SOME OCCUPATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS :' the data poten­ OF WESTERN JEWS IN ISRAEL .blem lies in the these must be It should, how­ :ed for purposes Sergio Della Pergola :hod has been lata. Israel

1. Introduction (1)

Attempts to develop systematic typologies (2) , or comprehensive e of Israel. theories of the determinants and consequences of social and demographic -58. trends among contemporary world Jewish communities are still hindered by insufficiency of relevant information. While basic indicators are ligration Differ­ I.: lacking in respect of large sections of diaspora Jewry - despite the 14-218. increasing volume of ongoing research(3) - certain lacunae persist also - Perspective. with regard to Jews in Israel. E.g., reference to Jews from Western ,nt of Demography, countries in Israel is relatively scarce and undifferentiated in demo­ graphic and sociological research, an important section of which deals with immigration and immigrant absorption. This paper aims to present - in the U.S.S.R. some elements for a discussion of occupational characteristics of Western Jews in Israel, and should only be regarded as part of a more comprehen­ In: American I sive study which is in the process of preparation.

"Ucture of Immi­ 'y. Vol. 7, no.l. (1) We acknowledge with thanks computer progranuning and other computa­ I tional help by Mr. Hector Jaimovich, Mrs. Dorit Tal and Mr. Shmuel Peleg. We also wish to express our appreciation to Mrs. Ora Fleischer : TuJo Longitudinal and Mrs. Lea Opatowski, both of Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, for :'p., 1970. their assistance in collecting unpublished official data. Ip Royal Statistical (2) See, e.g.: Matras, J. "On Changing Marriage and Family Formation among Jewish Immigrant Communities in Israel: Some Findings and Some . New Irrunigrants Further Problems". In: Schmelz, U.O., Glikson P. and Della Pergola, S • _nd Social Strati­ (eds.). Papers in Jewish Demography, 1969. Jerusalem, World Union of Stratification, Jewish Studies; and The Hebrew University, The Institute of Contemporary Jewry, 1973. Diagram 1, p. 274-275. Based on: Weintraub, D., and associ­ ates. Social Change and Development. Jerusalem, Israel Universities _ Source of Demo­ Press, 1969. :sh Journal of (3) See: Schmelz, U.O., Glikson, P. and Gould, S.J. Studies in Jewish Demography; Survey for 1969-1971. Jerusalem, The Hebrew University, The Institute of Contemporary Jewry; and London, Institute of Jewish Affairs, 1975. p. 229-335; and Studies in Jewish Demography, 1972-1976 (forthcoming).

255 r

In this paper we refrain from the acceptation of the term "Western" (c) Balkan countries, Jews, frequently met in literature, as inclusive of all Jews of European I and American origin(4). Such a group is actually composed in the main by (d) Latin America: Al f Jews of Eastern Europe. Rather we intend to define an operational frame­ Caribbean Americ: work which can be set according to one or more of the following criteria: (e) English speaking Australia; New Zl Criterion Category I Geographical location Western countries Most of the COl Religious background Non-Moslem countries official statistical Political regime Non-Communist countries i "other countries", wl Economic characteristics Developed countries I of origin (either bi] Income level Affluent countries i Though this categori: Migrations regulation Free-emigration countries I Western Jews in Isral Jewish community status 'Revachah' (welfare) countries ! permit study of the I Freedom of information Countries for which data on aliya tries. It often hap] are released one group, notwithst. differences between : Close inspection of the prevailing characteristics in each country of historical devel~ in the world would probably show a large degree of overlap between the munities in these COl different criteria listed above, though there are also many discrepancies. Besides it should be taken into consideration that the position of a par­ Actually, sinci ticular Jewish community may differ from the general characteristics of ish immigration has the society in which it is located. In this paper we shall refer to a ities . These are USl broad geographical framework, including more than 50 countries, or about ditions of the Jews I 20 large units of one or more states. It may be useful to subdivide our equal economic oppor area of interest into five geocultural divisions, as follows: nized discrimination caused the Jews seve' (a) Western Europe: Spain(5); Portugal; Gibraltar; Italy; France; Switzer­ viduals and as a gro' land; Belgium; Luxembourg; Netherlands; Denmark; Sweden; Norway; Fin­ officially forbidden land. all immigration to I (b) German speaking countries: Germany; Austria. tries in Asia, Afric and still are, subje immigrant absorption (4) See, e.g., the otherwise very valuable paper by: Ben-Porath, Y. "On from the metzukah aT East-West Differences in Occupational Structure in Israel". In: such studies towards Curtis, M. and Chertoff, M. (eds.). Israel: Social Structure and Change. ciety, and also of t New Brunswick, Transaction Books, 1973. p. 215-233. In the usual termin­ migrations from West ology, "Western" Jews are the counterpart of "Oriental" Jews - inunigrants istics and deserve a from Moslem countries. But among the latter are the inunigrants from the Maghreb, countries, who were the original bearers of the denomination of (6) Though a communi Edah Ma'aravit (Western congregation) in Israel. nition in view c (5) From this paper it will appear that the data on most Spanish-born The characteristics Jews in Israel are probably not pertinent for an analysis of Western those of other WestE Jews. Indeed, most Spanish-born Jewish inunigrants seem to have come from st~ the Spanish towns of Ceuta and Melilla on the Moroccan sea coast; there­ (7) Among recent fore, they are much more similar to Jews from Morocco than from other Wilder-Okladek, Western European countries. However, recent aliya from Spain is more International Migrat properly Western in style and characteristics. "Inunigration from WE nationales. Vol. 5, Jewish Immigration ­ Ben-David, O. (eds.) 833; Engel, G. "Nort

256 -e term "Western" (c) Balkan countries: Yugoslavia (6) ; Greece. -ews of European (d) Argentina; Brazil; Uruguay; Chile; Mexico; Central and d in the main by Latin America: Tational frame­ Caribbean America; other countries in Southern America. lowing criteria: (e) English speaking countries: British isles; the United States; Canada; Australia; New Zealand; South Africa; Rhodesia.

Most of the countries mentioned here are grouped in many Israeli es official statistical publications into a residual category of Jews from tries "other countries", which sometimes also includes persons whose country s of origin (either birthplace or previous country of residence) is unknown. Though this categorization is explained by the relatively small number of lIDtries Western Jews in Israel, its informative value is limited; it does not e) countries permit study of the existing differentials among Jews from Western coun­ h data on aZiya tries. It often happens, indeed, that all Western Jews are perceived as one group, notwithstanding the deep linguistic, political and economic differences between the respective countries of origin, and the variety in each country of historical developments and organizational structures of Jewish com­ .p between the munities in these countries . .ny discrepancies. sition of a par­ Actually, since the establishment of the State of Israel, most Jew­ -acteristics of ish immigration has come from the so called metzukah (distressed) commun­ .11 refer to a ities. These are usually located in non-Western countries in which con­ .tries, or about ditions of the Jews have been characterized by want of civil rights and o subdivide our equal economic opportunities, whether or not in the form of legally recog­ ows: nized discrimination, or even outright persecution, all of which have caused the Jews severe strain and uncertainty about their future as indi­ France; Switzer­ viduals and as a group. Free emigration of Jews from such countries is .en; Norway; Fin­ officially forbidden or strongly handicapped. Yet some 87 per cent of all immigration to Israel during the years 1948-1976 originated from coun­ tries in Asia, Africa, Eastern and Central Europe in which the Jews were, and still are, subject to a regime of duress. Studies of immigration and immigrant absorption in Israel have had to deal mostly with Jews coming 'Porath, Y. "On from the metzukah areas. Notwithstanding the invaluable contribution of :rae1". In: such studies towards an understanding of the development of Israeli so­ 'tzaoe and Change. ciety, and also of the broader mechanisms of human migrations, Jewish :he usual termin­ migrations from Western countries display their own special character­ lews - immigrants istics and deserve a separate analysis(7). .grants from the lenomination of (6) Though a communist country, Yugoslavia has been included in our defi­ nition in view of the existing freedom of emigration for its citizens. Spanish-born The characteristics of Yugoslav Jews in Israel are fully congruent with .ysis of Western those of other Western Jews. :0 have come from !a coast; there­ (7) Among recent studies of Jewish immigrants from Western countries, see: m from other Wilder-Ok1adek, F. "Austrian and German Immigration in Israel". In: ;pain is more International Migration. Vol. 4, no. 1. 1966. p. 83-90; Weinberg, A.A. "Immigration from Western Countries to Israel". In: Migrations Inter­ nationales. Vol. 5, no. 1. 1967. p. 22-37; Mankowitz, C. "South African Jewish Immigration - Integration and Yerida". In: Lissak, B., Hisrachi, B., Ben-David, O. (eds.). Olim beIsrael. Jerusalem, Akademon, 1969. p. 809­ 833; Engel, G. "North American Jewish Settlers in Israel". In: American

257 An accurate study of Western immigrants may be of some strategic use for the planning of future aZiya when we consider that most future immigration to Israel will, if at all, necessarily originate from these countries, both because of the potentials for Jewish migrations and be­ a. Size and Qpi cause only the Western countries permit free exit. Indeed, continued and massive Jewish emigration has drastically reduced the size of Jewish It is a w communities in Moslem countries, and virtually exhausted their potential very irregular as sources of future aZiya. On the other hand, the weight of Eastern ratio to the d European Jewry is today roughly one fifth of the total Jewish diaspora, traditionally c and the persisting limitations on the number of emigration permits and ceptions. AZiy increasing neshira (dropping out of immigrants on their way to Israel)~ sive, dramatic, make the forecasts of the size of future Jewish emigration from that to Israel has b area quite hazardous. or households, may have played More specifically, systematic research may attempt: speaking Jews i (a) to underline some of the factors more closely associated with them migrated t aZiya, or lack of aZiya, in order to make the forecasts of future number The numbe of immigrants to Israel and of their characteristics closer to an empiri­ period 1919-197 cally verified reality; Mandate in Pale (b) to improve understanding of the process of absorption in Israel of Jewish immigrant groups who are likely to maintain a high degree of communication - often through repeated journeys back and forth - with Table 1. Jewish In Jewish people still living in their countries of origin. The information Previous feed-back, based on direct experience of other persons who migrated from the same country, may have a decisive impact on the decision-making pro­ cess of those who have not yet made up their mind whether to emigrate to Country Israel or not. Though yet few in number, at present, Western Jews in Israel may have a decisive impact on the future of aZiya. N. , % of total aZiya (7) continued: Total Jewish Year Book. Yolo 71. 1970. p. 161-1B7; Antonovsky, A. and Katz, D. Western Europe "Factors in the Adjustment to Israeli Life of American and Canadian Immi­ German speaking grants". In: The Jewish JournaZ of SocioZogy. yolo 12, no. 1. 1970. p.77­ Balkan area B7; Penalosa, F. "Pre-migration Background and Assimilation of Latin Latin America American Immigrants in Israel". In: Jewish SociaZ Studies. yolo 34, no.2. English speaking 1972. p. 122-139; Sabatello,E.P. "Haaliya meItalia 1970-1974, tchunoteha uklitatah". In: Bitfutzoth HagoZah. Yolo lB, no. 77/7B. 1976. p. 127-141; (a) M. Sicron. Irrun­ Goldscheider, C. "The Future of American AZiya". In: Schmelz, U.O., Glikson, Jerusalem, Fal: P. and Della Pergola, S. Papers in Jewish Demography, 1973. Jerusalem, The Bureau of Stat_ Hebrew University, The Institute of Contemporary Jewry, World Union of Jewish Studies; and Association for Jewish Demography and Statistics. 1977. (b) Israel, Centra p. 337-345; Sicron, M. "Immigration to Israel from Latin America". In: Part I. AnnuaZ Ibid. p. 347-354; Della Pergola, S. and Tagliacozzo, A. "Gli Italiani in by Period of b Israele". Roma, La Rassegna Mensile di Israel and Federazione Sionistica Abstract of Is: Italiana. 197B. p. 153. (B) See: Bachi sity, The Demographic Ce: p. 42B.

258 orne strategic 2. Basic Characteristics of Western Aliya t most future ate from these ations and be­ a. Size and Origin d, continued size of Jewish It is a well known fact that Jewish migrations to Israel have been their potential very irregular over time in their absolute size, geographical origin, and t of Eastern ratio to the diaspora Jewish populations(8l. Western countries have wish diaspora, traditionally constituted a low-aliya area, but for a few and short ex­ n permits and ceptions. Aliya from non-Western countries often took the form of mas­ ay to Israel), sive, dramatic, institutionally-sponsored departures. Western emigration ion from that . to Israel has been rather the outcome of a set of decisions by individuals Or households, even if sometimes the encouragement of Israeli institutions may have played an important role in promoting it. The case of German­ speaking Jews is different, and untypical in this respect, since most of associated with them migrated to Palestine under conditions of political hardship. of future number The number and geographical origin of Western immigrants over the ser to an empiri­ period 1919-1976 is shown in Table 1. During the years of the British Mandate in Palestine, slightly more than 85,000 immigrants came from orption in Israel high degree of I forth - with Table l. Jewish Immigrants to Israel from Western Countries, by Countries of The information Previous Residence, 1919-1976 ..ho migrated from lsion-making pro­ ~r to emigrate to Country Immigrants % change

1919- 1948(b) 1969- 1948-68/ 1969-76/ ; in Israel may 1948(a) 1968 1976(bl 1919-48 1948-68 N. 85,235 96,219 115,162 % of total aliya 19.8 7.5 38.5 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 +12.9 +19.7 , A. and Katz, D. Western Europe 5.9 23.0 24.4 +339.6 +26.7 ind Canadian Immi­ German speaking 70.1 12.9 1.6 -79.1 -85.1 10. 1. 1970. p.77­ Balkan area 12.7 10.9 0.4 - 0.4 -95.4 :ion of Latin Latin America 0.9 26.1 23.2 +3205.0 + 6.4 1S. Vol. 34, no.2. English speaking 10.4 27.1 50.4 +194.6 +123.0 1974, tchunoteha 1976. p. 127-141; (al M. Sicron. Immigration to Israel 1948-1953. Statistical Supplement. ~elz, U.O., Glikson, Jerusalem, Falk Project for Economic Research in Israel, and Central 173. Jerusalem, The Bureau of Statistics. Special Series No. 60. 1957. Table A 8. World union of ld Statistics. 1977. (bl Israel, Central Bureau of Statistics. Immigration to Israel 1948-1972. In America". In: Part I. Annual Data. Special Series No. 416. 1973; Part II. Composition "Gli Ita1iani in by Period of Immigration. Special Series No. 489. 1975. Id. Statistical :azione Sionistica Abstract of Israel. Id. Monthly Bulletin of Statistics.

(8l See: Bachi, R. The Population of Israel. Jerusalem, The Hebrew Univer sity, The Institute of Contemporary Jewry, and Prime Minister's OfficE Demographic Center. CICRED Series for 1974 World Population Year. 1977. p. 428.

259 Table 2. Jewish Populations in Western Countries, Western Jews in Israel, and Western hrmigrants to Israel, by Countries of Birth and/or Residence 1961-1976

New inID.iqrants to Israel Country Jewish Jewish population in Israel In Israel Enlarged Number Rate per Per cent Per cent population B country of birth Israel born per 100 Jewish 10,000 potential non-Jewish N N \; change Median by country abroad stay of birth of population at origin immigrants ianiqrants (years) father (3) + (6) (7) Thousands (If x 100 1972 1969-1976 1969-1976 1969-1976 1969-1976 1972 1961 1972 1961-1972 1972 1972 (7) (8) (9) (l0) (11) (12) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

21.0 1.046,487 2,460,855 23.7 299,019(c) 36.0 29.8 2.5 Total Claspora 10,375 1,201,9111,414,368 17.7 20.9 85.675 234,340 2.9 115,162 18.1 70.1 2.2 Total Western Countries 7,962 102.730 148.665 44.7 6.0 51. 5 46.1 4.2 16,815 27,342 62.6 13.9 13 ,284 40,626 28.038 Western Europe (a) 680 2,012 9.6 1,023 61.8 72.2 9.8 895 1,382 54.4 12.7 630 SWitzerland 21 1,744 7.6 1,252 74.4 14.1 785 1,334 69.9 8.6 410 68.0 Scandinavia 23 4,973 16.6 1,465 80.7 15.6 2,250 3,167 40.8 19.1 1,806 61.0 The Netherlands 30 4,050 11. 3 1,367 47.5 79.2 4.2 1,720 2,595 50.9 20.7 1,455 Belgium, Luxemburl?' 36 2.6 129.4 6.3 3.351 13 ,455 20,959 49.9 38.3 2.5 France 525 4,405 10,104 3,620 ],897 7.8 22.2 1.997 5,894 16.8 Italy (a) 1,627 58.1 48.2 4.9 35 2,540 2,800 10.2 21.8 1,500 4,300 12.3 . (b) 3,140 4,683 49.1 14.5 3,636 8,498 85.0 345 42.3 47.8 4.1 Spain, Portugal, 10 Gibraltar 52,700 53,407 1.3 ]3.5 42,286 95,693 23].4 1,852 55.9 58.3 11.1 GerIDan Speaking 41 41,300 41,262 -0.1 33.7 33,791 75,053 234.5 1,406 54.9 59.0 12.7 Germany, F. R. 32 . 11,400 12,145 6.5 32.4 8,945 20,640 229.3 446 59.3 56.1 5.8 Austria 9 18,095 15,567 -14.0 25.5 l4,:H0 29,777 270.7 479 54.4 59.5 5.6 Balkan Area 11 7,650 6,562 -14.2 22.9 4,273 10,835 180.6 110 22.9 41.8 10.9 Yugoslavia 6 10,445 9,005 -13.8 32.8 9,937 18,942 378.8 369 92.3 64.8 4.1 N Greece 5 0'> 6,215 22,549 262.8 6.8 7.780 30,329 5.7 26,719 62.8 59.3 1.3 o Latin America 532 3,585 12.994 262.5 7.7 4,758 17,752 6.3 14,378 64.2 54.1 1.0 Argentina 280 875 2,950 237.1 5.6 996 3,946 3.6 3,444 39.1 65.5 0.8 Brazil 110 420 2,003 376.9 6.2 680 2,683 6.7 3,105 97.0 49.0 2.1 uruguay 40 380 1,946 412.1 3.0 416 2,362 11.8 2,816 176.0 57.8 2.3 ClUe 20 250 673 169.2 6.3 265 938 2.7 1,192 42.6 90.2 0.9 Mexico 35 6.0 665 2,648 5.6 1,784 47.0 88.3 2.1 OtJ:1er countries 47 705 1,983 181.3 2]4.6 37 ,915 0.6 58,074 10.8 87.0 1.3 Eng1 ish speaking 6,698 8.905 29,800 3.9 8,115 6.7 9,671 2.3 8,883 26.8 82.0 2.7 Gr. Dri tain, Ireland 414 3,090 7,215 133.5 2.456 3,490 19,595 0.3 38,027 8.2 87.0 0.9 United States 5,800 3,530 16,105 356.2 3.0 364.1 3.2 563 2,280 0.8 3,929 16.9 90.1 1.3 Canada 290 370 1,717 4.0 4,821 49.0 93.5 0.9 South Africa, Rhodesia 123 1,615 3,676 127.6 7.9 1,271 4,947 2.0 2.414 42.5 87.8 1.7 Australia. New Zealand 71 300 1.087 262.3 5.6 335 1.422 92.7 94.9 Total Other COWltries 2,413 1,099,1811,265,103 15.1 21.0 960,812 2,226,515 183,180 4.5 2,8 957,642 43.0 78.4 Europe 2,226 519,421 604,400 4.3 22. 1 353,242 139,630 0.3 3.4 655,921 Asia 124 299,611 316,129 5.5 21.9 339.792 529.0 28,099 283.3 24.9 0.8 AfriCA 63 220,149 345,174 56.8 15.0 267,778 61.2 .952 1156.5 15,451 306.6 5.9 0.4

(a) Columns (2) - (8) include persons born in Italy in 1945-1949, and immigrated during the same years. (b) Columns (2) - (8) do not include persons born in Italy in 1945-1949, and immigrated during the same years. (c) Including unknown birthplace. Sources: Col. (1) Provisional estimates, Division of Jewish Demography and Statistics, The Institute of Contemporary Jewry, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Col. (2) Israel, Central Bureau of Statistics. PopuZation and Housing CensUB 1961. Vol. 22. Demographic Characteristics of the Population. Part IV. Additional Data from Stages A and B of the Census. Jerusalem, 1964. Tables 4. 5. Co1s. (3), (6) Israel Central Bureau

of Statistics. Census of Population and Housing 1972. Vol. 10. Demoqraphic Characteristics of the PopulationJ Part II. Country of Birth, Period of Immigration and Religion. Data from Stage A of the Census. Jerusalem, 1976. Table 25. Col. (5) Unpublished detailed data of 1972 census.

Cols. (9) - (12) Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. Immigration ,I ISY'flel J 1948-]972. Part II. Composition by Period of ImmigraUon. Special Series, no. 489. Jerusalem, 1976; and unpublished detailed data.

---~

::T \:l" H, 'i () ~ () ~ N:l 0 cr'::T 0 ,.. 0 "0 ?> ,.. r-I' C/l c...... :l'; ..... QQ r-I'..... QQ Ul ::T"O ..... Ul r-I' r-I' C/l ..... <: r-I' C/lQQ H,:l'; ?> 'i?>lblbO::T"'lbS'i~H, :lH,OUl:l?>r-I'lbOlbO'i?>O 'ir-l'lbO <.OO::T"·r-I'<.Olb::T"·'1'ilb <1 Or-l''i?>~''·OI)Q''·OS r-I' 'i ,..?>~- Ul- ?>O'~ O?>'iUl --..JS?>:l?>.j:>.'ilbX?>OUl lb ~ S::Tr-I':O,:,:l():l ...... ()?>?>lb OR?>..CJt""':lr-l'UlOr-l'O:l ...... lb ~'lbr-l';:l""'''' o.:l?> N'i;;:?> lb OlbOr-l'lb'i "0 r-I' - lbl "'Olb lb cr' '":i ..... 'i "':l 'i Ul QQ "0 () ~ 1". '< R r-I' Ul Ul ,.. 0 'i 0 Ul Ul,.·,.· Vl ..... Ul ..... Ul ::l ?> 0. Ul 'i '"lOR (fJ :l "'::T r-+,.. ~ r-+ S ::T -3::T'.I:: Cfl,.· r-+ :l::l N r-+ -3 :l 0 -3 cr' 00 0 ~ () <.0 S 0.'< r-+::l 0,., (\:> 'i Ul (fJ lb?> cr' (fJ lb'" ::T'" R 1 1".;:1 'i c.. c.. "0 - ::T::T -3 :l?> lb 0\0 0 cr'?> 0'0 III lb rt?> ~ H, N ?> r-I' :::e: ~ (fJ (fJ 0 .... ::T 'i QQ 0 lb () I?> Cl lb R lb lb ?> lb ..... ::T cr' () (fJ S 00 "0 :::e: 0 r-+ () QQH, I lb'1lb() '1lb S'iH, ::T"Oc..21;»r-I'-3'i~N~'i():l (fJlbO ...... ?>OOr-l'lb lb?> lbO ::T lb \:::l ...... 0 Ul::T cr' ~ (fJ?> 0. lb lb (\:> S III ::T lb (fJ 1". (fJ 0 'i '1 H, lb ~ H, 0 III ::l '1 ..... 0.. C r-+ '1 1". :l rl' lb cr' lb r-+ rt ?> 'i ~ () (fJ 0 :l (fJ ,.. 0. - (fJ ::l lb R QQlb?>-3lb'i '1,..,..::Tr-I' ~ "'",'i0 ()"'RH,O' 'i() lb::T:::e: ..... lbrt rl'''';;::llb '1()rt ~;; ~ - 8:l ~ :l 2 ;a lb r-+ g lb III lb ~ ~ ~ h' H') "5 _lb :l '1 ~ '0 ..... ~ ~ ...... ~ ~?> 0 ~ ~ ~. g g g- g ~ %g ;j. o Cl Ill'" "Oo.lb'iUlVl<:?>::T- R?>c...... nlllSoo r-+ ::T::lr-+ ...... H, ~ lblblblbO' ...... ::llb ~,.. '":i :l()o.Ullblb lblb- Ill'i ?>Olb;:s"' (I)'" ::Trt O'-'::l ?>OlbVl r-+Ul 0. rl'(fJ r-+S >:> o.Olb"O'i'iS ...... lb '1lb <:051- 1 ~r-I'?>"'lbt'l1 • 0'1 Ul ...... '10 r-+O '< ..... rt- OlbH,'1 S CO'1(l "·IllSr-+,.· lbO,., ,..,..:l ...... (fJ?>c..:l?> 0;:1 ::Tr-+H, <.o::T H,(fJ'11-'., , , .. , 1 I. H , I m m r, 'In r-I' ,n n n ,.. tlQ ~ 1-" \Il n '" (V lfl (ll 1 r-+ cr' QQ Ul lb?> ':! <:!" 0:- ~ '::! . "'" 9 ~ _. l1'I r- (]) ~ (I) ~ Western countries - as defined in this paper -, or about 20% of all aliya ~ ~OO 0"': from stated countries. Between 1948 and 1976, about 211,000 persons iIT~i­ .,-1"'" ..tJ lol"ej lQ'''':J Cl 1-I-I-\.lZ:l'''' grated to Israel from Western countries, or 13% of total aliya. Until the > .... .-l "\0) .,-4.. j:., III 1:0: Six Day War, and especially during the years of mass migration following ~ _It'la) IJ'l ::::I->.>.j.I c " .. :,.;,..:: .,; ci';ui tJ c..t:" • the independence of the State of Israel, the weight of Western aliya was ~ ~ ~ t 6 """ N 101 tl ''':' ..... very small indeed, representing just 7.5% of all immigrants in the period ~6QjCQ~t :t III '--.0\ ~ tJ I.< Q.-4 1;j; 1948-1968. More than half of Western aliya since the establishment of the Ql .... til .... ES~ ~'O ~ '0'" (J', "'" M \0 l-I State came since 1969 (115,000 immirrants until the end of 1976), contribu­ ~.p tj ...... -..=. hi ~:~ .; 00 • to \0 i:: III C\ l'" ~ g >. tn ...... ;:of +J '-. ting substantially to this new migration wave which included also more lol 0 0 III Q ) E • v 't:l 11l\:ll...... "';::l t-:l1:::l M • '0 \:) than 100,000 Jews from the Soviet Union. Western aliya has represented -""-j Q) ...... ,..j.,. 0 0"' .... >... '-..... t, .N..-I 00 lol ~. ...,j ~ some 38% of the total in the years 1969-1976, and it has reached 46% in ~~~ M"'''' III N (/)..., "' Q.. -;. "'0" H ..... j:., +J • "=l' ('(I M ., ~i~ a . 0 (j (lJ ~ 1976, because of the recent reduction of immigration from the Soviet Union. .... s'6 u Q., 'O.l::l QJ> .. '0 lO: +J • >::: QJ c::, o r: • IJ'l Q ..c: .... Table 1 also shows considerable differences in the geographical com­ ·" 0.... ',..l 00 ~ Ute .~ .....~ 0)~(J"""tr.l position of Western aliya through the various periods of time considered ~ · '" . ° ° ° ° ~ ~ ():~i1~ '" M '" here. The chronology of aliya, and consequently the average length of ." '" (J', "'" ~ o · • 111 ;:ol ...... a r:: (,)

~~{l~::)C'~ stay in Israel has been quite different for the various Western origin "' . +J(\)c--(\)~ • ·• '5 .... t.J ,..t: ~~'" (II .~'" r:: .t:"''' 4, l'-!''''. 0'1 a .... ~ (.Q ...... 0 I:,j ""'"~"''' Ill.::! (.QU=-­ ";";r-i -5.g" ..r:: () ~ ~ The recent rate of aliya from Western countries, though generally · fot ~ e'''> •• lV-l-:>lI'IC\l g'il .. ~ .... (.QC'lC'-.. lower than from non-Western countries, has been far from uniform (see .-< " 00.t: Ill',,> 0) U tj 00 ~ IV ..... ~ ~ .... ::s ill .... , table 2, col. 10). During the years 1969-1976 it averaged 18 new immi­ ~ ~6~t~~ .... '" '" '" '~''':; ~ grants per 10,000 Jews in the countries of origin, against 79 olim per ~n~ ~ iii I'") Z E-< ~ .... •.-1 ~~~~~.~~ 10,000 Jews from Eastern Europe, 283 from Asia, and 307 from North Africa. ",C I::l..Ir.> 0' \\l "'" "d c::. >:: t; .... C' r:: 0.:. ~'N i:... Western aliya rates ranged between a maximum of 176 new immigrants per ~ 'IS '-.,)..t.' ~ to 'j O-s>-, ~ Q'\ ID 0 >. • tJ,l tj IV 10,000 Jews in Chile, 97 per 10,000 Jews in Uruguay and 92 per 10,000 -;~~ ..c:00..s::~ .... 4, ~ '2~ g..~ ~:: ";":,n .... OJ, -l-:> :.. Jews in Greece, and a minimum of just 8 per 10,000 Jews in the United "''" N '".... ~ +.l ...... E: :J .t: 0'> ttl a ~ ~ () ." IV'~ 0·... £:::l States. The political circumstances prevailing at times and among cer­ ~~ e+J1:l:l I'")-l-:> Ql ID • tj o +.l"tl 0 ..... ~ .~ tI.l ~ ...... eo I::l'; tain strata of Jewish communities in some Western countries - especially ; ~ '; --: M"''' ..r:: (j ;:$ .... ::r,... N In ,;.n~ 'g,:; .~ 1) "'l; ~ ~ ~ in Latin America - in the course of the last few years can be described ID N ID .-l .... ;'1 ): 0 <:u ...... '" Ql::Jeo>l:l I'") <::.i • .~ H ott as quasi-metzukah, which generated relatively large - and sometimes tem­ IV ~ • <::.i til -"'.­-<.-., C ..... 10l tj C\l..s:: 0 ~'r1 o ::s oj.,l" ~.,-l -"'0 ll:lC!:lo, ..... porary - Jewish emigration. Substantial differences appear in the rate -:: <:t .., coO •,-l4J ...... , +J .,.; ~ :> c eo "l) U) into which we have divided our area of interest . .... IV (j.::! \3. c 0 o U i-.) (j (J .... '"'0 Cl ~....., 0 - .... ° ~ ~ ''''M " .~ C) tr:l .2 The data are insufficient for an assessment of the relative weight .... ~ '41....:. ~ EO ~ +J I'll tj tj () Ql I'll 10I >:: ... \.4 of each of the various push and pull factors, usually associated with a~'" e til () .t: c...:.,::l · .... l'-!'".I a 1II " ..... +.l ....., ..... tj human migrations, to account for such striking differentials. In very , M .... ·. til ...... •... +.:...... , ...... "'''M • u • Ql N'"tj tj tj 'IS ~~,... ~ ~ ~ ID '" .-C) Iol ...... <:t.::! ... broad terms it seems that in recent years factors of political and econ­ .... I'll' Q • .c:: '" '" · l:: ...... a .t: Qj • 0.0 omic push were relatively weak in Western countries, though by no means "''''''.... C " .~8~k.·3u CU 0·.-1" til ...... ~ ...... 'O..c •.-1 ....., a·... IV negligible. The migratory appeal of the State of Israel, either in a > ~ a tj 0) N'"til ... cocoi Iol Q.,;:$o::' /I) Zionist or broader Jewish ideological framework, is a peculiar factor ~ ----g .. ~ H , '" __ Ii::. "" <:U Ii:: which has been perceived with different strength among Jews in different ;:;;~3 ...... ~ t.J tj;::; -.l..:. • s;;> ...... J ~ ~.~ countries. The spread of assimilation among diaspora Jewry, however, may '"c .... -- i-.I .:::t .... I weaken such an ideological pull. On the other hand, the pull exerted by .~ ~~2 ...... ~i~ n. .... ~'" ...... u +J ...... certain Western countries themselves on Jewish international migrants is .t: " o 0 C ~ UUH ~ ~ ~ . ~ ".0 " . i-.)tI) rather strong, and it is visible also with regard to yeridah - emigration o .'" u . 0 ..... r-I 104-.-I).j :!8~ e.-, o ."Ii • Cl a Cl u from Israel. u.2 :J ~ ~ ~ ~ b. Israel-Diaspora Differentials

Different immigration rates from various countries in the diaspora have brought about a composition of the Jewish population in Israel, by

261 Table 3. Jewish Populations in the World and in Israel, by Countries of creased by 62.6%, JI Residence and/or Birth, 1961-1972 bers, and those frO! Adding to the Country Jewish Jewish population in Israel fathers were born iJ population what less than 235,( By country of Israel-born Enlarged lation of 2,686,700 birth by country Jewish persons of a given ( of birth of population ous diaspora countri father (3) + (4) cols. 6, 7, 8). ThE 1972 (a) 1961 (b) 1972 (c) 1972 (c) 1972 (c) tries living in Isr8 spective countries ( (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) quences of the Holoe World/ Total 13,062,000 1,932,400 2,686,700 1,272,300 ern countries, Jews Israel, % 21.0 37.8 47.4 17.7 with those living in lands, Italy, Belgiu Diaspora, total 10,375,000 1,201,900 1,414,400 1,046,500 2,460,900 States. Diaspora, % 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Western countries 76.7 8.6 10.5 8.2 9.5 Western Europe 6.5 1.4 1.9 1.3 1.7 3. Some Occupa German speaking 0.4 4.4 3.8 4.0 3.9 Balkan area 0.1 1.5 1.1 1.4 1.2 Turning now to Latin America 5.1 0.5 1.6 0.7 1.2 istics of Western im English speaking 64.6 0.8 2.1 0.8 1.5 processes of occupat Other countries 23.3 91.4 89.5 91.8 90.5 from selected Wester Europe 21.5 48.2 42.7 33.7 38.9 the Israel census of Asia 1.2 24.9 22.4 32.5 26.7 was asked along with Africa 0.6 18.3 24.4 25.6 24.9 of the population. than actual, especia (a) Provisional estimates, Division of Jewish Demography and Statistics, The (see above): most 0 Institute of Contemporary Jewry, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. has taken place afte: (b) Israel, Central Bureau of Statistics. Population and Housing Census 1961. Vol. 22. Demographic Characteristics of the Population, Part IV, (9) A selective comp Additional Data from Stages A and B of the Census. Jerusalem, 1964. porary Jewry out (c) Israel, Central Bureau of Statistics. Population and Housing Census 1972. Population and Housi Based on detailed unpublished data. Bureau of Statistics holds in which at Ie ing to the definiti~ Western-born father. origin groups, which is completely different from the geographical struc­ 20,146 of persons b~ ture of the Jewish diaspora (a second factor has been differential fer­ persons whose father tility). According to rough estimates of world Jewish population, in tabulations was prep 1972, the Western countries included 75.2% of total diaspora Jewry, while in this project in ~ just less than 150,000, or 10.5% of foreign-born Jews in Israel were born able from existing p in such countries (8.6% in 1961) (see table 3). Moreover, 46.4% of by sex, age, birthpL Israelis from Western countries were born in Germany, Austria, Yugoslavia for each of the COW1 and Greece, which accounted for only 0.7% of the Western diaspora in 1972 We wish to acknowleQ (see table 2, cols. 2, 3, 4). Israel Central Burea Friedland~ Over the period 1961-1972, the number of Israelis born in Western Prof. Dov ~ countries increased by 44.7%, but while Jews from Latin America and English Bernard Lazerwitz, to us. speaking countries more than doubled, those from Western Europe in­

262 creased by 62.6%, Jews from German speaking countries were stable in num­ by Countries of bers, and those from Balkan countries decreased by 14%. Adding to the foreign-born Western Israelis, the Israel-born whose fathers were born in Western countries, an "enlarged population" of some­ in Israel what less than 235,000 persons can be defined out of a total Jewish popu­ 3.el-born Enlarged lation of 2,686,700 in 1972. By comparing this enlarged population of ::ountry Jewish persons of a given origin in Israel, with the number of Jews in the vari­ :>irth of population ous diaspora countries in 1972, a very uneven pattern emerges (see table 2, father (3) + (4) cols. 6, 7, 8). The number of Jews from German speaking and Balkan coun­ 972 (c) 1972 (c) tries living in Israel is much higher than that of Jews living in the re­ spective countries of origin, mainly because of the destructive conse­ (4) (5) quences of the Holocaust in those areas. With regard to most other West­ ern countries, Jews in Israel constitute a Slight minority as compared :272,300 with those living in the diaspora, ranging between 11-17% for the Nether­ 17.7 lands, Italy, Belgium and Chile, down to a minimum of 0.3% for the United ()46,500 2,460,900 States. 100.0 100.0 8.2 9.5 3. Some Occupational Characteristics of Western Jews in Israel 1.3 1.7 4.0 3.9 1.4 1.2 Turning now to a closer inspection of some occupational character­ 0.7 1.2 istics of Western immigrants in Israel, we shall examine the three basic 0.8 1.5 processes of occupational selectivity, change, and similarity among olim from selected Western countries. We shall use here, mainly, data from 90.5 91.8 the Israel census of 1961(9), in which a question on occupation abroad 38.9 33.7 was asked along with questions on current occupational characteristics 26.7 32.5 of the population. The interest of such data may seem more historical 24.9 25.6 than actual, especially when considering the chronology of Western aliya (see above): most of the immigration to Israel from Western countries r and statistics, The has taken place after 1961. Therefore for most of the countries examined _ty of Jerusalem.

~ Housing Census 1961. (9) A ~on, Part IV, selective computer tape was prepared for the Institute of Contem­ Jerusalem, 1964. porary Jewry out of the copy of Stage B (20% sample) of the Israel Population and Housing Census of 1961 made available by the Central i Housing Census 1972. Bureau of Statistics. This special tape includes all members of house­ holds in which at least one person was born in a Western country (accord­ ing to the definition used in this paper), or was born in Israel to a Western-born father. The tape includes some 50,000 records, thereof he geographical struc­ 20,146 of persons born in Western countries, and 10,941 of Israel-born ,en differential fer­ persons whose father was born in those countries. A set of detailed 'ish population, in tabulations was prepared for each country or group of countries included diaspora Jewry, while in this project in order to supplement the few basic distributions avail­ ~ws in Israel were born able from existing publications. A table was prepared for each variable, .reover, 46.4% of by sex, age, birthplace (born-abroad; or Israel-born, father born abroad) IY, Austria, Yugoslavia for each of the countries or group of countries, included in this study. ~stern diaspora in 1972 We wish to acknowledge the kind cooperation of Prof. U.O. Schmelz, of Israel Central Bureau of Statistics and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Prof. Dav Friedlander, of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and Prof. lelis born in Western Bernard Lazerwitz, of Bar Ilan University, in making the data available ~atin America and English to us. ~stern Europe in­ 263 Table 4. Western Jews in Israel. by Occupational Characteristics and Country of Birth. 1961 here the census re Total of earlier immigrro Western German Balkan Latin English Total Total Characteristics Israel come in more recen' Europe Speakinc Area America Speaking Western Europe- Countrie, America (Jews) different composit: Ca) (a) (a) in 1961, of the va: ined. It seems. fu Labour Force Participation background for fur' Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.C pational distribut: Employed 51. 7 58.3 49.3 65.0 59.3 56.1 55.4 50.4 geographical areas Unemployed 5.0 2.6 3.8 4.8 3.1 3.4 2.1 2.8 Not in labour force 43.0 39.0 46.9 29.7 37.6 40.5 42.5 46.8 Males 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 a. Occupational Be: Employed 72.5 79.6 78.1 78.8 77.5 78.0 69.9 63.8 Unemployed 5.0 3.5 4.8 5.2 3.8 4.1 4.6 3.2 Not in labour force 22.5 16.9 17.1 16.0 18.7 17.9 25.5 23.0 It is a comml groups are more mol Occupational Status 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Employer 2.0 4.9 3.7 0.4 1.8 3.7 3.8 2.5 economic and ideoll Self-employed 9.5 17.2 22.2 5.0 9.5 15.5 19.6 16.2 though at times Jel Wage and salary earner 68.9 56.4 63.6 39.7 60.2 58.5 65.1 70.1 those of other pOpl Cooperative member 0.5 2.9 1.7 3.8 4.4 2.5 (b) 1.5 omic factors in thl Kibbutz member 16.4 14.5 5.6 48.5 21.3 16.2 8.2 6.7 Unpaid family member 2.7 4.1 3.3 2.5 2.7 3.6 3.3 3.0 cation of migrants Economic branch 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 The 1961 Isr~ Agriculture 15.1 12.1 6.5 31.3 15.5 13.2 9.3 !l.9 abroad of foreign-I Mines, manufacturing 22.7 21.0 26.3 16.4 15.2 21.3 25.6 25.3 Construction 6.8 3.3 6.6 2.4 3.4 4.3 7.2 8.3 (10) It is hoped t- Electricity, water, gas 1.2 1.6 2.1 1.2 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.1 special tabul Commerce, banking 8.8 13.4 18.6 4.8 7.6 12.5 15.0 12.7 Transport 6.5 7.0 12.1 5.7 6.4 7.6 6.9 6.6 1961 and to undert Public services 29.4 32.5 19.7 23.2 40.5 29.9 26.2 25.6 lations collected Personal services 9.4 9.3 8.1 14.1 10.0 9.5 7.8 7.3 source for the st~ Occupation 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 tudinal Immigrants Scientific, professional 21. 3 22.8 11.8 19.5 33.8 21.5 14.9 13.3 about 1,000 indivi. 22.9 19.3 Managerial, clerical 19.7 27.6 17.7 16.8 27.3 24.1 break-downs of i~ Sales 4.6 8.3 13.4 2.0 4.3 7.9 10.9 8.7 Agriculture 14.5 10.0 6.7 25.2 12.6 11. 3 8.4 12.1 few that constitut. will be possible, ~ Transport ! 3.8 4.7 6.0 1.8 1.4 4.3 4.6 4.8 Construction 5.8 2.5 5.4 0.7 2.7 3.3 5.7 7.1 for several consec' Production 17.9 14.6 28.7 15.5 9.1 17.1 21.8 23.1 Israel, Central B~ Services 12.4 9.4 10.3 18.5 8.7 10.5 10.7 11. 6 JeWish Agency, Ali: Occupation Abroad 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Immigrants; Immigr. Scientific, professional 20.5 23.3 10.2 30.5 42.8 22.8 15.0 12.2 Arrival. Special S. Managerial, clerical , 22.6 24.0 20.2 25.2 28.7 23.7 19.8 17.2 Sales 15.7 24.4 24.1 15.4 8.6 21.1 24.0 26.2 (11) See: Hersch, : Agriculture i 4.3 6.8 1.4 4.2 4.1 5.0 2.4 2.2 W.F. and Ferel 2.8 2.1 1.7 Transport 0.6 3.6 1.1 1.6 2.2 Interpretations. N. Construction 3.1 1.6 2.1 1.4 0.5 1.7 2.2 2.~ Production , 25.4 15.8 34.7 20.7 11.5 20.4 31.~ 33.6 p. 471-520. Lests. Services 5.5 3.6 3.7 1.4 2.0 3.6 3.6 3.9 stein, L. (ed.). Ti New York, Harper. : (a) Excluding persons born in Italy and Austria in 1945-1949, and immigrated during the In : Encyclopaedia same years. (12) Israel, Centro Cb) Included with wage and salary earners. 1961. Vol. 27 Source: Israel, Central Bureau of Statistics. Population and lIouDfn" ,'ensus ] 96]. Labour' 1965. About possil POr'ee. laY'!. I. Vol. 9. r.xl"JlAY' /·'nl·,'/· ChaY'aeter'isti"" (WeekI7/)md f.'mi,loyl'd l'ePN'nD abroad, and reassUl by F'eunorrn"e Br't1Yl(~h.l Orocupaf-iu1'/ rxnl f,'nqJ[0!Jmrmt /)'tcdus. ]Jot (1. I-",l!!l .(/ta:le 11 of thp. l.'-"nsuD. 1963. I'm·t III. Vol. 24. IIdditi,)I),d !Jat." [Y'om Sta'ie Ii of' the ('ewmD. 1965. p. 235. For an eal Itrpt 1v'. Vol. 27. (}(Oc>Ullotion ,1}if'(l"d. 1965. Unpuhl i"shed t~bulations from Stage B Population Census c of the census. the Diaspora". In: p. 49-63. 264 Id Country of Birth, 1961 here the census reflects the characteristics of relatively small groups of earlier immigrants, which may not be representative of those who have 1 Total Tota.l Total come in more recent years (10) . One should also pay attention to the 19 Western Europe- Israel Countrie America (Jews) different composition, by duration of stay in Israel and age structure, (a) in 1961, of the various origin groups whose characteristics will be exam­ ined. It seems, however, that the available data may provide a useful background for further and more systematic investigation of the occu­ ) 100.0 100.0 100.C pational distributions for the Jewish population born in the five larger l 56.1 55.4 50.4 geographical areas dealt with in this paper. L 3.4 2.1 2.B 5 40.5 42.5 46.B ) 100.0 100.0 100.0 a. Occupational Selectivity 5 7B.0 69.9 63.B B 4.1 4.6 3.2 7 17.9 25.5 23.0 It is a common feature of all human migrations that some population groups are more mobile than others, according to demographic, social, 100.0 ) 100.0 100.0 economic and ideological characteristics. This is true also of aliya, B 3.7 3.B 2.5 5 15.5 19.6 16.2 though at times Jewish migrations may have differed considerably from 2 5B.5 65.1 70.1 those of other populations, particularly with regard to the role of econ­ 4 2.5 Cb) 1.5 omic factors in the decision to migrate and the occupational stratifi­ 3 16.2 B.2 6.7 cation of migrants(ll). 7 3.6 3.3 3.0 0 100.0 100.0 100.0 The 1961 Israel population census included a question on occupation 5 13.2 9.3 lJ.9 abroad of foreign-born Jews (12) . Moreover, local data on occupational 2 21.3 25.6 25.3 4 4.3 7.2 B.3 (10) It is hoped that in the near future it will be possible to prepare 3 1.6 2.0 2.1 special tabulations of the 1972 census data similar to those of 12.7 6 12.5 15.0 1961 and to undertake comparisons with the data on Jewish diaspora popu­ 4 7.6 6.9 6.6 5 29.9 26.2 25.6 lations collected in the late 1960's and early 1970's. Another important 0 9.5 7.B 7.3 source for the study of recent immiqration to Israel, the current longi­ 0 100.0 100.0 100.0 tudinal Immigrants Absorption Survey, is based on a yearly net ?ample of B 21.5 14.9 13.3 about 1,000 individuals. Therefore, it does not lend itself to detailed 3 24.1 22.9 19.3 break-downs of immigrants by single countries of origin, besides those 3 7.9 10.9 8.7 few that constitute the main sources of recent aliya. Such an analysis 6 11.3 B.4 12.1 4 4.3 4.6 4.8 will be possible, perhaps, after extracting and merging the data collected 7 3.3 5.7 7.1 for several consecutive years. On the methodology of the survey see: 1 17.1 21.8 23.1 Israel, Central Bureau of Statistics; Ministry of Immigrant Absorption; 7 10.5 10.7 11.6 Jewish Agency, Aliya and Absorption Department. Survey on Absorption of 0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Immigrants; Immigrants Arrived in 1969/70-1971/72, Two Years after Their 8 22.8 15.0 12.2 Arrival. Special Series. No. 524. Jerusalem, 1976. Hebrew intrOduction. 7 23.7 19.8 17.2 6 21.1 24.0 26.2 (11) See: Hersch, L. "International Migration of the Jews". In: Willcox, 1 5.0 2.4 2.2 W.F. and Ferenczi, I. (eds.). International ~grations. Vol. 2. 1 1.7 1.6 2.2 Interpretations. New York, National Bureau of Economic Research. 1931. 5 1.7 2.2 2.:' 5 20.4 31.4 33.6 p. 471-520. Lestschinski, J. "Jewish Migrations, 1840-1956". In: Finkel­ 0 3.6 3.6 3.9 stein, L. (ed.). The Jews: Their History, Culture and Religion. 3rd ed. New York, Harper. 1960. Vol. 2. p. 1536-1596. Schmelz, U.O. "Migrations". igrated during the In: Encyclopaedia Judaica. Jerusalem. Vol. 16. 1971. cols. 1518-1529. (12) Israel, Central Bureau of Statistics. Population and Housing Census 1961. Vol. 27. Labour Force. Part IV. Occupation Abroad. Jerusalem, (~nsus ]96]. Iilbour 1965. About possible doubts on accuracy and meaning of data on occupation :lnd !'}f11j)Zo?JPd l'ePH()nr, abroad, and reassuring evidence, see: Ben-Porath, Y. Gp. cit. Note (6). om S'ta(!p H of the ,>nsz.UJ. p. 235. For an earlier study of the data see: Schmelz, U.O. "The Israel I'rn.su3. 1965. tions from Stage B Population Census of 1961 as a Source of Demographic Data on the Jews in the Diaspora". In: The Jewish Journal of Sociology. Vol. 8, no. 1. 1966. p. 49-63. 265 Table 5. Jewish Immigrants to Israel and Respective Diaspora Populations Table 5, footnotes: in Selected Western Countries, by Sex and Occupation Abroad, (a) occupation abr( 1947-1965 in 1961 Israel of Stage B (20% SaJI Country Year Sex Total Professional, Trade, Blue (b) United States, managerial, sales collar ilian Populatic clerical Population Reports. United States (c) Canada, Dominic Immigrants 1961 (a) M 100 69 4 26 part 1. LahoUI

F 100 90 2 8 Sex3 showing BirthF Diaspora populo 1957 (b) M 100 63 14 23 Canada and Provinae 18 F 100 68 14 (d) Australia, Coma Canada and Australia wealth of Austr Immigrants 1961(a) M 100 59 7 34 Clerical occupatior. F 100 81 4 15 Canada (e) South Africa, r:

Diaspora populo 1961 (c) M 100 63 14 23 tember3 1960. t F 100 63 16 21 (f) Schmelz, U.O. a Australia tina and in at;; Diaspora populo 1947 (d) M 100 39 (d) 26 (d) 36 Hamachon al-shem Ds 28(d) 41 (d) 31 F 100 Tel Aviv. 1974. Tal: South Africa Jews from: Argentin Immigrants 1961(a) M 100 62 19 19 Naa'ional de Poblaai F 100 93 4 3 Diaspora populo 1960 (e) M 100 55 33 12 (g) Nemstatter, H. F 100 75 18 7 Anglo-Jewry"; ]I Argentina Freedman, M. ed. A Immigrants 1961 (a) M 100 43 15 42 Community. London, F 100 78 9 13 obtained from 1,66E Diaspora populo 1960 (f) M 100 28 37 35 copies were distrit F 100 47 22 31 (h) Mayer, K.B. Tf; Great Britain at Sixth World 1961 (a) Immigrants M 100 51 16 33 1973. Tables 5, 6. F 100 74 6 20 Statistisches Amt. Diaspora populo 1950-52 (g) M 100 32 58 10 ,. F 100 72 17 11 (i) Schmelz, U.O. SWitzerland In: Schmelz, U_ Immigrants 1961 (a) M 100 57 9 34 1961-1968. Jerusale Diaspora popu1. 1960 (h) M 100 40 42 18 of Contemporary Je~ Austria Based on special ta Immigrants 1961 (a) M 100 41 24 35 amt. Volkszaehlung F 100 51 13 36 (j) Della Pergola, Diaspora populo 1961 (i) M 100 37 46 17 stiahe demograf F 100 47 33 20 una minoranza. AsE Italy Immigrants 1961 (a) M 100 54 16 30 F 100 52 12 36 Diaspora populo 1965{j) M 100 35 58 7 F 100 47 40 13

See footnotes on following page.

266 Diaspora Porulations Table 5, footnotes: ccupation Abroad, (a) Occupation abroad of Jews born in indicated countries and enumerated in 1961 Israel Population and Housing Census; unpublished tabulations of Stage B (20% sample) of census. Lal, Trade, Blue (b) United States, Bureau of the Census. Religion Reported by the Civ­ ,1, sales collar ilian Population in the United States: March 1957. In: Current Population Reports. Series P-20, no. 79. Feb. 2, 1958. (c) Canada, Dominion Bureau of Statistics. 1961 Census of Canada. Vol.3, 4 26 part 1. Labour Force: Occupations. Bull. 3.1-15. Occupations by 2 8 Sex, showing Birthplace, Period of Immigration, and Ethnic Group ­ 14 23 Canada and Provinces. 1964. 14 18 (d) Australia, Commonwealth Bureau of Statistics. Census of the Common­ wealth of Australia, 30th June 1947. Vol. 1, part 16. Religion. 1951. 7 34 Clerical occupations are included with the trade and sales category. 4 15 (e) South Africa, Department of Statistics. Population Census, 6th Sep­ 14 23 tember, 1960. Sample Tabulations. No.6. Religion: All Races. 1965. 16 21 (f) Schmelz, U.O. and Della Pergola, ·s.The Demography of Jews in Argen­ tina and in Other Countries of Latin America (in Hebrew). Tel Aviv, 26(d) 36 Hamachon al-shem David Horowitz leheker aratzot mitpatchot beUniversitat 41 (d) 31 Tel Aviv. 1974. Table 47. p. 112-113. Based on special tabulations of Jews from: Argentina, Instituto Nacional de Estadistica y Censos. Censo 19 19 Nacional de Poblacion. 1960. 4 3 33 12 (g) Neustatter, H. "Demographic and Other Statistical Aspects of 18 7 Anglo-Jewry"; Appendix I: Tables XI and XII. p. 254-255. In: Freedman, M. ed. A Minority in Britain; Social Studi~s of the Anglo-Jewish 15 42 Community. London, Vallentine, Mitchell & Co. 1955. Based on replies 9 13 obtained from 1,666 Jewish households to a questionnaire of which 12,000 37 35 copies were distributed. . 22 31 (h) Mayer, K.B. The Jewish Population of Switzerland. Paper presented at Sixth World Congress of Jewish Studies. Jerusalem, August 13-19, 16 33 1973. Tables 5, 6. p. 11-12. Based on: Switzerland, Eidgenoessisches 6 20 Statistisches Amt. Eidgenoessische Volkszaehlung. 1960. 58 10 17 11 (i) Schmelz, U.O. "A Guide to Jewish Population Studies". Table 9. p. 43. In: Schmelz, U.O. and Glikson, P.eds. Jewish Population Studies, 9 34 1961-1968. Jerusalem, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, The Institute 42 18 of Contemporary Jewry; and London, Institute of Jewish Affairs. 1970. Based on special tabulations of Jews from: Austria, Statistisches Zentral­ 24 35 amt. Volkszaehlung vom 21. Maerz 1961. 13 36 (j) Della Pergola, S. Anatomia dell'ebraismo itaZiano: caratteri­ 46 17 stiche demografiche, economiche, sociali, poZitiche e religiose di 33 20 una minoranza. Assisi/Roma, Carucci. 1976. Table 14. p. 86-87. 16 30 12 36 58 7 40 13

267 structure are available for the Jews in nine Western countries with The ratio of the 0 reference to the pe~iod 1947-1965, i.e. for the years around the Israel ive Diaspora popul white-collar occup census. This permits an, admittedly rough, comparison between occu~ pational structures of Jewish migrants to Israel versus their whole was higher for blu Diaspora population of origin, the overwhelming majority of whom were out of the 5 count non-migrants (see Tables 5 and 6). sistency of such 0 view of the notewo With only very few exceptions, comparison of the two distributions, forces in the eigh by sex and country shows that aZiya was more than proportional among Jews employed abroad in professional, managerial, and clerical 0ccupations, The attempt and it was even more so among males in blue-collar, including service lowing points: occupations; on the other hand, Jews in trade and sales occupations were (a) AZiya to strikingly underrepresented among Western oZim. Overrepresentation of cludes both ideolo non-trade white-collar occupations'was found for males in 7 out of 8 countries, and for females in all 7 countries with available data; blue­ (b) The high collar males were" overrepresented in all 8 countries. Persons employed nected with profes in trade and sales were underrepresented among oZim of either sex from to be associated w within the Jewish each country, and blue-collar females were so in 5 out of 7 countries. function of Jewish Zionist feelings, (c) Underrep Table 6. Ratios of Occupational Percentages Among Immigrants to Israel and also of employers Among Respective Diaspora Populations, by Sex, 1947-1965 (a) be easily understo~ mobility among per Country Sex Professional, Trade, Blue whose possibilitie managerial, sales collar ing to another eco: clerical the ususal higher: due to an easier t­ 110 29 113 United States M country to another 132 14 44 F factors do operate Canada (b) M 94 50 148 Since trade is a t­ F 129 25 71 with it may have a the risks of chang' South Africa M 113 58 158 F 124 22 43 (d) Occupatio occupational mobil 120 Argentina M 154 41 tions of the Jewis: 42 F 166 41 Israel is usually: Great Britain M 159 28 330 percentages of edu. F 103 35 18 and blue-collar oc·

Switzerland M 143 21 189 (e) Overrepr. collar labour forc. 206 Austria M III 52 can be explained b: F 109 39 180 grations. The loco Italy M 154 28 429 in some cases, to • F 111 30 277 local socio-economc target was obvious_ (a) Source: Table 5. The 1961 census data relate to country of birth, while (Israeli and local: the diaspora data in Table 5 comprise the whole Jewish population resident (f) One shou: in a country in the year indicated. nation of occupatil (b) Immigrants from Canada and Australia as compared with Canada's Jewish distorted somewhat population.

268 The ratio of the occupational percentages of migrants and in the respect­ countries with around the Israel ive Diaspora populations was higher for blue-collar than for non-trade white-collar occupations among males from 7 out of 8 countries, while it between occu:­ _s their whole was higher for blue-collar than for trade occupations among females in 4 _ty of whom were out of the 5 countries for which such a comparison can be made. The con­ sistency of such occupational selectivity patterns is remarkable, in view of the noteworthy structural differences between Jewish labour two distributions, forces in the eight reported countries . •ortional among Jews The attempt of interpretation should focus essentially on the fol­ _cal occupations, lowing points: ocluding service 's occupations were (a) Aliya to Israel is a heterogeneous migration stream, and it in­ -epresentation of cludes both ideologically and economically-oriented Jewish migrants. ; in 7 out of 8 (b) The higher-than-average educational attainment, usually con­ _ilable data; blue- nected with professional, managerial and clerical occupations, seems also Persons employed to be associated with more intensive cultural and communal activities ~ either sex from within the Jewish communities of Western countries. In particular, the of 7 countries. function of Jewish youth movements should be underlined as promoting Zionist feelings, and stimulating white-collar immigration. (c) Underrepresentation of merchants and salesmen - and probably ~rants to Israel and also of employers in the manufacturing branch - among Western olim can • 1947-1965 (a) be easily understood taking into account the limited opportunities for mobility among persons whose assets cannot be easily disinvested, and :Ie, Blue whose possibilities for occupational absorption in Israel, without shift­ =5 collar ing to another economic branch, are rather limited. This contrasts with the ususal higher migratory mobility of professionals, managers and clerks due to an easier transferability of personal knowledge and skills from one 113 country to another. One may also wonder whether other socio-psychological 44 factors do operate in connection with occupational characteristics abroad. 148 Since trade is a traditional Jewish economic branch, persons connected 71 with it may have a more conservative outlook, and may refrain from taking the risks of change connected with aliya. 158 43 (d) Occupational selectivity of immigrants reflects intergenerational occupational mobility trends among Jews in the Diaspora. The younger sec­ 120 tions of the Jewish population - among whom the propensity to migrate to 42 Israel is usually higher than average - are also likely to include high 330 percentages of educated persons in white-collar occupations, while trade 18 and blue-collar occupations are becoming less frequent over time. 189 (e) Overrepresentation of male olim who were employed in the blue­ collar labour force, characterised by lower education and lower income, 206 can be explained by the normal mechanisms of economically motivated mi­ 180 grations. The local Jewish communities may have been particularly eager, 429 in some cases, to dispose of persons not succesfully integrated in the 277 local socio-economic framework. The choice of Israel as an emigration target was obviously facilitated through the intermediary of Jewish ~ntry of birth, while (Israeli and local) institutions. ~ish population resident (f) One should not disregard the possibility that subjective desig­ nation of occupation abroad among certain Western immigrants may have ith Canada's Jewish distorted somewhat the picture of their occupational characteristics

269 ~ before aliya. b. Occupational

Absorption 0: More detailed data on occupational selectivity among a group of society, involves c Western immigrants can be obtained from a countrywide survey of Italians of the immigrants 1 in Israel undertaken in 1975(13). The occupational background of Jews in adaptation of the \ Italy is shown in the upper part of Table 7. It was a predominantly of the new immigral white-collar labour force, including a strong trade and sales sector. The change seems to hal tragic consequences of the Holocaust period and steady immigration from time. the ~fiddle East during the 1950's and 1960's caused a proportional de­ crease of Jews in the professional, managerial and clerical categories While occupa1 as against an increase of traders and salesmen between 1938 and 1965. heavily concentrate based on a Jewish] Italian olim have been divided into four groups, by period of immi­ the Jews into the ] gration to Israel. In the first three cohorts, and to some extent also quite heavy constr~ in the most recent one, there was a high proportion of persons who were immigrants into the employed abroad as professionals, managers and clerks, quite a large pro­ pational change to· portion of blue-collars, including those employed in services, and a very ment of the State ; low proportion of traders and salesmen. These data confirm the patterns ation of the Jews of occupational selectivity discussed previously. It should be noted that least of some of i" a relatively high percentage of former "farmers" among Italian olim in to which the new y­ the years 1945-1951 depends, though only in part, on the establishment of the Jews, which hal a hachsharah scheme in Italy before and after World War II, when the pion­ the diaspora. One eer aliya was at its peak. Of all Western countries, such a feature is the exiles", three the most prominent among immigrants from the Netherlands (14) . It should grants could be en­ be noted that the survey of Italians in Israel could not include persons by each origin gro" who returned to Italy. Among the latter the incidence of those who had another, character been employed as traders before aliya was relatively higher than among groups, according Italian Jews permanently settling in Israel. third one, leading economy over other (13) The study, covered a representative sample of households including As a matter at least one individual born in or immigrated from Italy (displaced Israel shows the p persons who lived in Italy for brief periods and their children were ex­ force characterist cluded). The sample covered about one eigth of all Italian Jews in Israel. and from Asia and It was extracted out of a comprehensive master-list set up through a snow­ inspection of the ball technique starting from the files of the Organization of Italian patterns of occupa Immigrants in Israel. A questionnaire including more than 200 questions and reveals that t - some of which designed according to the Immigrants Absorption Survey ­ constraints may ha was administered to a net sample of 272 households including 829 individ­ tries. uals. Of these, 347 were born in Italy, and another 73 were born else­ where and immigrated from Italy, 319 were born in Israel, and 90 were born As mentioned in other countries. The survey was supported by a grant of the CNR occupation abroad (Italian National Council for Scientific Research). see: Della Pergola, S. and Tagliacozzo, A. eli Italiani in Israele. Gp. cit. A Ph. D. disser­ (15) See: Kuznets tation, based on materials from the survey, is in preparation by Finkelstein, A. Tagliacozzo under the supervision of Prof. Moshe Lissak at the Hebrew 3rd. ed. New Yorl university of Jerusalem, on: -Immigration and Absorption of Italian Jews (16) See, e.g.: L: in Israel-. Israel Unive! (14) According to unpublished detailed tabulations of 1961 census. See Ethnic and Other ~ also: Faiqenblat, P. History of HachshoJtah and I"nrngPatiun from in Israel. Jerusa: the Ne-therlands, 1918-1948. (forthc

270 b. Occupational Change

Absorption of new immigrants in Israel, as well as into any other lmong a group of society, involves deep changes in some of the pre-existing characteristics survey of Italians of the immigrants themselves, and also, though to a much lesser degree, an lckground of Jews in adaptation of the whole societal context to the characteristics and needs I predominantly of the new immigrants. The balance between these two opposed types of ld sales sector. The change seems to have undergone some evolution in Israel in the course of r immigration from time. proportional de­ ~rical categories While occupational structure of the Jews in the diaspora has been I 1938 and 1965. heavily concentrated in the tertiary sector(15), a new society of Israel based on a Jewish majority, could not emerge without a massive inflow of by period of immi­ the Jews into the primary and secondary sectors of the economy. Initially I some extent also quite heavy constraints existed for the occupational absorption of new £ persons who were immigrants into the Israel labour force and, in fact, considerable occu­ _ quite a large pro­ pational change took place among immigrants. arriving before the establish­ .ervices, and a very ment of the State and in the first years of its independence. Productiviz­ Infirm the patterns ation of the Jews was a long standing goal of the Zionist ideology, or at should be noted that ~ least of some of its leading currents, following a conception according Italian olim in to which the new yishuv was to "nornalize" the occupational structure of :he establishment of the Jews, which had been distorted by centuries of minority existence in lr II, when the pion- the diaspora. One of the basic Zionist aims being the "ingathering of such a feature is the exiles", three alternative processes of social change among new immi­ Ids (14). It should grants could be envisaged: one, featuring a high degree of dispersion lot include persons by each origin group into the various economic sectors of the new country; ~ of those who had another, characterized by a functional differentiation between origin ligher than among groups, according to their main economic characteristics abroad; and a third one, leading certain immigrant groups to predominate in the Israeli economy over other ones with similar occupational characteristics abroad. ~eholds including As a matter of fact, recent research on the social structure of lm Italy (displaced Israel shows the persistence of remarkable differentials in the labour ~ children were ex­ force characteristics of Jews from Euro~e and America, on the one hand, Ilian Jews in Israel. and from Asia and Africa, on the other( 6). However, a more detailed ~t up through a snow­ inspection of the characteristics of Western Jews shows very unequal Ition of Italian patterns of occupational change in connection with migration to Israel, than 200 questions and reveals that the interplay of ideological motivations and economic U>sorption Survey ­ constraints may have been quite different among Jews from various coun­ =luding 829 individ­ tries. '3 were born else­ leI, and 90 were born As mentioned above, the 1961 Israel census provides information on ~ant of the CNR occupation abroad of foreign-born Jews, along with occupational character­ ee: Della Pergola, S. A Ph. D. disser­ (15) See: Kuznets, S. "Economic Structure and Life of the Jews". In: laration by Finkelstein, L. (ed.). The Jews: Their History Culture and Religion, LSsak at the Hebrew 3rd. ed. New York, Harper, 1960. Vol. 2. p. 1597-1666. Lon of Italian Jews (16) See, e.g.: Lissak, M. Social Mbbility in Israel Society. Jerusalem, Israel Universities Press. 1969. p. 122.; Matras, J. and Weintraub,D. 1961 census. See Ethnic and Other Primordial Differentials in Intergenerational Mobility rllRigration from in Israel. Jerusalem, Brookdale Institute, Gerontology and Adult Human Mh was a model farm Development in Israel, American Joint Distribution Committee. 1977; :Its intending to Ben-Porath, Y. Gp. cit. L. 271 Table 7. Jews in Italy, by Occupation, 1938 and 1965; and Italian istics nt census d Immigrants jn Israel, by Period of Immigration and Occupation change in Israel, at Various Stages of their Life-Cycle, 1975 (former white-colI "tertiarization" ( Total Professional, Trade, Blue that 45.5% of Jewi managerial, sales collar (until 1961) while clerical white-collar occup JeUJs i,- Italy respective figures 1938(a) In 100 47 43 10 and Africa, 61.1%, In 1965(b) 100 39 53 8 substantial occupa of those from Euro Italian Imrrzigrants in Israel (c) "Productivization" Immigrated up to 1944 immigrants from As Father's occupation 100 67 27 5 white-collar occup Immigrant's occupation collars accounted Before aliya 100 69 17 13 50.7% of immigrant 1 year after aliya 100 22 7 71 In comparisor 3 years after aliya 100 38 a 62 In 1965 100 72 4 24 and Iittle "produc In 1975 100 76 4 20 abroad, 70.5% of i Immigrated 1945-1951 characteristics; 3 Father's occupation 100 33 while 24.1% of for 47 20 We have tried to s Immigrant's occupation of occupational Before aliya 100 cn 51 16 32 ation" and -1, in 1 year after aliya lao 20 a 80 This index was +0. 3 years after aliya 100 22 a 78 In 1965 100 48 a 52 immigrants from Eu In 1975 100 53 3 44 out the aggregate Immigrated 1952-1966 much lower than tn Father's occupation 100 42 50 8 Even among \Ii Immigrant's occupation with regard to occ Before aliya 100 68 20 12 of +0.880 was comp 1 year after aliya 100 62 0 38 Uruguay, Chile, an 3 years after aliya 100 66 4 30 Brazil (+0.588), C In 1965 100 64 4 32 France, Greece, Yu In 1975 100 62 a 38 A few immigrant gr Immigrated 1967-1974 comparison between Father's occupation 100 40 4Cl 12 (+0.007), South Af Immigrant's occupation Jews from five cou Before aliya 100 59 31 9 ation", through a~ 1 year after aliya 100 70 3 27 occupational chang 3 years after aliya 100 72 a 27 (-0.261), and espe In 1975 100 69 7 24 (-0.551). The in~ the index of dissi (a) R. de Felice. Gli ebrei in Italia sotto il fascismo. Torino, s~ Einaudi. 1961. p. 13. immigrant group

(b) S. Della Pergola. Anatomia dell 'ebraismo italian". Roma, Carucci. (17) The very diss 1976. p. 86-87. grants from V' (c) S. Della Pergola and A. Tagliacozzo. Gli Italiani in Israele. Rama, analysis. Moreove La Rasse<]na Mensile di Israel and Federazione Sionistica Italiana. white-collar categ 1978, 1'. 74. (18) See note (b)

272 Italian istics at census date. In the following discussion of occupational ld Occupation change in Israel, we shall examine the frequency of "productivization" (former white-collars turning to blue-collar occupations in Israel) versus "tertiarization" (the other way round). On the whole, it would appear ~e, Blue that 45.5% of Jewish white-collar immigrants underwent "productivization" ~s collar (until 1961) while 14.0% of Jewish blue-collar immigrants shifted to white-collar occupations. Among i~igrants from Europe and America the respective figures were 37.7%, and 17.7%, and among immigrants from Asia 10 and Africa, 61.1%, and 8.5%. The proportion of those who did not undergo 8 substantial occupational change was 68.8% of all Jewish immigrants (71.0% of those from Europe and America and 64.8% of those from Asia and Africa). "Productivization" thus appears to have been much sharper among the Jewish immigrants from Asia and Africa who had originally lower percentages in 5 white-collar occupations. In fact, among Jews who worked abroad, white­ collars accounted for 56.3% of immigrants from Europe and America, against 13 50.7% of immigrants from Asia and Africa(17). 71 In comparison, Western Jews underwent even less occupational change, 62 and little "productivization": 67.7% were in white-collar occupations 24 20 abroad, 70.5% of immigrants did not change substantially their occupational characteristics; 32.1% of former white-collars underwent "productivization", while 24.1% of former blue-collars underwent "tertiarization" (see table 8). 20 We have tried to summarize the various patterns listed above into an index of occupational change, ranging between +1, in case of extreme "productiviz­ 32 ation" and -1, in case of extreme "tertiarization" of an immigrant group (18) . 80 This index was +0.756 for immigrants from Asia and Africa, and +0.361 for 78 52 immigrants from Europe and America. If, from among the latter, we single 44 out the aggregate of Western Jews, their index reached +0.142, i.e. it was much lower than the average.

8 Even among Western Jews, however, a wide range of behaviours was found with regard to occupational change connected with aliya. A maximum index 12 of +0.880 was computed for Jews from Spain, followed by immigrants from 38 Uruguay, Chile, and the smaller communities in Latin America (+0.760), 30 Brazil (+0.588), Canada and Oceania (+0.539), Italy (+0.486), Argentina, 32 France, Greece, Yugoslavia, Scandinavia (each above a value of +0.400). 38 A few immigrant groups displayed substantial occupational stability in the comparison between their characteristics before aliya and in 1961: Germany 12 (+0.007), South Africa (-0.011), Great Britain (-0.041). On the other hand, Jews from five countries showed a predominant pattern of further "tertiariz­ 9 ation" , through aliya, as indicated by the following values of the index of 27 occupational change: Austria (-0.105), Belgium (-0.137), the Netherlands 27 (-0.261), and especially Switzerland (-0.506), and the United States 24 (-0.551). The index of occupational change is connected quite clearly with the index of dissimilarity ( ~ in Table 8): the more members of an lOrino, immigrant group shifted from their occupation abroad, the more were likely

, Carucci. (17) The very dissimilar occupational composition among white-collar immi­ grants from various countries is disregarded in this preliminary Yaele. Roma, analysis. Moreover, occupational change occurring in Israel within the a Italiana. white-collar category should be investigated in detail. (18) See note (b) to Table 8.

273 Table 8. Western Jews in Israel, by Country of Birth and Occupation Abroad to undergo "produc1 and in Israel, 1961 I f we cornpan abroad and in Isral Country of birth c cup a t ion Synthetic o tries considered hi ------indexes of Total White-collar Blue-collar occupational (a) More thaI abroad abroad change in Israel: South J and Australia, Swi~ White-c. Blue-c. White-c. Blue-c. ~ OC in in in in (b) More thaI Israel Israel Israel Israel (a) (b) Rest of Latin Arner: Total foreign-born Jews 100.0 29.6 24.7 6.5 39.2 0.183 +0.529 (c) Less thaI Asia-Africa 100.0 19.7 31.0 4.2 45.1 0.269 +0.756 (d) Less thaI Europe-America 100.0 35.1 21.2 7.8 35.9 0.151 +0.361 Total Western countries 100.0 46.0 21. 7 7.8 24.5 0.138 +0.142 From Figure the most developed Western Europe 100.0 34.0 22.6 7.9 35.5 0.146 +0.373 communities is cha: Switzerland 100.0 60.6 9.1 12.1 18.2 0.121 -0.506 white-collar occup. Scandinavia 100.0 32.0 24.0 8.0 36.0 0.160 +0.404 managers - were gel The Netherlands 100.0 55.1 11.0 9.6 24.3 0.080 -0.261 in Israel (19). As Belgium, Luxemburg 100.0 32.7 16.3 22.4 28.6 0.101 -0.137 immigrant populati, France 100.0 35.7 27.7 5.9 30.7 0.219 +0.462 reveal very differ. Italy 100.0 38.6 28.9 4.8 27.7 0.292 +0.486 Spain, Portugal, 100.0 4.3 31.4 3.6 60.7 0.279 +0.880 The wide spe· Gibraltar a combination of s. German speaking 100.0 49.5 20.9 9.0 20.6 0.128 -0.012 Germany 100.0 49.6 22.2 8.6 19.6 0.146 +0.007 (a) The intr Austria 100.0 49.1 16.2 10.6 24.0 0.070 -0.105 achieved abroad wh apparent similarit Balkan area 100.0 38.2 21.6 6.2 34.0 0.155 +0.402 Yugoslavia 100.0 51.1 22.6 3.4 22.9 0.192 +0.408 (b) The high. Greece 100.0 26.6 20.7 8.7 44.0 0.126 +0.452 other persons with among immigrants f- Latin America 100.0 36.2 34.4 4.2 25.2 0.300 +0.546 Argentina 100.0 38.3 29.1 5.0 27.6 0.250 +0.477 (c) The diff Brazil 100.0 38.7 38.7 3.2 19.4 0.354 +0.588 groups by the vete: Other countries 100.0 26.9 51.9 1.9 19.2 0.520 +0.760 to push the ones t· acquire such in 1s­ English speaking 100.0 61.5 17.6 6.3 14.6 0.113 -0.149 collar occupations Gr.Britain, Ireland 100.0 54.0 20.2 7.6 18.2 0.126 -0.041 image may have bee- United States 100.0 70.9 10.1 8.2 10.8 0.069 -0.551 Canada, Australia, 100.0 54.2 18.7 2.1 25.0 0.187 +0.539 (d) The cont New Zealand "ingathering of ex S: Africa, Rhodesia 100.0 64.4 22.9 3.4 9.3 0.195 -0.011 towards Western rna dissimilarity:~ ~2jlai (a) Index of = - bil where: (19) The relations a. = occupational distribution abroad; in Israel is b7 = occupational distribution in Israel. (20) See also: C~ TEe index was computed according to four occupational groups: professional, tion of Immig­ managerial, clerical; trade, sales; agriculture; production and services. Ingathering of Imrrl' (b) Index of occupational change: OC = ::~ , where: Jerusalem, The Mag- P per cent shifting from white-collar abroad to blue-collar in Israel, out of total white-collars abroad; T per cent shifting from blue-collar abroad to white-collar in Israel, out of total blue-collars abroad.

274 lnd Occupation Abroad to undergo "productivization". If we compare the percentage of persons in white-collar occupations abroad and in Israel among the Jewish immigrants from each of the coun­ ~ 0 n Synthetic tries considered here, the following typology emerges: indexes of Ie-collar occupational (a) More than 50% in white-collar occupations abroad, more than 50% abroad change in Israel: South Africa, United States, British Isles, Yugoslavia, Canada and Australia, Switzerland, Germany, Netherlands, Austria; ·c. Blue-c. 6- OC in (b) More than 50% abroad, less than 50% in Israel: Brazil, Argentina, Israel (a) (b) Rest of Latin America, Italy, France, Scandinavia; 39.2 0.183 +0.529 (c) Less than 50% abroad, more than 50% in Israel: Belgium; 45.1 0.269 +0.756 (d) Less than 50% abroad, less than 50% in Israel: Greece, Spain. 35.9 0.151 +0.361 24.5 0.138 +0.142 From Figure I it is quite clear, that Jewish immigrants coming from the most developed countries, in which the social structure of Jewish 35.5 0.146 +0.373 communities is characterized by the highest percentages of persons in 18.2 0.121 -0.506 white-collar occupations, and especially of professionals, employers and 36.0 0.160 +0.404 managers - were generally the least prone to shift to manual occupations 24.3 0.080 -0.261 in Israel (19) . Assuming full opportunity for all sectors of the Jewish 28.6 0.101 -0.137 immigrant population, the occupational mobility patterns presented here 30.7 0.219 +0.462 reveal very different degrees of adaptability between immigrant groups. 27.7 0.292 +0.486 5 60.7 0.279 +0.880 The wide spectrum of behaviours outlined here seems to depend on a combination of several factors, including: ) 20.6 0.128 -0.012 5 19.6 0.146 +0.007 (a) The intrinsic level of occupational qualifications and skills 5 24.0 0.070 -0.105 achieved abroad which may have differed considerably, notwithstanding apparent similarities according to standard occupational classifications; 2 34.0 0.155 +0.402 ~ 22.9 0.192 +0.408 (b) The higher or lower incidence of members of youth movements and 7 44.0 0.126 +0.452 other persons with a pioneer ideological outlook and a kibbutz orientation among immigrants from a given country; 2 25.2 0.300 +0.546 J 27.6 0.250 +0.477 (c) The different prestige ascribed to members of different origin 2 19.4 0.354 +0.588 groups by the veteran, absorbing population, which may have contributed 3 19.2 0.520 +0.760 to push the ones to stick to their former white-collar occupations or acquire such in Israel and may have caused the others to remain in blue­ 3 14.6 0.113 -0.149 collar occupations or shift to them in Israel. Such a "prestigious" 5 18.2 0.126 -0.041 image may have been extenced to Western immigrants. 2 10.8 0.069 -0.551 1 25.0 0.187 +0.539 (d) The conflict between basic national goals in Israel, such as "ingathering of exiles" and developing a competitive economy oriented 4 9.3 0.195 -0.011 towards Western markets(20). Immigrants with a Western background, in­

(19) The relationship between the percentages of white-collars abroad and in Israel is expressed by the equation: y = 0.8952x - 9.7360. (20) See also: Cohen, E. "Dispersion of the Population and the Integra­ la1 groups: professional, tion of Immigrants as Contradicting Aims". In: Mizug Galuyot (The production and services. Ingathering of Immigrants from Different Countries of Origin in Israel). Jerusalem, The Magnes Press. 1969. p. 143-157. (In Hebrew.)

)lue-collar in Israel, out lite-collar in Israel, out 275 cluding the knowledg experienced less pre pationally to the ev' <: grants. '"0 ..... Since 1961, th '" 0.. :::l a consequence of the U U 0 l> mentioned above, and U s.. o Israeli economy, esp. ~'" recent availability' '0 u territories has been I ...... the abovementioned s' >, .c available source fro: occupational change' '" ~ ..... Conversely, immigran­ <: 1974 did not undergo <: s.. 't:>'" 0 tion with their migr. m '"0s.. proportion of white­ <: .a 0 ce Apart from some stru· ..... described here, two: ';'" 0.. (a) "Productiv 0 C>. process though it wa .s:: many of those who ha -i'" ..... for new immigrants w ceu greatly reduced, exc >, as compared with the social status throug '"u E 0 <: It seems very 0 u w reflects more genera

276 -><--+ .....-.....~+ ...... _ •• + eluding the knowledge of internationally important languages, may have 10 I -:_~ experienced less pressures to adapt themselves culturally and occu­ I­ I pationally to the evolving patterns of Israeli society than other immi­ I grants. I I I Since 1961, this picture may have changed quite substantially as + 10 a consequence of the larger immigration from Western countries, already I'" I I mentioned above, and of the considerable structural transformation of the I 0" I " Israeli economy. especially after the Six Day War. In particular, the , ~ I CO recent availability of quite a large labour force from the administered I ..-< + c:: territories has been among the factors associated with a steady "terti­ 10 U I arization" of the Jewish labour force in Israel. The percentage of Jew­ I'<0 .jJ'" ish white-collars increased from 41.3% in 1961 to 51.1% in 1975; among I ·M I .<:: I :< Jews born in Israel, the increase was from 49.3% to 59.4%; among those I I born in Asia and Africa, from 22.7% to 33.1%; and among those from Europe I ...." + and America, from 48.7% to 57.7%. ,'0.... '" I In the absence of detailed data on occupational mobility among ..-< I I Western Jews in Israel since 1961, some indications can be gathered from .jJ'" I 0 I the abovementioned survey of Italians (see Table 7). This is the only .jJ ,I available source from which it is possible to follow retrospectively + occupational change undergone in Israel by different immigrant cohorts, .... 1.0 '0 "'"~ I along with their increasing stay in the country. These data confirm the « I ""'I I high degree of initial "productivization" of the two earlier immigrant I ....'" I waves from Italy, i.e. those who arrived up to 1944, and those who arrived OJ I f I between 1945 and 1951. However, by 1965 and even more so by 1975, both •10 these groups of immigrants, but especially the former, had reversed to ,'"I the predominantly white-collar occupational structure that characterized I I them in Italy. Of course, they also underwent aging in the meantime. I I Conversely, immigrants of the later two cohorts of 1951-1966 and 1967­ I I 1974 did not undergo such a sharp "productivization" process in connec­ .::i + 10 tion with their migration to Israel, but they too were showing a growing "­'" ,,;­ II) , I proportion of white-collar workers with increasing stay in the country. * I Apart from some structural differences at origin between the four cohorts I I I described here, two main trends can be detected among Italians in Israel: I + te~pora;y Ie, (a) "Productivization" of the earlier immigrants was a I.­ I process though it was marKed and lasted for a considerable number of years; I many of those who had shifted to blue-collar occupations, including agri­ ,I I culture, had left them by the late 1960's(21); I I + (b) More recently, the limiting constraints which existed in the past 10 for new immigrants wishing to enter thE'; lsraell labour force have been ,I"J I greatly reduced, except for the small proportion of Jewish trade in Israel 1 as compared with the diaspora. In fact not a few immigrants improved their ,I I social status through aliya. I + Ie I~ It seems very likely that the behaviour of recent Italian immigrants I ,I reflects more general trends among Western immigrants in Israel. I I I r~ I (21) Earlier age of withdrawal from the labour force by manual workers + ~,_t---4+_~.~.~t+ ... __ ,...... ~+ • should be duly taken into account. Moreover, in kibbutzim older people

.:l , are sometimes deliberately shifted from manual to non-manual occupations . "" ~

277 r !

Table 9. Western Jews in Israel. by Country of Birth and Social C1 ass (a) • 19E1 ~ OccupationaZ sir. country of birth N(b) Total I II III IV One of the Cl social change in I~ Total foreign-born Jews (c) 126,626 100.0 4.7 34.6 19.1 41.6 population groups c Total Western countries 10,591 100.0 7.6 44.0 26.5 21.9 Though the general the country, and ir Western Europe 1,425 100.0 4.1 40.0 21.6 34.2 the Jewish society Switzerland 85 100.0 4.7 61.2 23.5 10.6 segregation still I Scandinavia 64 100.0 3.1 45.3 14.1 37.5 gration between Je~ The Netherlands 266 100.0 9.0 53.0 24.8 13.2 Europe and America: Belgium, Luxemburg 169 100.0 4.1 47.3 23.7 24.9 of the process witt France 343 100.0 3.8 39.4 26.5 30.3 compare here occup~ Italy 257 100.0 29.6 3.1 42.4 24.9 Jews in Israel. Spain, Portugal, Gibraltar 241 100.0 0.4 9.9 7.5 82.2 A very simple German speaking 5,701 100.0 10.1 16.9 46.9 26.1 lished for each of Germany 4,401 100.0 9.7 46.8 27.6 15.9 ied here, by combit Austria 1,300 100.0 11.1 47.3 21.1 20.5 tabulation of occui Balkan area 1,808 100.0 5.7 34.6 24.1 35.6 (I) Employers, se Yugoslavia 821 100.0 5.0 44.5 23.1 27.4 collar) ; Greece 987 100.0 6.3 26.3 24.9 42.5 (II) Employee pro: Latin America 736 100.0 2.6 34,6 47.4 15.4 (middle and = Argentina 436 100.0 2.7 36.5 52.1 11.5 Brazil 110 100.0 0.9 41.8 46.4 10.9 (III) Employee trac Other countries 190 100.0 3.2 26.3 43.7 26.8 vices (mainl~ English speaking 921 100.0 6.1 57.6 24.5 11.8 (IV) Employees in Great Britain, Ireland 315 100.0 5.1 56.5 24.4 14.0 United States 355 100.0 7.1 59.4 23.1 10.4 On the whole Canada, Australia,New Zealand 83 100.0 1.2 57.8 33.7 7.2 categories, and un; South Africa, Rhodesia 168 100.0 8.3 55.4 23.2 13.1 differentials betwi between 11.1% amon: (a) I Employers, self-employed professionals and managers. in class II, betwel II Employees in professional, managerial and clerical occupations. those from Spain; : and 7.5% again amo) III Employees in trade, self-employed in agriculture, industry and among Jews from Sp. services (including Kibbutz members}. differentials part: origin group by 10' IV Employees in agriculture, industry and services. ecological segrega­ (b) Uninflated 20% sample size. (c) Adapted from: Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. Population and (22) See, Klaff, ~ Housing Census 1961. Vol. 24. Labour Force: Part III. Additional population D: Data from Stage B of the Census. Jerusalem, 1965. Table 22. International Migl See also: Schmelz Different Duratiol Absorption of Imm: of R. Bachi, S.N. Ford Foundation b~ p. 1342-1345.

278 and Social Class (a), 19E1 - ~. Occupational Similarit,. II III IV One of the crucial processes in the framework of demographic and 34.6 19.1 41.6 social change in Israel is the emergence of greater similarity between population groups of different geographical and cultural backgrounds. 44.0 26.5 21.9 Though the general unifying process is a prominent feature among Jews in 40.0 21.6 34.2 the country, and indeed one of the leading ideological postulates within 61.2 23.5 10.6 the Jewish society of Israel, in fact ethnic clustering and ecological 45.3 14.1 37.5 segregation still persist (22) . Moreover, while on a broad scale the inte­ 53.0 24.8 13.2 gration between Jews from Asia and Africa, on the one hand, and from 47.3 23.7 24.9 Europe and America, on the other, is quite evident, the detailed patterns 39.4 26.5 30.3 of the process within each of the main groups are less known. We shall 42.4 24.9 29.6 compare here occupational affinities which existed in 1961 among Western 9.9 7.5 82.2 Jews in Israel. 46.9 26.1 16.9 A very simple classification into four social classes was estab­ 46.8 27.6 15.9 lished for each of the 18 Western countries or groups of countries stud­ 47.3 21.1 20.5 ied here, by combining the detailed categories obtained from a cross­ tabulation of occupation with occupational status (see Table 9): 34.6 24.1 35.6 (I) 44.5 23.1 27.4 Employers, self-employed professionals and managers (upper white­ collar) ; 26.3 24.9 42.5 (II) Employee professionals and managers, clerks, self-employed traders 34,6 47.4 15.4 36.5 52.1 11.5 (middle and lower white-collar); 41.8 46.4 10.9 (III) Employee traders, self-employed in agriculture, industry or ser­ 26.3 43.7 26.8 vices (mainly upper blue-collar); 57.6 24.5 11.8 (IV) Employees in agriculture, industry and services (lower blue-collar). 56.5 24.4 14.0 59.4 23.1 10.4 On the whole, Western Jews are over-represented in the first three 57.8 33.7 7.2 categories, and underrepresented in the fourth. There are huge social 55.4 23.2 13.1 differentials between the countries considered: in class I the range is between 11.1% among Jews from Austria, and 0.4% among Jews from Spain; nagers. in class II, between 61.2% among Jews from Switzerland, and 9.9% among

~ical occupations. those from Spain; in class III, between 52.1% among Jews from Argentina, and 7.5% again among those from Spain; and in class IV, between 82.2% ure, industry and among Jews from Spain, and 10.4% among those from the United States. Such differentials partially correspond to different distributions of each ;5. origin group by locality of residence in Israel, i.e. occupational and ecological segregation are in part overlapping.

Population and III. Additional (22) See, Klaff, V. "The Impact of Ethnic Internal Migration Patterns on Population Distribution in Israel: Observed and Projected". In: Table 22. International Migration Review. Vol. 11, no. 3, fall 1977. p. 300-325. See also: Schmelz, U.O. "Marriages Between Jews of Different Origin and Different Duration of Stay in Israel". In: A Systematic Analysis of Absorption of Immigrants in Israel. Project F VII under the supervision of R. Bachi, S.N. Eisenstadt and D. Patinkin. Report submitted to the Ford Foundation by the Israel Foundation Trustees, Jerusalem, 1974. Vol.2. p. 1342-1345.

279 After computil pair of countries, 1 Table 10. Western Jews in Israel, by Country of Birth and Degree of Social Class groups according to Simil arity (a). 1961 (a) United States, Rank CountryCb) Three most similar Three most dissimilar countries countries (b) Canada and Ocea: 1st 2nd 3rd 15th 16th 17th (c) Scandinavia, Be 1 Switzerland So.Afr. U.S.A. Nether1. O.Lat.Am. Greece Spain (d) Argentina, Braz 1.000 0.999 0.999 0.344 0.155 -0.289 2 United States Switzerl. So.Afr. Netherl. O.Lat.Am. Greece Spain (e) Greece, Spain. 0.999 0.999 0.998 0.312 0.117 -0.320 3 South Africa Swizerl. U.S.A. Netherl. O.Lat.Am. Greece Spain C+ Rhodesia) 1.000 0.999 0.999 0.330 0.153 -0.286 Occupational 4 The Netherlands Switzerl. So.Afr. U.S.A. O.Lat.Am. Greece Spain remarkable. Existi 0.999 0.999 0.998 0.364 0.147 -0.307 social characteris1 5 Great Britain Switzerl. Netherl. So.Afr. O.Lat.Am. Greece Spain (+ Ireland) 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.396 0.221 -0.234 mentioned above, oc 6 Canada, Australia Germany Netherl. Gr. Brit. O.Lat.Am. Greece Spain greater or smaller (+ New Zealand) 0.991 0.973 0.968 0.533 0.152 -0.361 Systematic at 7 Austria Gr.Brit. So.Afr. Switzerl. O.Lat.Am. Greece Spain and dissimilaritie~ 0.985 0.981 0.980 0.323 0.305 -0.H'3 8 Germany Gr.Brit. Netherl. Can. ,Aus. O.Lat.Am. Greece Spain ary precondition tc 0.992 0.991 0.991 0.484 0.214 -0.276 mathematical model: 9 Belgium Yugosla. Italy Austria Greece O.Lat.Am. Spain planning of Israel: (+ Luxemburg) 0.995 0.975 0.962 0.533 0.522 0.096 of population dispi 10 Yugoslavia Belgium Italy France Argentina O.Lat.Am. Spain teristics. 0.995 0.990 0.970 0.531 0.531 0.197 11 Scandinavia Yugosla. Italy France Brazil O.Lat.Am. Argentina 0.922 0.921 0.901 0.345 0.328 0.192 12 Italy France Yugosla. Belgium O.Lat.Am. Argentina Spain 0.995 0.990 0.975 0.620 0.560 0.287 13 France Italy Yugosla. Belgium O.Lat.Am. Argentina Spain 0.995 0.970 0.950 0.687 0.590 0.334 14 Brazil Argentina Can. ,Aus. Germany Scandina. Greece Spain 0.980 0.888 0.834 0.345 0.224 -0.325 15 lU'gentina Brazil O.Lat.Am. Can. ,Aus. Scandina. Greece Spain 0.980 0.869 0.781 0.192 0.192 -0.334 16 Greece Spain France Scandina. Can. ,Aus. Netherl. U.S.A. 0.847 0.755 0.749 0.152 0.147 0.117 17 Other Latin America Argentina Brazil France Austria U.S.A. Spain 0.869 0.821 0.687 0.323 0.312 0.153 18 Spain (+ ~ortugal, Greece Scandina. France Brazil Argentina Can. ,Aus. Gibraltar) 0.847 0.502 0.334 -0.325 -0.334 -0.361

(a) Pearson correlation coefficient. (b) Ranked according to decreasing proportion in social classes I + II. See table 9.

280 After computing Pearson's correlation by social class, for each rth and Degree of Social Class pair of countries, Western Jews in Israel may be classified into five groups according to decreasing social standing (see Table 10): (a) United States, South Africa, Switzerland, the Netherlands; Three most dissimilar countries (b) Canada and Oceania, Great Britain, Germany, Austria; 15th 16th 17th (c) Scandinavia, Belgium, France, Italy, Yugoslavia; '.Lat.Am. Greece Spain (d) Argentina, Brazil, Other Latin America; .344 0.155 -0.289 '.lot.Am. Greece Spain (e) Greece, Spain. '.312 0.117 -0.320 '.lot.Am. Greece Spain '.330 0.153 -0.286 Occupational similarity within each of these five groups is quite '.lot.Am. Greece Spain remarkable. Existing differentials within the group mainly reflect the '.364 0.147 -0.307 '.lot.Am. Greece Spain social characteristics of Jews in the countries of origin, though, as •• 396 0.221 -0.234 mentioned above, occupational change has actually occurred in Israel, in '.lot.Am. Greece Spain greater or smaller measure, among each of the various origin groups. '.533 0.152 -0.361 Systematic and detailed analysis of the typology of similarities ~.lot.Am. Greece Spain '.323 0.305 -0.1('3 and dissimilarities between certain origin groups appears to be a necess­ ~.lot.Am. Greece Spain ary precondition towards possible uses of more complex statistical ­ '.484 0.214 -0.276 mathematical models in the study of aliya. It may also assist in the :reece O.Lat.Am. Spain planning of Israeli social services, inter alia in the long range policy 1.533 0.522 0.096 of population dispersal and in the forecast of future labour force charac­ ~gentina O.lot.Am. Spain teristics. 1.531 0.531 0.197 5razil O.Lat.Am. Argentina 1.345 0.328 0.192 ).lot.Am. Argentina Spain 1.620 0.560 0.287 ).lot.Am. Argentina Spain 1.687 0.590 0.334 ;candina. Greece Spain 1.345 0.224 -0.325 ;candina. Greece Spain 1.192 0.192 -0.334 :an.,Aus. Netherl. U.S.A. 1.152 0.147 0.117 ~ustria U.S.A. Spain l. 323 0.312 0.153 lrazil Argentina Can.,Aus. '0.325 -0.334 -0.361

~ial classes I + II.

281