The Development of the Literary Werewolf: Language, Subjectivity and Animal/ Human Boundaries Kaja Franck Submitted to the University of Hertfordshire in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy November 2016 Abstract The werewolf is a stock character in Gothic horror, exemplifying humanity’s fear of ‘the beast within’, and a return to a bestial state of being. Central to this is the idea that the werewolf is, once transformed, without language. Using an ecoGothic approach, this thesis will offer a new approach in literary criticism regarding the werewolf. It argues that the werewolf has become a vehicle for our ambivalence towards the wolf, which itself has become a symbolic Gothic Other. Using interdisciplinary source materials, such as natural histories, fairy tales, and folklore, the notion of the ‘symbolic wolf’ is interrogated, particularly in relation to the dangers of the wilderness. Starting with Dracula, at the end of the nineteenth century, and finishing with an analysis of the contemporary, literary werewolf, this work explores how the relationship between humans and wolves has impacted on the representation of the werewolf in fiction. In particular, it will critique how the destruction of the werewolf is achieved through containing the creature using taxonomic knowledge, in order to objectify it, before destroying it. This precludes the possibility of the werewolf retaining subjectivity and reinforces the stereotype of the werewolf as voiceless. Following the growing awareness of environmentalism during the late twentieth century and, as humanity questions our relationship with nature, clear divides between the animal and the human seem arbitrary, and the werewolf no longer remains the monstrous object within the text. Central to this is the concept of the hybrid ‘I’ which this thesis exposes. The hybrid ‘I’ is a way of experiencing and representing being a werewolf that acknowledges the presence of the lycanthrope’s voice, even if that voice is not human. Subjectivity is shown to be complex and myriad, allowing for the inclusion of human and non-human animal identities, which the werewolf embodies. i Acknowledgements My first debt of gratitude is to my supervisor, Doctor Sam George, for her unwavering support, and her celebration of my work. Over the final months of this project, I have been sustained by our extended lunch meetings, and myriad conversations. The Open Graves, Open Minds Project has given me hope for my future in academia. I only hope I can fulfil her expectations as I take over from her in teaching the ‘Generation Dead’ module. Sam, you are my hero! Alongside Sam, I wish to show appreciation for Doctor Bill Hughes, her co-conspirator on the OGOM Project. Together they have welcomed me to world of undead studies. (Bill is also a formatting genius without whom this thesis would not have page numbers). I would also like to thank Doctor Rowland Hughes for helping me navigate the American wilderness, and lending me Barry Lopez’s Of Wolves and Men which changed the way I look at wolves. Acknowledgement must go to the generosity of the University of Hertfordshire in funding my studentship, through the OGOM Project, so that I was able to undertake my research. My PhD gave me a reason to use the Reading Rooms at the British Library and discover my own Narnia, however, it also confirmed the importance of my local libraries, in particular Putney and Streatham library. Without my local libraries, this thesis would not have been possible. Balancing work with a full-time PhD is not easy but my colleagues at Shakespeare’s Globe were supportive from the moment I decided I was going back to university. The Globe Exhibition staff are a brilliant and diverse group of people whose pride in their colleagues goes above and beyond. It is not possible to write a thesis without the support of good friends. In particular, I would like to show my appreciation for my PhD buddies, Karen and Scott. Look how far we’ve come! And, Alice for curry and chocolate night. Mum and dad, thank you for always letting me know that you are so very proud of me and encouraging me to follow my dreams – even when they led me into the woods. And Esther, the bravest, strongest, kindest little sister in the world. You are my guiding star. Finally, Duncan: none of this would have been possible without you. Thank you for believing in me when I could not. ii Table of Contents Abstract .............................................................................................................................. i Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ ii Table of Contents .............................................................................................................. iii Introduction ......................................................................................................................1 The Shapes of the Werewolf: From Monstrous Reality to Metaphorical Monster ...............1 From Monstrous Fact to Metaphorical Monster ............................................................... 4 The Victorian Werewolf and the Universal Monster ....................................................... 10 Psychoanalysis and the Beast Within ............................................................................. 14 The Werewolf in English Literature ................................................................................ 21 Re-Visiting Dracula and the Symbolic Wolf .................................................................... 29 Chapter 1 .........................................................................................................................39 Dracula: The Wolf in Vampire’s Clothing ...........................................................................39 Stoker’s Lupine Protagonists .......................................................................................... 54 The Only Good Werewolf is a Dead Werewolf ................................................................ 68 Hunting for the Big, Bad Wolf ........................................................................................ 79 Chapter 2 .........................................................................................................................90 The American Wilderness and the Werewolf ....................................................................90 The Foundations of Fear: Puritans, the Woody Wilderness and Wolves ......................... 95 The Wilderness in American (eco)Gothic ..................................................................... 105 The Redemption of the Wilderness .............................................................................. 114 The Transforming Werewolf ......................................................................................... 125 iii Chapter 3 ....................................................................................................................... 141 Whitley Strieber’s Hybrid Monsters: The Wolfen (1978) and The Wild (1991) ................. 141 W(h)erewolves and the Ecological Revolution .............................................................. 152 Strieber’s Hybrid Monsters .......................................................................................... 164 Werewolves in the City: Zoos, Taxonomies, and Science .............................................. 176 Chapter 4 ....................................................................................................................... 191 The Werewolf in the Woods: Young Adult Gothic and Metaphoric Lycanthropy ............. 191 Following Little Red through the Forest ....................................................................... 204 Being Sam: The Heartbreak of the Voiceless Werewolf ................................................ 214 The Treachery of Language and the Promise of the Werewolf...................................... 225 Chapter 5 ....................................................................................................................... 239 The Return of the Werewolf: The Monstrous Voice at the Animal/ Human Boundary .... 239 Hunting the myth of Gothic nature .............................................................................. 254 Becoming the Monster: Bringing the fear back to the Werewolf .................................. 270 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 287 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 293 Primary texts ............................................................................................................... 293 Secondary texts ........................................................................................................... 299 Appendix – Table of Werewolf Literature ....................................................................... 318 iv Introduction The Shapes of the Werewolf: From Monstrous Reality to Metaphorical Monster Werewolves have been overlooked in recent critical works on Gothic monsters. In comparison to the success of other monsters, they are relegated to being the ‘[f]irst- cousin to the vampire’.1 Their success is cemented through their relationship to the vampire rather than being a stand-alone figure. Though this description of the werewolf was made in