Coastal Hunter-Gatherer Settlement Systems in the Southern North Coast Ranges

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Title: Coastal Hunter-Gatherer Settlement Systems in the Southern North Coast Ranges

Author (s): Kent G. Lightfoot

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COASTAL HUNTER-GATHERER SETTLEMENT SYSTEMS IN THE SOUTHERN NORTH COAST RANGES Kent G. Ughtfoot Department ofAnthropology, University of California, Berkeley

ABSTRACT gatherers of the region. Here, the coastal region of the southern North Coast Ranges is defined as the rocky Models of coastal hunter-gatherer settlement coastal shore and adjacent uplands of Mendocino and systems commonly emphasize an inverse relationship Sonoma Counties (Figure 2.1). I begin by synthesizing between coastal productivity and residential mobility. In Perlman's (1980) coastal productivity model that this paper, archaeological data from the southern North predicts high residential mobility, small group size and Coast ranges are examined to evaluate ethnographic minimal sociopolitical complexity amoog coastal hunter observations of low coastal productivity and high gatherer societies in high wave-stress, mountainous residential mobility. Recent research at Albion Head, coastal regions such as the North Coast Ranges. I then MacKerricher State Parle, and the Fort Ross Study Area summarize several ethnographic descriptions of coastal indicate considerable variation in the degree of Pomo peoples that support this argument. Finally, I residential mobility and the elaboration of settlement describe the results of recent archaeological studies of types in late prehistoric settlement systems. A "central coastal hunter-gatherer populations in Mendocino and based village" model is described in some detail using Sonoma Counties. These studies indicate that survey information from Fort Ross. The implications of substantial variation characterized the late prehistoric finding different kinds of settlement systems in coastal subsistence-settlement systems of the southern North Sonoma and Mendocino Counties are considered briefly. Coast Ranges. The implications of these findings are then discussed. Studies of coastal hunter-gatherer populations have long stressed the relationship between resource THE COASTAL PRODUCTIVITY MODEL "abundance" or "richness" and the degree of residential mobility. Ethnographic studies of the coastal Pomo The most elegant presentation of the coastal (Kashaya or Southwestern Pomo, Southern Pomo, productivity model was by archaeologists in the 1970's Central Pomo, Northern Pomo) of the southern North and 1980's. Many coastal adaptation studies tend to Coast Ranges of California are no exception. Since the stress the relationship between resource productivity 1920s ethnographers have characterized this region as (density, diversity and seasonal availability of one of low coastal productivity. That is, the density and foodstuffs) and the nature of hunter-gatherer subsistence diversity of wild food resources available to hunter settlement systems. For example, Perlman (1980) gatherer populations were perceived as limited. generates expectations of hunter-gatherer populations Consequently, coastal Pomo settlement systems have (degree of residential mobility, size of local group, been portrayed as small, dispersed communities, with complexity of sociopolitical organization) based on the individual family units practicing extensive seasonal level of coastal resource productivity. Perlman rounds during much of the annual cycle. Similar (1980:292-294) predicts large, sedentary communities interpretations have been proposed for late prehistoric will evolve along highly productive coastlines hunter-gatherers of the region as well. characterized by broad and shallow cootinental shelves In this chapter, I argue that ethnographic and low wave-stress estuaries. His predictions descriptions of residentially mobile Pomo groups in a concerning the rise of sedentary communities along rich resource-poor environment may be appropriate models estuaries that contain a diverse range of terrestrial. for some, but not all, late prehistoric coastal hunter- estuarine and marine resources have been echoed by

39 Kent G. Lightfoot

...... _ i,..., \~ ('' .. '··~ ...... , •. '· ~- .. 5!;/,.,. :< ' .. \:\.... p,, ..... ' /"•.. -~~bury ' ' ! / «U:: lJM•Nkx:itoo i ., \ ;..,.,..... __ .i \ \ ...... ,_ '\. ., \-,o, \'t. \\

i N

0 ISkm

Figure 2.1. The southern North Coast Ranges.

many other archaeologists working in temperate coastal picts the North Coast Ranges region of California as a environments (Spiess et al. 1983; Yesner 1980; Light mountainous coastline with a lower level of coastal foot et al. 1987). Establishing residential bases in the productivity than many other coastal regions of North estuarine ecotone minimizes transportation costs by America (e.g. southern New England coastline). Based limiting the distance task groups travel to nearby re on Perlman's (1980) model, one would then expect to source patches (see Gwynne 1982:247-275; Rowley find hunter-gatberer societies in this region to be charac Conwy 1983:122-125; Clark 1983:99-102). terized by small populations, by minimal sociopolitical Perlman (1980:284-294) contrasts the above complexity, and by extensive seasonal rounds. expectations with those predicted for hunter-gatherer societies adapting to regions of relatively low coastal COASTAL POMO SET'ILEMENT productivity. He suggests in coastal environs SYSTEMS characterized by steep continental shelves, rocky intertidal zones, and high wave-stress shores, the most It was Alfred Kroeber (1925:225-234) who first optimal solution would be that of small, residentially examined the relationship between resource productivity mobile, band-level societies. Perlman (1980:271) de- and Pomo settlement systems in the southern North

40 _, Settlement Systems in the Southern North Coast Ranges

Coast Ranges of California. In comparing the coastal from wbicb people bunted deer and fished for silver Pomo to interior Pomo groups located along the Russian salmon and steelbead trout in nearby streams. River and at Oear Lake, be noted that the food supply of Edward Gifford. wbo worked among the Pomo tbe former was inferior for two reasons. FU'St, the rocky in 1915-1917, 1934 and 1950, succinctly characterized reefs and rocky intertidal zones that characterize much of the Southwestern Pomo as: the coastline provide only a "fair" amount of food. Second, a dense redwood belt, extending anywhere from among the most primitive of the Cali eight to 32 kilometers in width, parallels the narrow fornia aborigines, a fact to be co"elat coastal terrace across the region. Consequently, the ed with their mountainous te"ain on a nearby hinterland, wbicb is dominated by dense redwood rugged, inhospitable coast. Their low groves that support scant economic resources for bunter culture may be contrasted with the gatherers, is perceived as being largely barren and richer culture of the Pomo of the unproductive. Kroeber (1925:234) suggested that Russian River Valley and Clear Lake, relatively few Pomo communities could survive on the environments which offered opportuni coast because of the relative paucity of food. ties for greater cultural development Fred Kniffen (1939), a geographer from U.C. than did the forested mountains front Berkeley, elaborated upon Kroeber's initial ecological ing the Pacific (Gifford 1967:1). interpretation. Kniffen also stressed tbe very poor productivity of the redwood belt, and noted that even He described an annual cycle based primarily on tbe along the coast no single resource is abundantly present writings of P. Kostromitonov, wbo from 1830 to 1838 (pg 383). In comparing the Soutwestem Pomo with served as the manager of tbe Russian trade outpost of other interior Pomo peoples (Oear Lake, Russian River), Fort Ross on tbe central Sonoma coastline. Gifford's be observed: description of tbe annual cycle is almost identical to Kniffen's seasonal round, further supporting the idea that In general abundance and variety the a variety of coastal and interior places were visited by coast area was least well endowed by Pomo groups during their seasonal movements. nature. It possessed special resources More recent ethnographic overviews have in several things: salt, seaweed, and continued to stress the ecological constraints of the rocky shellfish. These attracted the regular North Coast Ranges coastline. In their synthetic chapter visits of Indians from as far away as on Western Pomo lifeways, Bean and Tbeodoratus Clear Lake. Acorns and the wild oats (1978:289) reported that the: were important; in no single resource did the area stand out. The necessity coast-redwood zone was the least for a variety of occupations to gain a favorable of the habitats exploited by livelihood compelled seasonal change the Pomo due to the heavily eroded of residence. As a result they were nature ofthe coast beachiitu backed by lacking private OWMrship, specializa an llllbroken redwood forest. Further, it tion of handicraft, close political was restricted in the amount of edible organization, and frequent and regu plants and animals available (Bean and lar travel to other areas. Of the areas 'Ibeodoratus 1978:289). considered, this was the least densely populated (Kniffen 1939:391). They described a settlement pattern characterized by relatively permanent villages in tbe interior (sometimes Kniffen (1939: 384) argued tbat tbe coastal as far as 32 kilometers from tbe coast) and seasonal Pomo bad to "scour the country to provide their liveli campsites on the coast, river and creek mouths, and in hood from a variety of sources." He postulated an favorable areas in the redwood forest. annual cycle for tbe Southwestern Pomo in wbicb the Archaeologists working in tbe southern North local population was dispersed into small family units for Coast Ranges have employed the ethnographic desaip most of the year. These family groups foraged for shell tions as analogs to aid in reconstructing tbe past (e.g., fish, seaweed and fish during the late spring and sum Meighan 1967). Most scholars recognize that ethno mer, and foe berries, acorns, and quail on interi

41 Kent G. Lighlfoot graphic descriptions make logical sense to most archae contact. They may, in fact. reflect "sbreds and patches" ologists, since tbey tend to support predictions generated of practices dating to the mid-19th, late 19th and ~ly from coastal adaptation studies of the 1970's and 1980's.. 20th centuries. In any event, these ethnographic studies Ethnographic descriptions of the coastal Pomo as small, should be viewed only as models that represent explicit residentially mobile groups correspond nicely with endeavors to reconstruct Indian lifeways prior to Euro Perlman's (1980) expectations for this coastal region. American oontact There is no necessary objective reali ty inherent in the scenarios; tbey are hypotheses that can TBESHORTCON.UNGSOFPOMO only be evaluated using archaeological data. ETHNOGRAPHY ARCHAEOLOGICAL FIELDWORK IN In employing Pomo case studies as ethnograph THE SOUTHERN NORTH COAST ic analogs for reconstructing the past. one must recog RANGES nize two critical problems. First. ethnographic studies of the early 20th century were documenting Pomo groups CoastaJ Mendocino County who bad been in close cootact with various Euro-Ameri can colonial institutions since at least the early 19th Ethnographic descriptions of the seasonal ceolllty. This included the Russian mercantile operation rounds of Northern and Central Pomo groups have been at Fort Ross, Spanish padres at missions in San Rafael rigorously evaluated at Albion Head (Figure 2.1) in the and Sonoma, Mexican ranchers, and American settlers, central Mendocino County coast by Thomas Layton and miners, and lumbetjacks. While the effects that Euro Dwight Simons (LaytOn 1990). In a detailed analysis of American economic activities, settlements and diseases artifactual and faunal remains from five coastal sites, had on traditional Pomo lifeways have yet to be fully they demonstrated that the coastal sttip was seasonally understood, it is clear that changes in subsistence prac used in late prehistoric times. They postulated that small tices and settlement patterns had occurred by the 1920's groups from interior and southern coastal homelands and 1930's (see Kennedy 1955; Cook 1973). established short-term coastal camps to hunt sea Second, with few exceptions (Powers 1976; mammals and terresttial game and to gather shellfish and Kennedy 1955), ethnographic descriptions of coastal plant foods in the intertidal zone and nearby coastal Pomo groups were not based on participant observation. prairie and riparian woodland habitats. Most camps Rather, most were written by students trained by Alfred appear to have been occupied during the spring and/or Kroeber at U.C. Berkeley who employed the "memory summer months on the basis of various seasonality culture" methodology. That is, they interviewed the indices. At the end of the summer season, the visitors oldest members of the community (who would speak are believed to have returned to homelands located to the with them) in order to reconstruct childhood memories of south or to the east where winter villages were estab their culture. Studies were often based on a handful of lished. Layton (1990: 188) suggested that some of these informants interviewed over a few weeks (McLendon interior winter villages may have been located in Little and Oswalt 1978:276-277). Kroeber's intent was not to Lake Valley, more than 20 km overland from the coast record Pomo lifeways in the early 20th century. Rather, Layton and Simons' findings correspond relatively close the ethnographers were explicit in their attempts to ly with ethnographic accounts of Northern and Central reconstruct traditional native lifeways prior to their Pomo seasonal residential movements. acculturation by Euro-American colonizatioo. (see Heizer A somewhat different settlement pattern has 1978:8-10; Kroeber 1925:v-vii). By interviewing elders been described in the northern coast of Mendocino who were born in the mid-nineteenth century, Kroeber County. Greg White's (1991) investigation of the and his students attempted to filter out the effects of MacKerricher State Park (Figure 2.1) ~ed evidence European and American contact oo. native lifeways. of year-round occupations of coastal sites during the The implication of this "memory" methodology MacKerricber Phase (A.D. 0-350). White argued that a is that the Pomo subsistence/settlement systems inter sedentary settlement system could be supported on the preted by ethnographers are based on data not observed basis of both terresttial and coastal resources, especially first-hand by field workers. Instead, the ethnographic · Stellar sea lioos. His excavations in the summeJ" of 1989 accounts are based on the cbildhood memories of a few revealed an oval shaped house sttucture with numerous people who grew up during the heyday of Russian, subfloor pits (White 1991). In the Sandhill Pbase (A.D. Spanish and Mexican colonialism in the region. It is 1300-1850), there is evidence for a shift to short-term. unclear whether the ethonographic case studies describe early fall occupations in which fisberpeople systematical actual subsistence pursuits and settlement patterns that ly stripped intertidal rocks for mussels (White 1989: 141). once operated in the region prior to Euro-American After the seasonal mussel harvests, tbe camps appear to

42 Settlement Systems in the Southern North Coast Ranges have been abandoned as people probably continued their River, is warmer and drier. This inland zone supports annual cycle, possibly establishing winter villages in the patches of mixed oak woodlands (coast live oak, black nearby environs. oak, bay laurel), douglas fir stands, and redwood groves. Here, black-tailed deer and quail flourish, and silver Coastal Sonoma County

In the last twenty years considerable archaeo . .., "" / , .. _../ logical research has been undertaken on the Sonoma i i coast (see Fredrickson 1984). Much of the coastal strip I I has been surveyed under the auspices of the California

Department of Parks and Recreation (DPR) who have '··~4-' initiated broad-scale cultural resource management ·-;~~io .-' inventories of their properties (Alvarez and Fredrickson -~ ~ ''"' \ 1989; Bramlette and Fredrickson 1990; Farris 1986; \ \ ' Pritchard 1970; Stewart 1986). In addition, the ridges \ \ and valleys that parallel the coast for 10 to 15 km inland .r· have also been surveyed in some places as part of timber sale inventories undertaken by California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection, and for evaulating the effects of construction projects on cultural resources (Fredrickson 1974; Foster 1983; King 1974). .... I will focus my discussion on a 5 by 10 km ...... , . study area in the heart of the ethnographically described Southwestern Pomo territory near the historic Russian ,- I '\ _-. F~c~-· ·. I .,.._ --~.,..,. \ I mercantile colony of Fort Ross (Figure 2.1). The rec ( --..,.-- ...... -··..., I "" ..... __ .-...... ~------..... __ _ tangular parcel. heretofor defmed as the Fort Ross Study ... Area, includes a 5 km strip of coastline, and a 5 by 10 \ i km area of the adjacent mountainous hinterland (Figure ·'" 2.2). The topography of the study area consists of a "" rocky coastline with few protected beaches, a narrow ·'"

I coastal terrace that follows the coastline, and a series of / steep ridges and narrow valleys that tend to parallel the i coast in the interior. Between the first and second ridges, about 5 km east of the coast, flows the South Fork of the Gualala River which parallels the coast for almost 45 km. The topographic features paralleling the coast produce a linear configuration of environmental zones within a short distance of the coast When coastal and terrestrial resources are considered together, a diverse range of plant and animal resources are found within a 10 km walk of the coast The nearshore waters contain extensive kelp forests, while the roclcy intertidal habitats support a variety of plants, mollusks and fishes. The \ N coastal terrace consists of coastal prairie and close-cone pine forest communities dominated by Bishop pine stands that thrive in frequent fog. Simons et al. Figure 2.2. The Fort Ross Study Area. (1985:266) note that this habitat supported Roosevelt elk before they were hunted out by Euro-Americans. The salmon and steelhead trout make seasonal runs up the coastal-facing side of the f1fSt ridge, which rises 450 m Gualala River. Beyond the Gualala River, the second above sea level, supports dense groves of redwood in and third ridge systems continue to suppon patches of steep ravines, while the more open ridge tops sustain tan oak woodlands, although increasingly more chapparal oak woodlands. The interior-facing side of the first and fewer stands of conifers are found as one moves ridge, which slopes down to the South Fork of the Gualala eastward.

43 Kent G. Lightfoot

Fifty-four site records have been filed at the ground stone tools and a midden deposiL SON-1425, an 2 Northwest Information Center, Sonoma State University, extensive artifact scatter covering 6000 m , is also re for the Fort Ross Study Area. The earliest systematic corded as a possible habitation site. Another site (SON- archaeological fieldwork took place in the 1930s and 1001) is described as a large chert quarry distinguished 1940s by Omer C. Stewart and F. H. Bauer whose by flakes, cores, hammerstooes and preforms. An addi reconnaissance located several large sites in the study tional eleven sites (SON-1000, 1002, 1003, 1005, 1007, area. In the 1970s and 1980s intensive survey was under 1008, 1009, 1011, 1012, 1013, 1325) are defined as taken in two parcels: a 6.5 km2 interior parcel near the lithic scatters. varying in size from 100 m2 to more than 2 South Fork of the Gualala River along the second ridge 6000 m , cootaining flakes and occasiooal clUpped stone system (Fredrickson 1974; King 1974), and a 2.8 km2 tools, such as projectile points. A few include ground area within the Fort Ross State Historic Park along the stone implements such as bandstones and pestle frag coast (Farris 1984; Ughtfoot et al. 1991). Each of these ments. The final class of sites include four petroglyphs survey areas is described below. (SON-1004, 1006, 1010, 1423) exhibiting one or more aJpUles ground into bedrock boulders. General Reconnaissance Coastal Survey Stewart and Bauer initially recorded thirteen sites in the study area. Of these, Stewart described Since 1970 considerable survey work has taken seven large "villages": four along the top of the ftrst place in the 2.8 km2 Fort Ross State Historic Park by ridge (Campmeeting Ridge) (SON-176, 177, 178, 179), archaeologists from the California Department of Parks and three along the coastal sttip (SON-174, 175, 231) and Recreation, Sonoma State University, and Santa (Figure 2.2). All "village" sites contain one or more RosaJuniorCoUege. In 1988 and 1989, field aews from "house" features (smface depressions measuring several U.C. Berkeley under my direction completed the survey meters in diameter), diverse artifact inventories, and rich of the few remaining parcels in the park. A total of 27 midden deposits. Bauer also identified six sbell middens Native American sites have been recorded for the entire along the coastal sttip (SON-188, 230, 232, 233, 234, park (including SON-174 and 175 originally recorded by 2 235) characterized by dade "midden" soils, high densities Stewart), yielding a site density of9.6 siteslkm • of shellfish remains, and various lithic tools and debit- age. OMER STEWART'S SE'ITLEMENT Other sites recorded on the top or lower slopes MODEL FOR THE CENTRAL of Campmeeting Ridge or the coastal sttip outside the SONOMA COAST boundaries of the Fort Ross State Historic Park include SON-1091, 1393, 1452, 1525, and 1793 (Figure 2.2). Stewart (1943) proposed a settlement model for SON-1091 is a shell midden located north of Kolmer the central Sonoma Coast based on his archaeological Gulch. SON-1393 is a small oval scatter of chert flakes fmdings, interviews with Southwestern Pomo inform found southeast of the ridge top "villages" of SON-178 ants. and settlement information compiled origiDally by and 179. SON-1452 is a cupule rock containing 12 Barrett (008:228-235). In this reconstruction, Stewart cupules southeast of the Ross garrison on the exposed tended to emphasize the spalial disttibution of resources coastal terrace. SON-1525, a small scatter of Franciscan . across the coast and interior hinterland, rather than tbe chert and obsidian artifacts near SON-177, was recorded overall "richness" of the environment per se. He by Richard Jenkins as part of a timber harvest project. noted: SON-1793 is a small scatter that contains a possible house depression near the original location of SON-176. the small vUlage communities or tribes are also situated so as to be able to Hinterland Survey utilize most advantageously the envi ronment. With few exceptions the A total of 18 sites has been recorded along the territory of each tribe includes a sec South Fork of the Gualala River near the second ridge tion of a valley, a part of a stream, (Creighton Ridge) from the coast (Figure 2.2). Fourteen some forested hills (Stewart 1943:55). sites are found in the 6.5 tm2 survey area described by Fredrickson (1974) and King (1974), yielding a site Stewart (1943:50) suggested that relatively 2 density of 2.1 siteslkm • Two sites are recorded as babi permanent villages wen: established along the first ridge, Wion sites. SON-999 contains one house pit, measuring about 1.5 to 5 km from the coasL He (1943:50) pro 6 m in diameter, various chipped stone artifacts, some posed that political relations between villages can be

44 Settlement Systems in the Southern Nt?rth Coast Rt:mges defined in archaeological contexts by the presence or from the surface are so fragmentary and weathered that absence of large depressions that may represent former diagnostic elements can not be identified. Given these assembly houses. He described a tw

45 Kent G. Lightfoot band measurements are "corrected" to calibrate to the primarily to the Russian occupation of tbe region (1812- hydration rates of the Annadel flow by multiplying Napa 1841) or during the later Mexican/American ranch Valley and Mt. Konocti measurements by 0.77. and peziod. Borax Lake by 0.62 (see Tremaine 1989:70). Then, Four (SON-145 1, 1453, 1454, 1455) of the late using Origer's (1987:55) regression equation for prehistoric sites are not included in the following de Annadel obsidian based on associated radiocarbon dates, scription. SON-1451 is a small lithic scatter from which tbe obsidian readings are ordinally placed into the Upper six eben flakes were collected by a DPR crew. SON- Emergent Period (A.D. 1500-1812), Lower Emergent. 1453 and 1454 have been recently excavated by Soooma Period (A.D. 500-1500), and the Upper Archaic Period State University and Santa Rosa Junior College, and are (1000 B.C.-A.D. 500). All obsidian hydration results currently being written up. Both are large lithic scatters 2 2 (1000 m and 1500 m • respectively) located on the coastal terrace. SON-1455, also situated on the coastal terrace, bas been excavated and reported upon by Farris Table 2.2. CoiTected Hydration Band Measurements (1986) and will not be included in this analysis of smvey for Ross Survey Sites. sites. Farris defmes it as small seafood processing sta tion occupied sometime between A.D. 830 and 1500. The remaining eleven prehistoric sites are Site N M SD Min Max Range grouped into the following five classes for descriptive purposes (cupule rocks, lithic scatters, large lithic/shell sites, small low density scatter, and small shell-bearing 228 12 2.82 0.69 1.70 3.83 (2.1-3.5) deposits with moderate to high lithic densities). 1882 0 1883 16 1.52 0.50 0.80 2.62 (1.0-2.0) Cupule Rocks 1884 3 1.01 0.16 0.87 1.23 (0.8-1.2) 1888 3 1.40 0.14 1.20 1.50 (1.3-1.5) Two sites, SON-1879 and 1887, exhibit cupules 1889 4 1.90 0.75 1.40 3.20 (1.1-2.6) ground into sandstone bedrock boulders. Seven cupules 1890 2 1.97 0.87 1.10 2.85 (1.1-2.8) were counted at the former, and two at the latter. Both 1892 2 1.30 0.10 1.20 1.40 (1.2-1.4) sites are found on the coastal terrace. No artifacts were 1894 5 1.58 0f)1 0.80 2.70 (0.9-2.2) recovC'l'ed in the immediate area. Lithic Scatters N =number of obsidian hydration readings M =mean corrected hydration measurement in miaons SON-228 and 1894 were mapped and collected SD = standard deviation in microns by U.C. Berkeley crews in 1989. Since anifacts were Min =minimum hydration measurement in miaons point provenienced from one (SON-228), and recovered Max =maximum hydration measurement in miaons from a disturbed road cut in the other (SON-1894), arti Range = +1- standard deviation fact densities are not calculated (Table 21). The primary lithic categories for SON-228 and 1894 include interior reported in this chapter were analyzed by the Obsidian flakes (60%, 24%), edge-modified flakes (10%, 9%), Hydration Laboratory, Sonoma State University. cores (5%, 9%), biface thinning flakes (13%, 9%), and One must be cautious about the use of the shatter (2%, 28%) (Table 2.3). Most lithic materials are obsidian hydration chronology for dating Ross survey manufactured from obsidian (54%, 45%) and eben (33%, sites. Both Tremaine (1989:1-7) and Origer (1987:1-5) 32%), followed by local sandstone (13%, 9%) (Table raise a number of important theaetical and methodolog 2.4). No shellfish remains are found on these sites. The ical concerns. A potentially serious problem is my corrected mean hydration band measurement for 12 application of hydration rates developed for interior obsidian artifacts from SON-228 is 2.82 microns (sd = Sonoma County to the cooler environment of the coast 0.69), suggesting use in the Upper Archaic and Lower (see Origer 1987:48). Emergent (Table 2.2). The five obsidian hydration Fifteen of the 27 Native American sites record measurements from SON-1894 suggest a long use dura ed in the Fon Ross State Historic Park appear to have tion tbat may have spanned from the Lower Pmergent to been occupied primarily during the Upper Emergent Upper Emergent Periods (x=1.6, sd=0.67). Period (Annadel hydration measurements of about 0.9 to 1.6 microns) and the Lower Emergent Period (1.6 to 2.8 microns)(Table 2.2). The other twelve sites date

46 Settlement Systems in the Southern Nonh Coast Ranges

Table 2.3. Percentage of Lithic Types for Ross Survey Sites.

Site BC BI BT CO EM FCIGF HA HM IF HS NW PC PE PP SC SH SM UN T

228 5 3 13 5 10 0 0 0 60 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 39 1882 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1883 0 3 3 6 5 52 1 0 9 5 0 2 1 1 3 8 1 0 569 1884 0 1 2 5 6 59 1 0 6 0 1 3 0 2 2 12 0 0 99 1888 0 0 22 0 22 8 0 0 35 0 0 0 0 0 13 0 0 0 23 1889 0 5 5 5 29 29 0 0 12 5 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 18 1890 0 0 22 0 11 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 11 11 34 0 0 9 1892 7 0 7 0 12 41 7 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 7 12 0 0 15 1894 0 4 9 9 9 4 0 4 24 0 0 0 0 0 9 28 0 0 22

BC = % batteted cobble HS = % handstone Bl=% biface NW = %net weight BT = % biface thinning flake PC = % primary cortical flake CO= %core PE= %pestle EM = % edge-modified flake PP = % projectile point FC/GS =% fire-aackedlground stone fragment SC = % secondary cortical flake. HA = % bammerstone SH = % shatter HM =% hopper mortar SM = % slab millingstone IF =% interior flake UN=% uoiface T = Total Count of Lithic Artifacts

Large LithicJShell Sites fragments, making up 52% and 59% of the total lithic assemblages, respectively (Table 2.3). The next most Two sites, SON-1883 and 1884, are located in common categories include shatter (8%, 12%), interior the northern-most section of the survey area on the flakes (9%, 6%), edge-modified flakes (5%, 6%), cores coastal-facing slope of the ftrSt ridge. Elevation is 207 (6%, 5%), biface thinning flakes (3%, 2%), primary and 268m above sea level, respectively. The extensive cortical flakes (2%, 3%), and bifaces (3%, 1%). Pestles, sites, measuring 8247 m2 and 3044 m2 respectively, are millingstones, and projectile points are present (Table characterized by similar intta-site spatial patterns. The 2.3). In conttast to most other survey sites, the most southern and downslope side of the sites contain dark, . common lithic raw material is sandstone (55%, 60%), shell- bearing deposits, while clusters of lithic artifacts reflecting the abundance of ftte-crackedlground stone extend along the northern and upslope side of the sites. fragments, followed by chert (28%, 34%). Obsidian While no pit depressions were noted, both sites have makes up only 11% and 2% of the lithic assemblage, been seriously impacted by logging activities. However, respectively. The only quartz and schist artifacts from fired daub, similar to that found in pithouses in the survey sites are found on these sites (Table 2.4). American Southwest, was recovered from the northern Limpets (48%) and mussels (24%) dominale the half of SON-1883. This finding suggests that semi identifJ.able shellfish remains at SON-1883, followed by subterranean structures may be associated with this site. turban snails (12%) and chitoos (8%). SON-1883 yield 2 The surface collection of SON-1883 (960m , ed the only abalone MNis identified for prehistoric 2 12% sample fraction) and SON-1884 (126m , 4% survey sites. A more balanced distribution of mollusk sample fraction~ yielded moderate lithic densities remains are found at SON-1884. Here, limpets, mussels, 2 (0.46/m , 0.67/m , respectively) and v~ low densities chitons, and barnacles make up 25% of the mollusk 2 2 of mollusk MNis (0.02/m , 0.03/m , respectively) assemblage, respectively. (Table 2.1). A diverse range of chipped stone and SON-1883 appears to date sometime in the ground stone lithic categories (14 and 12 categories, Upper Emergent and/or Lower Emergent Periods. The respectively) is represented on the sites. The most average corrected hydration band measurement is 1.52 common lithic category is ftte-crackedlground stone microns (sd=0.5, n=16). SON-1884 may overlap or

47 ----

Ktnt G. Lightfoot 1 Table 2.4. Percentage or Lithic Raw Material Types for An examination of the lithic and mollusk Ross Survey Sites. constituents of the sites suggest that tbey can be further subdivided into two groups. The first group, composed I of SON-1888 and 1890, exhibits a lower diversity of I Site BACH GW OB U SA SC T lithic types (five and six categories represented), and a relatively even distribution of mollusk classes. The lithic assemblages are dominated by biface thinning flakes 228 0 33 0 54 0 13 0 39 (22%, 22%), interior Oakes (35%, 11 %), and secondary I 1882 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 1 cortical flakes (13%, 11 %). The most common lithic I 1883 3 28 1 11 1 55 1 S69 raw material is chert (65%, 67%), followed by obsidian 1884 0 34 0 2 2 60 2 99 (26%, 33%) (Table 2.4). Limpets (38%), turban snails 1888 0 65 0 26 0 9 0 23 (26%), mussels (17%), chitons (15%), barnacles (2%) 1889 0 33 0 28 0 39 0 18 and periwinkles (2%) are found at SON-1888. SON- \ 1890 0 67 0 33 0 0 0 9 1890 exhibits a similar distribution of mollusk classes 1892 0 33 7 13 0 47 0 15 except mussels (49%) dominate, and no limpets or ~ I 1894 0 32 0 45 0 9 14 22 periwinkles were recovered (Table 2.5). Measurements of obsidian hydration bands indicate use sometime during the Upper and/or Lower Emergent Periods (Table I BA=% basalt QU=% quartz 2.2). The corrected mean hydration band measurements CH=%chert SA= % sandstooe for SON-1888 and 1890 are 1.4 microns (sd=0.14, n=3) GW = %graywacke SC=% schist and 1.97 miaons (sd=0.87, n=2}, respectively. OB=%obsidian T = Total Count of Lithic Artifacts The other group, SON-1889 and 1892, is char acterized by a more diverse range of lithic categories (nine and eight represented), and mollusk assemblages slightly postdate the occupation at SON-1883. While dominated by limpets. In many respects tbey look like the sample size is very small (n=3 ), the corrected mean smaller versions of SON-1883 and 1884. For example, hydration measurment is 1.01 microns (sd= 0.16), sug at SON-1889 and 1892 rue-cracked/ground stone frag gesting occupatioo during the Upper Emergent and early ments (29%, 41%) are common, and edge-modified Historic Periods. flakes (29%, 12%), interior flakes (12%, 7%) and biface thinning flakes (5%, 7%) are well represented. Howev Small Low Density Scatter er, SON-1889 contains other artifact categories possibly associated with additional food procurement and process SON-1882, situated in the upper coastal tmace, ing activities, such as bifaces (5%), cores (5%), hand measures only 54 m2 in size. While 33% of the surface stones (5%), and pestles (5%). In contrast, SON-1892 area was collected, lithic and mollusk densities are vecy comprises other artifact categories probably involving 2 low: 0.051m2 and 0.31m , respectively (Table 2.1). Ooly lithic production, such as battered cobbles (7%}, ham one lithic artifact, a sandstone fue-crackedlgroundstone merstones (7%), secondary cortical flakes (7%) and fragment, was recovered (Table 2.3). Diagnostic ele shatter (12%). Similar to SON-1883 and 1884, sand ments of turban snails, mussels, chitons and barnacles stone is the most common raw material (39%, 47%), are present on the site (Table 2.5). No obsidian hydra followed by chert (33%, 33%). However, obsidian is a tion measurements are available. little more common on SON-1889 and 1892 (28%,13%) I than the two large survey sites. Small Shell-Bearing Deposits with SON-1889 and 1892 contain the highest per I Moderate to High Lithic Densities centages of limpets (66%, 54%) of any survey sites, followed by turban snails (19%, 15%), mussels (9%, I Four sites (SON-1888, 1889, 1890, 1892) are 27%), chitons (3%, 3%) and barnacles (3%, 1%). Obsid 2 relatively small in size (85 to 871 m ) with high mollusk ian hydration measwanents (n=4) for SON-1889 suggest densities (2.1/m2 to 6.91m2~ and moderate to high lithic a long use duration that may span from tbe Upper Archa I densities (0.371m2 to 3.0/m ) (Table 2.1). All four sites ic to the Upper Emergent Periods (x=l.9, sd=0.75). are located on the coastal terrace and lower slopes of the SON-1892 appears to date to the Upper Emergent Period first ridge. Only a small percentage of SON-1890 (x=l.30, sd=0.1) (Table 2.2). (0.02%) was collected given dense vegetation and the I buried nalUie of lbe site.

48 Settlement Systems in the Southern North Coast Ranges

Table 2.5. Percentage of Mollusk MNis from Ross of the "village" sites remains largely unkown. Survey Sites. The "village" sites are ideally located to take advantage of both coastal and interior hinterland re sources. The "village" sites oo the first ridge are located Site AB BA CH u ro MU PE T no more than 5 km from the coastal terrace, the South Fork of the Gualala River or the second ridge system. From these residential bases, foraging parties or special 228 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ized task groups could, within a few hours, walk to 1882 0 17 17 0 33 33 0 6 resource patches containing shellfish, rocky reef fish, 1883 4 4 8 48 12 24 0 25 sea mammals, elk (coastal terrace); tan oak acorns 1884 0 25 25 25 0 25 0 4 (coastal-facing slope of first ridge); salmon, steelhead 1888 0 2 15 38 26 17 2 47 ttout, rainbow II'OUt (Gualala River); and deer, quail, and 1889 0 3 3 66 19 9 0 32 other acorns and seeds (the second and third ridge 1890 0 17 17 0 17 49 0 6 systems). 1892 0 1 3 54 15 27 0 83 The survey results suggest that various kinds of 1894 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 archaeological remains are found on the coastal terrace and in the hinterland of the South Fork of the Gualala River. Some shell-bearing sites (SON-1888, 1890, 1455) AB =% abalone ro = % black turban snail may be seafood processing statioos where various mol BA = % barnacle MU=%mussel lusks and other foods were collected and processed. The CH=% chiton PE = % periwinkle relatively low diversity of lithic categories (edge-modi U=% limpet T = Total Count of MNis fied flakes, interior flakes) may be associated with these activites. Other shell-bearing deposits on the coastal LATE PREIDSTORIC SETTLEMENT terrace are more complicated. SON-1889 and 1892 are SYSTEMS: THE FORT ROSS STUDY similar, in some respects, to the habitation sites on the AREA coastal face of the fust ridge. In addition to the pro curement and processing of seafoods, the lithic assem The hinterland and coastal surveys in the Fort Ross blage at SON-1889 appears to emphasize other plant Study Area tend to support some aspects of Stewart's processing activities, while lithic production and/or (1943) model of central-based villages. Two large maintenance activities were common at SON-1892. survey sites, SON-1883 and 1884, correspond in most Several alternative scenarios may explain these sites. respects to the other "village" sites recorded by Stewart They may be short-term camps repeatedly used by task oo the coastal-facing slope and top of the first ridge. In groups or small residential units. They may even repre 1989 we relocated two of Stewart's sites (SON-177 and sent more residentially stable settlements (family resi 179), while an attempt by Sonoma State University dences?) integrated within the settlement hierarchy of the crews to relocate SON-176 proved unsuccessful. It is first ridge. possible that this site was not accurately located by The sites in the near hinterland of the Gualala River, Stewart, or that SON- 1793, a small lithic scatter con if they date to the Upper and Lower Emergent Periods, taining one possible house depression, may actually be may represent locations used by people from the ridge the original site (Allisoo 1989). top "villages" to exploit diverse kinds of interior re The spatial pattern of the "village" sites (SON- · sources. At least one site (SON-1001) is a chert qwury. 176,177,178,179,231,999,1883, 1884)suggeststhat Other sites may be places used for hunting game, fishing they are centered along the coastal-facing slope and top activities or processing plant foods, such as acorns (see of the fmt ridge (Campmeeting Ridge), although at least King 1974). Future research will be necessary to evalu one (SON-231) is found on the coastal terrace and ate these scenarios. another (SON-999) at the bottom of the second ridge There is some evidence that the lithic scatters found (Creighton Ridge) from the coast The sites are distrib on the coastal terrace may predate the central-based uted relatively evenly along the first ridge system, about village settlement system. The obsidian hydration 0.5 to 2.5 km apart (Figure 2.2). All but one (SON-231) measurements from one lithic scatter (SON-228) suggest are located in higher elevations above the cool fog and an earlier period of use then other sites on the coastal wind belt that marks the microclimate of the coastal terrace. Similar results are reported from Salt Point terrace throughout much of the year. Most sites are State Park, located about 12 km north of Fort Ross located near freshwater springs. At the present time the (Figure 2.1). Here an intensive survey of a 4.05 tm2 seasonal use, occupation duration, and contemporaneity parcel yielded lithic scatters and shell-bearing deposits

49 Kent G. Lightfoot along the coastal terrace, as well as large "village" sites tern of the Fon Ross Study Area does not appear to fit on the coastal-facing slope of the fust ridge (for an Perlman's (1980) expectation for a coastal environment overall site density of 31/km.l> (see Bramlette and characterized by a steep continental shelf, rocky reefs Dowdall 1989; Bramlette and Fredrickson 1990; Pritch and intertidal zones, and high wave-stress shores. This ard 1970:30). Pritchard (1970:32) argues that the coast finding suggests that logistically organized, collector allithic scatters may predate most of the other coastal settlement systems in coastal environments are not asso sites based on available chronological information. ciated exclusively with low wave-stress, gentle cootinen Recent studies of the Salt Point settlement pattern have tal shelves containing extensive estuaries. This implies generally supported Pritchard's interpretation (Bramlette that a more diverse range of hunter-gatherer settlement and Dowdall1989). patterns may be found along rocky, mountainous stretch es of coastline in central and northern California then CONCLUSIONS previously expected. Of course, the question remains why a central The conclusions of this chapter are threefold. based village system may have developed in some areas Fust, ethnographic desaiptioos of coastal P001o of the southern North Coast Ranges and not others. peoples are applicable to some, but not all late prehistor Future work will evaluate this question by considering ic societies of the southern North Coast Ranges. Given the following factors. One factor is local variation in the the inherent problems with Pomo ethnographies, ardlae spatial structure of environmental zones. What are the ologists must not employ them 1Dlaitically to reconstruct consequences of the South Fork of the Gualala River the past Rather, the ethnographic information should paralleling the Sonoma coastline or the differeot compo serve only as hypotheses that must be evaluated with sition of the redwood belt in northern and southern lati archaeological data. tudes (see Baumhoff 1963:197)7 Another factor is the Second, considerable variation characterizes the effect of regional populatioo densities on coastal settle late prehistoric subsistence-settlement systems of the ment systems. Is there a relationship between high southern North Coast Ranges. The relationship postulat population densities in interior valleys and the develop ed between low coastal productivity and high residential ment of logistically organized, collector systems on the mobility may have merit for some but not all areas of coast? Fmally, social factors will be considered that may coastal Mendocino County. At Albion Head, the testing be associated with the rise of sociopolitical bierarchies in of ethnographic models with archaeological data sug the region (see Lightfoot 1984). gests seasonal movements to the coast by small groups during the warm months of the year. The relationship ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS between resource productivity and residential mobility is more problematic for the Sonoma County coast Here a Archaeological research in the Fon Ross State more complicated late prehistoric settlement pattern Historic Park is flDlded by a National Science Founda existed, characterized by "central-based villages" along tion Grant (BNS-8918960), the California Department of the first ridge, seafood processing stations and short-term Parks and Recreation, and the American Home Shield camps or family residences aloog the coastal terrace, and Corporation of Santa Rosa, California I am especially various special purpose sites in the interior hinterland. indebted to Breck Parkman, Glenn Farris, Roberta Je While the seasonal use of the sites has yet to be deter wett, David Fredrickson and Thomas Origer for their mined, the settlement structure is analogous to residen continued guidance and support of the project I appre tially stable, logistically organized, collector systems ciate greatly the many undergraduate and graduate desaibed by Binford (1980) and others. Furthermore, as students at U.C. Berkeley who have participated in the Stewart (1943) fust suggested, this settlement system fieldwork and laboratory components of the projecL I may be characterized by relatively high population densi am particularly grateful for the continued assistance of ties and sociopolitical differentation. Weal commlDlities Ann Schiff and Thomas Wake. may have consisted of large, principal villages with assembly houses that were surrounded by outlying REFERENCES CITED hamlets lacking such nondomestic architectural struc tures, as well as small family residences dispelsed in the Allison, E. hinterland. 1989 Archaeological Site Record, CA-SON-1793. Third, the diversity of late prehistoric settlement Ms. on file, Northwest Information Center, patterns found along the southern North Coast Ranges Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park. bas important implications for coastal productivity models, such as Perlman's (1980). The settlement pat-

so Settlement Systems in the Southern North Coast Ranges

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