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Home , Awadh, Bundelkhand, Purvanchal, Rohilkhand

Conclusion and Suggestions

The present study enlists various sources of irrigation, their spatial patterns and growth trends in state of . This study tries to explore the human-­ water interactions in irrigated agriculture of the state adapting socio-hydrological approach. Being the most populated state in the country, water demand in agricul- ture is high to produce adequate food for sustaining the population of the state. As a result, more use of groundwater through water extraction devices mainly through tubewells is prevalent since mid-1960s, which has resulted into change in land use dynamics focusing mainly on wheat and rice crops. The plentiful availability of ground water in the state has led to high level of development in certain parts of the state. Uneven patterns of human-water relation occur where indiscriminate exploi- tation of groundwater resources prevails, which led to decline in water tables in many pockets of the state. Hence, irrigation water management is a prerequisite condition for achieving sustainable agricultural development in the state. This research deals with the development of irrigated agriculture in the state dur- ing 20 years of time period since 1995–1996 to 2014–2015 which has been further divided into four quinquennial periods, i.e., 1995–2000, 2000–2005, 2005–2010 and 2010–2015 so as to make a comparative assessment. From the analysis, it can be explained that, there has been a significant increase in gross irrigated area in the state from 67.28% (17.59 million ha.) to 77.85% (20.11 million ha.) during the peri- ods of 1995–2000 and 2010–2015. of the state recorded the highest positive growth in gross irrigated area, followed by central and eastern parts, whereas its growth in western region has been negative during the periods 1995– 2000 to 2000–2005 and 2005–2010 to 2010–2015. The number of districts almost tripled having above 85% of gross irrigated area from 1995–2000 to 2010–2015, and most of the growth in gross irrigated area was observed in the districts confined to and of the state. It is evident from the study that, net irrigated area was high in almost all the districts of the state, except some districts of Bundelkhand and north-eastern tarai belt of the state. Net irrigated area has been positive with a growth of above 3% during the respective periods of study.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 349 S. Lata, Irrigation Water Management for Agricultural Development in Uttar Pradesh, India, Advances in Asian Human-Environmental Research, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00952-6 350 Conclusion and Suggestions

Bundelkhand and central regions of the state have shown a high positive growth in net irrigated area during these periods. It can be observed from the study that, area irrigated more than once acquired a steady increase in its area from 28% to nearly 38% during this period. The districts belonging to Bundelkhand and eastern region of the state achieved the higher growth in area irrigated more than once as against the western region which was characterized with negative and low growth during these periods. This is attributed to the fact that, an increase in area irrigated more than once led to an increase in gross irrigated area in the state. While examining the source-wise growth in irrigated area, it was observed that, it has been significant in groundwater (tubewells) development in the state because of inherent weaknesses in maintenance of the surface water (canals) sources of irri- gation. It has been noted that operational efficiency of canal water is low because conveyance loss in irrigation water through canals is twice that of tubewells. Groundwater seems to be relatively more equitable than surface irrigation, though recent trends favour richer farmers who can afford deeper wells and larger pumps. As a result of the poor performance of public canal irrigation and the relative advan- tages of groundwater use, tubewells have become the predominant means of irriga- tion. Tubewells play a significant role in enhancing the extent of net irrigated area in the state and have become the major source of irrigation as they account for more than 70% of net irrigated area in the state. At present, more than 90% of tubewells irrigated area was observed in the districts of , , Baghpat, Kheri, , Gonda, Mahamaya Nagar, Shrawasti, , , Mau, and Firozabad. The districts of Bundelkhand region and Sonbhadra of Purvanchal showed a remarkable progress in tubewell irrigated area and achieved a growth of above 20% during all the periods of growth. In spite of the achievements, Bundelkhand still considered to be backward region in respect of irrigation, as about 40% of its total cropped area receives irrigation. Area irrigated through canals was very high in the districts of Chandauli, Sonbhadra and Mirzapur of Purvanchal region, and of Bundelkhand region. The districts belonging to central part and Bundelkhand region of the state regis- tered a negative growth in canals irrigated area during all the periods of study. There has been a rapid decrease in area irrigated by government tubewells in all regions of the state during previous two periods of growth, i.e., 1995–2000 to 2000–2005 and 2000–2005 to 2005–2010. While during later period of growth (2005–2010 to 2010–2015), the government tubewells showed significant growth of 10.54% in the state including all the regions. These tubewells share a low percentage (about 3%) in net irrigated area in the state. Irrigated area by other wells recorded a significant growth in the state to the tune of 39.88, 27.15 and 19.37% in respective periods of growth. Annual growth rates calculated for the last 20 years period from 1995–1996 to 2014–2015 showed a positive growth of 1.06 and 0.86% per annum in gross and net irrigated area of the state, respectively. Highest positive growth in gross irrigated area was seen in the districts of followed by Gonda, Lalitpur, Sitapur, Deoria and Jalaun, whereas lowest negative growth was recorded by the districts of Etah, GBN and Sonbhadra. In terms of net irrigated area again the districts of Conclusion and Suggestions 351

Bahraich, Sitapur, Lalitpur and Jalaun were on top of the list, whereas the districts namely , , Sonbhadra, Etah and GBN were showed negative growth rate per annum. The districts possessing high growth rate per annum in area irri- gated more than once mainly belonged to Purvanchal region of the state, including the district of Gonda, along with and Jalaun of Bundelkhand region. Area irrigated through canals recorded a negative growth of −0.94% per annum in the state. Highest positive growth in canal irrigated area was recorded in the districts of followed by Lalitpur, Siddharthnagar and in contrast to a low nega- tive growth achieved by the districts of JPN, Baghpat, Basti, Rampur, Shrawasti and . Very high growth in tubewell irrigated area was noticed in the districts of Bundelkhand region namely, Lalitpur, and Chitrakoot, and also including Sonbhadra of Purvanchal. As regards to annual growth rates in crop-wise irrigated area, cash crops and cereals were highly irrigated crops to the extent of about 96.63% and 85.04% of the total area sown under these crops, and showed a significant growth of 1.40 and 1.19% per annum, respectively during the study period. The districts representing Awadh, Purvanchal, Bundelkhand and lower regions recorded a very high and high growth rate per annum in irrigated area under cereal crops. Very low negative growth rate per annum in irrigated area of cereal crops was featured in the districts of Meerut, Etah, GBN and Sonbhadra. High percentage of growth in area irrigated under cash crops during the same period was seen in the districts of Awadh and middle and lower doab regions of the state. For state as a whole, the growth rate per annum in area irrigated under pulse crops was in negative order (i.e., −1.59%). For pulse crops, very high and high growth rates were recorded by the districts of Bundelkhand, Awadh, lower doab and regions. In contrast, the districts namely, Bara Banki, Etah and Agra were characterised with very low negative growth rate. Oilseed crops in the state showed a slight positive growth (0.03%/ annum) in irrigated area during this period. The districts of Bundelkhand, Rohilkhand and Purvanchal regions showed a very high and high growth in irrigated area under oilseed crops in the state. About growth trends in irrigated area under cereal crops, bajra, rice and wheat were characterized with positive growth rates of 5.56, 2.02 and 0.90% per annum, respectively. In contrast to this, other cereal crops had negative growth during this period. Highest negative growth rate was seen in jowar (−5.55%/annum) followed by barley and maize with −2.95 and − 0.29% per annum, respectively. All the pulse crops recorded negative growth rates. Among oilseed crops, irrigated area showed positive growth rate for groundnut and til. Soybean and mustard and rapeseeds were having negative growth rates to the tune of −8.28 and −0.01% per annum, respec- tively. Among cash crops, potato and sugarcane crops were accounted for 2.16 and 1.21% growth rate in irrigated area, respectively during 1995–1995 to 2014–2015. The analysis indicates that, average irrigation intensity for the state as a whole was 145% during 2010–2015. The districts of Rampur and of Rohilkhand, of lower doab and Bara Banki of Awadh region showed very high irrigation intensity during the periods of study. Very low irrigation intensity 352 Conclusion and Suggestions was observed in the districts of Bundelkhand region and few districts from north-­ eastern tarai region of the state. It is evident from the analysis that, the levels of irrigation development have not been found uniform and wide disparities exist in different regions of the state. Although eastern and western parts of the state belong to the same Gangetic plain but present a contrasting picture in terms of irrigation development. The eastern tract is flood prone with periodic occurrences of droughts and is least developed whereas the western tract though it receives much less rainfall is assisted by old canal networks and high development of ground water resource. The disparity in these parts does exists because of historical account such as during British period the technological developments were done in the western region by construction of the canal networks which reduces risks to the farmers of this region. Further, the districts of western part were much benefited during the green revolution phase and showed very high and high levels of irrigation development whereas, all the districts of Bundelkhand region, and Trans- plain including a detached district of Sonbhadra lying in south-eastern corner of the state showed a contrasting picture with low and very low irrigation development. These districts of very low irrigation development want special attention of the government. During the period of 1995–1996 to 2014–2015, there have been considerable changes in agricultural land use patterns in the state. Gross and net cropped areas were very high in the districts of Rohilkhand and middle doab regions including some districts of Purvanchal region of the state, these were the districts having above 70% of area cropped more than once. The extent of gross cropped area and net sown area was lowest in the districts of Sonbhadra, Chitrakoot and Mirzapur, because of low irrigation development a very small area brought under multiple cropping in these districts. Area cultivated more than once was very high in the districts of doab, Rohilkhand and some districts of Purvanchal region because of high irrigation development. The districts of Bundelkhand region namely, Mahoba, Banda, Hamirpur, Jalaun and Chitrakoot had below 40% area as cropped more than once during the study period. With regard to cropping patterns, cereal crops were dominant among all crops covering about 69% of cropped area to the gross cropped area of the state and mainly confined in the districts of Purvanchal region due to the dominance of only wheat and rice crops in the cropping patterns, while the share of pulse crops in the state was about 9%, these acquired the largest share in cultivated land mainly in the districts of Bundelkhand region. Oilseed crops covered the highest area in cultiva- tion in the districts of Bundelkhand region, and Agra and Dehat of doab because of a considerable area devoted to mustard and rapeseeds and til in cultiva- tion. Cash crops covered about 10% of area in cultivation in the state. Wheat dominates among cereal crops throughout the region excluding some dis- tricts from upper doab and the districts of northern tarai belt of the state, while rice is the second most important crop of the state growing in lower doab, Awadh and Purvanchal regions. With respect to growth in area, production and yield, all the major crops have shown a positive growth in area and production while a slight negative growth was seen in yield of oilseed and cash crops during the study period. Conclusion and Suggestions 353

Among cereal crops, wheat, rice and bajra recorded an increase in area, production and yield. Growth was negative in area and production of other cereal crops like barley, maize and jowar whereas, growth in yield for these crops was positive. A striking increase in area, production and yield of wheat and rice crops have been due to technological breakthrough in cultivation of these crops combined with price support, market infrastructure and less yield risks. These factors altogether have made wheat and rice more profitable in comparison to other crops. Among pulse crops, all crops showed a negative growth trend in area and production, only urad showed an increase in area, production and yield. All pulse crops, except arhar, recorded positive growth in yields. In terms of growth in area of oilseed crop, it was positive for til. For all oilseed crops, growth in yield was positive. Potato and sugar- cane among cash crops showed positive growth in area, production and yield. Sugarcane dominates in cultivation mainly in the districts of upper doab and Rohilkhand plains, whereas potato cultivation is leading in districts of middle doab region of the state. From the analysis, it is quite evident that, wheat is the most dominant crop in the state among first ranking crops which covers an area in almost 80% districts of the state. Next to wheat are rice and sugarcane crops which are grown in 9 and 6 dis- tricts of the state, respectively during 2010–2015. Gram was also ranked as first ranking crops in two districts of Bundelkhand region during 2000–2005, which was replaced by wheat in the later periods. As second ranking crops, there were crops such as bajra, gram, maize, mustard and rapeseeds, pea, potato, rice, sugarcane, til, urad, and wheat which were dominated in the state in all the periods of study. Among third ranking crops, there were nearly 13 crops which were quite important during 1995–2000. These were namely, arhar, bajra, barley, gram, jowar, maize, masoor, mustard and rapeseeds, pea, potato, rice, sugarcane and urad. In the later periods, arhar, barley and jowar were eliminated from third ranking crops and til was included to this category. A complex picture of crop-combinations has emerged in the state ranging from monoculture to six crop-combination regions in all the periods of study. Monoculture dominates over the districts of Baghpat, Bijnor, Deoria, Etah, GBN, Gorakhpur, , , , Meerut, Muzaffarnagar, Pratapgarh, Rae Bareli, SRNB, Siddharthnagar and during 2010–2015. Four, five and six crop-combinations were seen in the districts of lower doab and Bundelkhand regions during this period. Two crop-combinations were dominant in the districts of Purvanchal region and in some pockets of upper doab, Awadh and Rohilkhand plains with wheat-rice, rice-­ wheat and sugarcane-wheat emerged as common crop components. Three crop-­ combinations were seen in middle doab, Rohilkhand and northern districts of Awadh plains. The districts of Bundelkhand region present more complex combina- tions (four, five and six combinations). It can be concluded from the foregoing description that irrigation development has provided an opportunity to the farmers to adopt crops requiring much water and high remuneration, such as wheat, rice and cash crops. In addition, it is revealed from the analysis that the districts marked with least irrigation development have more complex crop-combinations. 354 Conclusion and Suggestions

In general, cropping intensity is high in regions with high level of irrigation development during the study period. As illustrated that, the districts belonging to western parts of the state show significantly higher intensity of cropping whereas, the districts of Bundelkhand have a contrasting picture with low irrigation develop- ment, hence low cropping intensity. The study has established a positive correlation between cropping intensity and irrigated area. The regression analysis has also proved that, there is a significant and positive association between tubewell irriga- tion and intensity of cropping. High cropping intensity was confined in the districts marked with high irrigation development, securing a large area within the category of area irrigated more than once, which depicts a strong positive relationship with net irrigated area and area irrigated more than once. Tubewell irrigation has a domi- nant role in raising the intensity of cropping. It is considered to be the most reliable source of irrigation and assures farmers to refrain from the risks associated with the vagaries of monsoon, and encourages them to cultivate land intensively. In contrast, canal irrigated area shows a low and negative relationship with cropping intensity in the state. A negative correlation of canal irrigated area was also observed with net irrigated and area irrigated more than once. Irrigated area by tanks presented a value which bears a negative correlation with cropping intensity. The agricultural productivity regions delineated for major groups of crops- cereal, pulse, oilseed and cash crops by applying Yang’s method presented quiet an interesting results. High productivity regions for cereal crops were mainly noticed in the western parts of the state and confined to the districts belonging to the Ganga-­ doab and Rohilkhand plains. Whereas, low productivity regions form the part of Bundelkhand and Purvanchal region during all the periods of study. The significant variation which has been noticed during these four periods of study in the productivity of cereal crops was that the number of districts in the category of low productivity has been reduced because of the shift of the districts to the higher categories. This shows that the districts of the state have achieved significant improvement in their productivity with the development of irrigation in the state during the successive periods of study. Productivity of pulse crops was high in the regions of Rohilkhand, middle and lower doab, and least developed regions in pulse crops productivity were in the north-eastern corner of the state and Bundelkhand region. During the study period, productivity of pulse crops showed an increasing trend as there is a three-fold increase in the number of districts showing very high productivity. Most of the increase took place in Rohilkhand, and middle and lower doab regions of the state. Productivity of oilseed crops was found high in the entire Ganga-Yamuna doab during 1995–2000 and in later periods, the districts from Purvanchal region and Rohilkhand plains also showed high productivity for oilseed crops. The most significant increase among oilseed crops has been noticed in the category of very high productivity. High productivity of cash crops was noticed in few districts lying in the upper and middle doab. It is important to mention that Awadh, Purvanchal and Bundelkhand were all demarcated as low productivity regions in cash crops. The districts occupying the region of middle doab of the state experienced the most promising change in during the period of study since these belonged to the category of high productivity of cash crops. Conclusion and Suggestions 355

Productivity indices computed for all crops and aggregated for the cereals, pulses, oilseeds and cash crops present a composite index that show, high productiv- ity was recorded in the districts lying in the Ganga-Yamuna doab and Rohilkhand plains of the state. Contrary to this, low productivity regions were confined to Bundelkhand region and some districts from Purvanchal regions. High positive cor- relation was seen between irrigated area and crop yield indices of cereal crops, oil- seed crops and composite yield indices. Therefore, it is worth mentioning that, productivity levels are in harmony with the development of irrigation in the state. Water saving devices in the state are very much poor due to paucity in rural infra- structure, particularly rural electrification, shallow groundwater in most areas and very small size of operational holdings. Thus, water productivity (WP) of crops is lower than developed nations. Sugarcane achieved the highest WP in the state, and it was lowest for rice crop. High WP of wheat (above 1 kg/m3) was seen in the dis- tricts belonging to the western part of the state because higher yields in wheat were due to low consumptive water use or evapotranspiration loss. On the other hand, WP of wheat was lowest in Bundelkhand and Purvanchal regions. WP of sugarcane in the state is highest (above 3 kg/m3) even it requires comparatively more water than other crops. This is mainly because of very high yields of the crop. For rice crop, WP was high in north-eastern districts forming a part of tarai belt. WP of maize was seen high in the districts of the Ganga-Yamuna doab and Rohilkhand plains. It can be proved from correlation and regression analysis that, there is a positive correla- tion between yield and WP of the crops, whereas CWU and WP show a negative correlation. From the foregoing analysis, it can be concluded that irrigation plays a signifi- cant role in overall agricultural development of the state. In terms of overall irriga- tion and agricultural development, the districts of upper-middle doab and Rohilkhand plains form the most developed regions. Only seven districts belonging to Awadh and Purvanchal regions namely, Ambedkar Nagar, , Bara Banki, Deoria, Faizabad, Ghazipur and Sitapur were characterized as highly developed with respect to overall irrigation and agriculture development. Contrary to this, the districts of Bundelkhand region, few districts of northern Awadh region, and the districts of Mirzapur and Sonbhadra of Purvanchal region were characterized as backward on the basis of overall irrigation and agricultural development. In addition to this, the eastern region lags behind the western region in respect of all the indicators of agricultural development. Frequent occurrence of floods is a common feature of the eastern region. It is a fact that, due to increased pressure of population on land, area and number of marginal land holdings increased during the periods of study. It further shows that, there is a dominance of marginal holdings in eastern part of the state. Marginal holdings make farm mechanization rather un-­ economical; hence, the farmers of the eastern districts are unable to realize the full benefits of modern farm technology in spite of having fertile agricultural lands and adequate potentials of underground water resources. Comparatively, farmers of Bundelkhand region possess enormous area under large holding category possibly due to low population base and consequently lesser land division resulting in a high 356 Conclusion and Suggestions man-land ratio. But owing to poor quality of land in this region, the cultivation remains uneconomic. It was further observed that, on the basis of other selected indicators of agricul- tural development (land use, technology and agricultural production) the southern districts of the state were placed at the bottom of the list. Moreover, the results of correlation and regression analyses confirm that, irrigation development has a posi- tive relationship with agricultural land use, technology, agricultural production, rural infrastructure and agricultural development.

Suggestions

Some suggestions for developing irrigation in least developed areas of the state for the development of agriculture can be taken into consideration are as follows: Monoculture of wheat and rice crops has created serious imbalance in cropping patterns which caused regional disparities and instability in production of other crops. To improve this situation, the components of green revolution strategy have to be re-examined. These include the evolving of HYVs, pest and drought resistant varieties of all crops particularly the coarse grains, millets, pulses and oilseeds so as to exploit the untapped potential (mostly in rain-fed areas), realizing the full poten- tials of fertilizers use, development and management of irrigation facilities, and market expansion in the state. Government’s role in supplying the inputs on subsi- dized basis to farmers will be appreciable in rain-fed areas, so that the crops can be grown suited to agro-climatic conditions successfully. In respect of credit facilities, it is found that western region is more favourably disposed in comparison to other parts. It is, therefore, needed that in Bundelkhand and Purvanchal regions of the state, the government should provide credit to poor farmers on easy rate of interest so that they can get the opportunity to purchase the agricultural inputs including HYV of seeds, fertilizers and farm machinery needed on their farms. The government has taken initiatives to step up the production of pulses. Setting of the Indian Institute of Pulses Research at Kanpur is a step in the right direction and that acts as a national centre for basic and applied research on pulse crops. To promote pulses cultivation, enhance productivity and reduce production cost, post-­ harvest losses and handling charges of pulse crop production, attention is urgently required. The HYV’s and short-duration crops suitable to local conditions are being developed in different parts of the state and popularised. Pulses require being stored under optimal humidity conditions to prevent them from post-harvest losses. For improvements in pulse production, innovative techniques, particularly the mutation breeding techniques, are needed. There is a need to develop early maturing varieties for multiple cropping. Priority should be given to develop integrated pest and dis- ease management schedules. Pulses cultivation is generally perceived by farmers as a risk hence crop insurance schemes should be extended to farmers who intend to bring their land under pulse crops. Conclusion and Suggestions 357

It is quite difficult to many farmers to purchase the improved varieties of pulses due to the lack of concerned seed stores. Infestation of pest and diseases and lack of plant protection measures are other important constraints. One of the most impor- tant constraints to pulses production is lack of proper markets. It has been observed that, government’s procurement policy for pulses has not been as effective as in case of cereals and other crops. To encourage pulses production, similar mechanisms as for rice and wheat procurement needed to be evolved. Price and yield risks for pulses have been much higher than those of rice and wheat, because pulses are more prone to risk due to crop failure in comparison to rice and wheat. Importance of pulses in maintaining food security as well as nutritional security has been felt since very long. Production of pulses definitely needs to be increased manifold to meet the demand in coming years. Farmers grow pulses on the marginal lands with minimum inputs. There is enormous potential for pulse cultivation in irrigated areas. Adoption of improved varieties of pulses should be emphasized, and transfer of technology pertaining to pulses should be strengthened in farmers’ par- ticipatory mode with active involvement of multidisciplinary team of scientists. Creation of Informal Seed Village System is required, wherein farmer to farmer seed production and distribution chain will ensure easy availability of quality seeds. Farmers need training to incorporate improved harvesting methods, standardization and grading, improved packaging and handling of grains for proper storage, etc. for profitable marketing. The monitoring of hydrological regime is of utmost importance for a scientific and planned management of the resource. Temporal variations in the groundwater system need to be studied for the scientific management of the resource. Moisture conservation or rain-water management should receive due attention as there is a strong contemporaneous relationship between moisture conservation and crop-­ centred technologies. Developing drought resistant varieties of seeds to sustain with low rainfall and to protect themselves from foliar diseases should be emphasized. In most dry land areas, output surpluses for marketing remain very low. This in turn results in localisation of demand for a number of commodities and poor market infrastructure facilities. Weak market infrastructure sometimes leads to decline in market prices for commodities in post-harvest period. Further, the crops grown on dry lands generally spread thinly over large areas and thus could make intervention of public agencies due to which overhead costs become very high. For this, the Commission on Agricultural Costs and Prices has recommended that, state govern- ments should make adequate arrangements for timely purchasing of crop commodities. Human-water interactions seem unevenly distributed in the state. Some pockets show harmonious relation of these two elements of socio-hydrology while at other places uneven patterns have been displayed. Technological changes to improve WP of crops by raising the yields hold a better promise in the state. In canal command areas, farmers should be given subsidies to install small pumpsets and the construc- tion of warehouses should be regulated for crop storage. This would result in a greater control over “water delivery” and better quality of irrigation to achieve higher water efficiency and WP. Through “water control” interventions either 358 Conclusion and Suggestions through micro-irrigation technologies; water delivery control devices such as the storage, particularly in case of surface irrigation can help to achieve control over water, and reduce non-beneficial depletions of applied water and maximizing the consumptive use fractions of applied water. Improvement in quality of irrigation (adequacy and reliability of applied water) would significantly impact on crop yield and WP. Improvements in crop productivity by genetically methods can further contribute much in the realm of possibility. These methods, at the same time, can significantly raise WP of crops, if such improvements are adopted with the aim to save water. Better water management is needed for the supply of water in canal irrigated areas in the concerned districts so that the farmers can get water in accordance with their actual needs. The pricing of water must be regulated according to the needs and capability of the farmers, and controlling the wasteful use of water. In dry areas of Bundelkhand region of the state, farmers depend on rainfall for cereal production. Yield of these crops can be increased by using supplemental irrigation, which entails harvesting run-off water, storing it in ponds, tanks or small dams, and applying it during critical crop growth stages. It will allow earlier planting of crops, while the planting date in rain-fed areas is determined with the onset of monsoon. Supplemental irrigation allows the farmers to select the date of sowing precisely, which will help in improving crop productivity. Irrigated farming, in general is very wasteful as it uses more water, partly due to farmers’ lack of knowledge of water requirement of crops. Recent researches have led to a drastic revision of these ideas, and it is now generally accepted that irriga- tion in an area, at a given time requires the same amount of water almost irrespective of the crop being grown. Therefore, the farmers should grow crops which give high- est economic returns per unit of area and per unit of time. The most critical stages of a crop are seedling and flowering. Irrigation should be applied at these critical stages of growth under limited water supply conditions. As irrigation facilities are extended to new areas, farmers in those areas have a choice to grow rice in kharif and wheat in rabi season. Farmers need advice on spot and demonstrations pertain- ing to water management practices for increasing crop production under limited water supply conditions. There should also be sincere efforts to provide knowledge for transferring water management methods and practices to the farmers. When water supply is limited, the proper water conveyance and land development (level- ling, grading etc.) are important steps to minimize water losses. Installation of deep tubewells should be financed with subsidy and supply of chemical fertilizers be regulated by the government at subsidized rates to farmers in rain-fed districts in Bundelkhand region. In areas where irrigation is provided through tubewells, there should be least fluctuations in electricity supply to achieve greater efficiency in irrigation water use. Water Use Efficiency (WUE) is as low as 30–35% in rice crop whereas, average WUE in other crops ranged from 45% to 50%. Hence, it is necessary that, attention should be focused on efficient water management practices for rice cultivation without compromising it yield levels. For conserving water, the entire areas under sugarcane by tubewell need to be covered Conclusion and Suggestions 359 under drip irrigation. Drip irrigation can bring improvements in output and optimize the use of fertilizers and other nutrients. Achievements in rain-fed agriculture are associated with new crops, supplemen- tal irrigation, deficit irrigation (limited water supply), rainwater harvesting, and pre- cision irrigation. Dry farming techniques in low rainfall and water scarcity areas can avert the ill effects of droughts. Deficit irrigation has been widely investigated as a valuable strategy for dry regions where water is the limiting factor. Genetically modified varieties of seeds, if adopted and introduced can sustain on minimum moisture in water scarcity districts. Subsidy on farm inputs or special package of farm incentives should be given to poor farmers, for improving irrigation facilities for the betterment of agriculture. Laws are also required to protect the water resource from being degraded and exploited in a manner that threatens its sustainability. According to Famine Enquiry Commission (1945), different sources of irrigation are complimentary and supplementary rather than competitive. The problem of water supply can not be solved by mere extending application of any particular method of irrigation but by using all the methods combined. Moreover, for getting the maximum benefit from irrigation, a region requires firstly, an increase in number of canals, tubewells and tanks etc. Secondly, the loss of irrigation water through evaporation and seepage must be reduced based on the techniques suggested. Thirdly, those techniques should be adopted which involve less investment and can lift water to a higher level, if required. Lifting of water to a higher level is regulated either by man power, bullocks or mechanical power, such as oil engine with pump or electric motor attached with pump. And fourthly, in parts of the country, the methods of irrigation being used are not much efficient. The selection of a most suitable irrigation method for each field, carefully applied, can definitely bring transformation of agriculture by increasing crop yield. Expansion of area under irrigation can greatly increase agricultural productivity; much can also be achieved by increasing yields on land already irrigated. Bringing new land under irrigation is usually both time-consuming and costly. Increasing yields on land already irrigated contribute to maximize the returns from costs that have already incurred. Improvements in irrigation efficiency or supplemental irriga- tion can double or triple production in many existing irrigated areas. Thus, the better irrigation practices could result in enormous savings. The government has incorporated some policies and programmes for the better management and conservation of water resources in different states and also in the state of Uttar Pradesh. Some of them are as discussed below: Methods for enhancing groundwater recharge through rainwater harvesting or through different soil conservation measures along with training of farmers pertain- ing to judicious use and management of available groundwater would help in sus- taining this vital natural resource. Artificial Groundwater Recharge (AGWR) has the capacity to alleviate the stress in groundwater overexploited areas. A total of 83 projects for the construction of 1488 artificial recharge structures (amounting to ‘839.24 million) have been approved in the 11th Five Year Plan (2007–2012) and a sum of’ 646.98 million was released to 20 states by 31st December 2011. At least 568 recharge structures were completed till December, 2011. 360 Conclusion and Suggestions

The co-operation of the local population is an essential ingredient for the success of government programmes. Formation of a group of water users/farmers known as Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) is a formal body made for the purpose of managing parts or whole of an irrigation system. This body is often called Water User’s Association (WUA). PIM implies the involvement of water users in levelling the management of water including planning design, construction, maintenance and distribution as well as financing. The primary objective of PIM is typically to achieve better availability and utilization of water through a participatory process that gives farmers a significant role in the management decisions of water in their hydraulic units. As irrigation is one of the six components for development of rural infrastructure under ‘Bharat Nirman’, the Ministry of Water Resources in collaboration with State Governments is responsible for creation of additional 10 million ha of irrigation capacity during 4 years from 2005–2006 to 2008–2009. The target for creation of irrigation potential under Bharat Nirman was proposed to be met through comple- tion of on-going major and medium irrigation projects, Extension, Renovation and Modernization (ERM) of major and medium irrigation projects, surface water minor irrigation projects and ground water minor irrigation projects. Emphasis has also been laid on repair, renovation and restoration (RRR) of water bodies. The ‘National Water Mission’1 has been formulated by the Ministry of Water Resources with the main objective of “conservation of water, minimizing wastage and ensuring its more equitable distribution both across and within states through integrated water resources development and management”. Five identified goals of the Mission are: (i) a comprehensive water data base in public domain and assess- ment of impact of climate change on water resource; (ii) promotion of citizen and state action for water conservation, augmentation and preservation; (iii) to focus attention on vulnerable areas including over-exploited areas; (iv) increasing water use efficiency by 20%, and (v) promotion of basin level integrated water resources management in the state of Uttar Pradesh To sum up, agricultural development relies on a perfect combination of irrigation and other farming inputs together with physical characteristics of the component areal unit. There are inter-regional variations in sources of irrigation water and development that have led to uneven development in agriculture in the state. Thus, for an overall development of agriculture, efforts should be made in a sustainable manner. The scope of this research work presented in the form of book, so far exists to locate the backward districts in the state of Uttar Pradesh with reference to irriga- tion and agricultural development, and to suggest some remedial measures for irri- gation and agriculture development in these districts.

1 National Water Mission was approved by Honourable Prime Minister’s Council on August 30, 2010 and by the Union Cabinet on April 6, 2011. Glossary

Andhi Dust storm or thunder storm. Bhangar Old alluvium. Bhur The Saline and Alkaline soils are locally known as Bhur, Rehu, Kallar. These soils are found in the dry and marshy areas. The accumulation of salts makes these soils infertile. Bhabhar Bhabhar is the gently-sloping coarse alluvial zone below the Siwalik Hills where streams disappear into permeable sediments. The underground streams of the Bhabar re-emerge on the surface and give birth to marshy area. Doab A tract of land lying between two confluent rivers. Gur (jaggery) A traditional uncentrifuged sugar consumed in . Kankar To detrital or residual rolled, often nodular calcium carbonate formed in soils of semi-arid regions. Khadar Newer alluvium. Kharif Summer crops harvested in September, October and November. Kohra Heavy mist and fog. Pala Frost. Panchayat Local self-governments at the village or small town level in India. Sarpanch is incharge of it. Purba Local name of easterly winds. Rabi Spring harvest or winter crops harvested in February, March and April. Tahsil An administrative division of some countries of South Asia. Tarai Marshy zone at the foot hill. Warabandi A rotational method for distribution of irrigation water, with fixed time allocations based on the size of landholdings of individual water users within a water course command area.

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A Bundelkhand region, 7, 14, 33, 37, 54, 72, 82, Administrative set up, 21–22 83, 89, 92, 95, 97, 100, 105, 113, 129, Agricultural development, 7–9, 11, 38, 44, 133, 149, 173, 177, 187, 214, 226, 67–73, 315–345, 349, 355, 356, 360 239–241, 259, 261, 266, 291, 293, 294, Agricultural land use development, 316, 317, 297, 308, 325, 328, 329, 345, 349–355, 319, 325–327 358 Agricultural production development, 316, Bundelkhand soils, 37, 38 317, 319, 329–333 Agricultural productivity, 9, 44, 68, 71, 73, 187, 241, 253–310, 316, 326, 335, 354, C 359 Canal, 4, 8, 23, 26, 49–54, 56–59, 62, 64–66, Agricultural productivity regions, 257–277, 68, 70, 71, 74, 82, 84, 85, 95–98, 100, 354 102, 105, 108, 111–114, 143, 149, 152, Alluvial soils, 23, 36–37, 81 169, 245, 246, 307, 316, 327, 350–352, Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD), 309 354, 357–359 Aravali soils, 38 Cash crops, 9, 13, 23, 71, 119, 123, 136–139, Area irrigated more than once, 81, 111, 112, 164–166, 182–187, 194, 198, 202, 142, 143, 146, 149, 245, 246, 318, 324, 218–223, 227, 256, 258, 267–270, 272, 337, 340, 341, 350, 351, 354 276, 296, 308, 317, 324, 325, 329, 337, Area sown more than once, 152, 153, 156, 340, 341, 351–355 159–161, 241 Cereal crops, 13, 51, 64, 74, 119–129, Awadh plains, 14, 50, 95, 148, 149, 234, 259, 164–172, 187–207, 227, 231, 258–261, 268, 290, 296, 297, 308, 309, 345, 353, 295, 351–355 357 Climate, 5, 7, 10, 29–36, 42, 171, 281, 294, 296, 360 The cold weather season, 30–32 B Composite yield index, 270–272 Barley, 23, 117, 119, 121, 123, 127, 128, 165, Composite z-score technique, 11, 142, 284, 166, 169, 172, 188, 194, 198, 202, 207, 316 224, 225, 227, 231, 238, 239, 258, 351, Consumptive water use (CWU), 13, 75, 277, 353 281–289, 292–295, 297–298, 307, 308, Bhabar soils, 34–36 355 Black gram (urad), 117, 119, 123, 133, 166, Conventional methods, 2, 74, 307, 308, 310 174, 177, 188, 194, 198, 202 Crop coefficient approach, 282

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 369 S. Lata, Irrigation Water Management for Agricultural Development in Uttar Pradesh, India, Advances in Asian Human-Environmental Research, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00952-6 370 Index

Crop Combination Analysis, 12 Gross cropped area, 13, 69, 87, 142, 143, 149, Cropping intensity, 9, 13, 65, 66, 69–73, 82, 152–157, 159, 164, 166, 169, 171, 173, 97, 153, 164, 226, 241–246, 308, 316, 174, 178, 180, 182, 183, 241, 242, 285, 317, 324, 325, 327, 335, 337, 340, 354 317, 318, 324, 325, 327, 340, 352 Cropping patterns, 6, 9, 37, 51, 60, 66, 67, 70, Gross irrigated area, 10, 63, 69, 70, 83–85, 92, 72, 73, 143, 161–187, 223, 226, 227, 109–110, 139, 142, 149, 308, 317, 318, 298, 316, 352, 356 324, 337, 338, 340, 349, 350 Crop rankings, 223–241 Groundnut, 63, 64, 119, 123, 133, 136, 165, 166, 182, 188, 194, 198, 202, 225, 227, 238, 240, 258, 308, 351 D Groundwater resources, 5, 6, 23, 38, 39, 49, Deficit irrigation method (DIM), 75, 307, 308, 57, 142, 294, 349 359 Doi’s method, 8, 12, 224, 226, 227, 233 Drainage, 2, 26–29, 55, 63, 310, 318 H Drought, 3, 4, 23, 54, 56, 60, 61, 66, Human resource development, 316, 317, 319, 67, 108, 172, 277, 282, 308, 329–331, 333, 336, 341 352, 356, 359 The hot weather season, 30, 32, 33

E I Effective rainfall, 282, 283 Irrigation, 1, 23, 49, 81, 161, 254, 349 Irrigation by groundwater sources, 55–60 Irrigation by surface water sources, 53–55 F Irrigation development, 4, 9, 49–53, 56, 69, Fauna, 41, 42 70, 73, 75, 81, 292, 316–325, 335–345, First ranking crops, 225, 227–229, 353 352–354, 356 Five crop-combinations, 227, 238, 240, 241 Irrigation intensity, 10, 72, 139–143, 146, 241, Five year plans (FYP), 52–53, 58, 62, 65, 315, 317, 318, 335, 336, 338, 340, 351 359 Flood irrigation method (FIM), 63, 307 Four crop-combinations, 238, 240 K The Free Boring Scheme (FBS), 52 Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation, 13, 272, 284, 317

G The Ganga, 3, 6, 14, 22, 24, 26, 28–30, 36–38, L 50–52, 56, 59, 65, 72, 83, 129, 143, Least-square method of growth, 12 186, 187, 226, 255, 258, 264, 295, 318, Lentil (masoor), 70, 117, 119, 123, 132, 166, 344, 354 173, 177, 188, 194, 198, 202, 212, The Ganga plain, 21, 23–24, 34, 42, 57, 58, 225, 227, 231, 233, 238–241, 81, 82, 183 258, 353 The Ganga-Yamuna Doab, 54, 169, 233, 257, Literacy, 43, 44, 317, 324, 329, 338, 340 259, 261, 270, 354, 355 The Ghaghara, 28, 29, 36, 37, 50, 352 The Gomti, 26, 28, 29 M Government tubewells, 100–104, 246, 350 Maize, 9, 13, 33, 60, 70, 74, 75, 82, 117, 119, Gram, 4, 23, 26, 70, 119, 123, 129, 132, 166, 121, 123, 128, 165, 166, 172, 182, 188, 169, 173, 174, 188, 194, 198, 202, 211, 194, 198, 202, 206, 224, 225, 227, 229, 225–229, 231, 238–241, 258, 353 231, 233, 234, 238–241, 258, 277, 284, Green gram (moong), 117, 119, 123, 129, 132, 286–289, 294–298, 308, 309, 351, 353, 166, 178, 188, 194, 198, 202, 213, 225, 355 227, 238 Monoculture, 224, 233, 238, 353, 356 Index 371

Mustard and rapeseeds, 119, 123, 133, 136, Purvanchal region, 14, 89, 95, 102, 132, 165, 181, 194, 198, 202, 215, 225, 227, 147–149, 166, 167, 183, 211, 233, 234, 229, 231, 233, 239, 240, 258, 351–353 259, 261, 264, 266, 293, 295, 308, 334, 341–345, 349–356

N Natural vegetation, 41–42, 151 R Net irrigated area, 9, 10, 51, 52, 56–58, 60, 70, The rainy season, 29, 33, 34, 81, 281 84, 85, 89–92, 95, 100, 104, 108–112, The Ramganga, 23, 26, 28 139, 142, 146, 245, 246, 317, 318, 324, The Rapti, 26, 28, 29 338, 340, 349, 350, 354 Reference evapotranspiration, 282–284 Net sown area, 13, 89, 92, 93, 142, 152, 153, Resources, 1–3, 5–7, 23, 34, 38, 39, 41, 43, 156–159, 161, 241, 246, 317, 318, 324, 45, 49, 51, 55–57, 59, 61, 67, 68, 72, 325, 340, 352 75, 108, 143, 150, 151, 254, 277, 280, 294, 298, 307, 309, 316, 317, 319, 320, 329–331, 333, 334, 336, 338, 343, 349, O 352, 355, 357, 359, 360 Occupational structure, 45, 46 Rice, 4, 23, 51, 82, 164, 258, 349 Oilseed crops, 13, 64, 119, 123, 133–136, Rohilkhand plains, 14, 143, 147, 148, 169, 164–166, 178–182, 188, 194, 198, 202, 229, 233, 234, 258, 259, 261, 285, 294, 213–218, 224, 227, 231, 258, 264–267, 295, 297, 328, 344, 353–355 317, 341, 351–355 Rural infrastructure development, 316, 317, One crop-combination, 233, 238 319, 331–335 Other means, 84, 85, 95, 108, 117, 118, 246, 282 Other wells, 51, 84, 85, 95, 105–107, 113, S 115, 246, 350 The Sarda, 26, 28, 29, 50 Saturated Soil Culture (SSC), 309 Second ranking crops, 225, 229–231, 353 P Sesamum (til), 119, 123, 166, 182, 188, 194, Pea, 119, 123, 130, 132, 165, 166, 177, 188, 198, 202, 218 194, 198, 202, 212, 213, 225, 227, Simple linear regression technique, 11, 12, 243 229–231, 233, 239–241, 258, 353 The simple percentage method, 10 Pearl millet (bajra), 23, 117, 119, 123, 128, Six crop-combinations, 238, 241, 353 166, 171, 188, 193, 194, 198, Socio-economic profile, 43–46 202, 206 Soils, 1, 2, 8, 14, 23–25, 34–38, 53, 61–64, 68, Physical profile, 21–42 74, 75, 81, 95, 142, 151, 173, 223, 258, Pigeon pea (arhar), 119, 123, 133, 166, 177, 274, 280, 281, 284, 292, 293, 295, 296, 188, 194, 198, 202, 213 298, 307–310, 359 Population, 2, 4–7, 11, 14, 16, 21, 23, 34, Sorghum (jowar), 74, 119, 123, 129, 166, 172, 42–44, 52, 56, 58, 65, 72, 82, 188, 194, 198, 202, 207 152, 241, 256, 258, 277, 315, 349, 355, Soybean, 119, 123, 133, 136, 165, 182, 188, 360 194, 198, 202, 225, 227, 238, 258, 351 Potato, 72, 74, 119, 123, 136, 137, 139, 165, Sprinkler irrigation method (SIM), 63, 308 166, 182, 183, 186, 188, 194, 198, 202, Structure and relief, 23–26 222, 223, 225, 227, 229, 231, 233, Sugarcane, 6, 9, 13, 23, 60, 63, 64, 71, 72, 81, 238–240, 258, 351, 353 119, 123, 136, 137, 143, 165, 166, 182, Private tubewells, 50, 57, 65, 66, 68–69, 82, 186, 188, 194, 198, 202, 222, 225, 102–107, 246, 327, 340 227–229, 231, 233, 235, 238–240, 258, Pulse crops, 13, 117, 119, 123, 129–133, 274, 277, 281, 284, 286–289, 296–297, 164–166, 173–178, 188, 194, 198, 202, 310, 351, 353, 355, 358 207–213, 224, 227, 231, 258, 261–264, Supplemental irrigation (SI), 307, 308, 358, 329, 351–354, 356 359 372 Index

T V Tanks, 4, 49, 51–53, 55, 56, 58, 59, 70, 84, 85, Vindhyan soils, 38 95, 97, 108, 115–116, 246, 354, 358, The Vindhyan Hills and Plateau, 24, 26, 34 359 Tarai soils, 36 Technological development, 254, 316, 317, W 319, 326–331, 352 Warabandi system, 105 Third ranking crops, 225, 231–233, Water management, 7, 8, 60–62, 66–68, 284, 353 73–76, 254, 277, 281, 298, 308, 310, Three crop-combinations, 224, 238, 349, 357, 358 239, 353 Water productivity (WP), 8, 9, 13, 71, 73–76, Tubewells, 4, 50, 82, 161, 308, 317, 349 253–310, 355 Two crop-combinations, 234–238, 353 Wheat, 4, 23, 51, 81, 164, 258, 349

U Y Uttar Pradesh, 5, 21, 50, 81, 153, 255, 317, The Yamuna, 22, 23, 26, 28, 36, 37 349 Yang’s method, 258, 354