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Aerosol Trace Metal Concentration And AEROSOL TRACE METAL CONCENTRATION AND DISSOLUTION CHARACTERISTICS FROM KNOWN DUST EMITTERS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA KAUKURAUEE ISMAEL KANGUEEHI (BSC HONS EARTH SCIENCE) Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Master of Science (in Geology) at Stellenbosch University. SUPERVISOR: Dr Susanne Fietz CO-SUPERVISOR: Prof Frank Eckardt December 2017 DEPARTMENT OF EARTH SCIENCES Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za DECLARATION By submitting this report electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe any third-party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. Signature: Date: December 2017 Copyright © 2017 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved i Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr Susanne Fietz and my co-supervisor Prof Frank Eckardt for all the guidance, comments and suggestions during this project. I couldn’t have wished for better supervisors. In the same breath, I also want to thank Prof Roy, your comments and insight in this project is highly appreciated. Thank you for all the suggestions and discussions we had over the course of the project. I would also like to thank Johanna von Holdt for providing me with the samples used for the analytical experiments. I would also like to thank the NRF and NSFAF for financial assistance during this project, without this institutions, this project wouldn’t have been possible. To all my family and friends, whose names will probably fill up another thesis. Thank you so much, I am here today because of all your motivations, encouragements, support, love, kindness and prayers. To my parents: I will forever be indebted to you guys, thank you for all the support through all these years. To my mentor, my dad, Mr Godwin Murangi and Cynthia Kandorozu, words cannot explain how much you guys have done for me all these years, my achievements will always be yours as well. I am blessed to have you guys as part of my life, your prayers definitely pulled me through it all. Special shout out goes to Athina Kenned, Peter Iikondja, and Shelley Haupt for proof reading through my thesis besides your busy schedules. Lastly but not least, I want to thank the Almighty Lord for everything, for being with me through thick and thin. Thank you for directing my steps daily and I couldn’t have done this without your love, mercy and grace. I dedicate this thesis to my late brother Uaisapo Kangueehi, you might be gone but I miss you every day and my joy is your joy. ii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration .................................................................................................................................. i Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... ii Table of contents ...................................................................................................................... iii List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... vi List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ ix Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... x Uittreksel ................................................................................................................................... xi Chapter 1: General Introduction ................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Aims and Objectives ................................................................................................... 4 1.3 Structure of the thesis .................................................................................................. 5 Chapter 2: Literature Review .................................................................................................... 6 2.1 Significance of dust research....................................................................................... 6 2.2 Dust and climate ........................................................................................................ 11 2.3 Southern Hemisphere dust sources ........................................................................... 12 2.4 Major circulation systems around southern Africa ................................................... 17 2.5 Long range dust transport in southern africa ............................................................. 19 2.6 Trace elements in oceans........................................................................................... 20 2.7 Bioavailability of trace elements ............................................................................... 21 2.8 Geomorphology of sources ....................................................................................... 23 2.9 Study Areas ............................................................................................................... 24 2.9.1 Etosha Pan .......................................................................................................... 25 2.9.2 Makgadikgadi Basin .......................................................................................... 26 2.9.3 Kuiseb River ...................................................................................................... 27 iii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za 2.9.4 Omaruru River ................................................................................................... 29 Chapter 3: Determining dust transport pathways from southern Africa major dust sources using HYSPLIT ................................................................................................................................. 30 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 32 3.2 Methodology ............................................................................................................. 35 3.2.1 HYSPLIT ........................................................................................................... 35 3.3 Results ....................................................................................................................... 48 3.3.1 Locations ............................................................................................................ 52 3.3.2 Different seasons ................................................................................................ 54 3.3.3 Traveling directions ........................................................................................... 56 3.4 Discussion ................................................................................................................. 58 3.4.1 Dust travelling potential ..................................................................................... 58 3.4.2 How seasonality and location influences pathways direction ............................ 60 3.4.3 Impact on phytoplankton ................................................................................... 61 3.4.4 Air mass pathways climatology in southern Africa ........................................... 62 3.4.5 Travel distance/long range transport, residence time and re-circulation ........... 62 3.4.6 Hysplit modelling method application in South America and Australia ........... 64 3.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 67 Chapter 4: Trace Metal Compositions, Particle Size Analysis and Bioavailability of the Dust . .......................................................................................................................................... 68 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 70 4.2 Methodology ............................................................................................................. 73 4.2.1 XRD analysis ..................................................................................................... 73 4.2.2 Particle size analysis .......................................................................................... 73 4.2.3 Complete digestion method ............................................................................... 74 4.2.4 Cation analysis- ICP-MS ................................................................................... 74 iv Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za 4.2.5 Bioavailable leaching experiment ...................................................................... 75 4.3 Results ....................................................................................................................... 77 4.3.1 General Sedimentological Characteristics of the Samples ................................ 77 4.3.2 XRD Results .....................................................................................................
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