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Appendix 2 Chronology Central America declares its independence from Spain. U.S. troops intervene briefly in Nicaragua. Liberals and Conservatives finally agree to name Managua as the capital. In the first major U.S. intervention, the U.S. Navy bums down a Nicaraguan town following an insult to millionaire Cornelius Vanderbilt. In order to secure the rights to a canal for the United States, mercenary William Walker hires an amiy, invades Nicaragua, and declares himself president. Walker reestablishes slavery in the country and is subsequently recognized by Washington. Walker is overthrown and constitutional rule reestablished. Under the Treaty of Managua, part of the Atlantic coast is declared a reserve under British protection, although Nicaraguan sovereignty over the region is recognized. Nationalist Jose Santos Zelaya comes to power. U.S. troops intervene four times in the next five years. The Atlantic coast is "reincorporated" and the British pull out. The British relinquish all claims to the Mosquito coast in the Harrison-Altamirano Treaty, granting certain protections to Miskito and Creole populations. U.S. troops intervene. United States places Nicaragua under customs receivership, controlling the country's revenues for the next 38 years. U.S. Marines begin 20 years of repeated occupation of Nicaragua. Bryan-Chamorro Treaty confirms status as U.S. protectorate. Conservative Emiliano Chamorro elected president. U.S. Marines land and occupy the country almost continuously until 1933, mounting what would become Central America's first counterinsurgency war against a peasant army, led by Augusto C. Sandino, the "General of Free Men." On June 16, U.S. planes launched the first aerial bombardment of a civilian population in history as part of effort to defeat Sandino and his supporters. More than 300 residents of Ocotal lose their lives. Liberal Juan Bautista Sacasa elected president. After failing to defeat Sandino's guerrilla amiy, the Marines withdraw, having established the .Nicaraguan National Guard with Anastasio Somoza Garcia as 212 NICARAGUA: A COUNTRY GUIDE S a n d i n o i s m u r d e r e d . Sacasa removed by Somoza's forces; presidential election won by Somoza. Somoza reelected; new constitution promulgated. Somoza assassinated; National Assembly selects his son Luis to complete the t e r m i n o f fi c e . Luis Somoza elected president. Carlos Fonseca, Tomas Borge, and Silvio Mayorga form the FSLN. Somoza associate Rene Schick elected president. With the National Guard as the centerpiece, the United States sponsors the formation of CONDECA to coordinate Central American military action against "internal subversion." Luis Somoza dies; his brother Anastasio Somoza Debayle elected president. Congress dissolves itself, abrogates the constitution, and transfers executive power to President Somoza pending new constitution. Earthquake devastates Managua; Somoza named chairman of National Emergency Committee and declares martial law. Somoza reelected. FSLN raid in Managua. Martial law lifted. Formation of Group of 12 (Los Doce), prominent Nicaraguan political figures and intellectuals opposed to the regime. Major FSLN offensive. Pedro Joaqum Chamorro, editor of La Prensa and leading opposition figure, is assassinated. National Guard sent in to break national strike. Formation of the Nicaraguan Democratic Movement (MDN). Formation of the Broad Opposition Front (FAQ). FSLN commandos seize National Palace. FSLN-led insurrection takes Masaya, Leon, Chinandega, and Estelf for several days. Formation of the National Patriotic Front (FPN). FSLN units take Leon and Matagalpa, and begin march on Managua. The FSLN triumphantly enters Managua and installs a revolutionary government. Revolutionary government launches massive National Literacy Crusade which reduces illiteracy from more than 50 percent to 13 percent in five months. Inauguration of the Council of State. U.S. Congress approves $75 million economic-aid package for Nicaragua. Health care campaigns reduce infant mortality rate 40 percent in relation to pre-revolutionaiy figures. Promulgation of the Agrarian Reform Law. United States cuts off $9.8 million in food aid to Nicaragua. Washington suspends all bilateral aid to Nicaragua, but continues support to private sector and Catholic church. CHRONOLOGY 213 Reagan administration authorizes $19 million to destabilize Nicaraguan government, giving the CIA a green light to organize ex-National Guardsmen into a counterrevolutionary army based in Honduras. In the wake of increasing contra activity on the Atlantic coast, the government decides to relocate Miskito communities from the Rib Coco further inland at the Tasba Pri resettlement. Some 10,000 Miskitos flee to Honduras. Following contra destruction of two bridges in the north, the government declares a state of emergency. U.S. Congress approves $5.1 million in economic assistance for the Nicaraguan private sector. Standard Fruit violates its agreement to administer banana industiy until 1985 when it announces its immediate withdrawal from Nicaragua, leaving 3500 unemployed. U.S. Congress approves $24 million in covert aid to the contras. The Contadora Group, formed by Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, and Panama, declares an avoidance of the outbreak of war between Nicaragua and Honduras to be the initial focus of its negotiating mission. More than 5,000 U.S. and Honduran troops take part in the Big Pine military maneuvers near the Nicaraguan border. First large-scale invasion of contras from Honduran territory. In the United Nations Nicaragua denounces U.S. support for the contras; only El Salvador, Honduras, and the United States vote against the Nicaraguan motion. Pope John Paul II visits Nicaragua. Washington reduces Nicaragua's sugar import quota by 90 percent. U.S. Treasury Department announces official policy of opposing all multilateral loans to Nicaragua. Patriotic Military Service (draft) instituted. The contras launch their "Black September" offensive, including sea- and air-based attacks against petroleum installations and key economic infrastructure, and ground attacks against the principal entry points on the country's northern and southern borders. CONDECA is reestablished with the ex-plicit goal of pressuring Nicaragua, and the FDN immediately solicits CONDECA's support in its contra war. Contra offensive deepens with heavy fighting in the north and south, eight aerial attacks, and sabotage actions against the ports of Corinto and Sandino. Government implements an amnesty program for contras who lay down their CIA and Navy units assist the contras in the mining of Nicaraguan harbors in gross violation of international law. Seven ships are damaged by the mines. Diverse sectors of the international community condemn the U.S. mining of Nicaraguan ports. More than 35,000 U.S. troops surround Nicaragua as the Pentagon simultaneously stages maneuvers off the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and in Honduras. 214 NICARAGUA: A COUNTRY GUIDE May The International Court of Justice orders the United States to suspend support for the contras and the mining of Nicaraguan ports. Sep. Two members of Civilian Military Assistance, a rightwing U.S. group aiding the contras, are shot down in a helicopter flying over Nicaragua. Nicaragua agrees to proposed Contadora Peace Plan; Reagan administration asks Honduras, El Salvador, and Costa Rica to demand changes in the plan. Nov. Nicaragua holds first free elections in history. The FSLN's candidate Daniel Ortega is elected to a six-year presidential term with 67 percent of the vote against six opposition parties. Reagan denounces the elections as a sham. 1985 Feb. Economic stabilization package implemented. May White House declares trade e.mbargo against Nicaragua. June U.S. Congress approves $27 million in "humanitarian" aid to the contras. 1986 June $100 million contra aid package approved by U.S. Congress. Oct. U.S. mercenary Eugene Hasenfus shot down and captured during a contra resupply mission. Nov. Iran-Contra scandal breaks in Washington. 1987 Jan. New constitution signed. Aug. Presidents of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua sign the Esquipulas II Peace Accords. Nicaragua becomes the first signatory to the Esquipulas accords to form a National Reconciliation Commission. Sep. National Assembly approves the Autonomy Statute for the Atlantic region. La Prensa is allowed to resume publication after a one-year suspension; the church hierarchy's Radio Catolica is permitted to resume broadcasting. The government announces an end to all prior censorship of the media. President Ortega announces a unilateral suspension of offensive military operations for the month of October to cover three zones totaling 1,450 square kilometers. Nov. Following several meetings with House Speaker Jim Wright, President Ortega announces a new 11-point proposal for achieving a cease-fire, disarmament, amnesty, and the integration of the contras into civilian life. Nicaragua also agrees to name Cardinal Obando y Bravo as mediator between the government and the contras. Nicaragua releases 985 political prisoners, 200 of whom are ex-National Guardsmen. Dec. The first in a series of indirect meetings is held between the contras and the Nicaraguan government in Santo Domingo under the mediation of Obando. Among other things, the contras demand a general amnesty, an end to the military draft, the creation of new police and military forces, and the dismantling of "military" cooperatives. 1988 Jan. Nicaragua announces its willingness to enter into direct talks
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  • Octubre a Diciembre 1978 No

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    Fundada por Joaquín Zavala Urtecho en 1960 Volumen XXXIII Octubre Diciembre 1978, No. 161 Apartado No. 2108, Managua, Nicaragua. Teléfono 80788. Director Xavier Zavala Cuadra Publicado por Jefe de Distribución Ann McCarthy de Zavala. CENTRO DE INVESTIGACIONES Y ACTIVIDADES CULTURALES en cooperación con CONSEJO SUPERIOR UNIVERSITARIO CENTROAMERICANO UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL AUTONOMA DE NICARAGUA DIRECTORES ASOCIADOS INSTITUTO HISTORICO CENTROAMERICANO. NICARAGUA. UNIVERSIDAD CENTROAMERICANA. NICARAGUA Carlos Mántica Abaunza CLAC UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE HEREDIA. COSTA RICA. Sergio Ramírez Mercado CENTRO DE INVESTIGACION Y ACCION SOCIAL. GUATEMALA CSUCA CENTRO DE INVESTIGACIONES Y ASESORIA Ernesto Gutiérrez SOCIO-ECONOMICA. NIC. UNAN. CENTRO DE ESTUDIOS LATINOAMERICANOS, TULANE Francisco Fiallos UNIVERSITY (U.S.A.) UCA Alvaro Arguello, S.J. IHCA Franco Cerutti Universidad Nacional de Heredia César Jerez S.J. CIAS Edmundo Jarquin Calderón CINASE Ralph Lee Woodward, Jr. Tulane Univesity Carlos L. Stansifer The University of Kansas CONSEJO EDITORIAL Oscar Aguilar Bulgarelli Catedrático Universidad Nacional de Heredia SUMARIO Giuseppe Bellini Catedratico de la Universidad de Venecia José Coronel Urtecho Pablo Antonio Cuadra Pág. Rafael Cuevas del Cid Cortesía de nuestros Patrocinadores I GALERAIA DE ARTE Constantino Láscaris PRECOLOMBINO Catedrático en la Universidad de Costa Rica Carlos Meléndez Chaverri Catedrático de la Universidad de Costa Rica Juan Bautista Sacasa 1- COMO Y POR QUE CAI Chéster Zelaya Goddman Director Instituto Estudios DEL PODER Latinoamericanos, Universidad Nacional de Heredia. Las opiniones expresadas en los artículos no representan necesariamente el punto de vista de esta publicación. Aceptamos manuscritos sin comprometernos pu- blicarlos o devolverlos. Envíelos, por favor, al Di- rector o al Director Asociado más cerano. Prohibida la reproducción total o parcial sin autorización de la Dirección.