed as an "industry house" (workhouse)or jail, where a sin- glejailer usingmirrors can supervise2,000 inmates. By JeremyBentham, 1791.

2.9 Communitarianscould resistinappropriate (Fig. 2,6), but prisonersand the mentally ill tgul par somecases, helpless victims of mad inventors: StatePenitentiary, Philadelphia, designed by John Haviland,1829. Each prisoneris isolatedin a puva c€ll with private exerciseyard,

The IdealCommunity washingmachine' 1878' 2.10 lmprovedShaker

ia; t::! ;':r:; {.r;ii

,.ll,,r ;::il

2.11 Shakerwindow sashlock, 1878' The Community as Model Home

lieved in inventions developedsupportive com' Garden a1d machine representnature and tech- munal industries which enhancedcreativity im- nology; hbme symbolizesfamily, in hearth, fa- mensely. They produced dozens of real me- cade,and plan. When communitiesissued tracts chanical devices designedby men and women or posters to recruit new rnembers,they often who consideredtheir patentable inspirations as illustrated them with sketchesof their dwellings justification for their social optimism. Among as tangible proof of their achievements.Along the Shakers(Figg. 2.10, 2.1l), inventionswere with theseillustrations, slogansappeared on the considered gifts from God; among the Oneida mastheadsof communal papers.aneida's Amer- o'devoted Perfectionists, inventions provided the basis of ican Socialist was to the enlargement the community economy and filled their man- and perfection of home." Topolobampo'sT/re sion with labor-savingdevices. Josiah Warren,a New City declared itself for home, "home member of the New Harmony community and money, home employment, home protection, the founder of Modern Times, an experiment home franchise, home virtue, home worship, in anarchism on Long Island, designeda web home ideals,home people, and home day."a press and a variety of stereotyping devices. Communal affection and security could be Other communitarian inventors include Tabitha evokedby a hearth;prosperity and permanence Babbitt, a Shaker who desigreda circular saw projected on a facade; equality and efficiency and cut nails; Jonathan Browning, a Mormon suggestedby a plan. The model home directed who desigred a repeatingrifle, and Sewell New- attention to sexual politics, and, like garden house, a Perfectionist who invented animal and machine, found its truest expressionwhen traps. Nordhoff observed that "the commu- idealisminfluenced life style. nist's life is full of devicesfor personalease and In choosing an ideal dwelling as a symbol of , comfort . . ." and also that "ingenuity and dex- socialand economicsuccess, communards emu. teity are developedto a surprising degreein a lated other Americans,but they resistedthe na., commune. . . ."23 Vewed in light of the multi- tional acceptance of isolated family dwellingf ple environmental perfections achieved by the located on individual farms. Those communes communitarians,the concept of the community which favored model family homes wanted itself as an invention seemsless naive or sim- them clustered in model villages,reminiscent plistic. Whatever the theorists' intentions, the Puritan covenant communities. Those cofi.: analogy became the symbolic framework for munes which advocated small collective dwell-.. developing,in concrete ways, the most innova- ings were a bit more unorthodox; those whidt tive possiblegroups. aimed to house hundreds of communardsin a single collective dwelling aroused the greate$ incredulity and outrage among their ne Atl goups criticized isolated, i houses as lonely, wasteful, and many groups compensatedfor this attackby tempting to exceed the standards of dwelling design. Oneida Perfectionists plained of "the gloom and dullnessof

The Ideal Community family isolation," or the "little man-and-wife the community asan idealhome. Heating,light- circl)," where one suffered "the discomfort and ing, and sanitation devices contributed to waste attendant on the domestic economy of perfect health. The Shakersmade domestic la- our separatehouseholds."2s A Shaker Eldress bor lighter with removable window sash for was unwilling to "bend over the cradle and sing easy washing, round ovens for more even cook- lullabye" as her work; a Llano desigrer criti- ing, conical stoves for heating irons more effi- qzed the traditional home as a "Procrustean ciently. The Harmony Society constructed bed" wfuch maimed women, an "inconceivably floors which could be removed so tiat it was sfupid" arrangementwhich confiscated wom- never necessaryto cafiy fumiture up or down en's labors.26 When communardsdescribed the stairs in a dwelling.28 The Oneidans created model community as an ideal home they pre- "lazy susan" tables so that food could be dicted a place where conviviality, collective turned instead of passed.In the case of their .economy, and some leisure for women would "pocket kitchen," describedin Chapter 7, do- prevail. The ideal hearth was expected, in the mestic perfection came not from a new inven- lwords of the Oneidans, to "knit us together tion, but from recognizing the singular virtues mentally and spiritually," as a "|ove organiza- . of an old, symbolic hearth. .lion.uz7 The ideal facadewould inspire respect Domestic inventions were perhaps the com- 'and aestheticpleasure. The ideal plan for col- munitarians' best advertisement.In most nine- ,!$ut serviceswould enable all to live better teenth century communes"women's work,'re- together than in isolation, with the reorganiza- mained 'tion . sex stereotyped,but men and women of domestic work lightening the toit of the benefited when cooking, cleaning, and child of the community. care were collectivized(Figs. 2.12, 2.13, 2.14, of garden and machine were often 2.15). I-abor*aving devices and regular sched. to support testimonialsfor com- ules allowed communal domestic workers to en- fs'.,model homes. At Oneida and the joy far more leisure than individual home- L-AmericanPhalanx, members were con- makers, and this aSpect of communal life was at work improving the gardens adjoining reported in detail in popular illustrated maga- ve dwellings.In Nauvoo,Greeley, zines. ura, colonists competed planting in An indication of how much communal model flowers on private plots surrounding homes were admired is offered by Catharine -r.This form of beautification was Beecher'sand Harriet BeecherStowe's domestic ; at Fconomy and Harmony gar. economy manual, The American lly'oman's gomplex symbolic context ,4 for a Home, published in 1869.2? Although the Hedgesand shrubsformed mazes, authors are not sympathetic to communal ex- pathsof life. At the center of the periments, they adopt the concept of the ideal e meditation huts, symbolic houses, community as a model to be massproduced members that the community pro- when they describethe single-family home (Fig. I.home in a confusingworld. 2.16) as a Christian"commonwealth,', a model combined -nventions with beauti- which can be duplicated gardens to achieve the to reinforce the view '"Heaven-devised of plan of the family state.',3o

TheCommunity as Model Home 25 2.l2The model home directed attention to sexual oolitics: communal child carefacilities, Familistdre, buise,France, founded 1859.

2.13 Commtmallaundry, with Shakerdesigned stoye to warm flatirons, New Lebanon,New Y 1873.

The IdealCommunity -

1870' 2.14Women in the communalbakery, Oneida'

2.15 "If you havepleasure and love for anythingall effort and labor arelight." Men and women working in a Moravianbakery, surrounded by Christmasloaves' ir

,,1 The Community as Model Home

2.17 The Resident Hotel or "unitary dwelling" de- dwelling,"model siened by Albert Kimsey Owen with Deery and Keerl, 2.18 An alternativeto the unitary neighbor- Aichitects, Philadelphia, proposed for the Pacific family commonwealths"grouped in "model pro- Colony (Topolobampo), Sinaloa, Mexico, ca. hoods,"with centrafizedkjtchens and launddes, I 88s-l895. posedfor the Pacific Colony.

o 0 ltf- UL Ut'l o I

gLocK 0F PAclFrc coLot'tY -$ a Grs- * *F --G. lF- #--3..s'*$**s'*s'}

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ql lF (at ||[ 'EI:6'ti ]t1"- il*f .g -tl t{ $fClif{?sl aeil{rrtlot €.a Notes to ChaPterTwo

(htly 133-12 non," AgricalruralHistory'24 1950)' L. Rush, ed', The Letters of Ratph Waldo 1 Ralph "i.rt* Leb\non, Its Physic Gardens and -The 2, New York, 1939,P' 353' E^trrin,vol. Products,"".I' American fournal of Pharmacy' 14 {Ja New Social ZYictorConsiddrant, The Great West: A i8s2),88-91. Life in lts Fertite Regions,New York' ( iri ii"iia 14 Emmett A. Greenwalt, The Point Lonu iAla, 5S, quot"d in Arthur Bestor, "PatentOffice : essayto )rti'ii c"ttB*ia, I 8e7't 942 4 TPtyphtut frfoatfs". of the- Good Society," supplemental in iint , University of California Publications Utopias, The Sectorian Oigins and me Backwoods vol. 48, BerkeleY'1955' or:^iii Phase if Communitarian Socialism in AYgr^' iii' iiis^iCzp, zo ent. ed.,Philadelphia' te70' 15 Philip L. Cook, Zion Ctty, Illinois: lohn A p.249. Dowie'i Theocracy,Zion City, Ill', 1970, p' 7 Hid 3 IC. W. Danal, The Garden of the World'-or .The 16 Daniel Bluestone,"A City Which Cannot-Be G)eat l4test;Iti History, Its l$ealth,Its Natural Advan' unpublishetl paper, Department of Architectut Lomprcrc tages, and lts Future, also comprising A M.I.T.,Jan. 1974. Ciri, to Emigants,by an Old Settler,Boston' 1856' 17 Robert Owen, "Report to the County of Lanark p.2. M"vi, lezo,in A Nei viewof $cytt a1d-feport 4 John Humphrey Nbyes, History of American Social' thi County of Lanark, ed. V' A. C. Gatrell' isns (1870),New York, 1966'P. 569' worth, England,1969' PP.253-254' York 5 TheIndustrial Democrat,1.1 (Auc. 2L,l9l4)'I' 18 AlbertBrisbane, "Association," New iit, lugutt 3, 18,42,quoted in Eric,Schirber., Laws" (1845), reprinted in Ed-ward 6 "Millennial Norih American Phalanx,1843'1855," unpublish People Callgd SJ11ke1,za,,e3'' Deming Andrews, The paper,D epa*ment of History, PrincetonUniversity, 1963,p. 258, and JuliaBucklin Giles' "Ad- ll"* ii,tt, 8. dressbefoie the Monmouth County Historical Associ uiion on The North American Phalanx"' MS' n'd' 19 GordonS, Wood, The Oeation of the Am (lgi222), Monmouth County Historical Association Repubtic, t 776-1787, ChapelHill, 1969' p' 594' Library, Freehold, N.J. 20 See David J. Rothman, The Discoveryof the ? Matthew 5 :14. This sameBiblical phraseis quoted in lum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Rept the Covenantof the MassachusettsBay Colony, which Bostbn.lg7l.ElJen T. McDougallhas tracedsome definedthe first Puritan covenantcommunity' the architectural implications of asylum design "The Retreat of the Retreat," unpublishedpaper' CommunisticSocieties of the 8-Uiitia Charles Nordhoff, The partmentof Architecture'M.I.T.' lan. 1974' Stotrt (1875),New York, 1966,p' 405' 21 Arthur Bestor, "Patent0ffice Models of the Matx, The Machine in the Garden: Technol- 9 SeeLeo Society,"Backwoods Utopias,p. 230. 6gy and the Pastoratliteal in America, Oxford' Eng- diO, f Sea. For the locations of communitariansettle- 22 The Oneida Community: A Familiar Expositb.n, rn"nit, t." also Ronald Abler, "The GeographyofNo- its ldeas and Practical Life, in a Conversationw$n *tt"t., fn" Location of Utopian Communities'1660' Visitor.Watlingford, Conn., 1865, p' 19' 1860," unpublished paper, Departmentof Geography' State UniversitY. 23 Nordhoff, CommunisticSocieties, O' ail'.V'a) Pennsylvania t' Seealso John S. Williams,Consetated Ingenuuy: Gates, The Farmer's Age: Agricu-Iture'-le-lS- N' 10Paul Sn"trtri and Their [ntentions, Old Chatham' uot.3, The Economic History of the United 1-A00, 195'1. States,New York, 1960, PP' 398'399' (187 The 11 Nordhoff, CommunisticSocieties, pp' 39l-392' 24 The American Socialist, 14 6-18'lD; City,l.l (Dec.8,1892)' l. 12 William E. Wilson' The Anget and the Senent: The Bloomingto-n,1.9!a, o' al; of the i"i New Harmony, 25 Goltlwin Smith, Essayson Questions "t "silkville: A also seeGarrett R' Carpenter, Tansas^At' o"a Socr'al,New York, 1893, chqpler9'1 Utopias' 1859' iitiirot iempt in the History of Fowierist Communitv and il;ti;;" Socialism'; Studies, vol' 3' oneida 18gi,- The Emporia State Research Humphrey Noyes, /*isfory of Americon no.2 (Dec.1954). (18?0),New York, 1965,P.23' 13 James Holmes, useful Hints in Farming,,West g o! 26 Mary Antoinette Doolittle',4 4to bio a!t! Gloucester,Uaine, t8S0; The Gardener'sManual'.New seq )-niiiilrt, Doolittle, Mount Lebanon,1880: Lebanon, 1843. Seealso RussellH. Anderson' "Agrr- 10, n. 31. culture among the Shakers,Chiefly At Mount Leba- Chapter

The ldeal CommunitY 27 lohn Humphrey Noyes, addresson "Dedication of the New Oommunity Mansion," OneidaCircular,Feb, 2'l, 1852'P' 9' 28 Wilson,The Angel and the Serpent,p- 4I. 29 CatharineE. Beecherand Harriet Beechel Stowe, The Arnerican liloman's Home, or hinciples of Do- mestic Science; Being a Guide to the Formation and Maintenanceof Economical, Healthful' Beautiful, and ChristianHomes, New York' 1869. 30 CatharineE. Beecher, "How to RedeemWomen's . hofession from Dishonour," Harper's New Monthly Magazine,3l(Nov' 1865)'?16' ' ' 3l Cathuine E. Beecher, "A Cfuistian Neighbor- . hood," Harper's New Monthly Magazine, 34 (Apr. ,, 1867),575. .. 3zCambridge Co-operative Housekeeping Society, ::;,:.::'p76spBs1se, Cambridge, Mass., 1869' Seealso Chapter 9, n. 30. 33 See the proposed combination of single family homesand residenthotels in Ray Reynolds;Cat's Paw . Utopia, El Cajon, Cat1f., 1972, a discussionof the . . .. Topolobampocommunity. Another work which sug' r,,,.!'gectsa combination of unitary dwellings and single- .1;family cottages is Beta (E. B. Bassett), The Model ,Town, Cambridge,Mass., 1869. See also Bradford ::'.?eck, The lilorld A Departmekt .Store (New York, 'ar.i1890)and Henry Olerich, A Citylessand Countryless il4)orld:An Outline of hactical Cooperative Individ- .tra&sn(Holstein, Iowa, 1893), both republishedin York in 1971in a serieson utopianfiction edited ;.A!thurOrcutt Lewis.Both recommendcooperative houseswith many of the featuresof Fouti- unitary dwellings.

Notes to ChapterTwo 3t