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Quark Nova Signatures in Super Revista Mexicana de Astronom´ıa y Astrof´ısica, 50, 167–180 (2014) QUARK NOVA SIGNATURES IN SUPER-LUMINOUS SUPERNOVAE M. Kostka,1 N. Koning,1 D. Leahy, 1 R. Ouyed,1 and W. Steffen2 Received 2013 August 14; accepted 2014 March 3 RESUMEN Censos observacionales recientes han revelado la existencia de supernovas super- luminosas (SLSNe). En este trabajo estudiamos las curvas de luz de ocho SLSNe en el contexto del modelo de las novas-quark de choque dual. Encontramos que estrellas progenitoras con masas entre 25 y 35M⊙ proporcionan energ´ıa m´as que suficiente para explicar las curvas de luz de las SLSNe. Se examinan los efectos de una variaci´on de los par´ametros f´ısicos de la nova-quark de choque dual sobre las curvas de luz. Con- cluimos que la amplia variedad de morfolog´ıas de las curvas de luz de las SLSNe puede ser explicada principalmente por variaciones en el lapso de tiempo entre la supernova y la nova-quark. Nuestro an´alisis muestra que el perfil Hα singular encontrado en tres SLSNe puede ser descrito naturalmente en el escenario de las novas-quark de choque dual. Se presentan algunos rasgos espectrales predichos espec´ıficamente por el modelo de las quark-novas de choque dual. ABSTRACT Recent observational surveys have uncovered the existence of super-luminous supernovae (SLSNe). In this work we study the light curves of eight SLSNe in the context of dual-shock quark novae. We find that progenitor stars in the range of 25 − 35M⊙ provide ample energy to power each light curve. An examination into the effects of varying the physical properties of a dual-shock quark nova on light curve composition is undertaken. We conclude that the wide variety of SLSN light curve morphologies can be explained predominantly by variations in the length of time between supernova and quark nova. Our analysis shows that a singular Hα spectral profile found in three SLSNe can be naturally described in the dual-shock quark nova scenario. Predictions of spectral signatures unique to the dual-shock quark nova are presented. Key Words: dense matter — radiative transfer — stars: evolution — supernovae: gen- eral 1. INTRODUCTION of time and has a late stage luminosity evolution that is inconsistent with radioactive decay. The standard astrophysical explanation for a su- pernova (SN) is that the radiated power is generated While this hydrogen-poor class of super-luminous by energy deposited in expanding ejecta through one SNe (SLSNe) is a recent admission, the phenomenon of of three mechanisms: the SN shock travels through SLSNe as a whole has been an open question since the © Copyright 2014: Instituto de Astronomía, Universidad Nacional Autónoma México the stellar envelope (Grassberg et al. 1971), radioac- discovery of SN 2006gy (Quimby et al. 2007b). Large tive decay of heavy elements synthesized in the explo- scale supernovae surveys such as the Palomar Transient sion (Arnett 1982) or a collision with hydrogen-rich cir- Factory (PTF) (Rau et al. 2009; Law et al. 2009), the cumstellar material (CSM) (Chevalier 1982). In 2011 ROTSE Supernova Verification Project (RSVP, for- astronomers working on the Palomar Transient Factory merly the Texas Supernova Search) (Quimby et al. announced the emergence of a new class of SNe that 2005) and the Catarina Real-Time Transient Survey cannot be explained by any of these means (Quimby (Drake et al. 2009) have uncovered approximately ten et al. 2011). As described by Quimby et al. (2011) this other SLSNe, some of which contain hydrogen in their new class of SNe is at least ten times brighter than a spectra (SN 2006gy, Quimby et al. 2007b; SN 2008fz, typical type Ia SN, displays spectra with little to no Drake et al. 2010) while others are hydrogen-poor hydrogen, emits significant UV flux over a long period (SN 2005ap, Quimby et al. 2007b; SN 2007bi, Gal- Yam et al. 2009). 1 Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Cal- One method being considered to power the radi- gary, Calgary, Canada. 2Instituto de Astronom´ıa Universidad Nacional Aut´onoma de ated energy of some SLSNe is a scaled up version of a M´exico, Ensenada, B.C., Mexico. CSM interaction. A dense, massive (≈20 M⊙) CSM 167 168 KOSTKA ET AL. TABLE 1 VERY LARGE ARRAY OBSERVATIONS Model SLSNeProperty PISN CSM Magnetar dsQN Energy mechanism γ =4/3 instabilitya Binary mergerb Rotational energyc QN explosion d Radiation mechanism Collision of ejectaa CSM/SN interactione Synchrotronc QN/SN interactiond f f g h i j j Progenitor mass (M⊙) 313 − 1250 100+ 8 − 25 20 − 40 X-rays suppressedk suppressedl not discussed suppressedj Hydrogen in spectra unlikelym necessaryn not discussed likelyj Cause of long-lasting broad lines not expectedo velocity of SNg velocity of p temperature of inner shell inner shellj Late stage luminosity radioactivitya opaque outer inner bubblec inner shell emissionj region of CSMq aWoosley et al. (2007),bChevalier (2012), cKasen & Bildsten (2010), dLeahy & Ouyed (2008), eChevalier (1982), f Pan et al. (2012), gSmith et al. (2010), hWeidemann (1977), iFryer (1999), jOuyed et al. (2012), kBlinnikov (2008), lChevalier & Irwin (2012), mYungelson et al. (2008), nQuimby et al. (2011), oKasen et al. (2011), pDessart et al. (2012), qChevalier & Irwin (2011). envelope enshrouds the progenitor star at the time of star to end its life as a PISN is ≈300 − 1000 M⊙. The the SN explosion. An efficient conversion of SN kinetic predicted light curve from a PISN should be nearly energy to radiation via the SN shock powers the SLSN symmetric (Kawabata et al. 2009; Dessart et al. 2012). light curve (Smith et al. 2008; Chevalier & Irwin 2011; Ouyed et al. (2002) suggested that a collision be- Ginzburg & Balberg 2012; Kiewe et al. 2012). Build- tween material ejected through the quark nova (QN) ing such a CSM envelope requires a mass-loss rate of explosion of a neutron star and the preceding SN en- −1 M˙ > 0.1 M⊙ yr over the final 10–100 years prior to velope could rebrighten the SN (see § 5.4 of Ouyed SN explosion (Moriya et al. 2013; Ginzburg & Balberg et al. 2002). This theory was first applied in the 2012). Two possible explanations for a mass-loss rate context of SLSNe by Leahy & Ouyed (2008) to ex- on this order are LBV-like mass ejections (Smith et al. plain SN 2006gy. Table 1 summarizes each proposed 2008; Kiewe et al. 2012) or common envelope phase of model’s explanation for a variety of SLSNe characteris- an interacting binary system (Chevalier 2012). tics. While acknowledging that other models are being An alternative description considered for SLSNe is pursued to explain SLSNe, in this work we provide the that the radiated energy is converted from the rota- QN as a possible engine for a universal explanation tional energy of a magnetar (Kasen & Bildsten 2010; for SLSNe. Observations of the SLSNe studied in this Woosley 2010) inside a SN envelope. For the magnetar work are introduced in § 2. § 3 summarizes the explo- model to power the light curve of a SLSN, large P dV sion mechanism of the QN as well as the environment losses must be avoided by delaying the conversion of which leads to a SLSN. § 4 examines the physics im- the magnetar’s rotational energy into radiation. An plemented in describing the interaction between ejecta explanation for the delay in energy injection has yet to of a SN and a QN. Analysis of the effects of changing be examined. The delayed injection of energy into the physical parameters on our model light curve is under- © Copyright 2014: Instituto de Astronomía, Universidad Nacional Autónoma México SN envelope must be isotropically distributed across taken in § 5. In § 6 we compare observations of eight the inner edge of the SN envelope energizing the entire SLSNe (SN 2005ap, SN 2006gy SN 2006tf, SN 2007bi, envelope and generating the radiated energy of a SLSN. SN 2008es, SN 2008fz, PTF09cnd and PTF10cwr to Whether the magnetar model can power a SLSN with QNe of different physical parameters. A discussion of the expected jet-like (Bucciantini et al. 2009) energy trends found fitting the SLSNe and spectral analysis deposition has yet to be studied. Dessart et al. (2012) for some targets is presented in § 7. Finally our con- provided an indicative study into the magnetar model clusions as well as predicted chemical signatures of our explanation for the observed blue spectrum and broad model are discussed in § 8. spectral lines seen in most SLSNe. Pair-instability SNe (PISNe) have as well been pro- 2. OBSERVATIONS posed as the underlying energy mechanism for SLSNe. In this scenario an extremely massive star becomes For this analysis we have chosen eight SLSNe prone to γ = 4/3 instability, triggering a SN explo- (SN 2005ap, SN 2006gy, SN 2006tf, SN 2007bi, sion. Pan et al. (2012) studied the progenitor stars for SN 2008es, SN 2008fz, PTF09cnd and PTF10cwr) to PISN and found that the mass range required for a study in the context of the quark nova (Ouyed et al. SUPER-LUMINOUS SUPERNOVAE AS QUARK NOVAE 169 TABLE 2 LIST OF SLSNE TARGETS. Name Type Peak Magnitude Proposed Models SN2005ap H-poorSLSNa −22.7b CSMa, PISNa,dsQNc SN2006gy IInd −22 e PISNf , CSMe, dsQNc,g SN2006tf IInh ≈−20.8h CSMh SN2007bi Ici −21.3i CCj, PISNi SN2008es II-Lk −22.2k CSMk SN2008fz IInl −22.3l nonel PTF09cnd H-poor SLSNa −22a CSMa, PISNa PTF10cwr H-poor SLSNa −21.2m CSMa, PISNa aQuimby et al. (2011), bQuimby et al. (2007b), cLeahy & Ouyed (2008), dQuimby et al. (2005), eSmith & McCray (2007), f Woosley et al. (2007), gOuyed et al. (2012), hSmith et al.
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