Middle Rio Grande Basin Research Report 2008 A progress report from the Middle Rio Grande Ecosystem Management Research Unit, U.S. Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station

The Middle Rio Grande. Photo: David M. Merritt U.S. Forest Service Research: Understanding, Conserving, and

Inside Restoring Southwestern Ecosystems Restoring the An ecosystem is rarely static. A natural system composed of plants, animals, and Rio Grande…4 microorganisms interacting with an area’s physical factors, an ecosystem is always Drought in the fl uctuating and evolving. But sometimes, often at the hands of humans, ecosystems Southwest…7 change too much. Such is the case with many of the ecosystems of the Middle Rio Grazing and Grande Basin of New Mexico. Fire at Valles Caldera National Preserve…10 For thousands of years, the ecosystems in the river itself, in the riverside bosque Climate of the Middle Rio Grande Basin (which (cottonwood) ecosystems, and in the Change…13 includes the river environment and the nearby upland ecosystems of grasslands, Profi le: Hira Walker, associated upland watersheds) evolved shrublands, and forests. For example: Ph.D….15 under the infl uence of natural factors such • Many fi sh and wildlife habitats have as shifting landforms, fl oods, drought, been signifi cantly altered in structure Rio Grande Silvery wildfi re, and climate fl uctuations. More and composition and reduced in size Minnow Diet…17 recently — since 1540, when the fi rst and quality. More Than a Spanish settlers arrived — human activities • Two species, the Rio Grande silvery Scenic Mountain have had an enormous impact on the area’s minnow (Hybognathus amarus) and Landscape…18 environment. Factors such as urbanization, the southwestern willow fl ycatcher drought, grazing, timber harvesting, water (Empidonax traillii extimus), have been demands, fl ood control measures, fi re placed on the federal endangered suppression, hunting, and the introduction species list; others, such as the gray wolf and spread of exotic (non-native) species (Canis lupus), have not been seen in the have all contributed to many ecosystems area for decades. that are altered at best and severely • At least half of the fi sh species once degraded at worst. found in the middle Rio Grande Clearly, the Middle Rio Grande Basin no drainage are no longer found there. longer looks like it did back in the 1500s. • Exotic tree species such as Russian olive Evidence of environmental degradation (Elaeagnus angustifolia) and saltcedar can be found throughout the area today: (Tamarix ramosissima) have invaded

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MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN — RESEARCH REPORT 2008 www.fs.fed.us/rmrs 1 “ To restore and maintain the health of the ecosystem in the area, we fi rst need a better understanding of what is here.”

- DEBORAH FINCH, PH.D.

A bobcat (Lynx rufus) at Valles Caldera National Preserve. river habitats, taking over where native species such as cottonwoods (Rio Grande Photo: Marc Chipault cottonwood [Populus deltoides subsp. wislizeni] and Freemont cottonwood [Populus Middle Rio Grande Basin fremontii]) used to fl ourish, reducing water supplies, increasing fuel loads and fi re risk, Research Report 2008 and impeding wildlife and human travel. is published by: USDA Forest Service • The native riverside ecosystems — the marshes, willows, and cottonwoods found Rocky Mountain Research adjacent to the river — have been greatly reduced in size, distribution, and health. Station • Shrubs and small tree species have moved into areas that were once grasslands. 2150 Centre Avenue • Upland forests and woodlands have become increasingly subject to wildfi res and bark Fort Collins, CO 80526 www.fs.fed.us/rmrs beetle infestations. • The Rio Grande itself has changed from a braided river that moved across the Deborah Finch, Ph.D. Managing Editor fl oodplain and regularly fl ooded its banks, and was associated with abundant wildlife Team Leader populations, to one that is now largely constrained and not meandering, and has Middle Rio Grande Ecosystem reduced fl ows. Management Research Unit USDA Forest Service Conservation Efforts Rocky Mountain Research Station Efforts to conserve and protect the natural resources of the Southwest date back to the 333 Broadway SE, Suite 115 1800s, when the U.S. Department of the Interior and the U.S. Bureau of Forestry were Albuquerque, NM 87102 created, and some local forest reserves were set aside. Those early efforts were followed dfi [email protected] voice: 505-724-3671 by more federal laws in the 1960s and 1970s, such as the Clean Water Act and the cell: 505-401-0580 Endangered Species Act.

Science Writer/Editor More recently, local conservation efforts have focused on restoring and maintaining the Catherine Dold health and diversity of Middle Rio Grande Basin ecosystems — the forests, grasslands, Boulder, CO and shrublands, and the species that inhabit them. Report Design Linda Parks Many organizations, including federal, state, municipal, tribal, and private entities, have Boulder, CO contributed to these efforts, with some success. For example, the Middle Rio Grande Endangered Species Act Collaborative Program and the Middle Rio Grande Bosque Initiative have been very successful in generating public interest and support for river and bosque restoration and recovering endangered species.

Too often, however, proposed solutions for restoring Basin ecosystems are based on The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs incomplete knowledge of the conditions that led to the problems. Solutions are put and activities on the basis of race, color, together without a thorough understanding of how factors such as drought, grazing, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, and fi re interact with each other and can affect restoration efforts. political beliefs, sexual orientation, or marital or family status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with The Forest Service’s Research Program disabilities who require alternate means for communication of program information To support and contribute to the ongoing conservation efforts, and to build a sound (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should scientifi c basis for future efforts, the Middle Rio Grande Ecosystem Management Research contact USDA’s TARGET Center at 202-720- Unit, a local unit of the U.S. Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station, embarked 2600 (voice and TDD). To fi le a complaint of discrimination, write USDA Director, on an ambitious long-term research program in 1994. Offi ce of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, “To restore and maintain the health of the ecosystems in the area, we fi rst need a better Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call 202- understanding of what is here,” explains Deborah Finch, Ph.D., the program’s Team 720-5964 (voice and TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity employer. CONTINUED ON PAGE 3

MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN — RESEARCH REPORT 2008 www.fs.fed.us/rmrs 2 Leader. “We need to understand chain reactions of disturbances, ecosystems forms the scientifi c basis the structural components of the such as insect outbreaks, extinction for adaptively managing habitats, ecosystems and how they function and of native species, fl ourishing exotic conserving species, and providing interact, particularly in response to species, catastrophic wildfi res, and ecosystem services to humans. factors such as population growth and changes in human social, cultural, and “This knowledge will help us to extreme climate variability. economic stability. develop the best restoration methods, “We also need to know more about In addition to water supply, other avoiding quick fi x solutions that might the effectiveness of various restoration important perturbations are over- not work long term.” methods, as well as how to best grazing, fi re exclusion, climate change, Research in this area includes studies balance restoration plans with human and plant and insect invasions. on: 1) the relationship between needs and priorities.” “For land managers to be good drought, bark beetle outbreaks, and The research program is built around stewards, they need to understand pinyon pine (Pinus edulis) mortality; three broad areas: 1) understanding how the Middle Rio Grande 2) the interactive effects of drought, how perturbations such as drought Basin ecosystems react to these tree thinning, grazing, fuel removal, and fi re affect ecosystems; 2) disturbances, both currently and and prescribed fi re in various understanding how management historically, as well as how all of these ecosystems; 3) decision-support tools practices affect ecosystems; and 3) factors interact with each other and for managing the consequences ensuring that scientifi c information with humans,” says Finch. “Knowing of biological invasions; and 4) about the area is available to the how this all infl uences the dynamics, understanding how humans respond people — from many backgrounds — stability, productivity, biological socially, culturally, and economically who will be making decisions about diversity, and sustainability of local to these and other issues. how the Middle Rio Grande Basin is managed in the future. CONTINUED ON PAGE 4

The individual research studies Valles Caldera affi liated with the program are not National Preserve Bandelier all done by Forest Service research National scientists. An annual funding program Monument sponsors studies conducted by many outside researchers, such as university faculty and graduate students, and each research proposal is closely evaluated for how it fi ts into the larger research program. Each study alone might seem like it covers just a tiny piece of the puzzle. But taken together, over several years, these studies are uncovering the big picture of what we need to do to take care of the Middle Rio Grande Basin.

Research Area 1: Effects of Drought and Other Perturbations

It’s no surprise to anyone that water availability is one of the most important factors infl uencing the environment of the Southwest. Water — or the lack of it during a drought — affects where people live, where species live, the makeup of plant and animal communities, agricultural operations, how people make their The Middle Rio Grande Basin includes the Rio Grande (in blue) from Bandelier National Monument living and recreate, and much more. in the north to the upper end of Elephant Butte Reservoir in the south, as well as the area surrounding the seven major tributaries that contribute to the river: Santa Fe River, Galisteo Long-term drought can also infl uence Creek, Jemez River, Las Huertas Creek, Rio Puerco, Rio San Jose, and Rio Salado.

MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN — RESEARCH REPORT 2008 www.fs.fed.us/rmrs 3 Research Area 2: Effects of Management Practices The second area of research Restoring the Rio Grande: looks at what happens when we try to manage or “fi x” various Finding the Best Methods ecosystems. Many methods can be used, for example, to control The Rio Grande has changed dramatically since fi re risk, remove exotic plants, or the 1500s, when European and Spanish settlers restore some aspect of a complex fi rst arrived in the area. Back then, the river ecosystem. Some work better than regularly fl ooded its banks, creating temporary others. Some can have unintended, pools and channels, washing away dead plant negative outcomes. debris, and dispersing the seeds of native plants. “We need to understand how the The river meandered across the landscape, many components of the Middle changing all the time, yet always forming a Rio Grande Basin ecosystems — north-south migratory corridor of habitat for the water quality, soil quality, plant birds and a refuge for other animals from the growth rates, fi sh habitat, nesting surrounding desert. Native cottonwood forests, birds, and many other components called bosques, and other habitats, such as — respond to various management The Middle Rio Grande in fall. marshes, wet meadows, and willow bars, were Photo: MarbleStreetStudio.com practices,” says Finch. found along the river in many areas, providing habitat for birds, bats, lizards, insects, and other For example, the bosque “ Maintaining the species. It was a healthy, thriving ecosystem. ecosystem, which long fl ourished remnants of the Over time, however, humans changed the river along the Rio Grande, has been ribbon of green massively altered in the past so they could more easily access and use its that the Rio Grande century. Much of the bosque was resources. They built dams and levees to control converted into agricultural or urban forms through the the fl oods. They built channels to divert the areas. And many of the natural Southwest is key to river’s water, delivering it for agricultural uses. processes that the bosque needs for the ecological and They planted exotic tree species to secure the survival, such as spring fl oods that social health of this banks and control erosion. They grazed animals, remove woody debris and disperse region.” logged the forests, and built roads in the larger seeds, were disrupted after the river Middle Rio Grande Basin, activities that all raised was channelized. Consequently, - DAVID M. MERRITT, PH.D. the sediment load in the river. exotic plants, including saltcedar Their intentions were good, but their efforts led to many problems. The plant and Russian olive, have invaded species that relied on fl oods to regenerate, such as cottonwoods and willows, the bosque, and woody debris has declined. The exotic trees, such as saltcedar (Tamarix ramosissima) and Russian increased substantially. Various olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia), thrived and became dominant in the bosque, agencies have been using a forming dense dry thickets that could easily burn. Fish that were once abundant number of tools, such as herbicides disappeared; two species are believed extinct, while another, the Rio Grande and chainsaws, to try to remove silvery minnow (Hybognathus amarus), is on the federal endangered species the exotic plants and restore the list. Woody debris and other plant litter, no longer washed away by fl oods, bosque. But the long-term impacts accumulated in the bosque, changing the landscape and the habitats, and setting and effectiveness of these activities the stage for potentially catastrophic fi res. Such fi res could cause even further are largely unknown. damage; they could destroy the remaining native cottonwoods, clearing the way Similarly, disturbances such as for even more exotic plants. Indeed, fi re could completely eliminate the largest drought, habitat fragmentation, remaining bosque in the Southwest. and invasive species can cause After so much change, and with so many demands on the river’s water, restoring ecosystems to deteriorate, resulting the entire river to its original state is not possible. But researchers and land in higher fi re risk, loss of species, managers are looking at ways to return large portions of it to a more natural, and other ill effects. ecologically healthy state. For the last seven years, Deborah Finch, Ph.D., Team When land managers try to manage Leader, and others have been exploring various methods for rehabilitating the or restore these disturbed areas, bosque ecosystem.

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MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN — RESEARCH REPORT 2008 www.fs.fed.us/rmrs 4 Finch and her colleagues began by nutrients, groundwater levels, plant Effects on Vegetation selecting 12 experimental sites along species and density, bird counts and the river, stretching from Albuquerque nesting sites, bat activity, and the Early analysis shows that the south to Bosque del Apache National abundance of moths, beetles, reptiles, treatments were successful in getting Wildlife Refuge, some 90 miles down and amphibians. They collected rid of the exotic plants and decreasing the river. Each site was about 50 thousands of points of data. fuel loads. Mortality rates of the exotic acres in size, and was characterized species overall was 84 percent. Their That baseline monitoring was by a cottonwood overstory (including re-sprouting rates were acceptably followed by two years of active Rio Grande cottonwood [Populus low: about 16 percent overall (Russian treatment: removal of plants, deltoides subs. wislizeni] and Fremont olive was the lowest, at 3 percent, herbicide treatment, prescribed fi res, cottonwood [Populus fremontii]), an while Siberian elm [Ulmus pumila] and replanting. After the treatments understory of native and exotic woody was highest, at 50 percent, indicating were done, monitoring was done plants, and a high fuel load (lots of it needs more intense treatment). to track the ecological responses. fl ammable debris). Three different Moreover, the native species that The researchers again measured the restoration methods were chosen: were planted as part of the treatments numbers and species of trees, birds, 1) mechanical removal of dead, — such as pale wolfberry (Lycium bats, and other bosque denizens. downed, and exotic woody plants pallidum), skunkbrush (Rhus trilobata), and screwbean mesquite (Prosopis (using chainsaws, wood chippers, What did they fi nd? All of the pubescens) — survived well. Across and hauling), plus treatment with an treatments were successful in the various species, 60 to 100 percent herbicide; 2) mechanical removal and signifi cantly altering the sites. Overall, of them survived. herbicides, plus a prescribed fi re; and the treated areas have a more open 3) mechanical removal and herbicides, understory, with fewer exotic trees, So far, however, the diversity of the plus revegetation with native plants fewer branches on the ground, and native plant species has not increased, (mostly shrubs). Each treatment plan less litter. and the cottonwoods, overall, have would be applied to three of the sites; not shown higher growth rates (as three others would act as controls and “The sites changed from having measured by their annual growth receive no treatment. dense thickets of exotic plants and rings). Nor have the cottonwoods piles of debris to a more open, or increased the amount of canopy they During the fi rst three years of the park-like understory,” says Heather provide. It was expected that the study, no treatments were applied to Bateman, Ph.D. Bateman, who is now cottonwoods would be reinvigorated the sites. The researchers established a U.S. Forest Service wildlife biologist, the sites, tested their monitoring led the portion of the study that once they were no longer competing methods, and collected data on focused on reptiles and amphibians with the exotic trees (an event known the current conditions and resident while she was a graduate student at as “competitive release”). It could be, species. At each site, they developed the University of New Mexico, working however, that both native and exotic a detailed picture of what was there, with her supervisor, Alice Chung- trees had adequate water before the measuring and plotting rainfall, MacCoubrey, Ph.D. treatments, and so the cottonwoods air temperature, soil salinity and were already growing at normal rates.

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A variety of methods were used to restore the bosque ecosystem, including mechanical removal of dead and exotic plants, herbicides, and prescribed fi res (far left). The restored areas (left) have a more open understory.

Photos: David M. Merritt (far left); Heather L. Bateman (left)

MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN — RESEARCH REPORT 2008 www.fs.fed.us/rmrs 5 David Merritt, Ph.D., a riparian plant did show a signifi cant response. and intensity and so preserve the ecologist with the Forest Service who They declined in numbers after the native trees. led the plant studies, notes that the treatments, particularly those species • Replanting with native woody positive effects of exotic tree removal that had adapted to the presence of plants will improve plant species might not be detectable in the fi rst exotic plants by nesting in or under diversity and will help reduce years after treatment. “Ecosystem, them. Black-chinned hummingbird the effects of restoration on community, and population responses (Archilochus alexandri), the most animal species sensitive to loss may be realized only after several abundant nesting bird species, of exotic plants. years of ‘recovery,’” he says. “Many moved its nest sites from exotic • Species that prefer a less-cluttered, native plant species that provide plants to the remaining native trees, more open habitat will benefi t food, nectar, nest materials, and such as tall cottonwoods. However, from treatment. habitat are present at most of those higher nests suffered greater • Where removal of invasive plants the cleared sites, and are likely to predation than did nests built in is necessary, it’s best to stagger become more abundant with time.” shorter, multi-stemmed exotic trees. the treatments over time, to allow Moreover, he notes, the study period Lizards, meanwhile, were found in animals to adapt to changes in included a severe drought, which may greater abundance in the treated their habitats. have hampered the recovery. Analysis areas, says Bateman. Four of the • It is critical for scientists to have of the vegetation data is continuing. six most common lizard species both experimental sites and no- Effects on Animals increased in numbers, probably treatment control sites, as well as because there were fewer trees and opportunities for pre-treatment The treatments also changed the less downed wood in the restored monitoring, in order to evaluate habitats available for many animal areas. Amphibians saw signifi cant the effects of plant removal both species. Finch studied the bird increases as well, but that was due spatially and temporally. species found in the sites, focusing to a small fl ood event, rather than “The middle Rio Grande will no on the six most common species. removal of the exotic plants, says doubt be the focus of ongoing efforts Species that nest in tree cavities Bateman. (For example, in 2005, the to restore the riparian forest habitat,” were mostly unaffected or showed researchers found 45 times more says Bateman. “This research will a tendency to increase, probably toads as seen earlier, probably due help to identify species sensitivities to because the exotic trees never to fl oods that created habitat where habitat changes and the abundances suited them to begin with (most toads could lay eggs and tadpoles of those species currently inhabiting were multi-stemmed, with each could develop.) Bats increased in this semi-disturbed area.” stem being too narrow for nesting activity, too; they were detected more cavities). The treatments seemed often in areas that had less plant “Maintaining the remnants of the to have little effect on the species clutter than before, suggesting that ribbon of green that the Rio Grande that nest in the canopy, as well. exotic plant removal made it easier forms through the Southwest is key Species that depend on the lower for bats to fl y in the bosque. to the ecological and social health of two-thirds of tree habitats, however, this region,” adds Merritt. “But it’s a Recommendations for formidable challenge given the ever- Future Restorations increasing human demands for water and the warmer, dryer climate that is Several of the researchers are predicted for the coming years.” ∫ continuing their data analyses. They expect to learn more about the PUBLICATIONS Bateman, Heather L.; Chung-MacCoubrey, Alice; Finch, implications of bosque restoration Deborah M.; Hawksworth, David. 2006. Effects of exotic in the near future, as species adapt plant removal and fuels reduction on vertebrates along the Middle Rio Grande, New Mexico. 2006 Tamarisk to the restored conditions. In the Research Conference: Current Status and Future meantime, however, they can Directions; 2006 Oct. 3-4; Fort Collins, CO. Bateman, Heather L.; Chung-MacCoubrey, Alice; Snell, recommend that land managers Howard L. 2008. Impact of Non-Native Plant Removal proceed with restoration efforts in on Lizards in Riparian Habitats in the Southwestern United States. Restoration Ecology. 16: 180-190. areas where fuel loads are high, with Bateman, Heather L.; Harner, M. J.; Chung-MacCoubrey, some specifi c advice: Alice. 2008. Abundance and reproduction of toads (Bufo) along a regulated river in the southwestern • Removing exotic woody plants will United States: importance of fl ooding in riparian A prairie lizard (Sceloporus consobrinus) in the help to avoid or reduce fi re risk ecosystems. Journal of Arid Environments. 72(9): middle Rio Grande bosque. 1613-1619.

Photo: Heather L. Bateman CONTINUED ON PAGE 7

MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN — RESEARCH REPORT 2008 www.fs.fed.us/rmrs 6 Chung-MacCoubrey, Alice L.; Bateman, Heather L. 2006. Herpetological Communities of the Middle Rio Grande Bosque: What Do We Know, What Should We Know, and Why? In: Aguirre-Bravo, C.; Pellicane, Patrick J.; Burns, Denver P.; Draggan, Sidney, eds. Drought in the Southwest: Monitoring Science and Technology Symposium: Unifying Knowledge for Sustainability in the Western Hemisphere; 2004 September 20-24; Denver, CO. How it Affects Ecosystems Proceedings RMRS-P-42CD. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 57-66. Chung-MacCoubrey, A. L.; Bogan, Michael A. 2004. Bats of the Piñon-Juniper woodlands of southwestern Colorado. In: M.L. Floyd, ed. Ancient Piñon-Juniper The southwestern United States woodlands: a natural history of Mesa Verde Country. Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado: 131-149. is currently experiencing a severe Finch, Deborah M.; [and others]. 2004. Annual report drought, the likes of which has not for middle Rio Grande fuels reduction study 2003. been seen since the 1950s. Albuquerque, NM: U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 200 p. Finch, Deborah M.; Chung-MacCoubrey, Alice L.; A drought is more than just a couple Kelly, J. F.; Jemison, R. 2000. A project to evaluate fuels-reduction effects on vertebrates, vegetation, of hot, dry summers. It is an unusually and water resources along the Middle Rio Grande. In: long period of dry weather, and it can Taylor, John P., ed. Proceedings from the Conference on Fire in Riparian Areas, Middle Rio Grande Bosque have substantial effects on ecosystems Initiative; Albuquerque, NM. U.S. Fish & Wildlife — dying trees, insect invasions, and Service: 69-89. heightened fi re risks — that can last Finch, Deborah M.; Galloway, June; Hawksworth, David. 2006. Monitoring Bird Populations in Relation to for years. Already, an estimated 10 Fuel Loads and Fuel Treatments in Riparian Woodlands to 20 percent of pinyon pines in the Gutters are used to simulate rainfall with Tamarisk and Russian Olive Understories. In: scenarios at a study plot. Aguirre-Bravo, C.; Pellicane, Patrick J.; Burns, Denver Four Corners states have died, with P.; Draggan, Sidney, eds. Monitoring Science and Photo: Jennifer Plaut Technology Symposium: Unifying Knowledge for mortality up to 95 percent in some Sustainability in the Western Hemisphere; 2004 stands. And to make matters worse, beetles then take advantage of that September 20-24; Denver, CO. Proceedings RMRS- P-42CD. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of scientists now believe that climate state, infesting the trees and killing Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research change will lead to even more frequent them. But what exactly happens in a Station: 113-120. and severe droughts in the future. Jemison, R. 2004. Relationships between hydrology, tree during that cascade of events? exotic plants, and fuel loads in the Middle Rio Grande. What is killing the trees that show no In: Hydrology and Water Resources in Arizona and Several studies funded by the Middle sign of insects? And how are these the Southwest. Proceedings of the 2003 meetings of Rio Grande Ecosystem Management the hydrology section Arizona-Nevada Academy of changes affecting the larger pinyon- Science; 2003 April 12; Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona Research Unit are looking at drought- University. 33. 8 p. juniper ecosystem? related issues, to help scientists better Najmi, Y. 2006. Monitoring riparian restoration: A management perspective. Proceedings RMRS-P-42CD. understand what is happening in U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky various ecosystems as a result of the Drought’s Effect on Mountain Research Station: 177-180. current drought, what might occur in Water Transport Joint Fire Science Program. 2008. Pentimento: Fuels Reduction and Restoration in the Bosque of the Middle the future, and what land managers One research team, led by Nate G. Rio Grande. Fire Science Brief. Issue 7. Boise, ID. 9 p. might do on the ground to protect McDowell, Ph.D., a staff member at Smith, D. M.; Kelly, J. F.; Finch, Deborah M. 2006. Cicada emergence in southwestern riparian forest: ecosystems and lessen future damage. Los Alamos National Laboratory, is Infl uences of wildfi re and vegetation composition. studying the internal mechanisms that Ecological Application. 16(4): 1608-1618. Two groups of researchers are focusing seem to leave the trees so weakened Smith, D. M.; Kelly, J. F.; Finch, Deborah M. on the pinyon-juniper (Pinus edulis- 2006. Infl uences of disturbance and vegetation during a drought. They want to know on abundance of native and exotic detritivores Juniperus monosperma) woodlands, more about the system by which plants in a southwestern riparian forest. Environmental an ecosystem found in the Middle Rio Entomology. 35: 1525-1531. normally transport water from the soil Grande Basin uplands. In particular, Smith, D. M.; Kelly, J. F.; Finch, Deborah M. 2007. to their tissues above. Does this water Avian nest box selection and nest success in burned they want to learn more about how and unburned southwestern riparian forest. Journal of transport system simply fail when water Wildlife Management. 71(2): 411-421. drought and invasions of bark beetles is scarce? Or does the risk of water Stropki, C. L. 2003. Restoration treatments in the (such as Ips confusus) may have transport failure in times of drought middle Rio Grande bosque: Effects on soil compaction. contributed to the vast die-offs of trees Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico. Thesis. trigger other problems in the tree? that have occurred in the uplands in Stropki, Cody, L.; Jemison, R. 2004. Restoration For example, could the gas-exchange treatments in the Middle Rio Grande Bosque: Effects recent years. on soil compaction. In: Hydrology and Water Resources openings on leaves (the stomata) be in Arizona and the Southwest. Proceedings of the 2003 meetings of the hydrology section Arizona-Nevada The generally accepted theory is that shutting down to avoid dehydration, Academy of Science; 2003 April 12; Flagstaff, AZ: drought leaves trees weakened and leading to a low uptake of carbon Northern Arizona University. 33. 7 p. vulnerable, and insects such as bark dioxide during photosynthesis and

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MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN — RESEARCH REPORT 2008 www.fs.fed.us/rmrs 7 thus lowered carbon reserves to use in growth and insect defense? Several species of bark beetle are involved in the current outbreak, including the pinyon bark beetle McDowell and others are exploring (Ips confusus), right. these questions by manipulating rainfall Photos: James Holland (pinyon pine); Darren at several pinyon-juniper study plots. Blackford, USFS, Bugwood.org (pinyon bark beetle) Located at the Sevilleta Long Term Ecological Research site in central New Mexico, each study plot contains at least fi ve mature and fi ve young pinyon What Is a trees. The researchers installed a system of rain gutters and sprinklers over the plots, which they use to simulate rainfall Bark Beetle? scenarios. One site gets 50 percent less rain than occurs naturally, one gets 50 percent more rain, and the rest are used Bark beetles are a natural limited to attacking only a as controls. The researchers are now collecting data on what is happening component of ponderosa few diseased or weakened in the soil and in the plants (such as pine (Pinus ponderosa) and trees. Under drought transpiration and growth rates), which pinyon-juniper (Pinus edulis- conditions, however, trees will allow them to better understand the Juniperus monosperma) are unable to produce water transport system and assess how forests. Adult beetles (there those defensive resins, the trees react to the simulated climates. are several species) infest leaving many more of them The project is primarily funded by the U.S. Department of Energy Program trees by chewing through the vulnerable to attack. for Ecosystem Research. The Middle bark and laying their eggs The current bark beetle Rio Grande Ecosystem Management inside. When the larvae hatch, Research Unit is funding the portion that infestation began in 2002, in they feed on the inner bark looks at the ecosystem carbon cycle association with worsening of the tree, cutting off the consequences of climate change. By drought conditions. Tens of fl ow of sap. The beetles also attaching chambers to the soils or to the millions of pinyon pines have stems of the plants, the researchers will produce a characteristic “blue already been killed in New measure the carbon dioxide fl ux from stain” fungus, which blocks Mexico, making this the worst those tissues, using an infra-red gas the transport of water and analyzer. This allows them to determine infestation since an outbreak nutrients through the tree. what happens to the carbon cycle during that occurred during a Eventually, the tree dies. drought. Do these ecosystems lose more drought in the 1950s. (Juniper carbon during a drought? Or are they Under normal conditions, trees are not affected by the carbon emitters? healthy trees defend insects, and ponderosa pine The study, which is ongoing, is expected themselves from a bark deaths have been limited.) to lead to a deeper understanding of beetle infestation by pushing Those millions of dead trees the cascade of events that occur during the insects out with sap. may be setting the stage for drought and beetle invasion. Having such information could greatly help The beetles thus are usually potentially catastrophic fi res. scientists to determine ideal tree stand densities (trees per acre), predict stand growth and carbon uptake, and also predict how future disturbances such as drought might affect the growth and Once a tree has been attacked by bark beetles it cannot be survival of the pinyon-juniper woodlands. saved. For tips on protecting trees and disposing of dead trees, see the U.S. Forest Service Southwestern Region bark beetle site, Collaborating with McDowell are Michael G. Ryan, Ph.D., Rocky Mountain Research www.fs.fed.us/r3/resources/health/beetle/index.shtml. Station; William T. Pockman, Ph.D.,

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MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN — RESEARCH REPORT 2008 www.fs.fed.us/rmrs 8 University of New Mexico; Richard H. Waring, Ph.D., Oregon State University; Nicholas C. Coops, Ph.D., An estimated 10 to University of British Columbia; Sue 20 percent of pinyon A. White, University of New Mexico; pines in the Four and Robbie A. Hember, University of British Columbia. Corners states have died, with mortality Drought’s Effect up to 95 percent in on Tree Stands some stands.

The second team of researchers, led by Neil S. Cobb, Ph.D., is focusing Photo: William M. Ciesla, Forest on how drought — in combination Health Management International, with bark beetle outbreaks — affects Bugwood.org the larger pinyon-juniper ecosystem. Cobb is director of the Northern Arizona University Merriam-Powell Center for Environmental Research and also curator at the Colorado diameter, foliage density, canopy certain diameter) increased in Plateau Museum of Arthropod height and depth, litter depth, quantity, but others did not, and Biodiversity. He and his collaborators percentages of shrubs, grasses and while fi re dynamics were altered, have been funded by the Middle forbs, the amount of dead and down the probability of a catastrophic Rio Grande Ecosystem Management woody debris, and the abundance fi re due to high levels of dead Research Unit since 2005. of more than 300 species of insects, trees is low. spiders, and other arthropods. • Somewhat surprisingly, the overall Cobb and his colleagues are working Among the questions they have abundance of arthropods was not on several different studies that asked: What has changed in the found to be signifi cantly different will 1) help to clarify how upland pinyon-juniper ecosystem because between high- and low-mortality ecosystems at the plot level respond of the drought and bark beetle areas. This could be because most to the disturbances of drought and disturbances? Have invasive plant of the dead trees have not fallen bark beetles; 2) assess the changes species moved in? Have dead trees to the ground yet, and so have not in tree stands and fuel loads in provided habitats that will support increased habitat complexity for areas that have already seen large more arthropods? Have decaying these species. tree die-offs; and 3) determine how trees changed the soils with a • Arthropod community these disturbances have affected fl ush of added nutrients? Are composition was different the overall Middle Rio Grande Basin downed trees raising the risk of between high- and low-mortality tree stand structure. Working with fi re? What has happened to stand areas, with 25 percent indicating Cobb are Paulette Ford, Ph.D., structures regionally? preferences for either high- or low- Rocky Mountain Research Station; mortality habitats. This indicates Robert J. Delph, Colorado Museum By comparing the data from the that ground-dwelling arthropod of Arthropod Biodiversity; Michael various sites, the researchers have so Clifford, Merriam-Powell Center far found some signifi cant changes in communities are changing as a for Environmental Research; and the upland ecosystem: result of drought. Monique Rocca, Ph.D., Colorado • Understory vegetation was • Perhaps the most interesting State University. changed, with increases in a more fi nding was that the density of drought-tolerant grass species in trees in a stand did not affect tree The researchers set up a large high-mortality areas. mortality levels. This contradicts number of study plots throughout the the popular theory that trees in • A loss of canopy cover reduced Basin, in areas where many trees had dense stands are more stressed litter depth in high-mortality died (high-mortality areas) and also and so tree thinning will reduce areas, but soil composition did where they had not (low-mortality susceptibility to drought-bark not change. areas), and carefully measured beetle outbreaks. what was found in each plot. They • Some classes of fuel loads (the While the changes to the pinyon- recorded data such as basal trunk amount of woody debris of a

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MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN — RESEARCH REPORT 2008 www.fs.fed.us/rmrs 9 juniper ecosystem are not yet considered drastic, the forests will continue to change over the coming Grazing and Fire: Studies in Valles years, as more of the dead trees fall down. Indeed, the full extent and Caldera National Preserve impacts of the current drought are not likely to be known for decades or even centuries, and several aspects Disturbances to natural ecosystems, such as of these studies will be continuing fi re and grazing, have long been a fact of in the future. But the changes noted life in the Southwest. so far are a clear indication that land managers must be prepared to deal Sometimes these disturbances are due to with severe events like drought — human activities, sometimes not. Humans not just average climate conditions have been using the resources of the — in the future. Middle Rio Grande Basin for some 10,000 years, and intense livestock grazing has “The future management of these been common for centuries. Elk (Cervus woodlands needs to take into canadensis) have long grazed in the area consideration predicted extreme as well, recently reaching historically large Grazing elk are common in Valles climatic events,” says collaborator populations. And fi res occurred naturally for Caldera National Preserve. Michael Clifford. “Southwestern at least 9,000 years, until they were largely Photo: Marc Chipault ecosystems, especially the semi-arid suppressed in the late 1800s. woodlands, are susceptible to these extreme events and may act as a Although such disturbances are common, scientists do not have a complete barometer for climatic change.” ∫ understanding of how they can affect the landscape. What long-term impacts might livestock and elk have on grasslands, forests, rivers, and riparian areas?

PUBLICATIONS How might they affect fi sh populations, aquatic invertebrates, or water quality?

Clifford, Michael; Cobb, Neil S.; Delph, R.; Ford, How do ecosystems respond when a fi re burns through an entire valley? P. L. 2006. Stand Characteristics of Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands After a Major Drought Event. 33rd Annual With the creation of the Valles Caldera National Preserve in 2000, there is a great Natural Areas Conference; 2006 September 20-23; Flagstaff, AZ. need for such information. The preserve’s land managers are now focusing on Clifford, M. J.; Rocca, M. E.; Delph, R.; Ford, P. L.; restoration of ecosystems, reduction of forest and grassland fuels to prevent Cobb, N. S. 2008. Drought Induced Tree Mortality and Bark Beetle Outbreaks in Southwestern Pinyon- catastrophic fi res, and sustainable use of the forests, wildlife, and livestock. Juniper Woodlands. In: Gottfried, G. J.; Shaw, J. D.; In addition, some streams in the preserve are considered possible sites for Ford, P. L., eds. Ecology, management, and restoration of pinyon-juniper and ponderosa pine ecosystems: reintroduction of the Rio Grande cutthroat trout, (Oncorhynchus clarki virginalis), combined proceedings of the 2005 St. George, Utah, a native species and New Mexico’s state fi sh. Two ongoing U.S. Forest Service- and 2006 Albuquerque, New Mexico workshops. RMRS-P-51. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of funded research projects in the preserve may help those managers to make Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research decisions on these and other issues in the future. Station. 218 p. Delph, R. J.; Clifford, M.; Cobb, N.; Ford, P. L. 2006. Impact of Drought and Bark Beetle Outbreak on Ground-dwelling Arthropod Dynamics in the The Effects of Grazing on Stream Systems Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands in the Middle Rio Grande Basin. 33rd Annual Natural Areas Conference; 2006 One collaborative, multi-agency study has focused on how grazing by livestock September 20-23; Flagstaff, AZ. and elk might affect stream systems: the fi sh populations, aquatic invertebrate Ford, P.; Cobb, N.; Rocca, M. 2006. Impact of a Mega- communities, water quality, terrestrial insects, vegetation, and stream bank drought & Bark Beetle Outbreak on Pinyon-Juniper Woodland Ecosystems in the Middle Rio Grande Basin. morphology. It is being led by Robert R. Parmenter, Ph.D., chief scientist at the 2006 Sevilleta LTER Research Symposium; 2006 March 1; Albuquerque, NM. preserve, Colleen Caldwell, Ph.D., Assistant Leader, Cooperative Fish and Wildlife McDowell, Nate; Pockman, William T.; Allen, Craig D., Research Unit, jointly of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and New Mexico State [and others]. 2008. Mechanisms of plant survival and University, and Robert DuBey, Ph.D., of New Mexico State University. mortality during drought: why do some plants survive while others succumb to drought? New Physiologist. 178: 719-739. The researchers selected 18 multi-acre study sites along three different reaches McDowell, Nate; White, S. Andra; Pockman, William of river in the preserve: the East Fork of the Jemez River, Jaramillo Creek, and the T. [submitted June 2008]. Transpiration and stomatal conductance across a steep gradient in the southern San Antonio River. Using fences of varying heights, they built three different types Rocky Mountains. Ecohydrology. of study sites: “open treatments,” where cattle and elk could graze freely; “cattle treatments,” where elk could graze but cattle were excluded; and “elk and cattle treatments,” where no grazing was allowed.

CONTINUED ON PAGE 11

MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN — RESEARCH REPORT 2008 www.fs.fed.us/rmrs 10 Since 2002, each site has been these watersheds. It will also provide to take detailed measurements assessed in the spring and fall. The data that may help to restore habitats at the study plots. They assessed researchers have been collecting that could aid in the recovery of the plant cover, soil nutrients, litter data on the physical, chemical, and Rio Grande cutthroat trout. decomposition, soil erosion, biological effects of each treatment. and water quality, as well as the The Valles Caldera researchers The Effects of Fire abundance and species of fi sh, have focused on measuring the Plus Grazing terrestrial arthropods, and aquatic riparian vegetation, terrestrial macroinvertebrates. To monitor how insect populations, and stream The second study in the preserve elk and cattle used the areas, they set channel geomorphology, while the is examining the effects of fi re and up several cameras that automatically USGS researchers have focused on grazing on grasslands and forests. took pictures every 15 minutes. habitat characteristics (stream width, Parmenter and colleagues selected Data collection continued through substrate, water velocity, runs vs. two adjacent watersheds for study: 2007, and analyses are now underway. pools), water quality, fi sh abundance Valle Toledo, which would be But some interesting early results and body condition, and the aquatic subjected to a prescribed fi re, and have been noted. In many of the invertebrate communities. Indios Creek, which would be a no-fi re control site. areas studied, there were no major The data collection is ongoing, but adverse effects seen due to the fi re. initial analyses have allowed the In 2005, the researchers established Macroinvertebrate communities researchers to develop a better numerous study plots in the two were mostly unaltered, as were fi sh understanding of the watershed watersheds and collected baseline populations. Stream water quality was dynamics on the preserve. For data on many parameters, such as not signifi cantly changed. Soil erosion example: plant abundance and the species was non-existent. Plant communities • There are large differences in the present. They also built fences to were signifi cantly reduced in canopy fi sh species present and in species’ exclude cattle and elk from several size and leaf height after one year, abundances from one river to the of the study plots, so that plant indicating that they likely need two next. responses to fi re with and without or more years to recover. In contrast, • Vegetation data analysis has shown grazing could be assessed. In plant nutritional characteristics there were signifi cant increases in late 2005, fi re crews conducted a were enhanced. There was more plant biomass and (in dry years) prescribed burn in Valle Toledo, protein and mineral content, which plant diversity in riparian areas burning about 1,800 acres of provides better forage for wildlife where livestock and elk were grassland and ponderosa pine and livestock. Not surprisingly, the elk excluded. (Pinus ponderosa) forest. signifi cantly increased their use of the burned areas. • An initial analysis of the aquatic For two years after the burn, the invertebrate community data has researchers returned periodically CONTINUED ON PAGE 12 indicated improved stream-bottom conditions at the sites where grazing was excluded. • Restoration of grasses in the non- grazing sites seems to have had a benefi cial impact on the structure of the streams; they are becoming relatively deeper and narrower, which provides fi sh with better living conditions.

The data collection will continue through 2008. When the study is completed, it is expected to improve our understanding of the effects of grazing, as well as help the preserve’s land managers to develop livestock range models for managing riparian A prescribed burn is set in Valle Toledo, Valles Caldera National Preserve. habitat and native fi sh communities in Photo: Valles Caldera Trust Cultural Resources

MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN — RESEARCH REPORT 2008 www.fs.fed.us/rmrs 11 It is expected that the fi nal results from this study, too, will help Valles Caldera National Preserve managers to implement more effective restoration and conservation plans How Do Birds in the future. In addition, the study results will allow the public React to Fire? to learn more about the positive effects of fi re, and will help to build public confi dence in management One long-accepted viewpoint in that had been surveyed by a decisions on the use of prescribed the Southwest is that decades of colleague a few years before the and natural fi re. ∫ fi re suppression, combined with fi re (1986-1990) and had also logging and grazing practices, burned in 2000. PUBLICATIONS have led to tree stands that Anderson, Mike; Caldwell, Colleen. 2008. Effects of Statistical analysis was used to Riparian Grazing on Growth Rate and Movement of are very dense and at risk of build a picture of the number of Brown Trout in the Valles Caldera National Preserve, fi res that are unnaturally large New Mexico. In: Proceedings and Abstracts: The birds found in the various areas. 2008 Jemez Mountains Science Symposium; 2008 and severe. With that in mind, Overall, the majority of species March 28; Santa Fe, NM; Valles Caldera Trust. many ecosystem restoration Abstract. (71 percent) showed either a programs now aim to reduce Anderson, Mike; Caldwell, Colleen; DuBey, Robert; positive or neutral response Parmenter, Robert. 2008. Stream Fish Response tree stand densities, hoping that and Water Quality Characteristics Following to fi re, as measured by their Prescribed Fire, Valles Caldera National Preserve, such changes will reduce the density in burned areas. And NM. In: Proceedings and Abstracts: The 2008 Jemez risk of severe fi res and allow for Mountains Science Symposium; 2008 March 28; Santa many showed positive responses Fe, NM; Valles Caldera Trust. Abstract. the return of more controlled even to the most severely Barnes, Will; Parmenter, Bob; Padgett, Molly. 2008. understory fi res. Valle Toledo Fire Experiment: Plant responses to fi re burned areas. Western wood- and grazing. In: Proceedings and Abstracts: The 2008 However, some researchers pewee (Contopus sordidulus) Jemez Mountains Science Symposium; 2008 March 28; Santa Fe, NM; Valles Caldera Trust. Abstract. think this scenario might be and western bluebird (Sialia Civitello, Jamie A. 2008. Valle Toledo Prescribed oversimplifi ed, noting that Mexicana), for example, were Fire: Obsidian Responses to Fire. In: Proceedings and Abstracts: The 2008 Jemez Mountains Science severe fi res are not unheard of found almost exclusively in Symposium; 2008 March 28; Santa Fe, NM; Valles in southwestern history. Indeed, severely burned areas. Other Caldera Trust. Abstract. severe fi res may be ecologically species were found in areas Dubey, R. 2005. Grazing Effects on Habitat, Macroinvertebrates, and Fishes in Streams on the benefi cial. of all burn severity, but were Valles Caldera National Preserve. Las Cruces, NM: most often found in severely New Mexico Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Natasha B. Kotliar, Ph.D., Unit: 2, 3, 20. burned areas: hairy woodpecker an ecologist with the U.S. Dubey, R. J.; Caldwell, C. A.; Gould, W. R. 2007. (Picoides villosus), house wren Relative susceptibility and effects on performance Geological Survey (USGS), in of Rio Grande cutthroat trout and rainbow trout (Troglodytes aedon), and broad- Fort Collins, CO, proposed challenged with Myxobolus cerebralis. Transactions tailed hummingbird (Selasphorus of the American Fisheries Society. 136: 1406-1414. to look at this question by platycercus). Duran, Zoe Anna; Parmenter, Robert R. 2008. Valle examining how birds react to Toledo Fire Experiment: Ground-dwelling arthropod responses to fi re and grazing. In: Proceedings and fi re conditions. These results, says Kotliar, Abstracts: The 2008 Jemez Mountains Science demonstrate that severe fi res Symposium; 2008 March 28; Santa Fe, NM; Valles After the severe Cerro Grande Caldera Trust. Abstract. are important to the landscape. fi re of 2000, which burned Jacobi, Jerry. 2008. Valle Toledo Fire Experiment: Fish They create forest structures population responses. In: Proceedings and Abstracts: 42,000 acres near Los Alamos, The 2008 Jemez Mountains Science Symposium; 2008 and elements, such as standing Kotliar launched a multi-year March 28; Santa Fe, NM; Valles Caldera Trust. dead trees, that are not likely study of the birds in the region. Parmenter, Robert R. 2008. Valle Toledo Fire to be created by forest thinning Experiment: Introduction and Overview. In: She marked off 49 study plots Proceedings and Abstracts: The 2008 Jemez and understory fi res, but that Mountains Science Symposium; 2008 March 28; Santa in the hills near the 2000 fi re, are preferred by some species. Fe, NM; Valles Caldera Trust. Abstract. in burned as well as unburned White, Carlton S. 2008. Valle Toledo Prescribed Fire: Interactive effects of fi re with grazing and areas. Each site was ranked in “Fire management that includes vegetation on soil nutrient dynamics. In: Proceedings terms of how severely it was a range of variability, including and Abstracts: The 2008 Jemez Mountains Science Symposium; 2008 March 28; Santa Fe, NM; Valles burned, and was then surveyed severe fi res, is more likely to Caldera Trust. Abstract. several times to see which bird preserve a broad range of species were found there. She ecological functions,”she says. Photos top right: Valles Caldera Trust Cultural Resources (background fi re); also did surveys at nearby sites Ashok Khosla, seeingbirds.com (western bluebird)

MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN — RESEARCH REPORT 2008 www.fs.fed.us/rmrs 12 The U.S. Forest Service Takes on Climate Change

Is it getting warmer out there? After many years of debate, most scientists now agree that climate change is a reality, and the Earth is getting warmer. Last year, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported that “warming of the climate system is unequivocal,” and that the warming was very likely due to human activities such as deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels.

Whether or not this warming is affecting environmental systems worldwide is no longer in question either. Scientists have observed signifi cant declines in glaciers and snow cover, rising sea levels, increased precipitation in some parts of the world, A great blue heron (Ardea herodias) and longer and more intense droughts in other areas. Climate change has also at Bosque del Apache National been correlated with an increased frequency in forest fi res and insect outbreaks Wildlife Refuge in New Mexico. (including in the Southwest), earlier spring runoff peaks, and shifts in distribution and Photo: Dick Thompson reproductive patterns of plants, fi sh, and wildlife. Moreover, these changes are very “ Climate change cuts likely to accelerate in the future. across virtually every Still, there is much that is not known about climate change and its potential effects. major issue we face in Scientists and decisionmakers in the U.S. and elsewhere want to better understand forest management how climate change could infl uence plants, animals, ecosystems, and disturbance — fi re and fuels, patterns. They want to know more about how it could affect the products and invasive species, water services that ecosystems provide, such as timber, clean water, food supplies, resources, forest health, biodiversity, fl ood protection, recreation, and aesthetic and spiritual benefi ts. And endangered species, land managers are looking for information on how they can best manage their forests, grasslands, and other areas in the face of a changing climate. outdoor recreation, and more,” says Forest The U.S. Forest Service is well-positioned to help provide those answers, as the Service Chief Gail agency has been conducting research on climate change for 20 years. As forest Kimbell. Service Chief Gail Kimbell noted at a recent conference on science, policy, and the environment, “climate change cuts across virtually every major issue we face in forest management — fi re and fuels, invasive species, water resources, forest health, endangered species, outdoor recreation, and more.” For further discussion on climate change, “The Forest Service has a strong scientifi c basis for addressing climate change in all see “Climate Change and of these areas,” she added. the Nation’s Forests: Challenges and Opportunities,” a paper that The Agency’s Research and Development branch, which includes the Rocky Mountain recently appeared in the Journal Research Station (RMRS), has been studying issues related to climate change for of Forestry. Dale Bosworth, chief many years. The organization’s climate change research priorities include 1) providing emeritus of the Forest Service, national leaders on policies, issues, and discussions, and 2) conducting extensive and Linda Joyce, a quantitative research on the effects of climate change. Such research includes adaptation science, ecologist with the Rocky Mountain which addresses how ecosystems respond under different climate scenarios, and how Research Station, are co-authors of land managers can prepare for uncertain future conditions; and mitigation science, the paper. which looks at how forests, woodlands, and grasslands can sequester carbon, as well as related issues. Bosworth, Dale; Birdsey, Richard; Joyce, Linda; Millar, Constance. In the fi rst area, providing national leadership on the issues, Forest Service 2008. Climate Change and the scientists and consultants are taking part in a number of national and international Nation’s Forests: Challenges and assessments: they are analyzing the extensive scientifi c literature on climate change Opportunities. Journal of Forestry. in order to apply existing knowledge toward improving conditions, identify gaps 106(4): 214-221.

CONTINUED ON PAGE 14

MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN — RESEARCH REPORT 2008 www.fs.fed.us/rmrs 13 in needed information, and make • Can carbon sequestration rates recommendations for future research. be increased in forested lands? One of the most notable of these • What does climate change mean endeavors was the participation of for ecosystems thought to be several Forest Service researchers natural or undisturbed, such as in writing the recent report from the wilderness areas? IPCC, which was awarded the 2007 • How will climate change directly Nobel Peace Prize, along with former infl uence species at risk, such as U.S. vice president Albert Gore. wolverine (Gulo gulo luscus), wolf In the second area, the research arena, (Canis lupus), spotted owl (Strix RMRS scientists are now carrying out occidentalis caurina), and grizzly numerous scientifi c studies throughout bear (Ursus arctos horribilis), as the West, looking at issues such as well as migratory birds and aquatic the effect of temperature on trout A woman fi shes on the Middle Rio Grande. species? habitat and the effect of snow cover Climate change could possibly affect how • How will a changing climate people, such as this angler, experience the on wolverine dens. In the Middle outdoors. alter fi re intensity, severity, and Rio Grande Basin area, scientists are Photo: Jeff Greenberg occurrence? focusing on issues of local concern, to be a priority in years to come. “We have made a start,” in addressing such as the effects of climate change Among the questions researchers will climate change, says Forest Service in drought, outbreaks of insects such try to answer in the future are: Chief Kimbell. “However, climate as bark beetles, non-native species • What is climate’s role in the major change will remain a challenge for distribution, and the risk of severe disturbances we are seeing now, generations to come.” ∫ forest fi res. specifi cally in aspen (Populus In addition, a strong emphasis on tremuloides) die-back and “Climate Change 2007,” the IPCC report climate change issues in the RMRS’s pinyon loss in pinyon-juniper that won the Nobel Prize, is available at www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/assessments- most recent strategic framework ecosystems (Pinus edulis-Juniperus reports.htm. ensures that these issues will continue monosperma)?

CONTINUED FROM PAGE 4 U.S. Forest Service Research: Understanding, Conserving, and Restoring Southwestern Ecosystems they need to fully understand the ecological consequences information developed on Middle Rio Grande Basin of their decisions. For example, if exotic plants are removed ecosystems is easily and quickly made available to all from the bosque, will they re-sprout? How quickly? How interested parties. Scientists and others are being funded to much grazing can be allowed in a grassland while still develop publications, databases, computer programs, fi eld protecting biological diversity? Will removing fuels in an trips, and conferences to help synthesize and make public upland watershed, such as with a prescribed fi re or by their research fi ndings. thinning small-diameter trees, help to restore a productive environment? A Long-Term Program

And again, land managers also need more information The questions raised by the Middle Rio Grande Ecosystem on social concerns. How do these activities affect humans Management Research Unit won’t be answered overnight. and their relationship with the environment? For example, Research takes time; in some cases, years. But much work misunderstandings can easily arise among residents, has already been done. For example, a comprehensive landowners, and recreationists if it appears that access to environmental history of the area has been published, as resources such as water or a forest may be limited. well as a history of irrigation in the area and a synthetic review of Basin ecology and issues. Many fi eld researchers Research in this area includes studies on: 1) understanding have been funded, and many of them have presented the effects of disturbances on aquatic habitats and fi sh their fi ndings at symposia and professional meetings and populations; 2) understanding the effects of removing published noteworthy articles in peer-reviewed journals. bosque exotic species and fuels; and 3) developing Newer studies continue with multi-year research. information to aid in resolving social concerns. This report describes several of the research projects most Research Area 3: Communicating Research Findings recently funded by the Middle Rio Grande Ecosystem The third area of research is intended to ensure that Management Research Unit. ∫

MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN — RESEARCH REPORT 2008 www.fs.fed.us/rmrs 14 Profi le: Hira Walker, Ph.D. Launching a Career From Student to Professional with the U.S. Forest Service

Growing up in California, Hira In addition to Hira Walker (left), Walker had always been interested Heather Bateman (“Restoring the in birds. She delighted in watching Rio Grande,” page 4) and Hugo the hummingbirds and doves that frequented the trees outside Magaña (“What Do Rio Grande her bedroom window. In college Silvery Minnows Prefer to Eat?,” at the University of California at page 17) also began their careers Santa Cruz, she pursued degrees in as students working for the biology and environmental studies. U.S. Forest Service. Many other But it wasn’t until a guest speaker — students around the country have a professional ornithologist — spoke also benefi tted professionally from Hira Walker with a greater roadrunner to her natural history class that she (Geococcyx californianus). their associations with the Agency. realized she could build an entire Photo: Susan Allerton career around her love for birds. The Forest Service has several programs that can help students “It was the fi rst time I realized I could be an ornithologist,” Walker recalls. to launch a career in the natural She hung around after class to talk with the guest speaker, and he offered her resources. These programs a volunteer position. Walker soon found herself working directly with birds, may involve part-time positions capturing them with mist nets and putting identifi cation bands on their legs. Her career as an ornithologist was underway. during the school year, full-time jobs during vacation periods, A few years later, Walker was pursuing graduate studies in Missouri when internships, scholarships, and more. contact with another professional ornithologist — Deborah Finch, Ph.D., of the U.S. Forest Service — led to another big career move. After talking with Students are often hired fi rst Finch, Walker transferred to the University of New Mexico, where Finch was under the Student Temporary a research associate professor. In Albuquerque, Walker studied under Finch Employment Program (STEP). and also began working for the Rocky Mountain Research Station under the Students who show strong authority of the Student Temporary Employment Program and alternatively potential may be recruited for as a contractor. Her fi rst job with the Station, in 1997, involved studying how the Student Career Experience neotropical migrant birds used different habitats at the Bosque del Apache Program (SCEP), which often leads National Wildlife Refuge. to permanent employment with the Walker continued to work with the agency for the next ten years, while she government. Students may worked on her Ph.D., and afterward, as a postdoctoral researcher. With Finch also fi nd opportunities in the as her mentor, she held numerous part-time and full-time jobs with the agency, national Student Volunteer gaining experience in many aspects of ornithology, including vegetation Program, the U.S. Department and bird surveys, nest searching and monitoring, data collection techniques, of Agriculture (USDA) National supervision and training of biological technicians, study design and analysis, Scholars Program, the USDA and preparation of progress reports and articles for peer-reviewed publications. Summer Intern Program, local The “trust, support, and encouragement,” she got from Finch was invaluable, work-study programs, and research says Walker. “She gave me a lot of independence and the opportunity to joint ventures with universities. develop my own projects.” CONTINUED ON PAGE 16 For information, see www.fs.fed. “ There is a desire to simplify things as ‘non-native bad, native us/fsjobs/index.html, or contact good.’ But it’s really much more complex. Is something bad your local Forest Service offi ce. just because it is exotic? ” - HIRA WALKER, PH.D.

MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN — RESEARCH REPORT 2008 www.fs.fed.us/rmrs 15 As her studies and work experience in landscapes where other woody progressed, Walker developed her own vegetation is absent. area of expertise: assessing how human “There is a desire to simplify things A New Field activities, such as habitat destruction as ‘non-native bad, native good,’” Guide to and the introduction of exotic plants, she says. “But it’s really much more the Middle can affect migrating, breeding, and complex. Is something bad just Rio Grande wintering birds. Her work has included because it is exotic?” Bosque research on a very timely issue in New Mexico — the proliferation of Walker is not opposed to efforts to a common exotic plant, saltcedar eradicate exotic plants, but based a. What large insect lives underground (Tamarix ramosissima). on her research, she advises that for fi ve to ten years, emerging only as an adult? land managers take precautions to “Saltcedar is the predominant plant b. What local herb was often used in folk protect bird species. “If you are going in some areas of the Southwest,” medicine, even though its sap is toxic, to remove saltcedar, you have to do and was also used to make ropes? she says. Indeed, it is now the most it in stages,” she says. “Otherwise, common plant species in many local c. In what species do the males get what are the birds going to do in together as a chorus to serenade riparian ecosystems. By some females? the meantime?” She suggests that estimates, saltcedar and other exotic (See answers below) eradication programs fi rst target plants could dominate southwestern habitats that are less diverse (and riparian ecosystems within the next 50 A new fi eld guide to the plants and that support fewer species), and that to 100 years. Many agencies are animals of the middle Rio Grande bosque replanting after exotics are removed in the midst of aggressive programs and nearby areas will soon provide those is made a priority. Walker reports she to remove the exotics and replant with answers, as well as details on 700 other is pleased to see that many programs local species. native vegetation. But given that the are now taking such tactics, selectively saltcedar is here, Walker says, we A Field Guide to the Plants and Animals removing exotics, and leaving some in need to look at how it affects birds. of the Middle Rio Grande Bosque place until native plants are restored. “Can it be a functional replacement for features information on how to identify the native vegetation?” she wants to Walker recently started a new job, each species, its taxonomy, where it lives, know. “Which birds use it and which working as an endangered species how common it is, and interesting details ones are avoiding it?” ornithologist for the New Mexico about its natural history. Department of Game and Fish. Her In her studies, Walker has found that “Our goal is to help sensitize the next work with the Forest Service was some migrating bird species do make generation of New Mexicans to our invaluable in helping to land that good use of saltcedar. “In certain natural heritage,” says co-author Jean- position, she says. “I had a Ph.D. and Luc E. Cartron, a former postdoctoral circumstances, saltcedar vegetation ten years of experience,” she notes. employee with the Rocky Mountain can support higher numbers of bird “It made a signifi cant difference.” Research Station (RMRS), Albuquerque species and individuals than native Laboratory, and now with the Drylands vegetation,” she says. “Not all Her advice for other aspiring Institute. saltcedar vegetation has equal value ornithologists and biologists? “Align Cartron’s co-authors are local natural to birds, however. Their use of it yourself with people who support and history experts David C. Lightfoot, depends on such factors as whether it promote you, and push yourself to take Jane E. Mygatt, Sandra L. Brantley, and is a young shrub or a mature tree, and on challenges whenever opportunities Timothy K. Lowrey. The Field Guide is whether it is intermixed with native arise,” she says. ∫ plants.” Moreover, she reports, the the result of a collaboration between the “bad” exotic species might in fact be PUBLICATION Drylands Institute and the University of Walker, Hira A. 2008. Floristics and Physiognomy New Mexico Museum of Southwestern helping to stem declines in some bird Determine Migrant Landbird Response to Tamarisk Biology, with sponsorship by many populations, by providing a refugia (Tamarix Ramosissima) Invasion in Riparian Areas. The Auk. 125(3). organizations, including RMRS. All proceeds will be used to buy copies of the guide for classrooms and educational programs.

Answers: a. Giant cicada (Tibicen marginatus) b. Indian-hemp (Apocynum cannibinum) c. Several toad species, including the Woodhouse’s toad (Bufo woodhousii)

Woodhouse’s toads are known to serenade female toads. Photo: Jean-Luc E. Cartron

MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN — RESEARCH REPORT 2008 www.fs.fed.us/rmrs 16 The Middle Rio Grande Ecosystem What Do Rio Grande Silvery Management Minnows Prefer to Eat? Research Unit

Restoring or protecting an endangered or The Middle Rio Grande Ecosystem threatened species is a complex task. What Management Research Unit sort of habitat does it need? What does it (Research Work Unit 4652), which eat? What caused its demise in the fi rst place: provided funds for the research habitat loss, pesticides, an invasive species projects described in this report, is that displaced it or preyed on it, or something part of the Grassland, Shrubland, else? Field managers often need the answers and Desert Ecosystems Research to these and other questions before they can Program of the U.S. Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station take meaningful steps to help populations of a (RMRS). species recover. The RMRS, headquartered in Fort Such is the case with the Rio Grande silvery The Rio Grande silvery minnow has Collins, Colorado, administers and minnow (Hybognathus amarus). This tiny fi sh been on the federal endangered species list since 1994. conducts research throughout a species, once the most abundant fi sh in the Rio Photo: Joel Lusk, USFWS 14-state area, covering the Great Grande Basin, is now found in only fi ve percent Basin, the Southwest, the Rocky of its historic range. It was placed on the federal endangered species list in 1994, and Mountains, and part of the Great resource managers are now working on a recovery plan. Plains. Its scientists investigate issues related to wildlife and fi sh, Many likely causes of the fi sh’s decline have been cited, including water quality fi re and fuels, invasive species, problems, water impoundments along the river, and the effects of cattle grazing. forest and rangeland inventory, But little research had been done on the species’ food preferences. Hugo A. recreation, resource management Magaña, Ph.D., now a research fi sheries biologist with the Rocky Mountain Research and use, and water and air quality Station in Albuquerque, decided to explore that question as part of his Ph.D. work at numerous research stations and at the University of New Mexico. Magaña’s salary was sponsored by the Scientist other locations. This vast research Recruitment Initiative of the U.S. Forest Service, and his research was sponsored by organization is comprised of the Middle Rio Grande Ecosystem Management Research Unit, as well as by the U.S. seven programs and a wilderness Bureau of Reclamation and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. institute, which produce and deliver scientifi c information to Magaña set up a series of feeding trials to look at several questions, such as which help land managers, planners, learn diatom (algae) species the fi sh prefer, and whether they could to respond and other specialists make wise to offered food. He cultured samples of 15 different diatoms, placed some young decisions about our nation’s forests, hatchery-produced fi sh in a series of fi sh tanks, and systematically offered them food rangelands, and grasslands. RMRS sources. To determine their food preferences, he documented on videotape how is one of six research stations that long it took the fi sh to fi nd the food, how often they returned to the food source, and are part of the U.S. Department of how much time they spent sampling it. Agriculture Forest Service Research and Development organization, the His results showed that Rio Grande silvery minnows do indeed have some dining largest natural resources research Nitzschia palea Nitzschia preferences: they clearly preferred two diatoms, and organization in the world. paleacae, over other species. And they could be conditioned to eat; fi sh that had earlier been offered a food source were much quicker to feed upon it when it was All research funded by the Middle offered a second time. Rio Grande Ecosystem Management Research Unit falls within the Magaña’s results suggest that it might be possible for hatchery-produced Rio Grande strategic framework focus areas silvery minnows to be trained to forage for food, before they are released into the established by RMRS: fi re, water, wild as part of reintroduction efforts. “Given that 95 percent of all hatchery fi sh terrestrial ecosystems, climate die from predation or starvation within weeks of their release,” he says, “instilling change, and human connections. such skills in Rio Grande silvery minnows before their release could greatly increase their ability to survive in the wild. It could help them come back from the brink of See www.fs.fed.us/rmrs/research/ extinction.” ∫ programs for more information on these programs.

MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN — RESEARCH REPORT 2008 www.fs.fed.us/rmrs 17 More Than a Scenic Landscape: A New Report on the History of Valles Caldera National Preserve

Valles Caldera National Preserve was A new U.S. Forest Service report, established in 2000, when the U.S. More Than a Scenic Mountain Congress authorized the purchase of Landscape: Valles Caldera National the historic Baca ranch located just Preserve Land Use History, explores west of Los Alamos, New Mexico. the nature and intensity of all the human impacts on the area. Focusing The 88,900-acre preserve is known primarily on the past four centuries for its scenic beauty; it features of Spanish, Mexican, and U.S. 11,000-foot mountain peaks, governance, the study details how the coniferous forests, broad open land was used, the social organizations meadows, geothermal hot springs, of the times, and the communities and and wildlife ranging from prairie dogs major actors involved. It traces how (Cynomys gunnisoni) to black bears this remarkable landscape changed (Ursus americanus) and bald eagles from an area that was shared by many (Haliaeetus leucocephalus). Many of More Than a Scenic to being the private property of a today’s visitors to the preserve believe Mountain Landscape few individuals (who often competed it to be pristine, untouched wilderness. is available free of fi ercely with each other to control But in fact, for more than 100 years the charge from: the land), and was fi nally returned area supported intense sheep grazing, USDA Forest Service to public ownership. The study also cattle ranching, timbering, and mineral Rocky Mountain Research includes an archaeological review of and geothermal exploration by Anglo- Station human use of the area before Spanish Americans, activities that deeply 240 West Prospect Rd. colonization, describing traditional affected the area’s appearance. Fort Collins, CO 80526-2098 Native American land-use practices [email protected] The area was used by earlier people, and associations. 970-498-1392 as well. Archaeological evidence shows www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_ Overall, the report provides a that the earliest visitors to the area, gtr196.html thorough record of the economic, some 11,000 years ago, were hunters social, and ideational relationships that who passed through while looking for Also of interest: Native Americans (including Pueblo, mammoth (Mammuthus jeffersonii) Navajo, Apache, and Ute), Hispanics, State of the Preserve 2002- and bison (Bison antiquus). The area and Anglo-Americans have had with 2007, a report published by was not home to those animals, but the Valles Caldera Trust, which the area. it offered the hunters obsidian, which identifi es collaborative studies they used to refurbish their hunting The report will be of interest to land with Rocky Mountain Research gear, as well as other resources they managers and researchers as they Station and others. needed for their journeys. Following assess the ecological history of the Available from: those early hunters, countless area and develop management plans Valles Caldera Trust generations of Native Americans for the future. It will also be of interest PO Box 359 visited the area to hunt deer and elk, to history buffs who are intrigued Jemez Springs, NM 87025 gather plants for food and other uses, by the area. It was written by Kurt www.vallescaldera.gov/ and collect obsidian for tools. By the F. Anschuetz, an archaeologist and about/trust/docs/trust_ time the Spanish explorers arrived in anthropologist, and program director SOPDecember2007ExecSum. New Mexico in the 16th century, the of the Rio Grande Foundation for pdf area was well-known and important Communities and Cultural Landscapes, to the region’s many and diverse and Thomas Merlan, a historian and Valles Caldera National Preserve Photo: Marc Chipault indigenous people. historic preservation specialist. ∫

MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN — RESEARCH REPORT 2008 www.fs.fed.us/rmrs 18 To Our Partners: Learn More About It Thank You! For more information on Middle Rio Grande research projects Few research programs are done in and Forest Service research partners, as well as isolation. Most are collaborative efforts local recreation areas, volunteer programs, species of that are funded by several organizations concern, and more, see these websites. and carried out by many staff members, outside researchers, students, and volunteers. The organizations below Backyard conservation tips Middle Rio Grande Endangered Species have all contributed to the efforts to www.nrcs.usda.gov/feature/backyard Act Collaborative Program understand, protect, and restore the www.fws.gov/mrgesacp ecosystems of the Middle Rio Grande Bark beetle outbreaks Basin. The Forest Service gratefully www.fs.fed.us/r3/resources/health/ New Mexico Cooperative Fish & acknowledges all of their kind efforts. beetle/index.shtml Wildlife Research Unit http://fws-nmcfwru.nmsu.edu Armendaris Ranch Bird checklists: New Mexico Bandelier National Monument www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/birds/ New Mexico Department of Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge Cibola National Forest chekbird/r2/35.htm Game and Fish City of Albuquerque Open Space Division www.wildlife.state.nm.us Bosque del Apache National Drylands Institute Intel Corporation Wildlife Refuge New Mexico Energy, Minerals and Joint Fire Science Program www.fws.gov/southwest/refuges/ Natural Resources Department Middle Rio Grande Bosque Initiative newmex/bosque/index.html www.emnrd.state.nm.us Middle Rio Grande Conservancy District National Fish Hatcheries City of Albuquerque Open New Mexico Forest and Watershed National Partnership-Whirling Disease Space Division Restoration Institute Initiative www.cabq.gov/openspace www.nmhu.edu/nmfwri Natural Resources Conservation Service The Nature Conservancy Climate change and western New Mexico State University New Mexico Collaborative Forest ecosystems www.nmsu.edu Restoration Program www.fs.fed.us/rmrs/climate-change New Mexico Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Sevilleta Long Term Ecological Research Research Unit Climate research, Los Alamos http://sev.lternet.edu New Mexico Department of Game and Fish National Laboratory New Mexico Environment Department Sevilleta National Wildlife Refuge New Mexico Highlands University http://climateresearch.lanl.gov www.fws.gov/southwest/refuges/ New Mexico State Forestry Division New Mexico State University Drylands Institute newmex/sevilleta Northern Arizona University www.drylandsinstitute.org The University of New Mexico Pueblo de Cochiti Rio Grande Foundation for Communities & Endangered species www.unm.edu Cultural Landscapes www.fws.gov/endangered Rio Grande Nature Center U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Santa Fe National Forest Fire management in the West Southwest Region Save Our Bosque Task Force www.fs.fed.us/fi re/index.html www.fws.gov/southwest Sevilleta Long Term Ecological Research Sevilleta National Wildlife Refuge The Friends of The Bosque del Apache U.S. Forest Service jobs and student Daniel B. Stephens & Associates National Wildlife Refuge and volunteer opportunities SWCA Environmental Consultants www.friendsofthebosque.org www.fs.fed.us/fsjobs/about.html Texas A&M University Tree New Mexico Friends of the Rio Grande Nature U.S. Forest Service Rocky Mountain University of Arizona Center State Park Research Station University of New Mexico Department of www.rgnc.org www.fs.fed.us/rmrs Biology University of New Mexico Museum of Joint Fire Science Program U.S. Forest Service Southwestern Biology University of New Mexico Water Resources www.fi rescience.gov Southwestern Region Program www.fs.fed.us/r3 Merriam-Powell Center for University of Oklahoma U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Albuquerque Environmental Research, Valles Caldera National Preserve District Northern Arizona University www.vallescaldera.gov U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs www.mpcer.nau.edu U.S. Bureau of Land Management Water Resources Program, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Middle Rio Grande Bosque Initiative University of New Mexico U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service www.fws.gov/southwest/mrgbi www.unm.edu/~wrp U.S. Forest Service Southwestern Region U.S. Geological Survey Middle Rio Grande Conservancy District Valles Caldera Trust www.mrgcd.com

MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN — RESEARCH REPORT 2008 www.fs.fed.us/rmrs 19 Fish and Wildlife Research Unit: 2, 3, 14. Merola-Zwarties, M.; DeLong, J. P. 2005. Avian Species Assemblages on New Mexico Golf Courses: Surrogate DuBey, Robert James. 2006. Ecology of whirling disease Riparian Habitat for Birds? Wildlife Society Bulletin. 33(2): in arid lands with an emphasis on Tubifex tubifex. Las 435-447. Cruces, NM: New Mexico State University. 105 p. Dissertation. Periman, Richard D. 2005. Modeling Landscapes and Past Vegetation Patterns of New Mexico’s Rio del Oso Dubey, R.; Caldwell, C., [and others]. 2005. Effects of Valley. In: Special Issue: Ayala, Gianna; French, Charles, Temperature, Photoperiod, and Myxobolus cerebralis eds. Landscape and Land Use — Geoarchaeological Infection on Growth, Reproduction, and Survival of Approaches to Human Impact. Geoarchaeology. 20(2): Tubifex tubifex Lineages. Journal of Aquatic Animal 193-210. Health. 17: 338-344. Raish, Carol. 2004. Historic and contemporary land use in Fletcher, Reggie; Robbie, Wayne A. 2004. Historic and southwestern grassland ecosystems. In: Finch, Deborah current conditions of southwestern grasslands. In: Finch, M., ed. 2004. Assessment of Grassland Ecosystem Deborah M., ed. Assessment of Grassland Ecosystem Conditions in the Southwestern United States. Gen. Conditions in the Southwestern United States. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-135-Vol. 1. Fort Collins, CO: Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-135-Vol. 1. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 167 p. Mountain Research Station. 167 p. Richard, Gigi A.; Julien, Pierre Y.; Baird, Drew C. 2005. Gottfried, Gerald J. 2004. Tools for management for Case Study: Modeling the Lateral Mobility of the Rio grassland ecosystem sustainability: thinking “outside the Grande Below Cochiti Dam, New Mexico. Journal of box.” In: Finch, Deborah M., ed. Assessment of Grassland Hydraulic Engineering. 131(11): 931-941. Ecosystem Conditions in the Southwestern United States. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-135-Vol. 1. Fort Collins, CO: Richard, Gigi A.; Julien, Pierre Y.; Baird, Drew C. 2005. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Statistical analysis of lateral migration of the Rio Grande, Mountain Research Station. 167 p. New Mexico. Geomorphology. 71(1-2): 139-155. Jemison, Roy. 2004. Forest road reengineering to restore Rinne, John N.; Calamusso, Bob. 2006. Native Scientist Hira Walker published an article in riparian meadow conditions in the Zuni Mountains of southwestern trouts: conservation with reference to a recent issue of The Auk. She also painted New Mexico. In: International Conference on Ecology & physiography, hydrology, distribution, and threats. the cover art, which depicts a Wilson’s Transportation, ICOET 2003 Proceedings; 2003 August American Fisheries Society Symposium. 53: 63-77. 24-29; Lake Placid, NY. p. 99-106. warbler (Wilsonia pusilla) on tamarisk Rinne, John N.; Hughes, Robert M.; Calamusso, Bob. eds. (Tamarix ramosissima) and MacGillivray’s Kelly, J. F. 2006. Stable Isotope Evidence Links Breeding 2005. Historical Changes in Large River Fish Assemblages warbler (Oporornis tolmiei) on coyote willow Geography and Migration Timing in Wood Warblers of the Americas. Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries (Salix exigua). (Parulidae). The Auk. 123(2): 431-437. Society. 612 p. Cover Art: Copyright 2008 Hira Walker, Kelly, Jeffrey F.; Hutto, Richard L. 2005. An East-West Skagen, S. K.; Melcher, C. P.; Hazelwood, R. 2004. published in The Auk 125.3 by the University Comparison of Migration in North American Wood Migration stopover ecology of western avian populations: of California Press, on behalf of the American Warblers. The Condor. 107: 197-211. A southwestern migration workshop. U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Discipline. Open-File Report Kinzli, Kristoph-Dietrich. 2005. Effects of Bendway Weir Ornithologists’ Union. 2004-1452. 28 p. Characteristics on Resulting Eddy and Channel Flow Conditions. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University. Skagen, Susan K.; Kelly, Jeffrey F.; Van Riper III, Charles; PUBLICATIONS SUPPORTED 436 p. Thesis. Hutto, Richard L.; Finch, Deborah M.; Krueper, David J.; Melcher, Cynthia P. 2005. Geography of Spring Landbird BY THE MIDDLE RIO GRANDE Kotliar, Natasha B.; Kennedy, Patricia L.; Ferree, Kimberly. Migration Through Riparian Habitats in Southwestern 2007. Avifaunal Responses to Fire in Southwestern ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT North America. The Condor. 107: 212-227. RESEARCH UNIT Montane Forests Along a Burn Severity Gradient. Ecological Applications. 17(2): 491-507. Smith, D. M.; Kelly, J. F.; Finch, D. M. 2006. Cicada Emergence in Southwestern Riparian Forest: Infl uences The scientists funded by the Middle McSweeney, A. M.; Raish, C. 2004. Traditional of Wildfi re and Vegetation Composition. Ecological Rio Grande Ecosystem Management use practices and environmental conservation in Applications. 16(4): 1608-1618. Research Unit share their fi ndings by southwestern national forests, USA. In: Camarda, publishing papers in scientifi c journals, I.; Manfredo, M. J.; Mulas, F.; Teel, T. L., eds. Global White, Carleton S.; Moore, Douglas I.; Craig, John A. Challenges of Parks and Protected Area Management. 2004. Regional-scale drought increases potential soil making presentations at scientifi c Proceedings of the 9th ISSRM; 2002 October 10-13; La fertility in semiarid grasslands. Biol Fertil Soils. 40: 73-78. meetings, and producing technical Maddalena, Sardinia, Italy. Sassari, Sardinia, Italy: Delfi no, reports. In so doing, they are making Carlo, ed.: 385-392. a signifi cant contribution to the body of scientifi c knowledge about the Southwest. Many of these efforts are listed with the articles in this report. Other recent efforts are listed below. Calamusso, B.; Rinne, J. N. 2004. Distribution and abundance of Rio Grande cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki virginalis), relative to an introduced salmonid, in Northern New Mexico. In: Scrimgeour, G. J.; Eisler, G.; McCulloch, B.; Silins, U.; Monita, M. eds. Forest Land- Fish Conference II — Ecosystem Stewardship through Collaboration; 2004 April 26-28; Edmonton, Alberta. Canada. Proc. Forest-Land Fish Conf. II.: 31-37. Calamusso, Bob; Rinne, John N.; Edwards, Robert J. 2005. Historic Changes in Rio Grande Fish Fauna: Status, Threats, and Management of Native Species. American Fisheries Society Symposium. 45. Dubey, Robert J. 2008. Genetic Differentiation of Lineages of Tubifex Tubifex from the San Juan River, New Mexico. The Southwestern Naturalist. 53(2): 268-272. Dubey, Robert; Caldwell, Colleen. 2004. Distribution of Tubifex tubifex Lineages and Myxobolus cerebralis Infection in the Tailwater of the San Juan River, New Mexico. Journal of Aquatic Animal Health. 16: 179-185. Dubey, R. 2005. Distribution and Status of Rio Grande Cutthroat Trout and Native Montane Rio Grande Fishes in New Mexico. Las Cruces, NM: New Mexico Cooperative A cottonwood tree beside the Middle Rio Grande. Photo: Keith Coronel

MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN — RESEARCH REPORT 2008 www.fs.fed.us/rmrs 20