Resource Efficiency of the Ski Industry in New Zealand
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Resource Efficiency of the Ski Industry in New Zealand __________________________________________________________ A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management At Lincoln University By A. Reiser Lincoln University July, 2002 ____________________________________________________________ Abstract Abstract of a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of M.P.R.&T.M. Resource Efficiency of the Ski Industry in New Zealand: An Analysis of Resource Consumption Patterns Associated with Snow Sports By Axel Reiser Skiing and Snowboarding are popular recreation activities in New Zealand, as well as constituting important components of the winter tourism product. The 2001 snow season witnessed record visitor numbers. Skier days have increased by more than 10% compared with the previous year to 1.254 million. The traditionally “nature related” activity of skiing, however has increasingly often been discussed in the light of excessive resource consumption and pollution of alpine environments. Since no research on resource efficient management of ski fields has been undertaken in New Zealand, this study examined environmental awareness and actions of ski field managers, resource consumption benchmarks (water and energy use, solid waste production), along with resource use related visitor behaviour. Two separate surveys were undertaken to collect relevant information from ski field managers and ski field visitors. While a census of managers across New Zealand was conducted with a mail-back questionnaire (all 27 ski fields were contacted, response rate 44%), the visitor survey was undertaken on-site at six selected ski fields in Canterbury/South Island (total responses: N=259). Analysis of the survey results showed that managers generally acted to protect the environment and resources, however, at different levels for the various indicators measured. Energy use and air pollution were rarely perceived to be environmentally important. Accordingly, only few actions were undertaken to reduce energy use. This is surprising, since energy consumption proved to be a major feature of ski field management. Given the additionally large amounts of water consumed (mainly for snowmaking) and solid waste produced on the mountain, skiing has to be classified as a resource intensive activity. Resource consumption is intensified further, when the impacts associated with tourists being transported to, and from, the mountain are considered. Energy use ii for “ski trip transport” within New Zealand is two times larger (180 MJ) than energy use associated with ski field infrastructure use (90 MJ) on a per skier day basis. There are several options to improve the environmental performance of ski fields, ranging from modernising equipment, optimising snowmaking and providing efficient transport alternatives. Additionally, increased cooperation between ski field managers, local governments and research institutes could potentially result in environmentally smarter operational practices. Internationally, New Zealand’s ski areas compare relatively well, mainly because of limited on-mountain entertainment and accommodation development, which keeps resource consumption and pollution low compared with European and North American ski fields. However, this research also indicated that New Zealand’s ski field visitors increasingly demand facilities and services similar to those overseas, which in turn may result in larger environmental impacts. New Zealand is generally believed to be a green and nature-related destination and its ski areas still blend well into the natural environment. Hence, there is some potential for the New Zealand ski industry to develop a unique product in such a way that it is both, sustainable and distinguishable from other international markets. Keywords: Snow sport, resource consumption, resource efficiency, downhill skiing, snowboarding, benchmarking, environmental awareness iii Acknowledgement This thesis received support from many different people, including friends and fellow students, colleagues, organisations, the ski industry. In particular, I am very grateful for the many hours my wife, Susanne, spent helping me manoeuvring obstacles, proof-reading drafts, and keeping me focused. I am also thankful to my supervisors Stephen Espiner and David Simmons. Stephen for his very detailed feedback helping me to sharpen my thoughts and arguments. David for being a mentor; for his determination to follow me up to the top of McNulties Basin in a gusty “Nor’ Wester”; and for his patience to ride, first, his 4WD and, second, a “nut-cracker” lift up to Mt. Olympus ski field. I further gratefully acknowledge the support of the Human Sciences Division, my fellow students, Evert Kampert (“the man who makes computers work”), and MacPac/McEwings for providing me with their postgraduate scholarship. I finally thank the NSAA (National Ski Area Association) for allowing me to use their “Sustainable Slopes Assessment” and I also acknowledge the support of the CSA (Canterbury Snow Sport Association) and the participation of New Zealand’s ski field managers and club presidents in my study. Particular thanks go to those managers who allowed me to undertake my skier and snowboarder surveys at their ski fields. iv Contents ABSTRACT _______________________________________________________________ ii ACKNOWLEDGMENT ____________________________________________________ iv CONTENTS OVERVIEW ___________________________________________________ v TABLE OF CONTENTS – DETAIL ___________________________________________ vi LIST OF TABLES _________________________________________________________ vii LIST OF FIGURES ________________________________________________________ x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS _________________________________________________ xi Chapter 1 - Introduction _______________________________________________________ 1 Chapter 2 - Literature Review _________________________________________________ 10 Chapter 3 - The Organisation of Snow Sport: Structure and Definitions_______________ 38 Chapter 4 - An Analysis of The New Zealand Ski & Snowboard Market ______________ 50 Chapter 5 - Methodology _____________________________________________________ 59 Chapter 6 - Results Part One: Ski Field Manager Assessment _______________________ 85 Chapter 7 - Results Part Two: Skier and Snowboarder Survey ______________________ 120 Chapter 8 - Discussion ______________________________________________________ 155 REFERENCE LIST: _______________________________________________________ 178 APPENDIX ONE: Calculations ___________________________________________ 192 APPENDIX TWO: Data Analysis Details _____________________________________ 195 APPENDIX THREE: Information on New Zealand’s Ski Fields _____________________ 207 APPENDIX FOUR: Ski Field Manager Assessment Sampling Details ________________ 217 APPENDIX FIVE: Sustainable Slopes Charter and Assessment ____________________ 219 APPENDIX SIX: The Canterbury Skier & Snowboarder Survey __________________ 253 v Table of Contents Chapter 1 - Introduction______________________________________________________ 1 1.1 General Context______________________________________________________ 1 1.2 Research Context _____________________________________________________ 3 1.3 Why Should Skiing and Snowboarding Be Sustainable?______________________ 4 1.4 Research Objectives___________________________________________________ 5 1.5 Structure of Thesis ____________________________________________________ 9 Chapter 2 – Literature Review ________________________________________________ 10 2.1 Introduction ________________________________________________________ 10 2.2 Environmental Impacts of Snow Sports Activities _________________________ 11 2.3 Realising Sustainable Management of Snow Sports ________________________ 19 2.4 Measures of Sustainable Management: Tourism Eco-labels and Environmental Awards_____________________________________________________________ 32 2.5 Conclusion _________________________________________________________ 35 Chapter 3 – The Organisation of Snow Sport____________________________________ 38 3.1 Snow Sport and Snow Sport Tourism ____________________________________ 38 3.2 The Structure of the Snow Sport Industry ________________________________ 41 3.3 The World Ski & Snowboard Market ____________________________________ 43 3.4 The Organisation and Structure of Ski Areas______________________________ 44 Chapter 4 – An Analysis of the New Zealand Ski & Snowboard Market______________ 50 4.1 Introduction ________________________________________________________ 50 4.2 Ski Fields – New Zealand’s Main Player in the Market _____________________ 50 4.3 Geographical Locations of Ski Areas ____________________________________ 53 4.4 Key Characteristics of the New Zealand Snow Sport Market_________________ 54 4.5 New Zealand Legislation for Ski Field Operation__________________________ 56 4.6 Importance of Climate for New Zealand’s Snow Sport Industry ______________ 58 Chapter 5 – Methodology____________________________________________________ 59 5.1 Introduction ________________________________________________________ 59 5.2 Ski Field Assessment _________________________________________________ 62 5.3 Skier & Snowboarder Survey ___________________________________________ 75 Chapter 6 – Results Part One: Ski Field Manager Assessment _____________________ 85 6.1 Implementation of Environmental Actions At Ski Fields ____________________