© Copyright 2014: Instituto de Astronomía, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México yia yeI N ipassetawt itet no period to long a little a over with than flux brighter UV spectra significant times displays emits ten SN, hydrogen, least Ia at this type (2011) is al. typical SNe et (Quimby of Quimby means by class described that these new As SNe of 2011). any of al. by class et explained new a be of cannot emergence the 2011 Factoryannounced Transient Palomar In the on 1982). working astronomers (Chevalier (CSM) cir- hydrogen-rich material with explo- collision cumstellar the a or in radioac- 1982) synthesized (Arnett 1971), elements through sion al. heavy travels of et decay shock (Grassberg tive SN envelope the stellar one through the mechanisms: ejecta generated three expanding is in of power deposited radiated energy the by that is (SN) pernova eit eiaad srnmı Astrof´ısica Astronom´ıa y de Mexicana Revista ay agr,Canada. Calgary, gary, ´ xc,Esnd,BC,Mexico. B.C., M´exico, Ensenada, 1 2 h tnadatohsclepaainfrasu- a for explanation astrophysical standard The eateto hsc n srnm,Uiest fCal- of University Astronomy, and Physics of Department nttt eAtoo´aUiesddNcoa Aut´onoma d Astronom´ıa Nacional Universidad de Instituto UR OASGAUE NSPRLMNU SUPERNOVAE SUPER-LUMINOUS IN SIGNATURES NOVA QUARK n ur oa u nlsssosta iglrH singular a that shows ligh o analysis SLSN length Our the of nova. in variety quark variations wide by and predominantly the explained that be conclude can We nov quark dual-shock undertaken. a is of properties physical the varying of anv-ur.Netoa´lssmetaqee efi H perfil el de que an´alisis lapso muestra Nuestro el nova-quark. en la variaciones y por curvas principalmente las efect morfolog´ıas explicada de de los ser variedad sob examinan amplia dual Se la choque que SLSNe. cluimos de las nova-quark de la par´ametros f´ısicos luz de los de curvas las explicar fseta intrsuiu oteda-hc ur oaa nova quark dual-shock Words: nov the Key quark to dual-shock unique the signatures in spectral described of naturally be can SLSNe 35 uenve(LN) nti okw td h ih uvsof st curves progenitor light that the find We study novae. we quark work dual-shock this of context In (SLSNe). supernovae dual. choque es las de predichos quark-novas de espectrales las escenario rasgos de algunos el presentan en Se naturalmente dual. descrito ser puede SLSNe lcnet e oeod a oa-ur ecou ul Enc dual. 35 choque y de 25 novas-quark entre de masas las curvas con de las progenitoras modelo estudiamos del trabajo contexto este el En (SLSNe). luminosas .INTRODUCTION 1. M ⊙ essosrainlsrcetshnrvld aexistenc la revelado han recientes observacionales Censos eetosrainlsreshv noee h existence the uncovered have surveys observational Recent rvd ml nryt oe ahlgtcre nexaminati An curve. light each power to energy ample provide .Kostka, M. es atr—rdaietase tr:eouin—super — evolution stars: — eral transfer radiative — matter dense eevd21 uut1;acpe 04Mrh3 March 2014 accepted 14; August 2013 Received 1 .Koning, N. , 50 1 .Leahy, D. 6–8 (2014) 167–180 , ABSTRACT M RESUMEN ⊙ e rprinneegı ´sqesfiinepara energ´ıa suficiente m´asproporcionan que tdeeg fsm LN sasae pvrino a ( of massive version dense, up scaled A a is interaction. SLSNe CSM some of energy Gal- ated 2007bi, SN hydrogen-poor 2007b; are 2009). others al. al. et while et Yam Quimby 2010) 2008fz, 2005ap, SN (SN 2007b; al. al. et et their Drake Quimby in 2006gy, hydrogen contain (SN which spectra ten of approximately some uncovered SLSNe, Survey have other al. Transient 2009) al. Real-Time et et Catarina (Quimby (Drake the Search) and Supernova for- 2005) Texas the (RSVP, 2009), the Project al. merly et Verification Law Supernova 2009; al. ROTSE et (Rau Large Transient (PTF) Palomar 2007b). Factory the al. as the such et since surveys supernovae (Quimby question scale 2006gy open an SN been of has discovery whole of phenomenon a the as admission, SLSNe recent a is (SLSNe) SNe that evolution decay. luminosity radioactive stage with late inconsistent a is has and time of 1 .Ouyed, R. n ehdbigcniee opwrteradi- the power to considered being method One super-luminous of class hydrogen-poor this While α pcrlpol on nthree in found profile spectral α e´ fiaet o lmodelo el pec´ıficamente por 1 nlgtcrecomposition curve light on a iglrecnrd ntres en encontrado singular elscra elz Con- luz. de curvas las re elzd a LN puede SLSNe las de luz de imoetel supernova la entre tiempo n .Steffen W. and epresented. re iebtensupernova between time f r nterneo 25 of range the in ars ad uenvssuper- supernovas de ia cnro Predictions scenario. a oa-ur echoque de novas-quark sd n variaci´on de una de os nrmsqeestrellas que ontramos u eoh LN en SLSNe ocho de luz uv morphologies curve t ih LN nthe in SLSNe eight fsuper-luminous of nit h effects the into on oa:gen- novae: 2 − ≈ 20 M ⊙ CSM ) 167 © Copyright 2014: Instituto de Astronomía, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México INadfudta h asrnerqie o a for required range mass the for stars that progenitor found the studied and (2012) PISN al. et Pan sion. n uhaCMevlp eursams-osrt of rate mass-loss a Build- requires > envelope 2012). M CSM al. a et such Kiewe 2011; ing 2012; Irwin & Balberg Chevalier & 2008; SLSN Ginzburg the al. powers et shock (Smith SN curve the light kinetic via SN radiation of of conversion to time efficient energy the An at explosion. SN star the progenitor the enshrouds envelope nti cnroa xrml asv trbecomes star massive extremely to an prone scenario SLSNe. for this mechanism energy In underlying the as posed SLSNe. most broad in and seen spectrum lines blue spectral model observed magnetar (2012) the the al. for into et explanation study Dessart indicative energy studied. an 2009) be provided to al. yet et has with (Bucciantini deposition SLSN jet-like a power expected can the model magnetar SLSN. a the entire of Whether energy the radiated energizing the envelope generating across SN and envelope the distributed of isotropically edge the inner be the into must energy of envelope injection to SN delayed yet has The An injection examined. energy be in radiation. delay of into the conversion for energy the explanation rotational delaying large magnetar’s by SLSN, avoided a the of be curve must light losses the magnetar 2010; the power For to Bildsten envelope. model & rota- SN a (Kasen the inside magnetar 2010) from Woosley a converted of is energy energy tional radiated the that of 2012). phase (Chevalier envelope system common binary or interacting al. 2012) an et al. (Smith et ejections rate Kiewe mass 2008; LBV-like mass-loss are a order for this explanations Balberg on & possible Ginzburg Two 2013; 2012). al. et (Moriya explosion SN 168 ˙ q f l a LN rpryPS S antrdsQN Magnetar CSM PISN mechanism Energy Property SLSNe aito ehns olso fejecta of Collision mechanism Radiation rgntrms ( mass Progenitor aesaelmnst radioactivity luminosity stage Late -assuppressed X-rays as fln-atn ra ie o expected not lines broad long-lasting of Cause yrgni pcr unlikely spectra in Hydrogen hvle ri (2012), Irwin & Chevalier a ta.(2012), al. et Pan arisaiiySe(IN)hv swl enpro- been well as have (PISNe) SNe Pair-instability is SLSNe for considered description alternative An hvle ri (2011). Irwin & Chevalier ose ta.(2007), al. et Woosley 0 . 1 M γ ⊙ 4 = yr − / 1 ntblt,tigrn Nexplo- SN a triggering instability, 3 vrtefia 010yaspirto prior years 10–100 final the over M g ⊙ mt ta.(2010), al. et Smith 313 ) b hvle (2012), Chevalier m uglo ta.(2008), al. et Yungelson γ 4 = EYLREARYOBSERVATIONS ARRAY LARGE VERY / instability 3 f h − edmn (1977), Weidemann c 1250 ae idtn(2010), Bildsten & Kasen m k f a o OTAE AL. ET KOSTKA dV P a a n umye l (2011), al. et Quimby S/Ninteraction CSM/SN AL 1 TABLE eino CSM of region iaymerger Binary eoiyo SN of velocity pqeotrinrbubble inner outer opaque suppressed necessary 100+ Model trt n t iea INis PISN a as life its end to star o LN.Osrain fteSSesuidi this explanation in universal in studied introduced SLSNe a are the for work of Observations engine SLSNe. possible the for provide a we work as this QN in being SLSNe, are explain models to other pursued that the ex- acknowledging characteris- proposed While SLSNe in to each of tics. variety summarizes (2008) applied a for 1 Ouyed first explanation Table model’s & was 2006gy. Leahy theory SN by plain This SLSNe of context 2002). al. et eoecudrbihe h N(see en- SN SN preceding the the rebrighten and could (QN) star nova velope neutron quark a the of explosion through ejected material nearly tween 2012). be al. et should Dessart PISN 2009; al. a et (Kawabata from symmetric curve light predicted o oetresi rsne in analysis presented spectral is and targets SLSNe some of the for discussion fitting to A found PTF10cwr parameters. trends and physical different PTF09cnd of 2007bi, 2008fz, QNe SN SN 2006tf, SN 2008es, 2006gy SN SN 2005ap, (SN changing SLSNe of under- is effects curve the in light of taken model Analysis our QN. on parameters a physical and SN ejecta a between of interaction the describing in plemented td ntecneto h ur oa(ue tal. et (Ouyed 2007bi, nova quark SN the to of 2006tf, PTF10cwr) context and the SN PTF09cnd in 2008fz, study 2006gy, SN 2008es, SN SN 2005ap, (SN inmcaimo h Na ela h environment SLSN. the as a well to as leads QN which the of mechanism sion lsosa ela rdce hmclsgaue four in of discussed signatures are chemical model predicted as well as clusions i re (1999), Fryer g ue ta.(02 ugse htacliinbe- collision a that suggested (2002) al. et Ouyed o hsaayi ehv hsnegtSLSNe eight chosen have we analysis this For n l g b q § d eh ue (2008), Ouyed & Leahy e .In 5. o oainlenergy Rotational ae ta.(2011), al. et Kasen j ue ta.(2012), al. et Ouyed o icse likely discussed not o icse suppressed discussed not Synchrotron eoiyof velocity ne hl ne shell inner shell inner 8 .OBSERVATIONS 2. § h ecmaeosrain feight of observations compare we 6 − 25 § § i § 8. p 2. c c xmnstepyisim- physics the examines 4 § c NS interaction QN/SN ne hl emission shell inner umrzsteexplo- the summarizes 3 p ≈ Nexplosion QN esr ta.(2012), al. et Dessart eprtr of temperature § 300 k e .Fnlyorcon- our Finally 7. 20 hvle (1982), Chevalier lnio (2008), Blinnikov j − − § 1000 40 . fOuyed of 5.4 j j j j M d ⊙ d j The . © Copyright 2014: Instituto de Astronomía, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Qib ta.20b hc ekdi absolute in peaked which 2007b) al. et (Quimby in mag- summarized peak are the models 2. with Table proposed along and target class nitude, SLSN Each 2002). antd tapproximately at magnitude h pcr fS 06fdslyasrn H strong a display 2006tf SN of spectra The ta.(07)fudaohreteeybih ( bright extremely another found (2007b) al. et surprisingly 2007). was McCray event & (Smith the X-rays light in visible quiet exception- in was 2006gy bright SN H ally while broad and 2010) a al. by et (Smith dominated is 2006gy SN eyso uioiydcyrt ( a by rate characterized decay is luminosity 2006tf SN slow of very curve light the that oprbewdht h lesd bopinfeature absorption blue-side H the of to width comparable h oa aitdeeg fteSS a tlat7 least at was however, SLSN and of the unclear; of 10 SLSN is curve energy the radiated magnitude light total of peak the the edge actual leading of the the thus Observations that missed resembles 2006tf closely SN 2006gy. spectrum SN the of that noted who 2007b). al. was et 2005ap (Quimby SN X-rays 2006gy, in SN to quiet similarly and NIII) CIII, hr a osg faCMitrcin h ih curve light The that interaction. noting CSM a SN, of Ic sign type no a was as there it identified and 2007bi SN rmo N20a hw ra pcrllns(H lines spectral broad shows spec- 2005ap The SN observed. of ever trum SLSN brightest the remains absolute peak ieta ean ra vrtm Sihe l 2008). al. et (Smith time over H broad remains that line Sihe l 08.Teeeit lesd absorp- blue-side a HeI exists in There seen feature 2008). tion time al. with et prominent more (Smith becomes blue- wing the emission while constants side remains profile the of red-side α 50 h rtSS vrosre a N2006gy SN was observed ever SLSN first The pre ytedsoeyo N20g,Quimby 2006gy, SN of discovery the by Spurred N20t a icvrdb umye l (2007a) al. et Quimby by discovered was 2006tf SN a-a ta.(09 icvrdteSLSN the discovered (2009) al. et Gal-Yam n H and α rs(mt ta.20) mt ta.(07 noted (2007) al. et Smith 2008). al. et (Smith ergs Sihe l 2008). al. et (Smith β hwa neetn vlto nwihthe which in evolution interesting an show R bn antd)S 05p which 2005ap; SN magnitude) -band (2012), ta.(2009), al. et ta.(2005), al. et a N20a -orSLSN H-poor 2005ap SN N20g IIn 2006gy SN T1crHpo SLSN H-poor PTF10cwr T0cdHpo SLSN H-poor PTF09cnd umye l (2011), al. et Quimby N20e II-L 2008es SN N20b Ic 2007bi SN N20f IIn 2008fz SN N20t IIn 2006tf SN aeTp ekMgiuePooe Models Proposed Magnitude Peak Type Name λ 86adOI and 5876 h UE-UIOSSPROA SQAKNVE169 NOVAE QUARK AS SUPERNOVAE SUPER-LUMINOUS mt ta.(2008), al. et Smith − 2 h pcrmof spectrum The 22. l rk ta.(2010), al. et Drake e mt cry(2007), McCray & Smith ≈ 0 . 1mgday mag 01 λ α 74ta sof is that 7774 b msinline emission umye l (2007b), al. et Quimby ITO LN TARGETS. SLSNE OF LIST α i h d l k emission i a-a ta.(2009), al. et Gal-Yam R − a a a band 22 − 1 m AL 2 TABLE α . × ). 7 atrloe l (2010). al. et Pastorello , ≈− − − − − − − − f 20 22.7 22 ose ta.(2007), al. et Woosley 22.2 22.3 21.3 21.2 22 fS 07ipasat peaks 2007bi SN of atlmnst ea ae( rate decay luminosity fast a h pcrmsosn in faCMinteraction CSM a of signs no shows spectrum and decay the radioactive with inconsistent are PTF10cwr narrowest. and dimmest the PTF10cwr and oebodoe ie rk ta.(00 oe that noted (2010) be- al. displays et but H Drake narrow 2008fz the time, initially SN over are broad of that come spectrum lines The Balmer strong 2006gy. SN of V uv opooyfrti ls,PF9n a the has PTF09cnd class, broadest and this brightest light for were of extremes morphology SLSNe two These curve the hydrogen-poor display 2011). they because al. new selected et the (Quimby class of SLSN members representative epoch. same the for 2006gy SN h on h ih uv opa at peak to curve light the found who the of 2009). components (Miller al. time over broad et of prominent more evolution the become spectral lines that spectral The shows inter- 2008es 2009). CSM al. SN a et with broad (Miller width associated by action intermediate typically dominated and 2009). emission narrow is al. line the 2008es et lack that (Gezari SN features X-rays of excess in spectrum in quiet The was is 2008es visible SN and UV 10 in of energy radiated total fS 08spasat peaks 2008es SN of 2010). al. et oxy- (Young strong lines show iron 2007bi and SN gen The of SLSN. spectra the evolving for al. in- slowly explanation et is PISN metalicity Young a galaxy with by host consistent discussed high relatively As the (2010), 2009). al. et (Gal-Yam ly lwlmnst ea ae( rate decay luminosity slow a plays . a 8 e h b adadt hwasmlrso vlto othat to evolution slow similar a show to and band k c l i m h uioiydcyrt fbt T0cdand PTF09cnd both of rate decay luminosity The ecoet td T0cdadPF0w as PTF10cwr and PTF09cnd study to chose We N20f a icvrdb rk ta.(2010) al. et Drake by discovered was 2008fz SN icvrdb eaie l 20) h ih curve light the (2009), al. et Gezari by Discovered eh ue (2008), Ouyed & Leahy 51 α j msinln fS 08zi iia ota of that to similar is 2008fz SN of line emission on ta.(2010), al. et Young rs oee,cnitn ihohrSLSN, other with consistent however, ergs; PISN CSM CSM CSM f CC a CSM , PISN , CSM CSM none j a a PISN , PISN , PISN , g e ≈− ue tal. et Ouyed h k dsQN , l ≈− a u ,dsQN bn ih uv nteclass the in curve light -band 22 d i a a 21 Quimby k . Gezari nthe in 2 . ≈ nthe in 3 c c , g 0 . 4 a day mag 042 ≈ R 0 R adadshows and band . 1mgday mag 01 ≈− adaddis- and band 22 − . nthe in 3 1 .The ). − 1 ) © Copyright 2014: Instituto de Astronomía, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Qib ta.21) T1crwsas observed also at was peaks PTF10cwr the 2011). in al. et (Quimby 170 tag US ur atri tt fmte more matter of state than a up-down- is stable have Bod- matter that quark 1970; stars conjectured (UDS) (1984) (Itoh strange quark Witten decades of 1971). several existence mer for possible theorized been the and ter bands. visual the in radiated energy relative of X-rays SLSNe amount in the the quiet to (2011), are al. PTF10cwr mate- and et supplemental PTF09cnd Quimby the with in associated mentioned rial As 2010gx. SN etioadpoo msinfo Nfudthat found QN a of the from Investigations of emission 10 majority photon neutrinos. and the neutrino via par- with and transported energy, (heat) energy kinetic energy into internal tially into energy binding of concept the introduced who QN. (2002), the the al. and et Ouyed core proposed by way was the develops a material between star such neutron separation overlaying in physical in contracts scenario a core The that matter 2000). quark Cheng Datta the 1987; & (Olinto which Bombaci star 1996; quark convert- Dai a involves to & candidate star Another neutron a 2001). ing al. 1995; al. et SN, et high Xu (Dai a is deconfinement star quark after proto-neutron trigger to shortly the enough of or density core during the is when possibility such proposed. which been One have scenarios transition astrophysical phase this Different They achieve could into star. star (1986). neutron quark a a al. convert achieving to et strangeness for requisite Alcock mechanisms UDS the by possible quark a a numerous forth to as detailed simply put convert to was referred could be star) star to propo- (further the neutron star hadrons quark a of state that ground sition true the is matter ehns o aseeto Neegle l 2010; al. et 2011b). (Niebergal al. et ejection Ouyed mass star potential neutron for another provide from mechanism and detonative transition star the quark which make to velocities, would supersonic the turn or enhances in sonic front to conversion speed the burning in 2009). suggested al. turbulence burning et UDS that to Ouyed Lorentz hadronic 2004; of a al. studies et with Detailed (Vogt ejecta 10–100 means of factor which energy, kinetic of rsueo h eto tradisgaiainlmass gravitational its and central star the neutron on the dependent of is star pressure quark a to star neutron − h data ulicudclas noqakmat- quark into collapse could nuclei that idea The h Ncnet rvttoa nryadnuclear and energy gravitational converts QN The h iesaefrtecneso ftehadronic the of conversion the for scale time The 5 − B 10 adb atrloe l 21) nwihit which in (2010), al. et Pastorello by band ≈− − 3 M 56 21 3.1 ⊙ e ihntehptei htUDS that hypothesis the Within Fe. . ,adatraieyi eerdt as to referred is alternatively and 2, ol eeetdwt pt 10 to up with ejected be could xlsv Mechanism Explosive . .QAKNOVA QUARK 3. 3.2 Timing . OTAE AL. ET KOSTKA 53 erg 08.A h hc rgess h ne einof region impacting the inner with the mixes progresses, envelope SN shock re-shocked the the As 2008). fteeetdmtra a cu hc a implica- has which occur can for fall-back material tions delays ejected time the long with of ejecta. ejecta QN QN the massive with become For interact have significantly will order to envelope the diffuse SN (of too the long longer) is delay or months time the of When 2011a). al. et itntphases; distinct spectral curious as well lumi- as the SLSNe SN features. of both and rate explain QN decay can mixed nosity which extended of revealed the region is from material inner radiation an the fades, As envelope SLSNe. brilliant of luminous a observed peaks yields the reproducing envelope of temper- SN capable high radiance re-shocked and the size of extended reheating ature The ejecta envelope. QN expanded SN the the by the case, bombarded (dsQN), this is QN In envelope dual-shock QN. SN a a by as weeks to of referred order the on followed is al. et Koning 2007a,b; al. 2012). et (Ouyed pulsars X-ray lous xlso.Frfiuilvle h aiso h Nen- SN the of reach radius will the velope values fiducial For explosion. hc rn htpoestruhteS neoere- envelope temperature a SN a creates the to collision in- it through This the heating propels into envelope. that SN front slam the shock and of up edge & catch ner Ouyed quickly 2005; 2009) al. Leahy (Ker¨anen et ejecta QN relativistic fthe of in( sion deconfinement, 2006). al. quark et of (Staff that QN a exceed triggering to the fall- cause for density SN can that evolution core of spin-down shown accretion the or been the material has back either It stars neutron 2003). massive al. et (Berezhiani sdet h ako aiatv ea of decay radioactive of luminosity lack reduced the The to SN. due is subluminous a in results h Nevlp Oyde l 01) hslasto leads This 2011a). of al. of region et destruction inner (Ouyed the the envelope spallating up SN impact- used the the is of ejecta energy QN the and ing dense still is envelope SN ( delay QN. tla enn.We h ea ssot( cru- short is a delay plays the the When of delay evolution remnant. time subsequent stellar the This determining in 2006). role cial al. al. et et (Berezhiani Staff years deconfine- to 2003; quark seconds exceed from vary to can star ment, neutron the of density v ∝ h vlto fadQ a ecniee sthree as considered be can dsQN a of evolution The SN a which in scenario the on focus will work This h egho iebtenteS n Nexplo- QN and SN the between time of length The ttebgnigo the of beginning the At t r delay hs h Nevlp xad homologously expands envelope SN the phase ea phase delay hl h eto treovstwrsaQN a towards evolves star neutron the while ) γ .DA-HC UR NOVA QUARK DUAL-SHOCK 4. rybrt,soft bursts, -ray ,eetvl h iei ae o h central the for takes it time the effectively ), ea,shock delay, ≈ 56 10 smre ytedtnto fthe of detonation the by marked is iadtefrainof formation the and Ni 15 mdrn hspae h end The phase. this during cm γ ryrpaesadanoma- and repeaters -ray ≈ and shock 10 9 cooling Lay&Ouyed & (Leahy K hs h ultra- the phase uigthe During . ∼ < 56 as the days) 8 i(Ouyed Ni 44 iand Ti © Copyright 2014: Instituto de Astronomía, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México aeilbid pt omteinrsel h mass The shell. inner the form ( to up builds material during pre- dsQNe of work curves the light their the for model I, we Paper here sented in used adi- the via methodology Following cool same emission. will radiative shell and inner expansion the abatic and envelope the in- During the coasting both envelope. slowly the shocked and the time formed of this fully side By be envelope. will SN shell the inner of out breaks shock cooling n ees hcscuetetikes(∆ thickness mixing the turbulent cause as shocks reverse such and Processes energy of momentum. conservation and through correlated strongly be oe eerdt stehtpaei ue ta.(2012) enve- al. et the Ouyed to in I). plate interior Paper hot shell (hereinafter the as thin to a referred create lope, to ejecta QN ne hl ormi osatoc thsbgnto begun radius, has at it begin once to constant (defined remain coast to shell inner oiyo h oooosyepnig( expanding homologously the of locity oe( lope u eiaino adlmnst sdi ae I, of factor Paper missing in a was used there luminosity revisiting that band found Upon we R 10% of approximately value. derivation was predicted our I theoretically Paper our in found we of parameter that fit shell inner found a the be of as velocity can The work I. this Paper as in well in as used shell methodology inner the emission of formation the of description pe ( speed QN. time and the SN as between such delay conditions are initial shell changing inner by the affected of un- parameters to physical help how would derstand treatment shell hydrodynamic the full a is using adjusted be to the allow to we solely thickness. that pertaining shell parameter only inner The I. Paper h aecatn aisfrteinrsel aeythe of namely value shell, fit inner use the best we for work radius this coasting in anal- same considered the the target For in SLSN respectively). each found 7 of be ysis and can 6 (equations parameters I these Paper formu- describe the to of used derivation lae the momentum, and energy conservation through of determined are The velocity and radius. mass coasting and thickness velocity, mass, ture, I). Paper theoretical in of the 7 with used agreement equation velocity full (see in value shell now inner is work the this correction small this M sh steQ jcapogstruhteS envelope SN the through ploughs ejecta QN the As h n fthe of end The iuilvle,fudi ae ,frteshock the for I, Paper in found values, Fiducial shell inner the of formation the at look detailed A h ne hl sflyprmtrzdb:tempera- by: parameterized fully is shell inner The n eoiy( velocity and ) cooling v SN v hs sdfie ob h oetwe the when moment the be to defined is phase shock , max phase. 00k s km 6000 = 10k s km 4100 = R 4.1 sh 4.2 , shock h ne Shell Inner The . v 0 h Envelope The . sh 4 = fteinrselaefudto found are shell inner the of ) × hs n einn fthe of beginning and phase − UE-UIOSSPROA SQAKNVE171 NOVAE QUARK AS SUPERNOVAE SUPER-LUMINOUS − 10 1 1 n h ue deve- edge outer the and ) r sdfrtework the for used are ) 14 mta a on in found was that cm R sh , 0 .Adetailed A ). v cooling R ∝ π sh n with and r fthe of ) enve- ) phase to ntetm twihthe which at time the in ation rsne ee yfixing By here. presented scniee o h neoewhere envelope profile the temperature for simple considered a is I, Paper as methodology suiul eemndby determined uniquely is neoei on ipyas the simply of found mass is the thus envelope laws; conservation by prescribed is β neuvln muto hra nryi removed, is the energy Since energy. thermal conserving of thereby amount equivalent an hl as shell reprmtradtems fteinrsel( shell inner the of mass the and parameter free a esokdS neoe hybt tr ihsm ini- ( same with temperature the start namely tial both structure, they physical envelope, SN same re-shocked the of parts both ieetcoigpols h eprtr fteenve- as the evolves of temperature lope The follow profiles. they thickness) cooling constant different with shell inner spherically differ- the expanding and envelope the (the to geometries due in adiabatically; ence cool they expand shell emtyo h sNseai n efr radiative perform and scenario dsQN 3-D the the construct of to geometry us allows which SHAPE, software seen observations. is effect to the fits when our note simply law during will cooling we radiative model our complicated to more the a Rather dominate adding moot. already than problem the will lumi- rendering curve shell the light overall inner cases the cooling most from this in nosity when significant, thin becomes optically artefact is to likely. envelope due physically is the is 170 Since than Day hotter around Fig- remaining slope in envelope in line change the dotted the the as blue to a 1): contribution as ure envelope effect (plotted the in The curve in increase light seen time. dsQN an be with can to envelope this the lead of than of will rate rather and cooling cool layers, the to outer envelope cool- the whole radiative just the diffuse cause more will reality becomes ing In envelope valid. the less as approximation become thick time optically to cooling our this it radiative making thus By causing and thin expanded optically cooled. more also have has will envelope envelope and the progress the cooling to of radiative interface the curve, most hot-cold At the light ra- caused dsQN have is radiation. the will envelope emits of the longer stages of no late layer it outer cooled In hot-cold an diatively a once envelope. time model the over our through enve- cooling, inward the radiative progresses of to interface edge Due outer the lope. at thick, starts optically cooling relatively still radiative is envelope the when gins 0 = scniumrdaini mte yteenvelope the by emitted is radiation continuum As ic h ne hl n h neoeaeinitially are envelope the and shell inner the Since o hswr eueteatohsclmodelling astrophysical the use we work this For . .I hswr h rgntrsa as( mass star progenitor the work this In 2. T sh ( t ) ∝ T T env 0 T 0 t ( − .A h neoeadteinner the and envelope the As ). t 4.3 .MODEL 5. ) 4 / ∝ 3 Cooling . sePprIfrderivation). for I Paper (see T v 0 t shock M delay t − env 2 olwn h same the Following . n hto h inner the of that and and cooling = M cooling T v SN ⋆ ( r − , ) hs begins phase max M ∝ sh hs be- phase r h vari- the − . β M M with ⋆ is ) sh ) © Copyright 2014: Instituto de Astronomía, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México ea elicueaTopo cteigtr to term scattering form Thompson the a of 2 include equation well as We where eligrdaiepoes o hsaayi ecoeto chose we analysis fix this For process. radiative derlying 172 i.1 lte sardsldln sthe is line solid red a as Plotted 1. Fig. the the qiiru h bopincecetcrepnigto our corresponding coefficient thermodynamic absorption local the Assuming equilibrium 1. de- equation approximation by our scribed than complex in more mechanism required variations The obe to stedmnin ftegoer r oendb the by governed in are geometry described the physics well of as dimensions temperature the The as 2012). al. et (Wenger transfer be is can shell figure inner color the The from line. that online. dotted viewed green and the line by dashed denoted blue represente is the envelope the by from dsQN Radiation the of plotted. components also two are the from Radiation dsQN. the h neoehsteform the for has used coefficient envelope emission the The specified. are efficient olw h aemtoooyue nPprIi which ( in I frequency Paper each in for used methodology same the follows A o hsaayi,terdaietase calculation transfer radiative the analysis, this For B R j ν vrtefitrpsbn fec tde LN For SLSN. studied each of passband filter the over band band A sfudb en ftePac ucin( function Planck the of means by found is samlilctv atri eae oteun- the to related is factor multiplicative a is 5.1 A A aitv rnfrParameters Transfer Radiative . 5 = 7 = × × j ν 10 10 ν § = neiso n bopinco- absorption and emission an ) 4 5 k 4. n o the for and , o the for , ν T n A = 3 / e 2 2 B j e A ν hν/kT ν V . luet nemission an to allude band R u , bn ih uv of curve light -band band A 1 = A 5 = × 10 OTAE AL. ET KOSTKA × 6 for , 10 B (2) (1) ν 5 d ) . h oo gr a evee online. viewed be can figure color The as h ih uv soitdwt hsmdlis model this with associated curve light The days. noteba.Frti okw set we back work scattered this For not is beam. that the light into scattered of fraction and where ∆ rdsldln)ad∆ and line) solid (red es.T hsedw ul eei sNmodel dsQN generic a built general parameters: more we physical to a following end informative the in this with be dsQNe To would of curves it sense. light felt the we explore model dsQN the I. Paper calculation de- in transfer Further found radiative I. be the Paper can and in used SHAPE that on as tails same the is which T otdln) Bottom-right: line). dotted t vle ie ntx) Top-left: constant text). held in are pa- given parameters physical parameter remaining (values physical the of one while sets panel varied each is different For three plotted. is with rameters models dsQN of n N( Bottom-left: QN and line). dotted (blue ilsoktmeaue( temperature shock tial i.2 nec ae h vra fthe of overlay the panel each In 2. Fig. ie and line) line), M delay 0 R ⋆ 2 = sh eoefitn h bevdSSelgtcre with curves light SLSNe observed the fitting Before 20 = B 5dy rdsldln)and line) solid (red days 15 = T 2 = 0 . σ 5 samlilctv atrwihrpeet the represents which factor multiplicative a is 2 = TH M × M × 5.2 t delay ⊙ ⋆ 10 . 10 5 steTopo cteigcross-section scattering Thompson the is iuilMdlCharacteristics Model Fiducial . 30 = gendse line), dashed (green 9 × 11 ). ,∆ K, gendse ie,∆ line), dashed (green m 10 M 9 t k delay ν, rdsldln)and line) solid (red K ⊙ R R TH T bu otdln) Top-right: line). dotted (blue sh sh 0 0dy gendse line), dashed (green days 10 = ). = 4 = 3 = T n B ne hl hcns ( thickness shell Inner 0 × × 2 = e 10 10 σ aso neoe( envelope of Mass iedlybtenSN between delay Time M TH 11 × 13 t ⋆ bu otdline). dotted (blue m delay 10 mand cm , 25 = R 9 bn ih curve light -band R B gendashed (green K 0dy (blue days 20 = T sh M M 0 5 = 3 = ⋆ 3 = ⊙ t delay 25 = rdsolid (red × × × ∆ 10 10 10 R 15 = M M 11 Ini- 9 sh − (3) ⋆ ⊙ m 4 K ). ). , , © Copyright 2014: Instituto de Astronomía, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México ih uv steoeallgtcrese nFgr 1 Figure in seen same curve the light denotes the overall line the of solid as each red curve the in light 2 purposes Figure comparative in For panels parameters dsQN. physical a the of varying of morphology curve due plateau a shell. inner exist the can stages from there late emission curve the to light In dsQN shell. slowed the inner is the of dsQN from the emission of to curve de- light due luminosity overall the post-peak to in The shell rate the cay inner through. from shine cooling radiation to slowly rapid for begin thus allows a and This coasting causing slowly dense emission. less in en- becomes drop the and progresses radiation time the cools to As 1 due velope Figure envelope. is the curve in light from seen dsQN emitted and be the can 1 in As peak Figure by broad line. represented in is dashed line shell green dotted enve- inner the blue the the from a from contribution as emission the by component plotted The caused is 1. curve lope Figure light in the line solid of red a as plotted online. viewed be can figure color The T ( Bottom-left: line). dotted vle ie ntx) Top-left: constant text). held in are given parameters remaining (values the parameter while physical varied one is panel each For magnitude. absolute as(e oi ie and line) solid (red days hc eprtr ( temperature shock ie and line) M esi lte.Ec ih uv ssae sn h radiati the using scaled parameter parame- is curve physical transfer light Each of sets plotted. is different ters three with models dsQN i.3 nec ae h vra fthe of overlay the panel each In 3. Fig. t 0 delay ⋆ 2 = nti eto ewl netgt h ffc nlight on effect the investigate will we section this In 20 = ). . 5 × t M M delay 10 ⋆ ⊙ 30 = 9 gendse line), dashed (green rdsldln)and line) solid (red K 0dy gendse line), dashed (green days 10 = M T A 0 ⊙ ). uhta h ek ec h same the reach peaks the that such bu otdln) Top-right: line). dotted (blue T t delay 0 iedlybtenS n QN and SN between delay Time 2 = UE-UIOSSPROA SQAKNVE173 NOVAE QUARK AS SUPERNOVAE SUPER-LUMINOUS 0dy bu otdline). dotted (blue days 20 = × 10 aso neoe( envelope of Mass M 9 gendse line), dashed (green K ⋆ T R 0 25 = bn ih uv of curve light -band 3 = M × ⊙ 10 t delay rdsolid (red 9 (blue K Initial 15 = M ⋆ ve ). esokd hc rnltsit ihrpa nthe shorter in is The peak it higher when curve. a dense light into more translates is which envelope shorter re-shocked, SN A the 2. that Figure of implies panel lower-left the in seen ae fFgr hw htcagn ∆ changing lower-right that the shows expected 2 Figure as of has Thus envelope panel the from sufficiently. seen emission be once faded only stages, can late shell the inner in the from radiation of curve overall the sooner. on seen effect be its can and curve greater light is shell inner the of ffc nlgtcremrhlg is morphology curve light on effect plateau. n 30 and a ese ntelwrrgtpnlo iue2where 2 Figure ∆ on panel thinner lower-right the the radiation in The seen increased be causing shell. can density inner increased and the density of be- from higher effect things emission a All intense implies more curve. shell thus light thinner a dsQN equal, the ing of tail the pacts a ae h sNwt longer a de- with luminosity dsQN The steep a rate. cay and to losses leading re-shocked, adiabatic is significant it when smaller be envelope SN ietyeet h muto aito htcnbe can that higher For radiation shell. of inner the light amount by overall emitted the the effects temperature on the directly because shell times different inner at begins the curve from support the iebihns o ogrtm hncmae oa to compared when rela- shorter time a higher with longer a dsQN a at remain for to brightness curve tive light adiabatic the reduced However, allow losses peak. luminosity a high as otetm fS xlso.Alonger A explosion. SN of time the to t 3 ffc nteeiso rmteinrshell. inner no the has from envelope emission the the for of on mass by time effect the caused same changing is convergence that the This fact the at curves. light in the the of kicks from each shell radiation inner by support underlying post- the drops As luminosity peak. higher peak a yielding masses higher with iue2w hweeto varying of of dashed panel effect green upper-left show we blue the the 2 from by the Figure starting value by Clock-wise lower denoted the line. is one and value 2 line higher Figure the dotted on the of effect panel curve; its show each light to in adjusted is Then parameter physical line). solid (red fvarying of days). 20 ftepa;hwvr h egto h eki inversely is height peak the the to scale of height to proportional the acts however, well peak; as the 2) of Figure of panel right 4 offiin,seeuto ) ntecs fvarying of case the In 1). equation see coefficient, delay × × ssoni iue1teeeto h sNlight dsQN the on effect the 1 Figure in shown As h hsclprmtrta a h otdramatic most the has that parameter physical The Changing sse nteuprlf ae fFgr h effect the 2 Figure of panel upper-left the in seen As 10 10 st hnetetm fpa uioiyrelative luminosity peak of time the change to is 9 13 ) ayn ∆ varying K), M m n varying and cm) ⊙ M ,varying ), ⋆ T ssml osaetehih ftepeak, the of height the scale to simply is R 0 sh T ftedQ a eni h upper- the in seen (as dsQN the of 0 ih uv a oeprominent more a has curve light det h omo h emission the of form the to (due t R delay T sh 0 t (2 t (2 nte ffc fadjusting of effect Another . delay delay × × 10 10 lodmnsta the that demands also 1 as 5dy and days 15 days, (10 13 9 t m 3 cm, ,2 K, delay t M delay T ⋆ t 0 (20 delay . antachieve cannot 5 hc a be can which , h luminosity the × R × M 10 sh sNwill dsQN 10 ⊙ 13 nyim- only 25 , 9 mand cm and K t delay M T ⊙ 0 © Copyright 2014: Instituto de Astronomía, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México 174 i.4 o ahpnlteosre ih uv spotdwit plotted is curve light observed the panel each For 4. Fig. h ffc htcagn ahpyia aaee ( parameter physical time. each changing given that any effect at use the model can our we in Thus emitted radiation free of the approximated contains Our 1) dsQN. parameter equation a (see of coefficient curve emission light the of peak M before envelope larger out. fact break a simple can traverse the it must to due shock time the in that later brightness in peak online. viewed u be can parameters figure fit color 2 best The SN The PTF10cwr. represent: and panels t axis. PTF09cnd the along vertical top-to-bottom plotted the and is on left-to-right explosion plotted SN is inferred the band since Time line. T iue3w efr h aecmaio sshown as comparison same the perform we 3 Figure 0 ⋆ and , rmFgr ti la htcagn h ausof values the changing that clear is it 2 Figure From T 0 t or delay t A delay a ntesaeo h ih uv.In curve. light the of shape the on has ) hc swl ietyeet h amount the effects directly well as which l ffc h egto h luminosity the of height the effect all A ogi etrvsaiainof visualization better a gain to OTAE AL. ET KOSTKA M ⋆ , 0a,S 06y N20t,S 07i N20e,S 2008fz, SN 2008es, SN 2007bi, SN 2006tf, SN 2006gy, SN 005ap, pnbakcrlsadtedQ oe spotda oi re solid a as plotted is model dsQN the and circles black open h ehrzna xsadteaslt antd nteobserve the in magnitude absolute the and axis horizontal he e ognrt hs t a efudi al .From 3. Table in found be can fits these generate to sed h ih uvsi h pe w aeso iue3i is it 3 Figure changing of neither panels that two upper clear the in curves light the ih uv nthe in curve light lp.Trigt h pe-ih ae fFgr 3, Figure of increasing panel that upper-right see the can the affect one to not increas- Turning does the but 3 increases peak, slope. curve marginally Figure light envelope the of the of panel breadth of mass upper-left the the ing dsQN. in the of seen rate decay As luminosity post-peak the fects nFgr ihteadto htec ih uv is curve light each that addition the using rescaled with 2 Figure in h opooyo h ih uv eka increasing as peak curve light the M of morphology the ⋆ h nydffrnebtenadjusting between difference only The . A ota h bouemgiueo the of magnitude absolute the that so , R adpasat peaks band M T 0 ⋆ a h aeeeton effect same the has nor − T 2 ycomparing By 22. 0 infiatyaf- significantly M ⋆ and d d © Copyright 2014: Instituto de Astronomía, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México and neoewie∆ while envelope ne hl.A a hw in shown was As shell. inner antd aclto.Tefispeetdhr take here presented fits The calculation. magnitude h t oS 06yinrda ignored 2006gy SN to fits the this of model dsQN if the determine in to present unable SLSN. was were shell we inner Thus an from shell. contribution a inner see the potentially not to had enough luminosity dropped the the ap- Since post-peak, for days out 4). 35 carried proximately Figure only were of 2005ap panel SN of left observations row top (see vations aetesm ffc ntedQ ih uv.Tu for Thus curve. fixed light dsQN we the simplicity on effect same the have ∆ 28 from consistent. PTF09cnd remarkably radiation is but the shell (all of inner formed magnitude the is the shell the PTF10cwr) dsQNe for inner on and that an plotted seen be displays which curves can 5 it light in 5 Figure dsQN Figure From fit line. axes. light same best solid dsQN the red fit of a best each as the plotted and is circles curve are observations open in the 4 with found Figure plotted of be panel each can For these surveyed of 3. Table values SLSNe fit each best for The parameters fits. model between vary to uioiydcyrt fS 05prqie short a required 2005ap ( SN delay of time rate decay luminosity eajse ofi ahsto bevtoswere; observations that of parameters set each The fit to model. adjusted dsQN we the using SLSNe t oosre LNlgtcre ecos ofix to choose we our curves light all light for the SLSN same, of the observed virtually to rate is fits decay effect the luminosity Since the curve. on effect imal and ietywith directly aaee htw a duti re ocag the is change model to dsQN the only order in the in rate analysis adjust decay this can luminosity in we found have that curve we light parameter As post-peak dsQN. the a of of rate decay luminosity the a ewe NadQ.A a hw nFgr 2 Figure in shown was As de- QN. the varying and increasing of SN effect the between displays lay 3 Figure of panel t2 at ae ihrsett h ieo Nepoin An- explosion. SN of increasing time of the consequence to other respect with later e hl nrae with increases shell ner T 0 R M sta h nest fterdainfo h in- the from radiation the of intensity the that is ntepofo-rnil ae Oyde l 2012) al. et (Ouyed paper proof-of-principle the In h etfi rgntrms o N20a was 2005ap SN for mass progenitor fit best The o hswr ehv ttelgtcreo eight of curve light the fit have we work this For rmFgrs2ad3w a e htvarying that see can we 3 and 2 Figures From sh . M M 5 ⊙ h ihpa bouemgiueadfast and magnitude absolute peak high The . and × ⋆ ⋆ nysgicnl ffc h aito rmthe from radiation the affect significantly only 10 ffcieyat nya cln,wt min- with scaling, a as only acts effectively t M 9 .FT OOBSERVATIONS TO FITS 6. delay t n allow and K delay ⋆ T fteetrefe parameters free three these Of . 0 . R asstepa uioiyt occur to luminosity peak the causes 11 = sh 6.1 6.2 T 0 nyaet h msinfo the from emission the affects only N2005ap SN . N2006gy SN . . 2 = 5dy)dQ ofi h obser- the fit to dsQN days) 25 T 0 M . asn h lta ovary to plateau the causing 5 UE-UIOSSPROA SQAKNVE175 NOVAE QUARK AS SUPERNOVAE SUPER-LUMINOUS ⋆ × § ovr.Telower-left The vary. to 10 π .,varying 5.2, t delay 9 atri the in factor n allowed and K st lwdown slow to is t M delay R ⋆ t or t band delay . delay M T T T ⋆ 0 0 0 , nordQ oe yrdainpeoiatyfo a fit from was predominantly curve radiation light by 2 the model of dsQN plateau our in stage late The days. tb sNo 28 a of dsQN by fit tt h ih uv fS 08si ipae nthe in displayed 4. is Figure 2008es of SN panel of middle row, curve middle light the to fit and 08sbgn ob upre ylmnst originat- SN 3 luminosity of a by curve from supported light ing be the to Approximately explosion begins SN days. 2008es the 12.5 after of days QN 100 and SN between lay ne hl a ob ery1 ie hce hnthat than thicker times (2 10 2006gy the nearly SN that be of to found had we shell PTF09cnd inner For exception. one with sdslydi h iderwlf ae fFgr 4. Figure of 25 panel of left star row progenitor middle A the in displayed is right row top the in 4. found Figure is of 2006tf panel SN of curve light tro 26 of star ih uv fS 08zrqie 35 a required 2008fz SN of curve light ftelgtcreaeaetdb h otiuinfrom contribution the by 4 affected an are curve light the of 08zlgtcreaespotdb uioiyfo a from luminosity SN by the supported of 5 middle are stages the late curve in QN. The light found and 4. 2008fz is Figure SN curve of panel between light middle the days row to 20 fit of dsQN delay Our time and star hp fteS 07ilgtcrewas curve light the 2007bi fitted SN best that the QN of and shape SN between delay the and sdslydi h otmrw etpnlo iue4. Figure of ( panel PTF09cnd for left parameters row, fit best bottom The the in displayed is hsfi aetelnettm ea falSSemod- SLSNe ( all work of this delay time in in longest lu- used elled the slow dsQN have the the fit curve, that this light demanded the rate decay of minosity edge leading the clude ntetprwmdl ae fFgr .A30 A 4. Figure of panel displayed middle is row 2006gy SN top fit of Our the curve accurate. in light more observed are the thus to and account into this tuigainrsel2 was shell curve inner light a the The of using stages days. fit broad late 17 of the the delay in and time plateau a distinct model required 200gy our SN in of peak used was star progenitor . × 5 h arwpa ftelgtcreo N20e was 2008es SN of curve light the of peak narrow The × lto u tt h ih uv fS 2007bi SN of curve light the to fit our of plot A h obnto fhg eklmnst n broad and luminosity peak high of combination The lto u tt h ih uv fPTF09cnd of curve light the to fit our of plot A lhuhteosrain fS 06fd o in- not do 2006tf SN of observations the Although 10 × M 10 12 10 ⋆ 13 minrshell. inner cm 13 31 = mtikinrshell. inner thick cm M mtikinrsel u tt h observed the to fit Our shell. inner thick cm ⊙ × M a sdi u tadtelt stages late the and fit our in used was 10 × ⊙ 13 r iia otoeo N2006gy SN of those to similar are ) 10 M mtikinrsel lto our of plot A shell. inner thick cm 6.7 6.5 6.4 t 6.6 6.3 14 delay ⊙ PTF09cnd . N2008es SN . N2007bi SN . N2008fz SN . N2006tf SN . m rapoiaeytofifths two approximately or cm, × rgntrsa ihatm de- time a with star progenitor . 5 22 = 10 M 13 ⊙ mthick. cm . a sdi u model our in used was as.Aprogenitor A days). 5 t M delay t ⊙ delay progenitor 7days 17 = 18 = M . ⊙ 5 © Copyright 2014: Instituto de Astronomía, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México 176 tgso h ih uv fPF9n sta h in- imposed the the that than is faster PTF09cnd late cooling of is the curve shell at light ner shell the inner of the stages from for radiation explanation reduced possible the the of Another dynamics higher interaction. specific and QN/SN to envelope related SN in effects inner mixing difference difference the order a of This fit to abundance to attributed the curve. order be in light may in geometry the shell) shell of inner inner stages the of late radius the initial the of axis. same online. the viewed on the be of plotted can each are figure for work color curve The light this model in dsQN studied fit SLSNe best The 5. Fig. ainpoeso h ne hl.Telt tgsof stages late The shell. inner for- the the QN/SN of understand the process further of mation to more hydrodynamics help A would the time. interaction that of with imply thickness study simply in detailed would expanding is index shell cooling the larger A law. OPRSNO SNMDLPRMTR SDT I AHSLSNE. EACH FIT TO USED PARAMETERS MODEL DSQN OF COMPARISON LN ieDly( Delay Time SLSNe T1cr752 N/A 25 7.5 PTF10cwr N20f 003 0.5 3.0 2.5 4.0 2.0 31 35 N/A 28 25.5 26 17.0 30 20.0 28 12.5 18.5 PTF09cnd 22.5 2008fz SN 17.0 2008es SN 11.25 2007bi SN 2006tf SN 2006gy SN 2005ap SN dy][ [days] T t ∝ delay OTAE AL. ET KOSTKA t − 4 as( Mass ) AL 3 TABLE / 3 M nsoewihi natfc fterdaiecooling radiative the of change artifact a in an displays discussed is approximation PTF09cnd which to slope fit in model dsQN our h tutr fteln.Ti sdslyda h mid- the as to displayed added is is This H profile line. dle Cygni the P of structure a the envelope, the the of of H ponent breadth the long-lasting As the line. for accounting urally ihtesots iedly(. as sN 25 fit A was dsQN. thus days) (7.5 and delay work time this shortest in the studied with those curve light all light narrowest observed of the the curve displayed to SLSN This fit model PTF10cwr. of dsQN the is 4 ure nqet h sNseai,tewnso h H the of wings the scenario, dsQN the to Unique raeig(e ih-otH velocity right-most than (see rather broadening broadening thermal by caused are ainaon h ieo ekbihns.A dis- H an As display can dsQN brightness. the peak I, obser- of Paper spectral in time one cussed the is around cases observations many vation of number in the which by study limited available, the is SLSNe, spectra other the for (Smith of Unfortunately evolution 2010). spectral al. its et detail that observations iato h aitv oln prxmto discussed approximation ar- cooling an in radiative is fit which the model slope of dsQN in tifact our change of a stages displays late PTF10cwr The to the presence shell. the and inner of an model sign of no fit showed best PTF10cwr of our curve in light used was star progenitor fsgteouino h H the of line evolution the feature. sight of absorption representation of schematic blue-side a displays a 6 in Figure from result absorption and envelope emission the and shell, originating inner emission the broadened from line thermally the by of caused structure broad is underlying the which in ture ⊙ M [10 ] § ntecs fS 06yteeeitnumerous exist there 2006gy SN of case the In ipae ntebto o idepnlo Fig- of panel middle row bottom the in Displayed ⋆ 4.3. hl hcns (∆ Thickness Shell ) α iei iue6 ial h odotrlayer outer cold the Finally 6. Figure in line 6.8 α T1cr/S 2010gx SN / PTF10cwr . ieporse hog h o com- hot the through progresses line ∼ > .DISCUSSION 7. 13 20 7.1 cm] Spectra . α § R α 4.3. sh iei yia dsQN. typical a in line ) iei iue6,nat- 6), Figure in line α signa- α M line ⊙ © Copyright 2014: Instituto de Astronomía, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México ueo h iea ela h lesd bopinfea- absorption blue-side the as H in well seen as ture line a the struc- provide broad of to persistent ture the shown both was for model explanation unique dsQN The 2006gy. SN o N20b h H the 2007bi SN For H nS 06y(pe ih ae fFgr )fo a from 2007bi. 7) SN of Figure observation of spectral the panel as right epoch (upper similar 2006gy SN in efe fhdoe GlYme l 09.Frcom- For 2009). H the al. plotted have et should we thus (Gal-Yam purposes and parative hydrogen SN of Ic free type spec- be a the of with of panel consistent features other are left all trum upper as mysterious (see is brightness 7) Figure peak after days 54 sso h pcrleouino h H the of evolution spectral the of ysis 2009). study al. the any et However, inhibits (Gezari observations lines the these profile. of of Cygni ratio Balmer P S/N broad a contain poor display 2008es SN which of lines of spectra way H no The dsQN is predicted line. there our to line observations the the of comparing red-side the Without off. h H the i.6 h he H three The 6. Fig. ino h hsclsrcueta otiue otegiven H the right to far contributes The that line. representa- structure emission physical cartoon the not-to-scale of a tion background the In tion. yteevlp a h e-igo h H the of red-wing the absorption has significant show envelope would the is which by that epoch 2008fz SN an of at observation spectral only the ture, ftebodsrcue h a etH left top far on The profile Cygni structure. broad P the a of contributes envelope hot the while msinfo nyteinrsel h ra tutr of structure broad The H shell. middle inner the the only from emission htrsmlsta fS 06y(rk ta.2010). al. et (Drake H 2006gy the SN While of that resembles that h niedQ ln h ieo ih.Teradiatively in The absorption blue-side sight. increased H of adds the line layer the outer along cooled dsQN entire the fteevlp dsasrto otebu-ieo the of blue-side the to absorption H adds envelope the of hwsm niaino ekH weak do a SLSNe of these indication of promi- some each any show although display lines, not hydrogen do nent PTF10cwr and PTF09cnd bevtoso N20f ahso togH strong a show spectral each two 2008fz The SN lines. of weak observations pos- these any eliminates studying ratio Unfortunately of (S/N) sibility noise (2011). to signal al. poor material et the supplemental Quimby the with in associated mentioned as minosity, α α o u oki ae epromddtie anal- detailed performed we I Paper in work our For codn otercasfiain N2005ap, SN classification, their to According ieo w te LN;S 06fadS 2007bi. SN and 2006tf SN SLSNe; other two of line ie(ena h etms iepotdi iue6). Figure in plotted line left-most the as (seen line α α iea he ieetsae fisln fsgtevolu- sight of line its of stages different three at line line. α α α iei msinfo nyteinrshell, inner the only from emission is line ie ipa ra neligstruc- underlying broad a display lines fS 06y nti okw td the study we work this In 2006gy. SN of α msinlnspotdhr represent here plotted lines emission α ieosre ntespectrum the in observed line α UE-UIOSSPROA SQAKNVE177 NOVAE QUARK AS SUPERNOVAE SUPER-LUMINOUS iei hral broadened thermally is line α α iei msinfrom emission is line iena eklu- peak near line α ieosre in observed line α ieobserved line α iecut line α line α mle htteevlp ssildnea h ieof time the at dense still is envelope the that implies e eklmnst.Dt rmGlYme l (2009). al. et Gal-Yam from H Data The Top-Right: luminosity. peak ter N20b n h sNmdl o-et lte sthe is Plotted Top-Left: model. H dsQN observed the and 2007bi SN aafo mt ta.(00.Bto:TedQ model dsQN The Bottom: (2010). luminosity. al. H et post-peak Smith days from 50 Data approximately at observed / ai fteS 07ipeet h td fthe of H study the the prevents the of 2007bi Although structure SN I). H delicate the Paper model of (from dsQN ratio epoch the S/N same is the 7 for Figure line of panel bottom The h sNdsrpino hs LN.I h aeof case ( delay the time In shorter SLSNe. the these 2007bi of SN description dsQN the ly noepo ffu bevtoso h H the dis- of 8 observations Figure four of panel of left overplot upper an The plays promi- time. more a with contains becomes As nent it that as structure 2006gy underlying H curve. SN broad the of light that (2008) resembles its al. 2006tf SN et along Smith epochs by noted different at tions broad absorption. the blue-side namely strong dsQN, and a structure of underlying those to similar are tures i.7 oprsno H of Comparison 7. Fig. ae fFgr ipasdQ oe H model bottom dsQN The displays 8 epochs. Figure similar obser- of for panel spectral panel 2006gy four right SN of upper overplot of an the vations displays comparison 8 For Figure of 2006tf. SN of n N20g.I h sNmdlH model dsQN the In 2006tf SN 2006gy. of SN observations and the as epochs similar roughly N20b r ossetwt h different the with consistent are 2007bi SN htdmnse nsrnt vrtime. over feature strength absorption blue-side in compo- a diminishes as broad that well a as exists line the there to 2006gy nent SN and 2006tf SN α h pcrmo N20t a utpeobserva- multiple has 2006tf SN of spectrum The h ieecsi h H the in differences The ie5 asps-eklmnst,fo ae I. Paper from luminosity, post-peak days 50 line α ieo N20b prxmtl 4dy af- days 54 approximately 2007bi SN of line α iefo h pcrmo N2006gy SN of spectrum the from line α iefo pcr fS 2006gy, SN of spectra from line α α ietelresaefea- scale large the line ie fS 06fand 2006tf SN of lines t α delay α ieosre in observed line ieadta of that and line 18 = α ie from lines t . days) 5 delay α line of α © Copyright 2014: Instituto de Astronomía, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México r etfi ihdQ oeswtotinrshells inner without models dsQN with fit best are absorption during weaker. blue-side is diffuse the feature more and observations much spectral is the envelope the Therefore, lesd bopinfaue sfrS 06f the 2006tf, ( SN longer for significantly is As delay strong time feature. a exists absorption there thus blue-side and observation spectral the figure color The online. date. viewed explosion be dash-dot SN (green can H inferred 179 (blue the The and 125 after line) I. line), dotted line) solid Paper (red (black 154 in 96 line), days; 2006gy dashed from SN are of plotted observations lines the fit to aafo mt ta.(00.TeH The (2010). al. et Smith from data o-et lte sa vra fseta bevtosof observations spectral of H overlay the an is Plotted Top-Left: sa vra ftedQ oe H model dsQN the dash-dot Plotted of (green overlay Bottom: days date. an 179 explosion is SN and inferred line) the line), after dotted dashed line) (blue (red days days 125 line), 154 solid (black days 96 from pcr,S 06yadordQ oe H model dsQN our and 2006gy SN spectra, 178 i.8 oprsno vlto fH of evolution of Comparison 8. Fig. noelyo H Top-Righ days of 95 observation. 41 overlay first and An line), the line) after dotted solid line) (red dash-dot (black days (green 66 days line), 32 dash (blue from; days are observations The neetnl h LN ihlgtcre that curves light with SLSNe the Interestingly α ieo N20t.Dt rmSihe l (2008). al. et Smith from Data 2006tf. SN of line α pcrllnsfo N20g splotted, is 2006gy SN from lines spectral α α t delay iefo N2006tf SN from line ieta a used was that line α ie lte are plotted lines α 22 = ieevolution. line . days). 5 OTAE AL. ET KOSTKA t: α iedlydQ h ne hl a o eformed. be not may shell inner the shorter mor- for dsQN curve that delay light found we time SLSN analysis of our variety From expla- wide phologies. an the in provides variation description for is A dsQN nation magnitude the broader. in is peak delay curve time the light delays the and curve). time dimmer light longer (narrower and for rate brighter While is decay de- that luminosity magnitude time faster peak Shorter a a QN. yield and dsQN SN was lay between morphology delay curve time light the dsQN on impact greatest SLSNe. of budget energy radiated large the power tde.I h otx fdQe rgntrstars progenitor dsQNe, targets of SLSN 25–35 context eight between the all ranging of In curves light studied. the explain to inner the envelope. from diffuse radiation the by through caused shining is shell stage late the in ioiydcyrt,or rate, decay lu- minosity peak to past dropped well has ≈− luminosity curves the light once the (typically minosity of shape the affect mech- radiation the understanding anism. in coef- emission help determine the and to of ficient dependence help temperature ob- would true is passbands the curve light several the in which served in 1. SLSNe equation of as resembles study form we Further similar SLSNe contin- that a these has the curves which that for light recombination, indication mechanism SLSN an emission the be uum of could each This provided to 2) studied. fit and radiative 1 good the equations a for (see used radi- coefficients we energy that transfer high formulation of The absorber which efficient envelope ation. an the of as a layer act of outer would context cold the the to in due expected dsQN is This quiet production. remarkably X-ray All show QN. observations and X-ray SN pa- between with delay SLSNe only time the the luminos- is the rate that decay changing ity found significantly We of capable curve. peak rameter light the dsQN down or the up scale of to only act both temperature nefo h ne hl PF9n) hwn broad no influ- show (PTF09cnd), minimal shell with H inner or the from PTF10cwr), ence and 2005ap (SN scnitn ihtedQ xlnto o h ori- the H for broad explanation persistent the dsQN of the gin This with 2011). consistent al. is et Quimby from material supplemental α efudta h hsclprmtrwt the with parameter physical the that found We ehv hw httedQ cnrocnb used be can scenario dsQN the that shown have We h uioiyfo h ne hl nybgn to begins only shell inner the from luminosity The shock initial the as well as envelope the of mass The 19 etrsi aepaeseta bevtos(see observations spectral phase late in features .CNLSOSADPREDICTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 8. . bouemgiue.Tesoigo h lu- the of slowing The magnitude). absolute 5 7.3 7.2 h ne Shell Inner The . h Envelope The . M plateauing ⊙ α rvd ml nryto energy ample provide feature. ftelgtcurve light the of © Copyright 2014: Instituto de Astronomía, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México motn oei h eylt tg ( stage late very the in role important h ilyrwudb etoe nfvro h produc- the of sub- favor QN of in delay destroyed tion time be shorter would layer a For Ni the impact. envelope by of the of moment spallation density the the undergoes at on envelope depending ejecta (2011a) SN QN al. the the et Ouyed of (Hwang in layer A described the Cas As in 2012). found Laming were & QN that the suggested of have signs observations (Ouyed plausible Recent ejecta the QN 2011a). the by al. by et caused envelope SN abundance the chemical of unique spallation a is model collision. QN a via super-luminous re-brightening become to can a SN due expect of we types Thus of variety present). wide is hydrogen example not corre- (for or envelope no whether star is progenitor the There to with collapse. lation could QN star to neutron susceptible pro- due the the become is of whether interior determine This the star of explosion. conditions genitor the QN that a fact the undergo neutron to turn massive a in behind can leaves star that SN collapse core envelope. the of absorption diffusion blue-side with We consistent the H the envelope. of in the evolution feature from the contribution that to found due while fea- are ther- absorption shell, blue-side ture by the inner The for and peak the accounted intermediate from the 2007bi). is emission line SN broadened the observa- and mally of SLSNe 2006tf structure different SN broad 2006gy, three (SN in tions found profile line ein fadQ enn Oyde l 01) The outer 2011a). the al. et in (Ouyed of found remnant formation be dsQN to to a Fe lead of also regions cause should would process that This mixing 2011a). al. et (Ouyed fteQ-Nitrcinms eundertaken. be must dynamics interaction the QN-SN of the study pressure- of further to into However, lost go be work. instead would volume may that shell energy inner the the forming that is implication The uv.Hwvri h iedlyi ogte there then long light is peaks. delay X-ray X-ray distinct time broadened two the be a should if to However be- could leading delay bursts curve. X-ray overlap, time the the then fact short If in is QN envelope. and stellar shock SN SN QN the tween the the of at of out occur would break-out breaks second the SN the and when original envelope occur the would from event shock emission X-ray first The 2013). the in (Ouyed lithium remnant of oxygen dsQN over-abundance & an carbon to sig- the lead chemical of would layer Spallation unique of dsQN. a layer the to oxygen of leads nature & which carbon envelope the SN the in spal- occurs the QN process delay lation time longer For dsQN. of luminosity itnusigfauepeitdb h dsQN the by predicted feature distinguishing A any that fact the is scenario dsQN the to Unique ehv loeaie h iglrH singular the examined also have We sNi xetdt mttobrt fX-rays. of bursts two emit to expected is dsQN A 56 44 ieeet uha;T,V radMn and Cr V, Ti, as; such elements Ni ia h xes of expense the at Ti α ieo N20g n N20t is 2006tf SN and 2006gy SN of line UE-UIOSSPROA SQAKNVE179 NOVAE QUARK AS SUPERNOVAE SUPER-LUMINOUS 56 iwl lyan play will Ni t ≈ 00days) 1000 α spectral ue,R,Lay . ibra,B 07,AA 473, A&A, 2007a, B. 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