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Heidemann Dissertation Hearing Women’s Voices in Popular Song: Analyzing Sound and Identity in Country and Soul Kate Heidemann Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 2014 © 2014 Kate Heidemann All rights reserved Abstract Hearing Women’s Voices in Popular Song: Analyzing Sound and Identity in Country and Soul Kate Heidemann In this study I combine music analysis with critical theory to investigate how different conceptions of feminine identity—intersecting with race and class—are materialized through recorded sound. I present interpretive analyses of four popular songs recorded and released between 1967 and 1974: “Baby, I Love You” by Aretha Franklin, “Fist City” by Loretta Lynn, “If I Were Your Woman” by Gladys Knight and the Pips, and “Jolene” by Dolly Parton. My analyses focus on vocal performance, and vocal quality (or timbre) in particular, as I investigate the means by which the sounds of these recordings participate in cultural discourse on gender, sexuality, race, and class. These songs narrate moments in sexual love relationships (the hope of new love or the threat of infidelity), while the performances of each vocalist, the studio musicians, and the work of engineers and producers combine to create representations of black and working-class femininity that express varying degrees of assertiveness and vulnerability in the face of unequal gender power relations. I compare and contextualize these sonic expressions of identity with the personas these vocalists presented in their professional and public lives, illustrating how these recordings participate in the construction of a multi-faceted and always- emergent history of American womanhood. In order to accurately describe the relationship between musical sound and intersectional gender identity, I develop a phenomenological analytic methodology sensitive to how embodied responses (the types of physical engagements invited by sound), associative (or connotative, semiotic) responses, and social and historical context of both the recording and listener all contribute to the process of interpretation. I take my own situated listening experience as the object of study, recognizing how my listening practices and reactions, and overlapping identities—as a white, upper-middle-class woman and music scholar—impact my interpretations of these songs. My focus on the physical engagement inherent in music listening underpins the approach to vocal quality analysis I present at the outset of my study, in which I link descriptive language about voice to the physical components of vocal sound production. In my analyses of lyrics, instrumental quality, dynamics, rhythm, form, pitch, and the sonic “space” afforded by each recording, I continue to attend to the types of embodied and associative responses afforded by each element, demonstrating how an engagement with these sounds informs conceptions of gender identity. Table of Contents List of Examples and Figures iii Chapter 1: Sound and Identity 1 1.1 Music, Meaning, and Identity 2 1.2 Taking Stock and Going “Off the Beaten Path”: Popular Music Analysis 10 1.3 The Meaning of Popular Music: Embodiment and Association 17 1.4 The Gendered Meanings of Popular Music 25 Chapter 2: Analyzing Vocal Quality 33 2.1 Definitions of Vocal Timbre and Vocal Quality 34 2.2 Building an Analytical Approach to Vocal Quality 40 2.3 Embodied Listening as an Approach to Vocal Quality Analysis 56 2.4 Vocal Quality Analysis: Four Case Studies 64 Chapter 3: Analysis of Sound, Part I: Quality, Lyrics, Dynamics, and Space 78 3.1 Gender/Race/Class & Quality/Lyrics/Dynamics/Space 78 3.2 Soul: “Baby, I Love You” and “If I Were Your Woman” 87 3.3 Country: “Fist City” and “Jolene” 117 Chapter 4: Analysis of Sound, Part II: Rhythm and Pitch 144 4.1 Rhythm 145 4.2 Form 170 4.3 Pitch 186 4.4 Summary 206 Chapter 5: History, Persona, and Identity 211 5.1 Signs of the Times 213 i 5.2 Public Personas 230 5.3 Career Concerns 253 Epilogue 266 Bibliography and Discography 273 Appendix I: Lyrics 285 Appendix II: Transcriptions 290 ii List of Examples and Figures Figures Figure 2.1: Basic diagram of vocal tract 50 Examples Example 2.1: Spectrogram of “a” on A-flat3 37 Example 2.2: Spectrogram of opening lines of “Jolene” 43 Example 2.3: Spectrogram of opening lines of “If I Were Your Woman” 44 Example 3.1: Complete waveform of “Baby, I Love You” 97 Example 3.2: “Baby, I Love You” Instrumental Graph 98 Example 3.3: Complete waveform of “If I Were Your Woman” 109 Example 3.4: “If I Were Your Woman” Instrumental Graph 111 Example 3.5: Complete waveform of “Fist City” 122 Example 3.6: “Fist City” Instrumental Graph 127 Example 3.7: Complete waveform of “Jolene” 136 Example 3.8: “Jolene” Instrumental Graph 138 Example 4.1: Mm. 1-3 of “Baby, I Love You” 148 Example 4.2: Spectrogram of “Baby, I Love You,” opening 5 seconds (approx. mm. 1-2) 149 Example 4.3: Verse 1, “Baby, I Love You” 152 Example 4.4: Mm. 1-6 of “If I Were Your Woman” 158 Example 4.5: Mm. 20-21 of “If I Were Your Woman” 160 Example 4.6: Opening of “Jolene” 165 Example 4.7: Chorus melody, “Jolene” 166 Example 4.8: Verse melody, “Jolene” 167 iii Example 4.9: Opening of “Fist City” 169 Example 4.10: Form of “Baby, I Love You,” mm. 1-23 171 Example 4.11: Verse 1 of “Baby, I Love You,” melody and bass 172 Example 4.12: Pre-chorus 1 of “Baby, I Love You” 173 Example 4.13: Chorus 1 of “Baby, I Love You” 174 Example 4.14: Form of “If I Were Your Woman,” Intro, Verse 1, and Chorus 1 176 Example 4.15: Verse and Chorus 1 of “If I Were Your Woman” (voice only) 177 Example 4.16: Form of “If I Were Your Woman,” Verse 2 and Chorus 2 178 Example 4.17: Chorus 2 of “If I Were Your Woman” (vocal part only) 178 Example 4.18: Form of “If I Were Your Woman,” Verse 3 and Chorus 3 to fade 179 Example 4.19: Verse 1 of “Fist City” (vocal part only) 180 Example 4.20: Form of “Fist City,” Verse 1 and Chorus 1 181 Example 4.21: Chorus 1 of “Fist City” 182 Example 4.22: Chorus 1 of “Jolene” (vocal part and guitar riff) 183 Example 4.23: Form of “Jolene,” Chorus 1 184 Example 4.24: Verse 1, first half, of “Jolene” (voice only) 184 Example 4.25: Form of “Jolene,” Verse 1 184 Example 4.26: Spectrogram of 0:21-0:28 of “Fist City” (approx. mm. 15-18) 187 Example 4.27: Spectrogram of 0:35-0:42 of “Jolene” (approx. mm. 32-36) 189 Example 4.28: Spectrogram of 1:37-1:50.5 of “If I Were Your Woman” (mm. 31-33) 192 Example 4.29: “If I Were Your Woman,” mm. 11-12 193 Example 4.30: “If I Were Your Woman,” mm. 17-18 193 Example 4.31: “If I Were Your Woman,” changes between verse melodies 194 iv Example 4.32: Spectrogram of 0:16-0:23 of “Baby, I Love You” (mm. 7-9) 196 Example 4.33: “Baby, I Love You,” Melody excerpt, mm. 13-19 197 Example 4.34: Verse 1 melody of “Baby, I Love You” 197 Example 4.35: Chords of “Fist City” 200 Example 4.36: Chords of “Baby, I Love You” 201 Example 4.37: Excerpt of 1-3-2-1 bass pattern in “Jolene” 202 Example 4.38: Chords of “Jolene” (without intro and tag) 202 Example 4.39: Chord reduction of “If I Were Your Woman,” mm. 1-30 204 Example 4.40: Chords of “If I Were Your Woman” 206 v Acknowledgements It has been a true pleasure to be able to reflect, research, and write on questions I have had about music my entire life. I am indebted to all of the people who have helped me transform my intuitions about music into research plans and writing, who have set me on the paths to thrilling new ideas, and whose support has provided continuous sources of energy renewal. I have found a wonderful community in the Columbia music department, for which I am deeply grateful. From my first serious encounters with feminist theory in her graduate seminar through countless brainstorming sessions and draft revisions, Ellie Hisama has been a constant guiding force for this project. I cannot count the number of times I have walked into a meeting with her feeling overwhelmed and untethered, and left with a plan of action and a refreshed sense of enthusiasm for the work. Thanks to Joe Dubiel for asking challenging questions, always being ready with fresh analytical insight, and continually encouraging me to search for my scholarly voice. Aaron Fox is a font of wisdom, anecdote, and trivia on the topic of country music (and soul music too), and has helped me tremendously in learning how to tailor my work to reach a scholarly audience beyond music theory. I am thankful to Marion Guck for her scholarship, her reassuring and supportive presence in the field of music theory (at conferences especially), and her thought-provoking questions about my vocal quality analyses at my defense. Thanks also to Daphne Brooks for her warm support of this project and her interdisciplinary, “big-picture” insights (and for her syllabus on popular music and black feminism, which is a gift that keeps on giving). Arnie Cox’s research has been vital to this project, and he was very kind to look at early drafts of this project and share with me some of his recent work on mimesis and musical affect.
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