CEU eTD Collection 2008 Hungary Budapest, Miklosi Zoltan Supervisor: of of Master degree the for requirements ofthe fulfillment In partial Science ofPolitical Department University European Central RAWLS, FEMINIST CRITICISM AND JUSTICE IN ANDJUSTICE CRITICISM FEMINIST RAWLS, A KITHCHEN POLICE? A KITHCHEN NEED REALLY DOWE FAMILY: THE LedaSutlovic By Political Science Submitted to Submitted CEU eTD Collection Slavenka Drakulic, question’ (if any!)wasgoing tobesolved one day, that’sfor certain. there were somanyother problems tosolve, things toproduce.The ‘woman therefore, didn’t producemachines thatwould maketheir lives easier, butratherthat ironing? Theansweris: just women’s work. Itis notthatthestatehated womenand, But then, what is onesupposed to call hand-washing oflaundry,scrubbing floors, or Aristotle wants. The family is theassociation established bynatureforthesupply ofman's everyday How SurvivedWe Communism andEvenLaughed CEU eTD Collection future. practical level, an introduction ofcare into politics can lead towards gender-free provides a legitimate spacefor placement ofcare into justice. Taken to more of justice presupposes care, at asmotivationalleast factor. Ifthis is so,Rawls’ theory aspect ofjustice, which calls forthe introduction ofcare. Italso states that the theory suggests that women’s ethical experience cannot be understood solely from the domestic anddependency work. The other line of feminist criticism, ethicsof care, the feminists, unachievable as longaswomen bearresponsibilitymajority forthe of theory of justice pledges for theequality ofopportunity, agoal that is, according to and unsustainable, forthe family is theprimary schoolofmoraldevelopment. A not introduce justice which inthefamily then makes thewell-ordered society unjust criticized from the feminist viewpoint. The feminist criticism indicates that Rawls did Although he places thefamily within theumbrella ofjustice, Rawls’ theory was interference of the state? regulations. Ifthis isso,there anyway ofachieving justice within thefamily without Since thefamilya space is ofloveand intimacy,should notbeputunder it any Justice thein family isanold debateand often consideredtobe anirresolvableone. Abstract CEU eTD Collection his helphis and comments. Lastbutnotleast, Iwould like tothank my family. providing aroom of one’sown when it was most needed,and to my supervisor for to my constantlamentations duringthe weeks ofwriting. To Petra and Sara, for I would like to thank my friendsfor theirsupport and understanding and for listening Acknowledgments I CEU eTD Collection ILORPY...... 60 BIBLIOGRAPHY 5. CONCLUSION 4. ETHICSOFCARE CRITICISM FEMINIST 3. 2. RAWLS 1. INTRODUCTION CONTENTS OF TABLE 4.2. Criticism of Rawls from the aspect of ethics of care...... 51 4.1...... 43 Care vs. Justice 3.2. Other feminist criticism...... 36 3.1. Susan Moller Okin...... 27 2.4. Justice as Fairness: ...... 25 A Restatement 2.3. The Idea of Public Reason Revisited in ...... 20 The Law of Peoples 2.2. Political Liberalism...... 18 2.1. A Theory of Justice...... 13 4.1.1. Care as political concept...... 47 3.2.3. Iris Marion Young...... 39 3.2.2. Veronique Munoz-Darde...... 38 ...... 36 3.2.1. Deborah Kearns ...... 12 ...... 57 ...... 1 ...... 43 ...... 27 II CEU eTD Collection second, I will outline the main feminist criticisms andarguments tothis placement; of argument. First, I willpresent placement ofthefamily withinRawls’ theory; argues fortheextension ofcare into justice. Inmy thesisIwillfollow secondthis line experience cannot be fully understood from the aspect of justice, which iswhy it one from the aspectofethics ofcarewhichconsiders thatwomen’s ethical significant tothe taskthatRawls gives family. Directlylinked tothiscriticism the is is directly connected to the role of the family as addresses the problem of unpaid work that takes place in the domestic sphere which moralof agents involved in pre-society state/state of nature. Theother objection feminist line ofcriticism dividedcan be intotwo first concerns tracks.The the types Criticism arrived from many differentstandpoints, one of them is feminist. The The bookwas generally praised but also heavily criticized by his fellow scholars. be improved andthat he was opentoany suggestions and constructive criticism. Hobbes’ and Locke’s. Hence, itsvalue and importance is selfevident. by side tothegreateststay side works politicalphilosophy, in suchasRousseau’s, revival of political philosophy. After many years, it was the first piece that could fairly Rawls hasdrawn hugeattention, influenced many scholarsandinaway signifieda goals, parenting still presents anobstaclefor women’s improvement. nature ofthesituation presentedthe cartoon, in it is truethat when it comes tocareer shehadher is yetchosenaname forhercareerobstacle? Regardless ofthecomic women insome work banquet. One of the womenwas pregnant and the other asked 1. INTRODUCTION The author himself confessed that the theory is not flawless, that it needs to From the 70swhenitwas until published today, There was aonecartoonintheNew Yorker magazine which portrayedtwo 1 the primary school ofmorality A TheoryofJustice byJohn , a CEU eTD Collection theory ofjustice isaheuristic device, knowledge oftheir individual characteristics, their social position, race, ethnic group, choices. This means thatindeciding on principles ofjustice the parties have no behind the are aboutto decide on principles ofjustice are placed. The parties are also placed power and relations justness.its “personal political” is will openaspace for questioning ofthe domesticsphere, its leaving theprivate sphere omitted from its structure.Later on,thefeminist slogan sphere, andwhich in thepublic sphere isordered accordingto principles ofjustice, because ofprivate/public distinction which didnotallow interference into theprivate primarily because ofthe historicalcircumstances that they were part of, butalso acknowledged, it is importantaddress to the question ofitsinternal justice. under theumbrellaof justice andits importance forthefuture ofthepublic sphere is an institution that is importantthe for reproduction ofsociety. Since thefamily is put and therefore,some in senseit is considered to beapartof public sphere orat least theory isabenchmark, theonlytheorythatis it justice considersthefamily apartof contractarian theorists did notquestion: justice within the family. Inthis sense Rawls’ feminists put it, emphasizes the gender division oflabor and theproblem which done in ordertohave internally just family? problem of justice the in family and answer thequestion present the possible feminist contributions to Rawls’ theorywhich couldsolve the third, Iwill present the criticism from the viewpoint ofthe ethics ofcare. Finally, I will In The former contractarian theorists omitted thefamily from their theories The second line ofargument or Theory ofJustice, veil of ignorance the society ordered is on just principles.Centralto Rawls’ which enablesthem to beimpartial making while their the problemof exploitation anddomination the original position 2 which changeshave to be in which theparties in that as CEU eTD Collection 3 2 Quarterly Family”, and in ofthe Justice Mundoz-Darde, Family the (1998), “Rawls, Justice V. justice”, claims of opaque family to notto leave the in order by coherence, required not a modification as 1 nothing to bargainwith. strength and intelligence. This whytheyhave no basisbargaining for since there is structure bottomis the justline of society: rules anddistributions within particular institutions” the basicstructure conditionsevaluate thewaywe should individual interactions or focus primarily on thebasic structure, because thedegree ofjustice or injustice of conditions within which the future actionwill take place: “Theorizing justice should background the sets it society, of structure basic the of part a is family The sex also coveredbytheis veil ofignorance persons. Because criticism, ofthefeminist inhislaterworks thatwill Rawls stress are defined as rational autonomous representatives thatare free and equal moral criticism. Insteadbeingheadsofthe households, theparties intheoriginal position later works, namely in primarily men inexceptional andonly caseswomen) revision. andaskedforits Inhis that theparties intheoriginalposition are actually headsof the households (who are itoneofthecharacteristicsthat coveredargued Manyfeminists is or is bytheveil? original position and are the parties behind the veil ofignorance aware of their sex, feminists from the genderviewpoint: what isthetrue nature oftheparties inthe Young, I. M. (2006), “Taking Seriously”, Young, Structure Basic the I.(2006), “Taking M. John Rawls, “However, he presents this change only as a minor technical reconsideration of the original position, and position, theoriginal of reconsideration technical asaminor only change he this presents “However, The original position as presented in by themselves. just, however free and fair particular transactions may look when viewed and adjusted, an initially just social process will eventually cease tobe associations take place. Unless this structure is appropriately regulated just background conditions against which the actions ofindividuals and The role of the institutions that belong to the basic structure is to secure , Vol.48,No.192,340. Political Liberalism 3 Political Liberalism , (ColumbiaYork, University New 1993),266. Press, 3 1 , Rawls, answers tothepart of feminist . Theory ofJustice Perspectives on PoliticsPerspectives 2 . Inthissense,thebasic was questioned by , Vol. 4/No.1, The Philosophical 91. CEU eTD Collection nonpoliticalspheres astwo separatedisconnected spaces.Since the two principles the feminists is Rawls’ claim that political liberalism does not regard the politicaland please shouldindeed that justice of theoryimproved new and the of part The unclear. of theapplication oftwo principles ofjustice onthefamily, Rawls remains vague and justice shouldapplyto it, buttheydo notentirely. comes it When totheexplanation structure. Sincethe family is apart ofthe basic structure, the two principles of proceduraljustice inthedivisionof labour, whichtakes allplace withinthe basic their relation to thefamily. The two principles of justice arenecessary to ensure the Fairness: ARestatement n i ltr works, later his In of theirinterests andthemselvesas individuals. them less capable ofdoingpaidwork, andintheenddisables them from fulfillment in family, women areresponsible for the majority ofdomestic labor which makes by race,gender origin. orfamily The‘violation’ of thedifference principle takesplace opportunity, thenthis procedure for allocation of positions shouldnot bejeopardized positions in the society should be accessible toeverybody under fair equality of divisionof labor the difference is principleor divisionof labour. Theprinciple which regulates theissuesofjustice within the social the is society of structure basic the of aspect general the Rawls, For the primary school moral of development. sphere. The mainfeminist argument thatthis is makes thefamily incapableof being family life, namely thedivision of domesticlabour anditsconsequences inthepublic the basicstructure. this assumption, thedistributiveWith Rawls ignores aspects of in placed be could it why is which just, is family the that assumes only Rawls , Rawls clarifies the role ofthe two principles ofjustice and The Idea ofPublic Reason Revisited 4 fair equality of opportunity and Justice as . Ifallthe CEU eTD Collection on reason, ontheKantian principle (who has,besides Mill, influenced Rawls’ work the privatesphere. Ontheopposite sidethere man’sis which morality constitutedis is linked to the emotions, relational ties, nurturing andcaring, which areall values of we just donotrequire aconstant help,but relation withcare-giver. the Ethics ofcare of ourliveswe dependent areutterly onsomebody else’shelp, evenmore than that, care (usually perceived as‘woman’s ethic’)isbased on the fact that at some stage Economics to closely is linked whichcare,ethicsthe of by given is the family issue the approachesto One of does notexclude love, altruism and generosity asfamily qualities. Okin statesthat itdoesnot include law enforcement or‘kitchenpolice’ anditalso 4 not needto be and the place where asense of justice is first developed in theyoung unlike theother voluntary associations, bothis not explain why oneshouldobject theidea of justice thefamily: “Ifthefamily, in based onnatural sympathy andlovenot on justice. Okinstatesthatthis does are they thinks he because relations intra-family address not does Rawls would thefindings besuitable tothetheory of justice? gender division oflabor. The questionif address is he did intra-family relations, assumes tobejust it anddoesnotaddress anyintra-family questions, like the Therefore, since theprinciples ofjustice are indirectly applied tothefamily, Rawls the separation because all institutions aretechnically arranged on thesame basis. of justice directly apply orindirectlybasic tothewhole structure, there need foris no Okin, (2005), women: Rawls S.M. “Fortyacres and amule for and feminism”, , 2,245. Vol. 4,No. internally just the problem ofexploitation anddomination ?” 4 Bysayingthat justice shouldbeplaced inthe family, 5 part of the basic structure of society . Briefly,theethics of Politics, Philosophy and Philosophy Politics, , then does it CEU eTD Collection 1997), 17,18. never considered inthe discussions ofpolitical andsocialjustice. men from participation within it,which iswhy equaldivision of dependency work was by tradition. Furthermore, this gendered nature ofdependency work has excluded think that thiskind of labor seenis asa part of women’s family obligations justified whofeminists,by argued was need in those attend womentraditionthat The necessity toaddress its internaljustness. the plausibleplaces family a is underthesphereofjustice,tosaythatthere is it distinction. SinceRawlsstatesthat hiswork abolished divisionin andsincehe is this contributed tosociety, but wasit unrecognized becauseof the public/private Therefore, canit bearguedthat withtheir dependency work, women have 7 6 the public/private dichotomy. justice. thequestions This very of contract and/orthe possibility provides an theevidence for of artificiality extended family, mean care and principles which notethics basically that they act on of the of ethics of 5 not have an equal approach to the positions within thesociety. The role of the Therefore, bybeing responsible forthedependent members women ofthefamily, do ofpolitics. Okinplace noticesthatliberalpolitical theoryisdeceptively individualist: the most) Patrice DiQuinizio Iris and Marion Young, Okin, “Forty and 233-234. amule”, acres The in society,havein while they chooseprinciples just original the parties themindposition, of their political spaces of society clean, fed and dressed. grow up, and that they appear each day in the marketplace, workplace, and mothers, that these ‘male heads’ exist at all, that they are nourished so asto …because of unmentioned females in their households, the views and the kind of dependency on others in old age. than passing disabilities, mental or physical; they do not seem to pass into any each other. They are never helpless infants; they do not suffer from major or less It claims tohave asits subject human individuals who can exist independently of be carried out under nonexploitative conditions. dependency work, whether done in family or other social institutions, can the importance of family integrity. needWe structures that will assure that be characterized bycare, we need something other than the affirmation of of equality, ifit fails to be a society characterized bycare. For a society to one inwhich all its members are sustained and included within the ideal The claim here is that a society cannot be well-ordered, that is, cannot be 5 of universality and justice which is all placed in the publicthewhich justiceplaced is inthe in ofuniversality and all sphere, Feminist Ethics and Social Policy andSocial Feminist Ethics 6 7 6 , (Indiana University Press, CEU eTD Collection men’s(in factthis labor kind oflabor isoften notacknowledged asone), result in than labor women’s unpaid of proportion larger have which societies The justice in the family. private notaone-way domain is process,it is necessary toextend certainamount of conditions’ willfind theirway tothefamily. Since theinteraction betweenpublic and namelythe at working place. The expected result is thatthe ‘new fair work family relations, itisnecessary firsttochange the relations within the publicsphere, unjust the change to order in that, feminists of standpoint common the is It thein public sphere. Theunjust family relations havetheir spillover effect society.in occupations. Therefore, thedivision ofdomestic labourhasfar-reaching implications different kinds oflabor,sexualsegregation andgender stereotypingpublic in paid This structure ofsexualdivision oflaborhasfar-reaching implications on theworth of dependent members, while ideally men aretheprimary income generators forfamily. assumes thatwomen devoteprimary energies intaking careofchildren andother which mother’ home father, ‘working is family a of picture traditional The the primary parentandconsequently, intheroleof theprimary caretaker. women andchildren are always put together, which places the woman inthe role of which allleave dependency work towomen. Thisisevident in Rawls’ theory whichin basis. Thisresults inpowerrelationswithin the family that do notfavour women and 8 attention to it” primarily the private responsibility offamilies, social policy will pay insufficient choice ofeducation. Moreover, “aslongas basic institutions treatcare work as primary caretaker is incompatible with many jobswhich whyis it influences thevery Young, 93. 8 . Woman andman entermarriage andworkmarket onanunequal 7 CEU eTD Collection allow some traditional gendered divisionof labour within families, namely the ones of thefamily to fulfill itsrole as theprimary school ofmorality. which has implications on the equality of opportunity, which questions the very ability problem that stillremains unquestioned isthe one ofequaldivision ofhouse work, assets during thattime” divorce, “she should haveanequal shareinthe increased value ofthefamily’s which wouldentitle hertoanequalshare in thehusband’s income. Inthecaseof proposes an introduction ofthe law that would count a wife’s work inraising children, that arenecessary forthefuture citizen ofawell-ordered society.This whyis Rawls consequences that it has on children, on their ability to acquire the politicalvirtues Rawls also is awareof the inequalities that take place inthe case of divorce and the 10 9 bear, an unjust share ofthe task of raising, nurturing, and caring for theirchildren” that “along andhistoric injusticeto women thatthey is haveborne, andcontinue to institution. opportunity forwomen an andis additional reasonto rethink thefamily asa just harms childrenas well aswomen. This shows the importance of equality of This canbecomeproblem asocial thechildif support is not regularly paid, which thetypicalfamily in leaves thedivorcedwoman impoverished, mostly withchildren. power relationswithin thehousehold. differences in earnings, with economic dependence ofwomenmen, on which affects Rawls, Ibid , 163. Rawls addressesthisproblem statesbriefly, thatpolitical liberalism has to These innovationsthe theory ofjusticein resolveonlyhalfof theproblem. The In his criticism works,Rawls feminist later In his acceptssomepart of and states Moreover, today there is significant number ofdivorces. Thedivision of labor The Idea of Public Reason Revisited Idea Reason The ofPublic 10 . , 161. 8 9 . CEU eTD Collection has changed habits andtheways oflife. Majority of activities thatwere once doneat and lifegeneralin changed. is Theworking andtheschoolhours are longer, which can beprovided byethics ofcare. In today’s modern societies, the nature of work associations an in implausible way). cannot beapplied within the family (which isforthis purposecompared to special place within thebasic structure and justified why theprinciples ofjustice the author did notdeal enoughwith thejustice thein family, hemerely explained its same asmenliberties andstrengthenswomen’s roleascitizen.Ontheother hand, morewith thepositionof women ajustwithin society, makes surethattheyhavethe that theory of justice was not attentive enough torace and gender. The author deals reproduces it. nonpoliticalsince indirectlyit is involved inthe public sphere, moreover, it have moralindividuals andintheendjust society.Ifthis isso,thefamily cannot be manipulation andone-sided self-sacrifice. Therefore, must afamily to bejust in order family that works on the basis of justice and reciprocity, rather thandomination or just society.Forthe moraldevelopment ofachild itis important togrow up ina be ableto learn how to bejust, which isrequired since theywill once be citizens of a institution ofmoral development. opportunity? Oneofthepossible answers initsimportance lies astheprimary whyis assumed it tobejustspiteof in its limiting effects on theprincipleof fair does notresultfrom orleadtoinjustice. based on religion, but under condition thatthis kind of work is If we whole takethis problem moreto a practical level, one oftheanswers toit laterIn his works criticism acceptssome Rawls feminist partsof and admits shouldThe family besome sortofschool whichjustice children should in 9 Returning tothefamily, wemay question fully voluntary and CEU eTD Collection occupations. inequality is reflected in the public sphere, namelyin gender stereotyping of paid position oftheprimary caretakerwhich results intheinequality ofopportunity. This the ‘family spillover effect’ that, based on woman’s abilityto give birth, puts her in the fulfillment chosen in profession.But certain positions arenot available because of there isachoice tobemade:whether tobesomebody’s mother ortopursue because certain positions are not available to them. They are not available since into family. historical conditions andthe ways itmightbetheonly oflife, way ofplacing justice equality ofopportunity), than ethics ofcarecould bethe answer. Given thepresent domestic work atthesame (which is time theproblem that stands the wayin of roots-the good governing. caring citizenshipwould exist withinthe civilsociety andwould bringthepolitics toits concept ofcaring citizenship, which would influence thepolicy-making process.The its general notions of relationality, interdependence and attention calls forthe This islegitimate becausecare itself hasbecome matter. apublic Ethics ofcare with of thepossible solutions is an extensionof the ethics ofcare into thepublic sphere. secondary. This opens a space for introduction of new ways of(self)governing. One and nowexists on much levels, higher which makes theproblems ofcommunity politicalquestion. Atthesame time, has politics transgressed the limits ofparliament rearing. This way care has exceeded the private sphere and that way hasbecome a homenow arebeingdoneoutside ofit,whether itisclothes washing, eating orchild Women donotoccupythe places ofpower in politicsand society ingeneral Therefore, if theonlyproblem that standsinthefamily’s way justness ofthe is 10 CEU eTD Collection we need really akitchen police? state theinto private sphere. Thequestion order is than, in tohave a just family, do privacy and intimacy andthat the onlyway to doit is toextend the authorityof the wewant to introduce justice into the family that then wouldit no longer be aplace of an obstacle togender equality, especially thein workmarket. might Some saythatif practical level, thefamily with itsdivision ofdomestic anddependency labour work is quite some seems time, andit thataconsensus on it isunreachable. Onmore justice, which are thebottom line ofRawls’ theory. no, because that kind of family would not be ableto satisfy the two principles of not aware of their gender, wouldthey choose this traditional family? The answer is they notchoose thefamily that theywant tolive within? Furthermore, sincetheyare parties intheoriginal position arealready deciding onthebasis ofjustice, why do The question ofjustice inthe family has been amatter ofacademicdebate for The question iswhy doesRawls assume family tobejust? the Since the 11 CEU eTD Collection reorganized shortsummary ofthemain arguments ofRawls’theory. family is family within the theoryofjustice. Thelast book important forthetreatment ofthe Revisited previously published essays Law ofPeoples of the Rawls with deals thefunctioning ofthe well-ordered society andintroduces the idea development ofRawls’ theory was problem of distributive justice. Thesecond bookwhich was important forthe Rawls takesthefamiliar devicethe social – contract and offers his approach tothe 2. RAWLS elaborate onitfurther inthefollowing chapter. theory ofjusticefurther in his works andrelatedfeminist criticism,which Iwill his theory, it isnecessary to expose the development ofthefamily position within the feminist one.Inorder toexplain Rawls’ treatment andtheplacement in ofthefamily innovationsmade were underthe influence of scholarcritique, amongwhich the developing and improving histheory through hisfurther works. Most of the changes that Rawls made for thetranslated editions of by A TheoryofJustice: ARestatement overlapping consensus Since the publication ofhis capital work The first book published was Justice asFairness: ARestatement [ IPPR ]. Inthesecond Rawls dedicates one chapter to the placement ofthe published in1999,which in theauthorfurther develops two and the The LawofPeoples Political Liberalism Political A TheoryofJustice idea of public reason in1999.This revisededition incorporates 12 [ JFR A Theory ofJustice and ] and representsit aclarified and [ PL in1971,which was followed Theory ofjustice The Idea ofPublic Reason ], published in 1993. In . The third book was , John Rawls kept [ TJ ]. In The PL TJ , , CEU eTD Collection agree upon: two principles wouldmost likely bethefirst that parties inthe originalposition would the principles ofjustice in the well-ordered society. Rawls believesthat the following different lifechances. Thiscausesdeepinequalities should which be“corrected” by containdifferent social positions and people born into different positions have reaching implications onthesocialstructure. Theinstitutions inthebasic structure The basicstructure ofsociety isthe primary subjectjustice of far- because ofits arrangedwill be bythechosen principles ofjustice isthebasic structure ofsociety. privilegedone is bythe chosenprinciples. The subject ofjustice orthesubject that conceptions ofgood ortheir special psychological propensities) which ensure thatno social status, fortune indistribution ofnaturalassets, intelligence, strength, their that preventsthem from knowing theirbasiccharacteristics (place the in society, which rationaland mutually are disinterested, are placedbehindthe placed in order to decide upon the principles of the future just society. The parties, contractual theorists isthe distributivejustice. The equivalent ofthe pre-social state of nature of traditional Fairness 11 ofJustice 2.1. ATheory John Rawls, equal basic liberties compatible with asimilar system of liberty for all. First: each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of examples ofmajor social institutions. private property in the means of production, and the monogamous family are protection of freedom ofthought and liberty ofconscience, competitive markets, constitution and the principal economic and social arrangements. Thus the legal from social cooperation. By major institutions I understand the political rights and duties and determine the division ofadvantages and disadvantages exactly, the way in which the major social institutions distribute fundamental For us theprimary subject ofjustice is the basic structure ofsociety, or more In thiswork Rawls develops his theoryofjustice which hecalled . Theauthor usessocial contract as adevice toaddress the problem of A Theory of Justice: Revised Revised Edition Theory A ofJustice: original position 11 , (Oxford University Press, 1999.),6. 13 , a heuristic, device inwhich partiesare veil ofignorance Justice as CEU eTD Collection 13 12 their opportunities are different and already given.Furthermore, it is arguedbythe sphere of the family, then it isnaïve to talk aboutthe equality ofopportunity, since be obedient, passive andthat theirprimary goals should be accomplished within the capacities, especially when it comes totheupbringing of girls. Ifthey are taught to children arenurtured has adirect impact onthedevelopment oftheirnatural Therefore, the family direct obstacleis a to the equality ofopportunity. Theway that ordinary sense dependentis itself uponhappy family andsocialcircumstances.” attitudes. Even thewillingness tomake totry,andsobedeserving the aneffort, in develop andreachfruition affected is byall kindsofsocialconditions andclass long assome form of thefamily exists: “The extent towhich naturalcapacities opportunity. Rawls admits thatthis principle canbeonly imperfectly carried outas gift andtalent. Therefore, thedifference principle to secureis theequality of should not depend upon class position that one isborn into with acertainamount of distributive shares,meaningthat chances to achieve acertainposition inthesociety The second principle shouldreducetheinfluenceofthe “natural lottery”onthe that all positions the societyin areaccessible to all underequal conditions. does notpresuppose equalitybut itmust betoeveryone’sadvantage, anditimplies principle anditapplies tothedistributionof income andwealth. Thisdistribution of thought,freedom of person,etc.Thesecond one is known asthedifference political liberty, freedom of speechandassembly, ofconscience liberty and freedom principle, knownsecuresbasicThe firstone is it liberties suchas astheliberty Ibid Ibid , 64. , 266. conditions of fair equality of opportunity. savings principle, and (b) attached to offices and positions open to all under both (a) to the greatest benefit ofthe least advantaged, consistent with the just Second: social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are 14 12 13 CEU eTD Collection of theparties inthe originalposition as heads ofthe family in 1975. in oneof his involved. Underthe influence offeminist criticism, Rawls willchange theformulation are unable todecide purely on thebasis ofreason, sinceaffectionate ties are the parties intheoriginal position have mindin theirfuture extended families, they the nature oftheparties inthe original position shouldbe changed; and second, if does notnecessarily need tobe a man, it sois inthe majority of cases, which is why refers to this formulation from two viewpoints: first,although the head of thefamily the just society, have in mindtheir immediatedescendants. The feminist criticism original position aretheheadsoffamily which,while deciding onthe principles of is thenature oftheparties intheoriginal position. Rawls statesthat parties inthe debate the family forimportant is the originalposition that ofaspectother The he is givenis in the liberalism.explanation Thefinal ofthespecific family position inthe basic structure a way outfrom messthis in Therefore, is thesecond principle applied tothefamily atall? Rawls will partially find opportunity themost is important principle, why notapplied itis tothefamily? obviouslyis referring to,sincethey are leastadvantaged? Andiftheequality of question isthen,what are the benefits forwomen thetraditional in family, that Rawls also emphasizes the priority offairopportunity overthedifference principle. The least favored should benefit from certain restrictions on equality ofopportunityand it the including society whole the that says principle second the to addition An be, orincase they are notmarried, are expected tobe, the primary caretakers. responsible for the majority of domestic work and as long as they are considered to feminists thatthe equality ofopportunity cannot exist aslong aswomenare will notpursuethese complications further. Justice asFairness: ARestatement. PL withthe distinction ofthecomprehensive and political 15 In TJ , Rawls simply states that CEU eTD Collection 15 By thereciprocal feelings of love the child trusts parents,its has confidence in its one. Itisthemutual loveandcare that develop the“first-stage-morality” inthechild. that thefamily just,is butheseems ahappy tostatethateveryfamily andloving is theory,of his heassumes some just. thatin it doesis form Notonly Rawls assume possibilities for complications inpractice arenumerous. Because of the ideal nature family asheusesitisidealsincehiswholetheory is idealistic, and that the 14 percepts are onthewhole justified”. ordered wemay suppose,soastoavoid needless complications, thatthese bypasses this problem saying that “since we are assuming thatthesociety is well- expresses his doubts in the correctness of family education, butonce again he position toquestionthe validity of thecontent that it isadopting. This iswhy Rawls A child first obtains knowledge its family within andisnotcompetent the a orin child, recognizing their evident ofhim,love them”. comes tolove “Given that family institutions expresstheir love by caring for his good,then the oneof the threepsychologicalup in first ofthem laws, andthe the family:refers to ofassociationsmorality andmorality ofprinciples. Eachofthesestages issummed has developed a three-staged course of moral evolvement:morality of authority, is throughthe morality ofitscitizens. Inorder toadopt theneeded morality, Rawls the primary schoolofmoral development. The way toreproducewell-ordered society The mostthat isgiventotheinstitutionthe familyof the role important of one is feministcriticism thechapter and in onethic of care. of ignorance in the original position. Iwill return to this point inthe chapter on person’sRawls addeda sex to thelistofcharacteristics that arecovered by theveil articles, bystating that they aretherepresentatives ofsociety. Inthesame article Ibid Ibid , 405. , 429. 15 Therefore, Rawls admits thattheformof 16 14 CEU eTD Collection opportunity strives to thisdirection. Hopefully, that willnotbenecessary. point asks acknowledges theinfluence of the family on the equality ofopportunityone andat when comes it tothefamily, but on every occasion he overrides the problem. He certain moments, seems it aware thatRawls is ofthe inconsistency ofhis theory sporadically severaltimes although the future ofthe just society rests upon it. In 16 of part important an not is family The develop a familyin that works onthebasisof one-sided sacrifice anddomination. common response feminist tothisisthatsense ofjustice bemore will difficult to sense of justice and confidence in their self-esteem will care for their children. The psychologicallaws”. inherent stability isaconsequence ofthe reciprocal relation between three society: “Asociety regulated by apublic senseofjustice is stable…thisinherently just a of citizens the of morality the upon rests justice of theory whole The just, thewell-ordered society can last onlyto one generation. that notinternallyis just cannotcontribute tomoraldevelopment. not Ifthefamily is This question sums criticism feminist upthebestknown theory;thefamily of Rawls’ moraldevelopment and to carry the burden of the reproduction of the just society? of schoolprimarythe be family competentto makethe assumption Does this the well-ordered society. stages ofmorality, which thenenables theperson to be a fully functional citizen of early moraldevelopment iscrucial fortheacquisition ofthesecond andthe third surroundings andlateron, develops asense of competence andself-esteem. This Ibid , 436. is thefamily tobe abolished then? 16 Rawls onceagainassumesthat personswith adeveloped 17 A Theory ofJustice A Theory It seems thattheidea of equality of , it is mentioned, itis CEU eTD Collection comprehensive and political liberalism. In innovationthat influences thefamily debate isthedifferencebetween be invoked tocondemn theinequality andoppression ofwomen”. the Declaration ofIndependence which Lincoln invokedtocondemn can theslavery Rawls statesthat it couldbeachieved byasimplelegalact: “The same equality of is family just”. his works is“thejustice ofandinthefamily, thoughIdoassume thatinsome form wheremerely Rawls mentions that oneofthe major not issues addressed in bothof structure. Theonlydirectreference tothefamily takesplaceinthe introduction, problem of justice inthefamily, since the author makes certainchanges the in basic chapter. freedom does notensureequality. Iwillelaborate onthis further inthefollowing criticized byfeminists, among othersbySusan Moller Okinonthe basis thatformal 2.2. Political Liberalism 2.2. Political 17 especially in family inthesphere ofnoman’s not landis fully elaborated within Rawls’ theory, sphere, and yet it isplacedthe in public oneat thesame time.placement This ofthe sphere. confuses theWhat specific is position ofthefamily, since it because it places the family under the sphere ofjustice, therefore under the public 18 John Rawls, Ibid . Another reference connected tothe family is theone ongender equality. Apart from more practical viewpoint of The problems thatRawls addresses in Within thecontract theory tradition, this theoryrepresents abenchmark Political Liberalism A Theory ofJustice 17 , (Columbia University Press, 1993.), xxix. 1993.), Press, University (Columbia , . 18 PL Rawls addresses the problem of the PL PL than theoneof are not directly linked tothe 18 This claim will be TJ is theprivate , themain CEU eTD Collection consensus follow differentcomprehensive doctrines is possiblebecause of existence andapplication ofthepublic reason. This cooperation ofthepeople that applicationof thepolitical liberalism structure,to thebasic additionally ensuresthe doctrines. The existence of thecommonculture whichis political ensured bythe members ofcertainreligious associations or devoteesof moral/philosophical society asopposedto thenonpublic reason, endorsed which is bycitizens as existence ofthe and public spheres. How is then politicalcooperation possible? applies tothe public domain andcomprehensive liberalism to bothprivateapplies whether it is the otherhand, comprehensive liberalism has atendencytocovermoral theentire life, or religiouscontained insociety’s politicalculture, therefore principles its purely are political. On it orders rely on anycomprehensivedoctrine anditexpresses fundamentalthat ideas are a certain way of life.both religious andnonreligious doctrines. Political liberalismincompatible comprehensive doctrines, which Rawls callsreasonable pluralism of doctrine, justice asfairness. Modernsociety iscreated outofthepluralism of ordered onthe basis ofcomprehensive liberalism followedsince it onlyonemoral liberalism. According tothatdistinction, thejust society asportrayed thein which whyis Rawls introduces the distinction between comprehensive and political conception– two principles ofjustice. Thissituation isnotpossiblethe in real life, well-ordered society unrealistic,is since its citizens seem to endorseone moral application of Rawls defines comprehensive liberalism reasonable, whichas enables the Politicalliberalism tothebasic structure doesnot only, ofsociety it applies , which ensures aconsensus when it comes topolitical action. TJ in thein multiculturaldemocratic society.Asheputs it, theideaof public reason -thecommonof allcitizens inthepluralist reason 19 overlapping TJ was CEU eTD Collection reproduction ofsociety and itsculture: criticism. of the family in chapter –On The Family as Part of the Basic Structure – to clarifying the placement principles it,apply to except that the not second applied principle is to itinternally. while since the indirectly: second is family is principle the applied thea part both the structure of basic of concludedjustice family is to of principle itsstructure, that the first the tointernal meaning applied directly, Itjustice be the could it. of of within principles on comes itto application structure,reluctantwhen and basic 19 Peoples of The Law in Revisited Reason ofPublic Idea 2.3. The This is whythe feminist criticism of Rawlscontinues. feminists, forthem fails toresolveit still theproblem of theequalityopportunity. family, butonly indirectly. Although this innovationshould indeedpleasethe distinction, which will then enablethe application of the principles of justice onthe In hisfurther works, Rawls will explain the non-existence ofthe public/private the private toitsince is sphere.apply it the public sphere. The family is under the sphere of justice, but its principles donot placement ofthefamily continues, sinceatthe notthepart same andit is of time is it comprehensive liberalism should bepracticed. Therefore, the problem of the part ofthe basic structure, while atthesametime place thefamily is a where comprehensive liberalism, political principles are applied to the family since it is a family. Furthermore, itseems thatbydistinguishing between political and principles arepurely political,which make them in theprivateunusable sphereofthe feminist criticism deniesthe applications ofpolitical liberalism on thefamily since its In his further works Rawls’ explanation remains vague when it comes to the placement of the of family placement itthe when vague comes to remains explanation In hisRawls’ works further The family isplacedThe family inthebasicstructure because ofitsrole production in and In thesecondpart ofTheLaw of Peoples,the What changes does this distinction bring tothe treatment ofthefamily? The Justice as Fairness . This chapter is also the response to feminist 19 This inconsistency remains unsolvedin This 20 IPRR , Rawls one dedicates PL . CEU eTD Collection 21 20 Massachusetts, 1999),159. not apply tothe internal structure due tothe previously mentioned constraints: the familyjustice applyto indirectly, since thebasic structure,it is part of buttheydo justice cannotbe directly applied to it. Rawls continues bysaying that principles of social authority. Since thewhole nurturing process is intimate, theprinciples of should beconducted, since inthesphereof theeldersthe family havemoraland explaining thatthese requirements placeconstraints ontheway that such nurturing After emphasizing theimportance ofreproductive work, Rawls continues by associations, suchaschurches,universities, professional oracademic associations. In ordertoexplainthis specific natureofthefamily, Rawls compares toother it indirectly applytothefamily, opportunity. Rawls’ standpointthis on isthat sincethetwo principles ofjustice family isnotjust sincethe two principles donot apply toit,especially the equality of the thatcriticism states thefeminist which to his answer This claimrepresents there isstill apossibility fortheviolation ofthe second principle thefamily. principles ofjustice applyindirectly tosome institutions, thenitcanbeargued that that wives have the same opportunities as their husbands. Furthermore, if the This way Rawls ensuresthe political equality but it still remains implausible to say John Rawls, John Rawls, freedoms. members of families. The family aspart of basic structure cannot violate these they do, as I have said, by specifying the basic rights of equal citizens who are rights and liberties, and the freedom and opportunities, of all its members. This essential constraints on the family asan institution and so guarantee the basic Political principles do not apply directly toits internal life, but they do impose maintain anenduringsociety. ensure the nurturing and development suchof citizens in appropriate numbers to political virtues that support political and social institutions. The family must education into the wider culture. Citizens must have asense of justice and the raising of and caring for children, ensuring their moral development and Central role of the family is toarrange in a reasonable and effective way the The Idea ReasonRevisited The ofPublic The Law of Peoples 21 , (Harvard University Press, 1999.),157. it is thereforein some form just. 20 , (Harvard University Cambridge Press, 21 CEU eTD Collection 23 22 could beexplained byhis commitment to family the to directly justice of principles two the apply to reluctance Rawls’ independence ofwomen. these freedoms,which according toRawls is enoughto securetheequality and rightsbasic andliberties totheir members. whyThis is cannotviolate thefamily they do impose certainconstraints on them, meaningthat they do guarantee the The principles ofjustice donot apply to the internal lifeof these associations, but purely voluntary unlike the membership inthe family that one enters by birth. Also, associationsis in membership that fact the criticism emphasizedfeminist The principles ofjustice developed for thepublic spherefully applyto it. principles”. separate, disconnected spaces,each governedsolely by itsown distinct liberalism…does notregardthepolitical andthenonpolitical domains astwo principles ofjustice the absence is of thepublic-private distinction: “political live theway theychoose. Anadditional explanation to the indirect application ofthe justice andcontinue tofulfill their role asreproducers ofthesociety, they are freeto family”. including principles ofdistributive justice –to apply directly tothe internal lifeofthe between different kinds ofprinciples. wouldn’t wantWe politicalprinciples ofjustice – association the question.in Hereagainwe seetheneedfor thedivision oflabour leaves enough “room for afreeand flourishing internal lifeappropriate tothe least tries tobeconsistent with reasonablepluralism. iswhy political This liberalism life. Thus, the comparison of the family with associations also seems todefendor at introduces in Ibid Ibid , 160. , 159. 22 Inother words, as long as family members donotviolate two principles of 23 Differently put, this means that the family is political and it seems that PL . andthat leaves enough space forpeopleto choose theirway of 22 reasonable pluralism , aterm that he CEU eTD Collection autonomous spaceinwhich freeand equal adultscan follow their private conception strengthens the conception ofpolitical liberalism by establishing thefamily asan voluntary and does not resultfrom toor lead injustice. this statementWith Rawls gendered labour within families, in case certainif division is based onreligion, is fully liberalism, Rawlsstatesthatjust societymust approve ofsome traditionally husband’s earnings) women’s work inchild rearing (this should entitle hertoan equal share in her equally treatboth spouses the caseofa in divorce andthatwouldcount inthe and caring fortheir children”. have borne, andcontinue tobear,anunjust share ofthetask of raising, nurturing expectations ofsocialcontext. not guaranteed since itusually depends on individualchoices andonthe gender equality, soitcanbesaidthat certain equality ofopportunity existsbut it is society, especially inthemoralsense. Rawls optsfor legislation thatshould regulate disables thefamily ofbeingresponsible forthereproduction ofthewell-ordered application ofthedifference principle andthe allegedequality ofopportunity. This applicationof both principles ofjustice tothefamily, it isstill tosee hard the is directly applied to it. Although the absence of theprivate/public division grants the protection of basic liberties within the family, it seems thatthefirst principle of justice 26 25 Economics women: Rawls for Okin,and amule and feminism”, acres (2005),“Forty S.M. with that just in place crucial the earlyplay supposedly families of Rawls’s theory development”, moral 24 position andtreatment ofthefamily. structure. Therefore, thefeminists statethat thisargument doesnotclarify the the associations that Rawls compares thefamily toarenot apartof thebasic This is standpointOkin’s an as adoption of criticism presentedin her book The Law of Peoples, “The notion that families are not distinct from other voluntary institutions is also completely inconsistent is completely also institutions othervoluntary not from distinct notionare families that “The Rawlsacknowledges , 2,241. Vol. 4,No. 160. 26 . Butcontinuing to befaithfulto the concept of political 25 Thisiswhy he advocacies forthe laws that would a longand historical injustice towomen 24 23 Furthermore, sinceRawls grantsthe Justice, GenderandFamily. Justice, Politics, Philosophy and Philosophy Politics, , since“they CEU eTD Collection normalfunctioning and reproduction ofsociety. context, theone onstate’s interest in thecertain form of thefamily that will enable 27 is theonly onethatcan reproduce society. gets theimpression thatRawls seems toargueforthe monogamous isthatit family reasonable pluralism has to secure the freedom of lifechoices. The reason why one reasonable pluralism. ambivalence presentinhisotherworks, This is although advocacy can also be understood as a commitment topolitical liberalism, namely of his work,Rawls seems tobeopen to non-traditional family forms, althoughthat and might reveal the author’s the tendency towards traditionalfamily. Inother parts Therefore, the reproductive roleofthefamily,a biological in sense, is emphasized of place other an In does notrequire subordination, outside ofthe scope ofprinciples ofjustice. minority, which leaves themajority ofsecular families or the ones whose religion dependency worktakes that placeunder thejustification ofreligious liberty is in of good.Inthelight ofreligious liberties this ruleismorewelcome, than butthe The Law of Peoples, raising and educating of children. necessary for the equality ofwomen, or same-sex marriages destructive tothe which such aspecification would pass muster: for example, ifmonogamy were improperly specified. Ofcourse, there may be other political values in the light of comprehensive moral doctrines. Accordingly, that interest would appear government’s legitimate interest in the family, would reflect religious or appeals to monogamy assuch, or against same-sex marriages, as within the relations in some way affect the orderly reproduction ofsociety over time. Thus, life, or relationsof among the sexes, except insofar as that form or those The government would appear to have no interest inthe particular form of family 147. IPRR , Rawls mentions the family a slightlyin different 27 24 CEU eTD Collection 29 163. 28 citizens, which is not questionable, and not to respond to the problem of division of Rawls’ intention was toemphasize theequality between men andwomen as argumentationsatisfyfeministseems the standpoint. fullythat This It doesnot family inthefollowing manner: thewithin injustice the feministcriticismthe of to respondsFurthermore,Rawls participants ofthewell-ordered society, they are fully approved. presupposes the education ofchildren which will enable them to befunctional Therefore, theseif non-traditionalfamilies are consistent withthefamily life that philosophy which herespondstothecriticismsin of political Rawls’ of points main the of summary short a presents book This ARestatement Fairness: as 2.4. Justice position on same sexmarriages: work, Rawlsdevotes here one chapter to the family. Here theauthor clarifies his works, which why is Iwill here introduce only the new clarifications. As in previous theory. Most ofthe arguments onthefamily issue were already given inprevious Ibid John Rawls, , 164. suffice to secure their equality and independence. together with the correct application of the other principles ofjustice, should basic rights and liberties and fair opportunities as their husbands; and this, Since wives are equally citizens with their husbands, they have all the same families. The family aspart of basic structure cannot violate these freedoms. said, byspecifying the basic claims ofequal citizens who aremembers of and liberties and fair opportunities of all its members. This they do, asI have essential constraints on the family as an institution and guarantee the basic rights Political principles do not apply directly toits internal life but they do impose does notrun afoul of other political values. conception ofjustice solong as it is arranged to fulfill these tasks effectively and (monogamous, heterosexual, or otherwise) is so far required by a political to maintain an enduring society. Still, no particular form theof family The family must fulfill this (reproductive, own remark) role in appropriate numbers Justice asFairness:ARestatement Justice (The Belknap press of Harvard University 2001), Press, (TheHarvard University press Belknap of 25 28 29 TJ and developsfurther his CEU eTD Collection presented inthethird chapter. necessary. This isalsooneofthestandpoints ofethic ofcare,which will befully and thattherefore some extension ofliberal valuestothedomestic sphereis the women thesame politicalpowers asmen doesnot fully realize the liberalproject reaching implications onthe work market. Itisthefeminist standpointthat offering inequality ofopportunity. Furthermore, theunjustdivision ofdomestic labour hasfar- domestic labour which putswomen oftheprimary intherole caretakerand leadsto 26 CEU eTD Collection society is affected by gender, which is one of the obstacles ontheway onesociety isaffectedby gender,which toits is oftheobstacles its major concern. It is Okin’s opinion that these theories neglected the fact that the criticism of Okin’swork onthis matter. book butalso the articles in which followed. I alsopresentwill themain ofthe line of Justice modern political theories, among them the one ofJohn Rawls andhis book important feminist politicalphilosophy books. The bookprovides critique afeminist of 3.1. Susan Moller Okin Moller 3.1. Susan authors that contributed tothis debate. expansive work the in field, and thein second subchapter Iwill list downthe all other perspective. Inthe first subchapter Iwill presentOkin’s work sinceit themostis Okin’s work represents themost thoroughanalysisofRawls’ work fromthefeminist between rationality and affection that takes place inthefamily. Among theseauthors, framework.merely Shepointed outthe problems andaddressed the relation the other hand criticized Rawls from the standpoint that does not adopt his his theory and offering plausible criticism that could improve his theory.Kearns on Marion Young. Apart from Kearns, all ofthese authorscriticized Rawls byadopting present are SusanMoller Okin, DeborahKearns, Veronique Munoz-Darde andIris criticized Rawls his within theoreticalframework. Theauthorswhich whose Iwill here CRITICISM 3. FEMINIST In thelate1960s political theoryexperienced its revival withsocialjustice as Susan Okin’s In this chapter Iwill presentthe feminist criticism majoritythe ofwhich . In this subchapterwill I introduce . Inthis Okin’s criticism theoryinher of Rawls’ Justice, Gender andFamily 27 written in1989 is oneofthemost A Theory CEU eTD Collection tradition inpoliticalphilosophy, which Rawls unfortunately continues. Okinnotices huge problem for Okin. concernsWhat her is thatthe usage ofthese terms a is long neutral terms suchas 30 reference, such as basic structureandnotpolitical? regulated byprinciples ofjustice”. basic structure- thatfamilies, because theyare basedonaffection, donotneedtobe contrast to his acknowledgment thatthenature ofthe family is withinpurview ofthe indirectly involved publicsphere.in ButRawls otherwise thinks “andsuggests- in just society.Ifthis isso,Okinstates that the family cannot be nonpoliticalsince itis the moraldevelopment ofachild whichmakes itresponsible forthe reproduction ofa that thefamily isinsome just. form Thebasisfortheimportance ofthefamily isin society. In ordertooverride theproblem of theprivate/political clash, Rawls assumes potentially unjust andtherefore incapable of fulfilling its rolein thewell-ordered not applythe principles ofjustice thefamily,in which leaves its internal structure family underthe umbrella ofjustice. Theproblem that Okinfinds is thatRawls does works ofpolitical theory today. distinction, thefamily is notamatter ofpolitics and therefore notdiscussedmost in of spherepublic ofpolitics and marketplace. It Okin’sopinionis thatbecauseofthis gender-structured family. justness. Thereasonforthisneglect thatis most assume theorists thetraditional Okin, Justice Liberalism, S.(1994), “Political and Gender”, One ofOkin’sfirst objections toRawls that is hekeepsusing male termsof Unlike traditionaltheory, liberal atheoryofjustice Rawls places ofJohn the Furthermore, politicaltheorists distinguish theprivate sphere of family and men individual , mankind and 30 , Okin asks Okin he, moral person his, 28 and how canfamilies be bothpartofthe Ethics fraternity. . This in itself does present. This initselfnot a , 26. Rawls alsouses gender- CEU eTD Collection 31 that hewill generally doso.” “Rawlsnot necessarytothink saysthatitis families,of thepartiesasheads but difficult not to keep asking, does this theoryof justice applyto women?” usage ofmale termswhy herself and sheasks ifthis is so, “a feminist reader finds it all-inclusive sincewomen out.This areleft thereason is why Okincriticizes the and the influence that madeit onhim, Rawls doesnotmention thefact that it is not universaland general. exposing on the While Kantian ethics and explaining thevalue consider womensubjects,moral ethics although his usually tobe is referedto as usage ofthe male terms. that most ofthephilosophersnot did include women theories which their justify in the 33 head. householdsfor without implies men, adult which that any present man over thetakes the place of family 32 benevolence, andequal concern for others as fortheself, inorderto have the 1975,in but hekept the “ties of sentiment”. chapter, Rawlschanged “theheads of households” “representativesinto of society” sentiment” which grantthechoice ofjust principles. Asmentioned intheprevious choice This oftheprinciples. whatshould securethebest calls“tiesof is Rawls theperson in original position hasinmind his/her extended future family, which makethat theywill choices. theright choosingtheprinciplesWhile ofjusticeeach are not“single individuals”but “headsoffamilies” the originalin position. Namely, turns it outthat “theparties” the originalin position Susan Moller Okin, Moller Susan Thehead ofthe not family needdoes tobe term“female-headeda man, butis used household” the only Justice.. Furthermore, theauthor that influenced Rawls themost –Kant, doesnot In her later article, Okin argues that “Rawls does have to rely onempathy, The reasonwhy the Rawls introduces family representatives tomakeis sure The secondremark has thatOkin onRawls’ theory,isthenatureof parties , 92. Justice, GenderandFamily Justice, 33 (Basic Books, 1989),91. 29 32 or“representatives offamilies”. 31 CEU eTD Collection 36 liberty;restrictedneglectin by of children be case will protected the outside authority. 35 Rawls doesnotfully apply bothprinciples ofjustice tothefamily. principle ofjustice,the difference principle, case inthis which impossible is since could notbe heard. This potential situation should becovered bythe second sphere, the casethattheyendupbeingin lessadvantaged the societyin theirvoice unrepresented 34 position will nowbethe participants thein labour market. Okinnotices thatRawls the veil of ignorance isremoved, thatallof the parties that once were inthe original of traditions andgender-structured social institutions. between thesexes. sex one would family? resist notwondering Since Rawls changedthenature of theparties intheoriginal position, onecannot wives andother members ofthe family which are not the care intoethicof justice. disinterested andrational, and,as showI will the in next chapter, introduces ethicof principle”. parties comewith theprinciples up they choose,especially thedifference Justice.. theAs for children, Rawls an makes becausetheirpaternalism inequalityargument temporary of of and Okin, S.(1989),“Reason and Feelingin about Thinking Justice”, would agree upon. principles ofjustice are those that individuals in such ahypothetical situation they were to occupy. The argument theof book is designed toshow that the two and rules from a position inwhich they did not know which place in the structure institutions whose members could hypothetically have agreed totheir structure The central tenet of the theory, after all, is that justice as fairness characterizes Okin states thatbymaking parties thein original position heads of the families, Furthermore, Okincriticizes thedistribution of wealth. expected Itis thatonce Okin states that thein original position in which aperson is notaware ofits , 94. 34 This is not compatible with the description ofthe parties asmutually 35 be concerned toestablish thoroughgoing social andeconomic equality . Sincethesemembers areunrepresentedand areinthe private This why thatis Rawls’ shethinks theoryhasapotentialcritique 36 would theparties in original the position choosetraditional 30 Ethics , 243. head are completely CEU eTD Collection the bringing upoffuture citizens andtherefore forthe future ofthejust society. one onthefamily asthe primary schoolofmoraldevelopment which isresponsible for theory unstableand unsustainable. fromprevents it Rawls’fulfilling itsrole in theory.Consequently,thismakes theentire family with sexualdivision ofdomestic labour couldbe just, which thenpotentially achievablefor men andwomen. According toOkin,there is noguarantee thatthe and family. Success on two fronts, familialand professional, isnot equally self-realization. forced totake Women are lesser jobs order in to beablejuggle job primary caretaker which then limits their life choices and prevents them from wanted gender, more precisely theirability to give birth, that puts them in theposition of within the family that does not favor women, namely economic dependence. an unequalbasis. Afurther consequence of thisisthespecific power dynamics caretaking role. Inthis way men andwomenenter marriage and the work market on This forces women topursue education and jobs that are more compatible with the 39 5. 38 domestic thework tothehalfof husband’s salary. 37 society will bestable onlyif membersits to develop continue asense ofjustice. For Rawls treatsthefamily asthe earliest schoolof justice arguesthat well-ordered and cause of inequality ofopportunity, since that role isincompatible with many jobs primary caretakers does nottake into considerationthe unpaid domestic work of andtherole women as Most workplaces structuredare still around the assumption havethat “workers wives athome”, In IPPR, Rawls will andadopt Okin’s criticism advocate forthelaw that entitles women who dosolely Ibid , 94. as the first school of moral development. fair equality of opportunity (on account of the inequalities among families); and between generations necessary for thejust savings principle; as an obstacle to The family appears in The part of Rawls’ theory that drew most feminist attention andcriticism theis In this sensethe fair equality ofopportunity is not obeyed. It is women’s 37 . Okinstates that the role ofaprimary caretaker is themain A Theory ofJustice 31 39 in only three contexts: as the link Justice.. 38 . , CEU eTD Collection 42 41 applied atall. 40 principles ofjustice, reproduce cannot just society. portrayed it, which isassumed tobejust, and which isnot accordancein with two does notalways turnouttobeahappyone.Okincontinues thatthefamily asRawls children since the destiny ofjust societyrelies onit.Anyone can form a family and it under mere assumption that it is just? question thatOkin placesis just andthatgendered family is not accordancein with theprinciples ofjustice. The important. thefuture of just depends society onthefamily, why which is its internal justice is justice which enables them to be the participants of the just society. Therefore, the him family is first “association” that peoplebelong to whichin theyadopt asense of inclinations”. follow from independently established moral principles aremorally suspect -mere who claimed that“justice must begroundedin reason alone, anyfeelings that do not evident thatmoraldevelopment thatRawls suggests unlikeis onegiven byKant, dependence leadstheory ofjustice away from its rational choicerhetoric. Itis deeply dependson love, trust, affection, example, guidance and reciprocity. This threat tothestability oftheory of justice. family asunjust andtherefore unable tofulfill itsrole, forher itrepresents themain Justice Reason.. At thatpointis 1989) Rawlsdid how (it not dotwoprinciples justicefamily explain affect arethey of and not asufficient basis on which to found orsustain his theory of justice. development is very different from Kant’s and indicates clearly that rationality is related rational choice languagemuch of of his theory, Rawls’s account of moral For despite his Kantian assumptions about rationality and autonomy, and the The most important part of Rawls’ theory -the reproduction of the just society- Okin arguesOkin thatthe oflack Rawls’ theoryisthe assumption thatthefamily is .., 98. , 235. 41 Asaresponse tothis claim, Okinstatesthat: how could Rawls giveimportant this roletothefamily Rawlsputs too much faith into raising of 32 40 Sincesheseesgendered 42 CEU eTD Collection 43 thein institution offemaleparenting.” muchconstruction ofthesocial ofgender takesplace thefamily,in and particularly aregirls affectedbythestructure andpractices offamily life.“This becauseso is obstacleto theequality ofopportunity. Forexample, theopportunities ofwomen and states thatthedisparity inthe family isitsstructure gender whichrepresents an Okin life, in opportunities our for determinant crucial a is family the Since return tothis point thein following chapter. theory, justice a is not wideenough term needs caresince it tobesustainable.I will other things which are not in the domain ofjustice. This alsoproves that for Rawls’ Therefore, apart from position,the original moraldevelopment alsodependson “nontraditional groupings” (gay marriages), which atleast somein systems, legal traditional family framework (man, woman children) and without includingso-called long elaboration oftheanswer tothis question, hecriticizes Okin forsetting other questions emanate from that one(such as domestic of division labor). mainthe questionthatneeds tobeanswered theoneofreproduction, is because all criticized forbeingheteronormative. One ofOkin’scritics Kymlickais who that thinks they arenotequally parentedbyadults of both sexes, which iswhywas she if justice of sense a develop cannot children that states Okin point one At sex inequality. responsibilities that socializes children into sex whichroles intheendperpetuates thisin form the family isnotschool ofjustice, butschoolof unequalassignment of equally raised by both parents beable todevelop asense of justice? Inheropinion, Ibid, 16. The questionthat Kymlicka poses is whohas toform the right Inhis a family? 43 Okin askshow childrenwill that are not 33 CEU eTD Collection that sense gender equality issecured. Okin’s response tothis matter general in is equalcitizens asmen, thattheyarefreeandindependent individuals andthatin JFR 44 asks: what istheequivalent of ‘forty acres and amule’ forwomen? In theunpaidSincewomencenturies,been doing domestichave labour for Okin a mule’ could enable black Americans to achieve equalcitizenship. abolition ofslavery, many politically progressive people thoughtthat‘forty acres and and women, i.e.theunpaiddomestic work. Afterthecivil war theUSand in the and amule’ for women: Rawls and feminism samemanner thatLincoln usedin order toabolish slavery. Inherarticle that the problem of theinequality and oppression ofwomensolved canbe in the gender inequality (previously mentioned inthesecondchapter). Rawls suggests of solution the on one the is work Rawls’ on has Okin that remark last The which sheherself wishesto defeat. should dealwith. Therefore, Kymlicka states thatOkin assumes theoldideology natural family, which therefore assumesmuch ofthethingsthat the theory ofjustice heterosexuality.” gender? Totiechildsupport topaternity istoreinforcecompulsory her mother andfather, and yet also say that no social significance attaches to of justiceonly they if areparented equally by parents ofboth sexes. have theright to form a family. It Okin’s opinionis that children candevelop asense Kymlicka, W. (1989),“RethinkingKymlicka, W. Family”, the , Rawls clarifies his standpoint ongender equality bystatingthat women areas Kymlicka responds:Kymlicka “How can we theresponsibilityis saythateachchild of 44 Kymlicka’s main Kymlicka’s criticism concernsof Okin her assumption of Philosophy and Public Affairs andPublic Philosophy 34 , Okindraws aparallel between slavery , 86. ‘Forty acres IPRR and CEU eTD Collection Femilies”, 46 Economics 45 extension ofliberal values and virtues into domestic realm too”. Instead, Wollstonecraft, John Stuart Mill,Harriet and Taylor agitated for the same powers public asmenbe insufficient would torealize the liberal project. proponents of feminist-liberalism have realized that merely offering women the “the that saying Abbey, Ruth by article the in mentioned also is point This problem.” that “inthecase ofgender, aswith formal race, equality doesnotsolve legal the women are out of the house but not out ofthe kitchen woman. Itturnsout thatthe only problem remainedis theunpaid housework, since the household which wouldresult inequaldivisionof unpaid labor betweenman and thinks that changed just relations thein workplace should have theirmirror image in of educationwhich should leadustowards gender-freefuture. This whyis Okin family forcenturies. enough to change the unjust power relations thathave been existing within the oppression’. Ifthis isso,theinfluence from theworkplace mightnot bestrong workplace, butit thatis family that consideredis tobe ‘theultimate bastionoffemale changelaw, will thepower relations within family. Theproblem is notthe is thatit thatbychangingsomeThat iswhy policy, shethinks significant inthiscaselabor the public sphere influences theprivate sphere andthatthey perpetuate eachother. her “remedies” togender-structured society toooptimistic. Theauthor presumes that corrects them in the way thatbenefits the most to the just society. However, I find Abbey, R. (2007), “Back toward aComprehensiveAbbey, R.(2007),“Backtoward Justice Liberalism? Fairness, as Genderand Okin, women: Rawls (2005), “Forty S.M. and acres amulefor and feminism”, Besides the influence from the workplace, theauthoralso relies onthepower Okin’s critique of Rawls is highly plausible; it notices the irregularities and Political Theory Political , 2,234. Vol. 4,No. 45 , 1, 20. Vol. 35,No. 35 . Thedivision ofdomestic work 46 Politics, Philosophy and Politics, Philosophy CEU eTD Collection all ofitscitizens, meaning female andmale. since, with this kind of the family, it cannot secure the samemoral development for the same whyjustice. This thatRawls’is senseof shethinks wholetheoryisflawed and malechildren have different experiences which prevent them from developing internal changes. Kearns states that in thetraditional monogamous female family, be just, andbecause it is sphere of affectionate ties itis not acceptable to make any labour unchanged: since thefamily is a sphere ofaffectionate ties issupposedit to love thatmade possiblefor him to keepthenuclearfamily and its sexualdivision of andlove affection, excluded thefamily from scopeoftheprinciplesthe ofjustice. Itis morality asdifferent and therefore incapable of havinga public reason: was hismajor influence, Rawls adopts the same Kantianconception ofwomen’s unjust family cannot reproduce a just society. Kearns states that, bystating that Kant published 1983,in Deborah Kearns criticizes Rawls onthesame basisasOkin: an 47 3.2.1. Deborah Kearns criticism feminist 3.2. Other problem. assisted by proper education do not seem reliable enough to solve such a complex represents an obstacle tothejust society and mere changesofwork conditions Carol ThePateman, University Sexual (Stanford Contract, Press, 1988.), 168. reason. hand, human capacity is sexually differentiated. Women lack political or civil according to universal and moral laws and to participate incivil life. On the other of being human, everyone has reason, and so possesses the capacity to act On the one hand, his [Kant’s] philosophy rests on the assumption that, by virtue Furthermore, shestates that Rawls, byclaiming thatthe family is based on In herarticle 47 A Theory ofJustice –andLove; Rawls ontheFamily 36 which was CEU eTD Collection difference in difference intendedthem.the socializations and the futurethat are roles for 49 Family Theory ofjustice nominally requiresrationality butittacitlyalso requires care order in meaning thatmen andwomen havethesame rightsascitizens. division, whichwillhave adirect implication onthewomen’s rightsascitizens, 48 practical participatory sense. Later on in roles. This waywomen donothaveanopportunity ofbecoming citizens inthe sphere, since theupbringing in the traditional family puts girls andboys separatein that awomanmight haveself-interests that can override thedemands oftheprivate different futures. different experiences within anuclear family, since theyaresocialized for the cannot work favourin ofthe sense of justice. This way males andfemales will have greater responsibility for childcare and housework, reinforces it thevalues that Since the nuclear family basedis on asexual division of labour, where women bear since theoriginal position presupposes rationality. original position, which means that therefore it is notsubject of the just principles, interest.” sentiment is institutionalized. Other relationships are presumed tobethose of self- by theveil of ignorance, the idea that the family isthe place for affectionand natural their descendants, but that their affectionfor friends and current associates is hidden principles. “Byassuming that all individuals party tothecontract areconcerned about position, which haveinmindtheirdescendants while decidingon thefuture Atone point Rawls mentions thevirtues of the goodsonandthe of gooddaughter, indicates which the Will Kymlicka, ed., Kymlicka, Will , by Deborah Kearns Kearns the is first critic ofRawls that pointed out the Like Okin, Kearns also criticizes the development ofthesense justice. The second reproach to Rawlson the is nature of parties thein original 48 To put itdifferently, To Kearns states that this places the family outside ofthe 49 Justice in Political Philosophy inPolitical Justice Therefore, Rawls follows thephilosophical tradition which denies ( Edgar Publishing Ltd., 1992), 480. Ltd.,1992), ( EdgarPublishing , vol2, 37 IPRR A Theory of Justice –andLove;Rawls onthe A TheoryofJustice , Rawls will abolish the public/private care aspect of his theory. CEU eTD Collection Quarterly 51 associations since the way one enters them isvoluntarily,unlike the in entrance the family. 50 parties as rational anddisinterested. justice. Thisalsocontradicts the idea of theoriginal position andthe ideas ofthe appealing tothe concept of care, which is the term that isopposite to the term of of justice. because theparties haveinmind theirfuture whilefamily deciding ontheprinciples Munoz-Darde statesthat the reasonswhy thefamily isassumed tobejust is persons’ or ‘genetic lines’ or asthe ideaof an ‘everlasting moral agent’. Therefore, the nature ofthe parties intheoriginal position, which aredescribed as‘continuing association and just specialis becauseofits nature. therefore hastobejust. Anotherpossible answer thatthefamily is is aspecialsort of answers, theobviousone isthat the family is aninstitution ofmoraldevelopment and Munoz-Darde, whoasks why thefamily is assumedjust? are There several tobe 3.2.2. Veronique Munoz-Darde oppositeto it –care. Iwill addressthis question inthefollowing chapter. disinterested rationalparties andintroduces theconceptthat diametrically is to bestable. This excludes the possibility of strictly just agreementmade bymutually This argument was by confuted other feminists which proved thatsimilar the family cannot be to Munoz-Darde, (1998),“Rawls, the and in Justice Family”, V. the Justice of Family each person as the singular individual he or she is. family ‘in some form’ is just, example,for because ofthis capacity tocare for position what should be the result of deliberation in it, namely, the idea that the ruled out bythe construction ofthis heuristic device, or ofsituating inthe original that special ties of sentiment should play a role in the original position, which is behind the veil ignoranceof hastherefore the consequence either of accepting Placing the question ofcare for the next generation inanindividualized manner This means tokeephis thatRawls tries theorystable and plausible by Another author thatcriticized Rawls fromthefeminist perspective isVeronique , Vol.48,No.192,342. 38 51 50 The third explanation The liesin The Philosophical CEU eTD Collection consequently puts women theinferiorposition. in finds thatit is thereason forthe unjust divisionof thedomestic labour which Rawls gives more attentiontothe basic structure thanto distributive aspects, she structure which is for her thedirectin tension with emphasis on distributions. Since basic the is justice of subject first the that claim Rawls’ criticizes Young 3.2.3. Iris Marion Young needs care ordertoin survive. theory ofjustice intwopoints crucial (thefoundation andreproduction ofjust society) moreto expand fruitful theconcept ofjustice with care,since it is obvious thatthe the possibility ofapplication of justice within the family. From my pointofview, it is justice, andwishes torationalize and individualize the theory which should result in Rawls’ theory,namely theinvolvement ofcare and its supportto the concept of feminist criticism and wishes tooffer a third way.author The notices the of lacks current and theory Rawls’ both accept to refuses Munoz-Darde that seems It association. application oftheprinciples of justice onthe family, just onanyother like small descendants. According toMunoz-Darde, these changes would enable the author alsostates thatRawls should not assume care fortheir thatparties lines should bedropped andmore individualistic account should beaccepted; the why theauthorstates that theideaofparties intheoriginal positionasgenetic inequality ofopportunity within thefamily asjustified bytheaffectionate ties. This is reflection ofjustice within thefamily and whichconsequently then accepts the admitting thatthe tiesofsentiment playaspecialrole, arole whichrules outa Munoz-Darde states that Rawls contradicts the purpose of the original position by 39 CEU eTD Collection income generators for family” care ofchildren andother dependent members, while ideally men aretheprimary societies intheworld, which assumes thatwomendevote primary energies totaking gender justice:“Adivision oflaborpersists structuremostas partofthebasic of theirthat is position Young inthefamily. approachesthis problem from theaspect of It isararesighttoseewomen positionsandone inthehighest ofthereasonsfor 53 stereotyping public paid occupations. in “Arguably as asbasicinstitutionslong treat implications onthe worth ofdifferent kinds of labor, sexual segregation andgender reachingfar has sexuallabor divisionof structureof Young, this Accordingto 52 be defined. Furthermore, Youngraises thequestionof how the occupations themselves should states that the violation offair equality of opportunity takes placein family. ascriptivefamily origin, orother characteristic, which thecase.Theauthor isnot presupposes the allocation of positions which donot discriminate by race, gender, criticized byIrisMarion Young,who statesthat fair equality ofopportunity society should beequallyaccessible toeveryoneequal basis. This onan point is of labor divisionis division oflabor. Theprinciplewhich regulates the issues of justice within the social the is society of structure basic the of aspect general the Rawls, For Young, 93. Young, I. M. (2006), “Taking the Basic Structure Seriously”, Structure Basic the “Taking Young,I. M.(2006), Is it just, example,for that anaspect ofthe basic structure ofsociety consists power, and prestige? while the few positions at the top carry broad autonomy, decision making are relatively menial, repetitive, and subordinate to thedecisions ofothers, in an occupational pyramid where the more plentiful positions are at the bottom fair equality ofopportunity, 52 53 . 40 Perspectives on Politics meaningthat all positions within , Vol. 4/No.1 , 93. , Vol. 4/No.1 , CEU eTD Collection 55 54 insufficient attentionto it”. care work asprimarily theprivate responsibility offamilies, social policypay will justice tothe family life, for at the very same time asheapplied the principles of difficult to figure out just what Rawls finally thought were admissible applications of unsolved. Rawls remains vague in explaining the treatment ofthe family, “it isvery the secondone,which leaves theproblem equalityof thefair ofopportunity seems intheendthatRawls appliesthefirst principle directly tothefamily, butnot family andtheprinciples ofjusticeposition entirelyhas notbeen successful”. justice tothe family. Furthermore, his “attempt toclarify the relationship between the majority offeminist criticism, buthestill remained reluctant to apply the principles of especially when comes it tothereproduction ofjust Rawls society. responded to the of justice to the family, which would then make his entire theory more consistent, underpaid. occupations takesplace, and thefinal result isthatthese“women’s jobs”areusually then perceived as women’s jobs.is how stereotyping This gender inpaid cannot devote theirit paid occupation. This is why theychooselesser jobswhich are sense,this unjust family makes anunjust society. sphere andthat lives nospace for discussion onjust society Rawlsianin sense. In unjust. Therefore, the unjust family relations have their spillover effect into the public repercussions thepublicin spherewhich then, incertain measure,makesalso it Abbey, “Back toward aComprehensiveAbbey, “Backtoward 14. Liberalism?”, Ibid. To conclude, feminists mostly criticized Rawls fornotapplying theprinciples If women devotetheirprimary energies todoingdependency work, thenthey I agreewith Young’sclaims andwould addthatthenatureoffamily hasits 54 41 55 It CEU eTD Collection 56 families”. justice tofamilies, healso insisted quitestrongly thatthey do not apply everyday life. criticism should provide suggestions forthe achievement ofgenderequality in propositions for the improvement oftheory justice. Takentogether, both lines of characteristics ofethics ofcare, thecriticism of Rawls’ theory from aspectits and the orderin toachieve genderequality. Inthe followingchapter Iwill present themain be fully understood from the aspect of justice, and that therefore justice needs care criticism, ethicsofcare, emphasizes the factthat women’s ethicalexperience cannot opportunity thattheory ofjustice whishesto achieve. Thesecondline offeminist treatment ofwomen, which inthe end is notcompatible with theequality of pays insufficient attention to the family andtherefore, neglects the position andthe Okin, “Forty andacres amule...”, 245. The first The first line offeminist criticism emphasized thepartsofRawls’ theorythat 56 Therefore, the main tension remains unresolved. 42 within CEU eTD Collection is understoodis as feminine ethicrelated to women’smorality or it isde-gendered what theexact relationship isbetween ethicsofcareand ethicsofjustice. consensusthere isverylittle onwhatwhere should actuallyis, beplacedand it it vs.Justice 4.1. Care introduction ofcare should also contribute togender equality everydayin life. practical leveland according to the authors that use care as a politicalconcept, the base forthe theory of justice anditwould fortify itsstability. Taken toamore and offer an introduction of care into justice, whichshould provide amore plausible care within politics. impacts onsociety.Thefinalresult should provide asupportforthe placement of the possibilities ofapplication ofcare within politics andemphasize itspositive Tronto and Sevenhuijsen, theorists thatsee care asapolitical concept. Iwill explore to which sphere? public/private distinction, Iwill address the question Further on, since this kind of placement ofcare and justice perpetuates the places ethics ofcarewithin theprivate andethics ofjustice within thepublic sphere. define ethicsofcare andethics ofjustice, their relation andtheir differences which different approach, I will identify careas a political concept. In the first part Iwill through its relationto ethics ofjustice, man’s ethics. Inthis chapterI willtake a CARE OF 4. ETHICS Furthermore, feminist within ethicsthere isa debate onwhether ethics ofcare Feminist debates ontheethics ofcarebegan inthe1980’sand until today Finally, I will present the criticism of Rawls from the aspect of ethics of care Ethics of care has generally been defined as woman’s ethicsand examined In my addressing this question Iwill follow the argumentation of 43 which ethics should be extended CEU eTD Collection contribute tomorality generalin with itsconceptions of ‘good woman’ the first approach perceives ethic of care exclusively as woman’s that ethic should wouldrequire the politicaland public recognition ofcare aspractice andwork. Since concept, which iswhy itcouldbe placed inthecenter ofthepoliticalarena. This gendered approach considers ethics ofcare not only asa moralbut a political understanding intheterms ofpureanduniversalistic justice. Thesecondde- should contribute morality ingeneral bybringing inparticularity and compassion, i.e. incapable of acquiring ethic ofcare. ethic ofacquiring incapable i.e. areexcluded, men naturalness of the fact relying to by Furthermore, bysome feminists. was criticized ofethics care of approach wholefirst the the process, of naturalness with andtherefore birth give to 58 Tronto morality S.Sevenhuijsen. are J.C. itas the and S.Ruddick, authors whode-gendered while consider 57 justice reason and and ontheother responsibility andcare. women’s morality and ethics ofjustice asmen’s morality. Onthe one sidethere are considered to bethe basis oftwo different ethicalorientations: ethic ofcareas related torules andrights. These two differentviews moralof reasoning are integrating care and responsibility, unlike men whose point ofmoral reasoning is attentive tothecontext, particularity ofmoralsituations, tendto solve problems sexes, more specific in thewoman’s abilityto givebirth. Women seem moreto be justice Iwill and show how care couldbe used as apoliticalconcept. usage of care within politics. I will describethe specific relation between care and equality. Inthis chapterIwill focus on the second debate because it enables the ethics, thesecond approach seemsmore adequatefor the achievement ofgender between its sexes.notions ofcapability With ofeveryone toacquireboth typesof the secondde-gendered approach which does notresideexclusively ondifferences morality. Theunderstandcare as authors that of feminine ethics are C.Gilligan, morality N.Noddings V.Held, and The usage of the traditional stereotypes of a ‘good woman’, which are derived ability from women’s derived which are a ‘goodwoman’, of stereotypes traditional usageofthe The The basis ofboth ethics ofcare and justice lie inthe differences between the 57 Thefirstapproachconsiders ethics ofcareaswoman’s which ethic 44 58 , Iwill optfor CEU eTD Collection 61 60 59 the relation between the twomoralagents. particularity of ethics ofcare, meaningthat they are both determined bythe nature of impartiality. Anotherdistinction concerns universality ofethicsjustice and It follows that all other differences between thetwo ethics arise from the basic one, relationship between twomoralagents: characteristicis ofethics ofjustice, while ethicsofcare isestablished onspecial and justice which isall placedinthepublic sphere, thein place of politics. morality which is constituted on the reason, on the Kantian principle of universality whichvalues areall oftheprivatesphere. On theoppositeside thereisman’s womenmight bemore inclined tospeakmore ofteninthe language of care”. standpoints that both men andwomen can adopt, although there are reasons why men ethicsofjustice: “It does not describe two genderized moralities but two to different sexes, doesit not mean thatwomen can only acquire ethics ofcare and Moore,3. Moore,M.(1999), TheEthicsCare and of Justice, David Copp, David agent perceives and responds to the perception of need. defining selfand others. Within thecontext ofrelationship, the selfas moral Golden Rule). From a care perspective, the relationship becomes the figure, against a standard of equality or equal respect (the Categorical Imperative, the ground ofsocial relationships, judging the conflicting claims ofself and others From ajustice perspective, the self asmoral agent stands as a figure against a Furthermore, maindifference between two ethics is based on impartiality which bonds and cooperation. competing. Whereas justice protects equality and freedom, care fosters social interests ofcarers andcared-for as importantly intertwined rather than assimply between competing individual interests and rights, an ethic of care sees the cultivating caring relations. Whereas anethic ofjustice seeks a fair solution focuses on attentiveness, trust, responsiveness to needs, narrative nuance, and abstract principles, and theconsistent application of them. An ethic of care An ethicsjustice of focuses on questions of fairness, equality, individual rights, Ethics ofcare is linkedtothe emotions, relational ties, nurturingand caring, It isimportant toemphasize thatalthough each ofthesetwo ethics arerelated The Oxford Handbook of Ethical Theory of Ethical Handbook The Oxford 59 45 Women andPolitics , (Oxford University Press US, 2006), 546. 2006), US, Press University , (Oxford 61 , Vol.20(2), 4. 60 CEU eTD Collection 62 Sevenhuijsen’s approach toethics of care defines it as moralas and political to think about morality without dividing it into women’s andmen’s. Tronto and basis forthe politicalachievement ofagood society which wouldenable the people understand ethics of careasanew approach tojustice,morality andpolitics. argument of‘de-gendered’ theorists, namely andSevenhuijsen Tronto who severalapproaches tothis questionand my in addressingtoitIwillfollow the care unusable aspoliticalconcept. them it willstrengthen the public/private dichotomy andconsequently it willmake opposite valuesandexist indifferent spheres. But between ifwedrawasharp line and justice.At first seemsit they are that mutually exclusive because they have These characteristics of both ethics raise the question of the relation between care Živa Humer, MAThesis: ethics of care: relationality, interdependency, responsibility - and care (care, ethics of justice: autonomy, equality and rights (embedded in our - societies, in universality of ethics of justice supposes abstract moral rules which apply - to ethics of justice emphasizes universal moral- principles and individual Further distinctions between thetwo ethics are: These authorsstate that care should beunderstood asamoralvalue and as a The question is emotions, relations among people-private sphere) the public sphere) are notdetached, but attached through caring relation everyone, while ofcare defined particularity ethics is in where and other self relations between actual people conscience, while ofcare ethics paysmore attentiontopeople’s needsand to Care, Justice and Equality Care, Justice which ethics should beextended towhich sphere? 46 , Central European University, 2004,9-12. 62 There are CEU eTD Collection 145. 64 63 into politics. opens thespaceforbroader political participation, namely fortheinclusion ofwomen questions: who should provide care and who shouldbear the burdens of care. This citizensits arewellcared for. Careasastrategy presupposes answerstwo to politicalconflict). Care as apoliticalgoal isnotanew notion: society flourishes when goal (acollective ideal) andcare as astrategy (away toaffect the outcome of 4.1.1. Careas political concept is thatoncewe dothat, we cannotplace ethics ofcare in thepolitical sphere. care asnaturalthen we tieitto instincts and not tomoralchoice. The consequence considers feminine ethicstobetrapped into motherhood,meaning that ifweidentify proposes severalpossible usagesofcare inspecific fields ofpolitics. Sevenhuijsen conceptualization which frees care from its apolitical context. Furthermore, Tronto continuing, orrepairing theworld. concept. Inpolitical sense,care is understood as apractice thataims atmaintaining, common good and wouldit fulfill the samegoalonce applied inpolitics. At the its naturalplace should bepolitics. On themicro level,the goal ofcare is the presupposes relationality,Since care interdependency andisinherently integrative, Nancy. J.Hirschmann andStefano, Christine Di Humer, 26. Humer, traditional duties. forced to the logical position that women should continue to perform those be able to point tothe importance ofwomen’s traditional activities without being part of the public concerns. By focusing on avocabulary of care, feminists would In order for women to become active, they need to sense that their concerns are Tronto statesthat careserves asapolitical concept intwo senses: care asa Since care generally is perceived asapolitical, Tronto proposes different 64 63 Revisioning thePolitical Revisioning 47 , (Westview Press, 1996),144, CEU eTD Collection and Politics The social-liberal concept ofcitizenshipmakes acleardistinction between thepublic Citizenship isusually understood inthetermsrights ofequal and equaltreatment. 66 pleasure. destruction pursuitand the of 65 terms andplurality). ofdiversity suitableit for theimprovement oftheconcept of citizenship (usually described inthe (relationality, interdependency) andespecially its attentiveness tothecontext, makes of democraticthe concept citizenship. The main characteristicsofethics ofcare people, andthat way unequalwelfare consequences would beeliminated. conscience of interdependency which would emphasize theconnections between The societywhich would acceptcare asapoliticalconcept would develop a human insome is partoftheir lifedependent on somebody’s care andassistance. problem. Introduction ofcaremeans theintroduction ofthegeneral that notion every unequal andplacescaregivers above care-receivers, which areperceived asa caregivers andcare-receivers. Thewelfare system we isinherently as haveit problems, suchasthe mainproblem of the welfare system: therelation between larger solve could it life, public in introduced is concept a as care Once equal opportunities policy, immigration policy, family policy, ecology. of application of care could beemployment policies, nondiscrimination, health care, through what isrelational toit,namely public educationor daycare. Further places parochial, which reduced its value.Introducing ofcareintopolitics shouldbe made moment, care placedis within the private sphere and thereforeis labeled as Selma Sevenhuijsen, Selma Accordinghuman toTronto, thatof donotdomains only the life presuppose careareproduction, enabling usto consider its values as political virtues. better able to cope with diversity and plurality, and care will be ‘de-romanticized’, dual transformational effect: the concept ofcitizenship will be enriched and thus responsiveness and responsibility, into concept of citizenship this will produce a Ifwe integrate values derived from ethics of care, such as attentiveness, The standpoint ofSevenhuijsen thatethics is of careisanecessary element in , (Routledge, 1998),15. Citizenship and the Ethics of Care: Feminist Considerations on Justice, Morality onJustice, Considerations of Care:Feminist and theEthics Citizenship 48 66 65 CEU eTD Collection has made itasubject ofpolitical action. Since bothpolitics and care arerelocated, two processesare not separate. The relocation ofcare from the homes tothepublic outsideplace ofthehome,the collectiveandcommercial namely in services. These care means thatcaring activities whichwere once done athome, arenow taking democratic deficit which calls fornew ways ofdemocratic control. Therelocation of andnational international courts. This whyis today’spoliticalsystems sufferfrom a large internationalenterprises, the corridors ofsupranationalorganizations, to of politics means thatthepower is relocated from parliaments tothehead offices of are taking place: therelocation ofpolitics and the relocationof care. The relocation processes intertwined two societies modern in that states also Sevenhuijsen care-receiver thatwould offer anewconcept of thewelfare state. ethics of care asapoliticalconcept would leadtointegrationof the caregiver and which canfurtheron influence thepolicy debates onwelfare. Therefore, usage of practicepoliticalas care of introduction an signifies concept Furthermore,this individualistic view towards relational one. quality of social care would be improved. This concept signifies aswitch from an the same time therole in of the care giver and thecare-taker and that way the community. Theconcept of which thenotions ofinterdependence would beemphasized andwould benefitthe 67 a certain community. Sevenhuijsen arguesfortheconceptof individuality, and neglects the interdependence andrelationality ofthe peoplewithin and particularity autonomy, of notions the presupposes concept This means thatequality covers only the publicThis sphere. and privatesphere andtries tointerfereas littleas possible totheprivate sphere. Humer, 31. Humer, caring citizenship 49 implies that the peoplewould be at 67 caring citizenship caring in CEU eTD Collection notions ofrelationality, interdependence and attentioncalls fortheconcept ofcaring because care hasbecomeitself public matter. a Ethics of carewith itsgeneral solutions isanextension ofethicscare into the publicsphere. This is legitimate opens a space for introduction of new ways of(self)governing. One of the possible on much levels,which makes higher theproblems ofcommunity secondary.This At the same time, has politics transgressed the limits ofparliament andnow exists care hasexceeded theprivate sphereandthat waypolitical question. hasbecome a done outside ofit,whether itisclotheswashing, eatingrearing. orchild Thisway ways oflife. The majority ofactivities thatwere oncedone athome arenow being The working andtheschoolhours arelonger,which haschangedthehabits andthe changed.generalis life in workand naturetoday’s societies, of modernIn the policies. of moralconsiderations than it is possible once government decides onfuture society will affect itself. Thisway, new social policy willmore be underthe influence societyciviltake placeThe new care wouldwhich in means of politics thatthe modern for democracies the introduction ofcarepolitical asa concept. of care publicpolicy,into namely thewelfare policy. Therefore, aspace created is in This way, new forms ofdemocratic action will becreated which will integrate ethics Social Policy Sevenhuijsen andS. Svab A., 68 two solutions: need forthere is a new ways ofresponsible policy-making. Sevenhuijsen proposes Sevenhuijsen,Care. The Social Care the in S(2003),“The Placeof Policy”for Relevanceof Ethics of quality of social care. receivers of care and where they, in dialogue with each other, can work on the citizenship: practices in which people can manifest themselves asgivers and commitments toeach other. Space will be created for new practices ofcaring leading good life, and inwhich they can realize their connections with and The development of collective agency directed towards people’s needs for , Peace Institute:, Peace 17. Ljubljana, Labyrinths of Care. The Relevance of the Ethics of Care Perspective for oftheEthics ofCarePerspective Labyrinths ofCare.TheRelevance 68 50 CEU eTD Collection standpoint is that every man determined is byhis/hers reason. This whyis reason is whyis it is important toexplain the Kantian notion of universalisticmorality. Kant’s distinction, apathfor introduction ofcare intojustice isopened. explicitly said anyin ofRawls’ works. Since Rawls abolishes the public/private justice.primary senseof Therefore, justicepresupposes care,although itisnot plausible and stable:first thein originalposition, andsecond in thedevelopment of momentsare two crucial theoryofjustice usecareinordertobe inthe whichtacitly individuality, inordertobesustainable atheoryofjustice presupposes care.There care. The mainargument is that although nominally founded on rationality and of ethics of aspect the from came Rawls criticism of feminist of line Another ofcare ofethics aspect the from of Rawls 4.2. Criticism within politics in real life, wemight needanew definition of politics. island, activeand alsoemphasizes therole of citizenship. notionsits that With in its ideal sense. Care within politics makes peopleaware of their fellow citizens that necessary alegitimate politics foronly forpolitics,is care,butthatcareis place dichotomy. Throughthearguments ofTronto andSevenhuijsen, itisobvious not placement ofethics ofcare within politics signifies the abolition of the public/private hope and givesno for itsusageinpolitics, itispossibledoIn this to so. sense, sphere private the in care of ethics puts frameworktheoretical the Although governing. wouldexist thecivil within society andwouldbring politics toitsroots-the good citizenship, which would influence thepolicy-making citizenship process.Thecaring Besides Mill, oneofthe authors that influenced Rawlsmost the isKant,which care it moralityintroduces care it politics.succeeds into finding Ifcare in aplace 51 no manis an CEU eTD Collection 69 whowillact differently inrelationwith particular peoplebased onaffective ties? This The question isthen, how are impartiality and particularity related within the person influenced, they stop being impartial andthey start tocare. have aspecial kind of relationship tothem, andtheiractions are differently ethics ofjustice. Havingtheir descendants in mind,the parties thein originalposition mind futuredescendants. their Thiskind ofreasoning introducesethics ofcareinto the original position have mind in theirextended family. Inotherwords, theyhave in Kantian morality. Namely, when onbasicprinciples deciding ofjust society,parties in impartial moralagents. But itishardtosaythattheyactsolely ontheprinciples of justice thatwillbe applicable toeveryone. This means thattheyact asrational and of their characteristics, which makes suitable them toconceive the principles of reasoning. Parties intheoriginal position behind the‘veil of ignorance’ are notaware to bethe irrational sphereof affectionate ties. ofjusticewhich andethics outthefamily personallife,which areconsidered leaves impartial, unconditionaland applies toeverybody. This isthe pure application of decisions thatare made byreason, only notbyfeelings. Moreover, theimperative is become auniversal actually law." This meansthat we shouldactandmake only according to that maxim whereby youcan atthe same time willthat it should the basis ofKantian morality and it isembedded inthecategorical imperative: "Act Moore,6. necessarily selfish) action. the personal realm, asapersonal choice, and as self-interested (though not an impartial moral perspective. Everything else is conceived ofas belonging to regulate the basic frameworksociety of (the public sphere), are arrived at from impartial and self-interested components. The principals ofjustice, which In Rawls’ theory, then, practical reason is conceived ofas bifurcated into its In histheoryand especially intheoriginal Rawls position, kind adoptsthis of 69 52 CEU eTD Collection motivational factor. The parties thein original position cannot be (and are not) favourin ofgender equality notonlywithin the legal norms butinthereal life. justice wouldgainon its plausibility andstability and,atthesame time, itwouldwork the usage of care asapoliticalconcept. theintroductionWith ofcare, the theory of facilitates theintroduction ofcareintojustice and,inmore sense,itenables practical introduce theabsence ofthe public/private dichotomywithin his theory. This fact wouldbe unsustainable. Inhis later works prompted byfeminist criticism, Rawls will public/private distinction: justiceif theorywould presuppose care,thenthis distinction 70 for otherparticular individuals” socializes individuals intomorality butthe care andaffection ofparticular individuals important, “it isnotthe justice ofthe institutions ofmoraldevelopment which justiceand therefore becomemembers functionaljust of society. isevenWhat more school of moraleducation. thefamilyWithin childrenshould adopt the sense of to havejustsociety is learned inthefamily, understood which asthe primary is justice. original position are rationaland impartialwhich enables them to have the sense of confirm this influence? Instead, hecontinues persuading usthat the parties inthe confirms theartificiality of this division. The only question is whyRawlsnot does influences andparticipates intheconstruction ofthepublic sphere, which only within theself,which is implausible. implies that public/private, impartial/partial divisioncorresponds to the same division Moore,10. It seems that Rawls’ liberaltheory presupposes care (at least) thein sense of The sense ofjustice thatpeopledevelop andthat so is much neededinorder Furthermore, it means thatethics ofcare, which is tied tothe private sphere, 70 . Thisonce again confirms theartificiality ofthe 53 CEU eTD Collection 1997), 3,4. 72 umbrella ofjustice, since it hasfar-reaching implications onsociety’s well-being. Therefore, the dependency critique argues for putting thedependency work under the 71 modern liberal theories is called positioning ofthe dependency worker within Rawls’ theory. This criticism of the affectionate ties. comprehend themoralsignificance of relations between people that are based on Therefore, from the aspect of ethics ofcare contemporary justice theories do not women’s actualmoral thinking given their traditionaland ongoing familial role?” family andthusexclude considerations that moreare likelytofigure centrally in fully impartialethics necessarily exclude obligationsfriends specialmoral to and task of women within the family, what kind of morality do children acquire? “Does a acquired only through rational reflection. But theif earlymoral development the is functionality of just society. necessary for acquisition of the sense of justice and therefore for the stability and ties toparticular others thatmotivate them to choosethe just principles. Care is motivated solely byfreedom and equality, itis the reflection oftheirhistorical, genetic Calhoun, Care, Gender Bias, C.(1988),Justice, Patrice DiQuinzioIris and Young, Marion which the ideal of equality was articulated. such dependency for social organization are outside the political sphere for the presumption that inevitable human dependencies and the consequences of circumstances under which the ideal was conceived and, more specifically, on difficulties in assimilating women to the liberal ideal of equality. Its focus is on the prescribed differences from and subordination to men by considering the care for dependents. The dependency critique looks beyond women’s socially condition, thereby neglecting the condition both ofdependents and those who socialof cooperation, one disregards the inevitable dependencies of the human individuals with equal powers, equally situated in the competition forthe benefits maintains that byconstructing society as an association ofequals, conceived as Another aspect of the ethics of care criticism considerationtakes into the It isthedominant view justiceof liberal theorists thatmoralknowledge is dependency critique Feminist Ethics and Social Policy The Journal of Philosophy Journalof The 54 72 which , Vol.85,No.9,460. , (Indiana University Press, University (Indiana , 71 CEU eTD Collection way andhistorical a“long injustice towards women”would becorrected. Finally, the would become oneofthesubjects thatdistributive justice would decideupon. This Furthermore, itwouldacknowledge dependency workwork as andinthatsense it unavoidable when itcomes tofoundingandperpetuating awellordered society. problem of moraldevelopment, itwould acknowledge theties ofsentiment as that gap,since on a primary level itaffectssmall scaleinteractions. characteristics ofrelationality, interdependency andresponsibility, carecould fill in the level basedit is on ofinstitutions leavingthe individual part aside. its With individualistic andintrapersonal relations. One of thecriticismsto Rawls’theoryisthat 73 theory ofjusticecare isnot in the primary stage of moral development, but despite both of these roles in the orderedwell society in its initialstage asamotivationalfactor. Care is alsonecessary It isevident that Rawls’ theory incorporates care insome form and thatis crucial for modern theoriesofjustice andset forth the reasons forsuch inclusion: it shouldbecome apublicmatter. Furthermore, since dependency oneis at point oranother inherent tohuman beings, Moore, 11. and abstractly equal to others and undifferentiated. how one could become attached to another ifrequired to view her as absolutely perspective and so develop the capacity to act morally. It is difficult toconceive person could possibly develop any attachments to others from the impartial and view each person asequal to all others. And it is difficult to see how the that itrequires the person to abstract from her particular desires, aims and ideals The standpoint ofimpartiality is the exact reverse of the standpoint ofcare, in everyone, it becomes indistinguishable from the impartial standpoint of justice. Ifcare is detached from particular, historical relations and isextended to With inclusion ofcare thein theory ofjustice Rawls’ theorywould resolve the Another contribution ofcare tothe theory of justice could beits appealto The apologists of ethics ofcare state that care shouldbe incorporated into explicite acknowledged asa vitaland unavoidablefactor. 55 73 CEU eTD Collection basis forthe placement ofcarewithin thescope ofjustice. abolishment oftheprivate/public distinction within thetheory ofjustice provides a 56 CEU eTD Collection the past,namely theplacementfamily ofthe within the sphere ofjustice. Thecriticism recognized the progress that theory ofjustice hasmade compared tosimilar works in twentieth century societywhichaimed iswhy tocontribute it it.Ithasalso framework ofthe theoryofjustice, has recognized the importance ofhiswork forthe work positions unavailable forthem. jugglework andthe family. Also, thevery fact that women cangivebirth make certain domestictasks afterwards. Thisplaceswomen asituation inwhich in theyhaveto domestic duties and take a job thatwill leave enoughtime andenergytodealwith comes tothechoice of future occupation, womenmust takeinto consideration their dependency workthe consequence work inequality and is inthe market. it When subordination. Women havebeendoingthe major partofthedomestic and achieve justice inthefamily and consequently gender equality? state shouldnot so,whatinterfere init.Ifthis changesareallowedorderto is tobein whether thesphere of thefamily shouldremaina sphere ofprivacy and love, and the which everyoneisallowed tofreelyfollow its conceptionof good. Thequestion is stop at the doors of one’s home, sinceitisthe private sphere ofthe individual in of discrimination. accomplished. But in real life thesituation isquite different and there arestill all forms orientation, and when we look at the legal norms itseems thatthe goal is their citizens, regardless oftheirrace, ethnicity, religion, gender andsexual 5. CONCLUSION Feminist criticism of Rawls, especially the one that criticized him within the Feminists often argue thatthefamily is thefinalbastion of women’s comesWhen it tolegalregulations, often it is debated whetherthe stateshould The goal ofmodern liberalsocieties is to reach the ideal of equality for allof 57 CEU eTD Collection recognized aswork and rewarded as work. If this is done so, together with theswitch they argue thatthis workshouldalso beput under the umbrella ofjustice, itmust be wasfar since it done the publicin domestic from the eyesof sphere. This why is the dependencywork which hasnever been acknowledged associally neededwork, public service, which fewerleaves jobs todo atone’shome. and italsomeans thatalargeamount ofdomesticwork isnowbeingdonebysome domesticsphere are nowtaking place in public. This makes them subjects ofjustice ischangedway andtheactivities oflife thatonce were consideredtobepartofthe thein sense that caretaking activities no longer take place solely one’sin home. The theorists that use care as A politicalconcept indicated, modern society has changed separated from each other,the way forinnovations was opened.Furthermore, asthe public/private distinction and does not consider these two spheresashermetically not indicate soit in many words. SinceRawlsintroduced theabolition ofthe principle, feminists indicated thatRawls’ theory presupposes care, although itdoes school ofmorality andthe problem of theapplication ofthe equality ofopportunity offered solutions to it. Apart from the criticism that referred to the family as a primary twenty-year period. said thatboththe theory and its criticism have beengrowing together for analmost helped toimprove some andfillin gapsinthetheoryofjustice. Therefore, it canbe that he understood and took into consideration their arguments, which consequently to genderequality.response The that feminist criticism from received indicates Rawls noticed that it haselements which, oncecorrected andsupplemented, cancontribute that feminists offered was mostly constructive and motivated bygood intentions, it The other argument thatfeminists make isthe dependency argument, namely Feminist criticism highlighted the problematic parts of Rawls’ theory and 58 CEU eTD Collection come. may saythatgenderequality is achieved. Hopefully, with some changesthis daywill She said,oncewhen we haveasstupidwomen politics in aswemen have we today, submayor Barbara Kisseler, ofBerlin was who classes. aguestlecturer inoneofour for thestability ofthe theory ofjustice isonestep towards genderequality. position ofwomen andothersuppressedgroups. Therecognition ofthemerits ofcare sphere ofjustice, butitalso offersnumerous possibilities for theimprovement ofthe Therefore, needthere fororfearfrom isno the “kitchenpolice”. treatment ofdependency work donotinany wayjeopardize the privacy ofthe family. modernway oflifeintroducejustice within the family. Thenecessary changesofthe changes ofthe treatment ofdependency work from the sideof stateand the should resolve theproblem of gendered division ofdomestic labour. Together the the public sphere together with theacknowledgment ofthedependencywork aswork, Therefore, the nature ofmodern which life placesthemajority ofdomestic work into of thecaretaking activities topublic, the majority of domestic work taken is care for. In theend,Iwould like toquote,or morespecifically, to paraphrase the Rawls’ theorypresents a benchmark since placesit thefamily under the 59 CEU eTD Collection Sevenhuijsen, S.1998, Pateman, C.1988, Moore, M.1999,“The Ethics ofCare and Justice”, ______, 2005, “Forty acres andamule forwomen: feminism”, Rawls and ______, 1994, “Political Liberalism, Justiceand Gender”, ______, 1989, “Reason and Feeling inThinking aboutJustice”, S. Okin, 1989, Hirschmann, N.andDi Stefano, C.1996, Mundoz-Darde, V. 1998, “Rawls, Justice inthe and Family Justice oftheFamily”, ______, 1992, Kymlicka, 1989,“RethinkingW. theFamily”, ______, 2001, ______, 1999, ______, 1999, Rawls, J.1993, Humer, Ž.2004,MA Thesis: Copp, D.2006, Calhoun, C.1988, “Justice, Care,Gender Bias”, Abbey, R.2007, “Back toward aComprehensive Liberalism? 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