Utah State University DigitalCommons@USU

Reports Utah Water Research Laboratory

January 1981

A Survey and Evaluation of Shallow Groundwater Contamination Hazards in the State of Utah

Edward P. Fisk

Calvin G. Clyde

Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/water_rep

Part of the Civil and Environmental Engineering Commons, and the Water Resource Management Commons

Recommended Citation Fisk, Edward P. and Clyde, Calvin G., "A Survey and Evaluation of Shallow Groundwater Contamination Hazards in the State of Utah" (1981). Reports. Paper 489. https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/water_rep/489

This Report is brought to you for free and open access by the Utah Water Research Laboratory at DigitalCommons@USU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Reports by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@USU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. A SURVEY AND EVALUATION OF SHALLOW GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION

HAZARDS IN THE STATE OF UTAH

by

Edward P. Fisk and Calvin G. Clyde

HYDRAULICS AND HYDROLOGY SERIES UWRL/H-81/04

Utah Water Research Laboratory College of Engineering Utah State University Logan, Utah 84322

June 1981

ABSTRACT

A survey was made to appraise current man-made contamination of shallow groundwater in Utah. Very little has been published on the subject, and most of the information was obtained by personal observa­ tion and through interviews of individuals concerned with water quali ty protection in Utah. After presenting the relevant physi­ ographic, geologic, and hydrologic characteristics of the various regions of Utah and discussing how these relate to groundwater con­ tamination in general, representative groundwater quality hazards in 32 sites or regions in Utah are presented. A very wide range of hazards to groundwater quality was found to exist. These cases cover the range of situations which need to be covered for an effective shallow groundwater pollution control program. Shallow aquifers with the largest amounts of deleterious contami­ nants underlie cities and towns. Agricultural areas generate greater quantities of dissolved salts and possibly other contaminants, but the contamination is spread over considerably larger areas and thus is more dilute. Improper disposal of oil-field brines is a very serious problem in the state. Leaking disposal ponds, mining operations, and poorly managed solid waste dumps are serious hazards locally. Septic and other wastes from recreational activities in the state are a small but increasing hazard. By law, the State of Utah has the authority and enforcement framework to cope with the problems of shallow groundwater contamina­ tion. More understanding, personnel, guidelines, regulations, and funding are needed to bring the protection of shallow groundwater quality into perspective with the present heavy emphasis upon surface water quality.

iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Financial assistance for the preparation of this study was supplied to the Utah Water Research Laboratory (WR62) through funding from the Utah State Legislature for groundwater resources research. This is to express gratitude to all those who contributed infor­ mation, assistance, and encouragement toward the completion of this investigation. Particular thanks are extended to the innumerable county sanitarians, "208 Study" directors, personnel of the Utah Divis ion of Environmental Health, the U. S. Geological Survey, the Utah Division of Oil, Gas, and Mining, the Utah Geological and Mineral Survey, the Utah Water Research Laboratory, and others who freely furnished data for this report during personal interviews.

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page INTRODUCTION 1

Purpose 1 Background 1 Scope • • 2 Definitions 3

CONTAHINATION 5

General Statement • . • 5 Agricultural Contamination 5

Irrigation . 5 Fertilizers 5 Pesticides 0 6 Livestock . • • . . . 6 Other Agricultural Problems 6 Municipal and Domestic Contamination • 6 Liquid Wastes • 6 Solid Wastes 7

Industrial Contamination • 7

Liquid Wastes • 7 Solid Wastes • • 7 Radioactive Wastes 7

Natural Water Quality Deterioration 7

Saline Lakes 9 Saline Bedrock • 9 Mineralized Springs • 9 Toxic Elements. 9

EXAMPLES • · 11

General Statement • • · 11 Wastewater Impoundments • • 11 Middle Rocky Mountain Province · 14 Heber Valley (1). • • • 14 Strawberry Reservoir (2) • 17 Weber River Valley (3) 0 · 17 Wasatch Front Canyons (4) 0 · 18 Pineview Oil Field (5) . · 18 Ogden River Valley (6) • · 18 Cache Valley (7) • • 18 Bear Lake Area (8) · 19 Colorado Plateaus, Uinta Basin Section • 19 Oil-field Wastes • · 19 Duchesne Area (9). · 20 Altamont Area (10) · 20 Vernal Region (11) · 21 Roosevelt Area (12) . · 22

v TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)

Page

.Colorado Plateaus, Canyonlands Section, • • 22 Canyonlands Region • • 22 Book Cliffs Area (13) • 23 Castle Valley (14) • • 23 Spanish Valley (15) • • 23 La Sal Region (16) • • 23 Four Corners Area (17) . • 23 Colorado Plateaus, High Plateaus Section · 24 Pleasant Valley (18). · 24 Joes Valley (19). . · 24 Sanpete Valley (20). . • 24 Upper Sevier River Valley (21) · 25 Basin and Range Province • • 25 Washington County (22) • · 25 Iron County (23) 0 • 26 Beaver County (24) • 26 Delta Region (25). • 26 Utah Valley (26) • • 27 Jordan Valley (27) • • • • 28 Tooele and Rush Valleys (28) • · 30 Great Salt Lake Desert • · 30 East Shore Area (29). · 30 Willard Creek Fan (30) • 31 Lower Bear River Basin (31) • 32 Northwestern Utah (32) e · 32 EVALUATION • 35 Conclusions • 35 Neglect of Shallow Groundwater Quality • 35 Types of Contamination • • 35 Frequency of Occurrence • 35 Other Considerations • 36 Ranking of Hazards 0 • 0 • 36 Contamination in Watercourses 37

Recommendations . • 37 REFERENCES • 39 APPENDIX • · 41 Physiography • · 41

General Statement • 0 0 • · 41 Middle Rocky Mountain Province · 41 Colorado Plateaus Province · 41 Basin and Range Province • 43 Geology • 43

Middle Rocky Mountain Province • 43 Colorado Plateaus Province • 43 Basin and Range Province · 44 Geohydrology • • 45

vi LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1 Principal areas of saline groundwater and mineralized springs in Utah 8

2 Locations of the examples of shallow-groundwater contamination described in this report • 12

3 Physiographic provinces and general geography of Utah 42

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page 1. Maximum contaminant levels for drinking water 3 2 Potential hazardous wastewater impoundments 13 3 Water quality data for Heber Valley 16 4 Indices of shallow-groundwater contamination in Utah by kind of source, contaminant, and geographical area • 36

vii

INTRODUCTION

Purpose Although surface waters and groundwaters obey the same bas i.c laws of nature, ground­ Contamination of shallow groundwater has water movement is greaty influenced by been studied in most sectors of Utah. Most s ubsur face cond it ions. Because 0 f aq ui fer of the numerous investigators have examined propert ies, groundwater moves slowly, mixes groundwater contamination as a side issue of slowly with contaminated waters, is extremely a more general hydrologic investigation. difficult to decontaminate, can flow upward Heretofore, no attempt has been made to draw or downward as well as horizontally, and this information into one reference on generally has more time to react chemically shallow g roundwa ter con tam i nat ion. The with the geologic formations through which it pur pose of th is invest igat ion is to search p ercola tes. out as many relevant studies as is practical, summarize their findings, and discuss their Within this state and throughout the future implications. Such a study should be nation, the amount of fresh water underground of value in assessing present levels of is far more abundant and widespread than all groundwater contamination in the state of the fresh water contained in streams and and especially in advising the various lakes at any given time. In most cases a agencies concerned so that their efforts may given volume of groundwater is more expensive be more effectively coordinated in the to develop than surface water. It is usually future. available any season of the year and in areas away from streams. Because of the large With greater emphasis placed upon amount in storage, groundwater is less surface-water contamination, the investiga­ affected by short-term droughts than is tion of groundwater contamination in Utah has sur face water. Groundwater temperature and lagged. This is partly due to a scarcity of quality are more uniform throughout the people who understand the physics and year. chemistry of groundwater contamination and to the more obvious nature of surface-water As the sur face-water resources of Utah contamination. approach full utilization, groundwater is being more widely used. Some basins are just Shallow groundwater will be defined for beginning to be tapped, and others are t he purposes of th i s report as water wi th in a lready overdeveloped. Cons ider ing the the vadose zone and within the first signifi­ forecast increase in demand for water in cant water table aquifer below the land sur­ Utah, now is the time to formulate management face and other shallow aquifers immediately policies and methods of preserving the adjoining them. In areas where shallow quality of this extremely vital resource. groundwaters are in ready hydraulic com­ It is hoped that this report will be a municat ion wi th sur face waters, the ground­ significant contribution in evaluating the water contamination problem is usually present status of shallow groundwater con­ inseparable from a surface-water problem. tamination so that future study and regula­ Contaminated groundwaters, however, are much tion can be more orderly and unified on a more difficult and are far more costly to statewide basis. decontaminate. Therefore, methods of pre­ vention and reduction of groundwater contami­ Background nation should be stressed more emphatically. Through the years, many groundwater­ Because underground waters move slowly, quality investigations have been made in Utah contamination can continue unnoticed for by various agencies of the federal, state, many years and once detected its remedial and local governments as well as some by measures are very lengthy, difficult, and private interests. Prominent among these expensive. Often it has been convenient to investigators are the Utah Division of overlook these shallow groundwater problems. Environmental Health, the Utah Division of In many areas shallow groundwater contamina­ Water Resources, the United States Geological tion can spread to deeper aquifers. Neglect Survey, the State Engineer, and various of the deterioration of a valuable resource county governments or associations of them. is no longer acceptable in view of this Of special significance are the "208 Studies" state's anticipated growth in the next few on water quality management which have been decades. Knowingly causing and leaving fostered by the federal government and aggravated environmental problems for future carried out by individual counties or groups generations to solve is unjustified in the of county governments. These stud ies have current mores of our society. concentrated on surface water quality, but

1 some contain important data on shallow the future to encompass all conceivable groundwater quality. aspects of groundwater contamination. The United States Geological Survey has Scope published several Water-Supply Papers and other technical reports describing the Wqile an attempt has been made to gather geology and groundwater conditions, including data from the entire state, many areas have water quality, of areas within the state not been studied in sufficient detail to (LaPray and Hamblin 1980). The Utah Depart­ document shallow groundwater contaminat ion. ment of Natural Resources, through the State This investigation did not make an exhaustive Engineer's office, has been carrying out a search of every locality in the state. How­ statewide investigation of water resources in ever, a representat i ve profi Ie of the s1tate cooperation with the United States Geological was made. All of the major categories of Survey. Publications of this joint effort groundwater contamination and many localities contain valuable information needed to of their occurrence were investigated. evaluate shallow groundwater contamination (LaPray and Hamblin 1980). The U. S. Water Groundwater usage in many areas of Resources Council has published some reports suspected contamination has been wisely on groundwater contaminat ion in Utah. These avoided as a means of prevent ing health and include Appendix XV of the Great Basin sanitation problems. Through the years, as Region, Comprehensive Framework Study (1971a) safer municipal supplies were developed away and Appendix XV of the Upper Colorado Region, from the towns, pioneer water wells were Comprehensive Framework Study (1971b). abandoned before contamination problems arose. Beneath the centers of the larger towns, shallow groundwater contamination State and county health organizations do doubtlessly exists, but few attempts have not normally publish groundwater contamina­ been made to document the problem or control tion data, but they were very cooperative the sources of the contamination. No in making information available for this case of shallow groundwater contamination was investigation. For the past two years the omi tted from this study because the aquifer Utah Water Research Laboratory has conducted was no longer being exploited. Future needs investigations in shallow groundwater con­ for shallow groundwater could arise un­ tamination. Some results of those investi­ expectedly at any given site. To have gations have been summarized in this report. the groundwater contaminated by irresponsible The Utah Geological and Mineral Survey has predecessors is no longer acceptable by published some reports concerning shallow federal and state laws (P.L. 92-500 of 1972, groundwater contamination and mineralized P.L. 93-523 of 1974, and Utah Code Annotated, springs in the state (Kaliser 1976, McMillan Title 73, Chapter 14, 1953 and as amended 1978, and Mundorff 1970 and 1971). 1967) . A section of the Safe Drinking Water Act Shallow groundwater has different of 1974 (P.L. 93-523) was directed at the meanings to various individuals. Certainly, prevention of groundwater contamination which the first unconfined aquifer beneath the land could endanger drinking water supplies in the surface is included in the definition even if United States. Individual states are now it extends to considerable depth. Several required to establish and enforce their own aquifers may occur within 30 meters of the Underground Injection Control Programs under land surface, and they, likewise, are within the direction of the United States Environ­ the scope of this shallow groundwater mental Protection Agency (EPA). The EPA has investigation. Bedrock aquifers that full responsibility for this program on contain brackish or saline connate water are Indian lands such as the Uintah and Ouray not within the scope of this study. Shallow Indian Reservation and the Navajo Indian bedrock aqui fers which contain fresh water, Reservation. however, are included. The federal regulations require that all Except in areas of rising groundwater, aquifers or portions of aquifers presently the very shallow alluvial and bedrock forma­ serving as drinking water supplies be desig­ tions usually contain the highest quality nated for protection. Furthermore, any water because waters percolat ing down from aquifer that potentially could be used for the land surface are normally of high quality drinking water, even if it contains up to and these shallow aquifers may be repeatedly 1 0 , 000 mill i gram s per 1 i t e r (mg / 1) 0 f tot a 1 flushed. Shallow aquifers, containing water dissolved solids (TDS), should also be of high qiJality, are more susceptible to designated for protection (U.S. Environmental contamination from the land surface. The Protection Agency 1979). The emphasis of focus of this report, then, is upon one this program has been the prevention of of Utah's most valuable, yet most easily groundwater contamination from faulty in­ damaged, assets. jection wells, but its application should rightfully encompass all forms of injection The unconsolidated alluvium, composed of including land-surface disposal. It is stream and floodplain deposits, which under­ anticipated that, following the earlier lies innumerable valleys of the state gener­ example of surface water, the scope of the ally is the best aquifer material. The main protective legislation will be expanded in concentration of man's activities has been in

2 the valleys. This is where much contamination 1979). However~ to avoid listing both of groundwater has been found and is where specific terms, contamination also will be this vital resource needs the most protection used in this report in a general sense to from further deterioration. Lacustrine encompass all varieties of contamination, depos i ts also compose cons ider able port ions pollution, or deterioration of water quality. of fill materials in some valleys. Other These two terms are used in the three fore­ less prevalent geologic formations and going senses throughout this report. structures, such as volcanic rocks and alluvial fans, often contain shallow ground­ Contaminating substances include all water. All of the geologic formations manner of gaseous, liquid, and solid matter, described above, including bedrock forma­ dissolved or suspended materials, and living tion~, are within the scope of this investi­ organisms. Consequently, a substance must be gation when they contain fresh groundwater. speci fied in determining what concentrat ion levels in water constitute pollution or Definitions contamination. Obviously, this level also depends upon the intended use. Each use has Many scientific terms will be used in different criteria of acceptance or rejection this report without definitions as they are of a water. in common technical usage and well fixed in meaning. A few critical terms, however, have For the purpose of this report, the varied in meaning through the years. Among criteria for drinking water were selected as these, "contamination" and "pollution" gener­ the most practical and universally accept­ ally are used as synonyms. In recent years, able. The most recent standards set forth by pollution has come to mean the presence of an the EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency unusual and objectionable substance in water 1976) shall be the governing criteria for in a concentration that makes the water unfit this report. The State of Utah has adopted for an intended use (Ves i 1 ind 1975). Con­ the EPA's National Interim Primary Drinking tamination has come to mean the presence of a Water Regulations. substance normally in water but present at a concentration that makes the water unfit for Table 1 is a summary of the State of an intended use (Lippmann and Schlesinger Utah and EPA drinking water regulations for

Table 1. Maximum contaminant levels for drinking water.

State of Utah EPA Cont ami nant mg/l Primary Secondary Primary Secondary

Arsenic 0.05 0.05 Barium 1.00 1.00 Cadmium 0.010 0.010 Chloride 250. 250. Chromium (total) 0.05 0.05 Copper 1.0 1.0 Foaming agents 0.5 Hydrogen sulfide 0.05 Iron (tot al) 0.3 0.3 Lead 0.05 0.05 Manganese 0.05 0.05 Mercury 0.002 0.002 Nitrate (as N) 10. 10. Selenium 0.01 0.01 Silver 0.05 0.05 Sulfate 500. 250. TDS 2000. 500. Zinc 5. 5. Coliform bacteria La La Color (color units) 15. 15. Odor (TONb) 3. 3. pH (pH units) 6.5 to 8.5 6.5 to 8.5 Turbidity (TUC)

aThis means one organism per 100 ml as the arithmetic mean of all samples examined. However, there are al- lowable modifications to this specification which are given in the basic references. bThreshold odor number. CTurbidity units. dUnder certain conditions, this specification may be increased to 5 TU. ern Utah this specification is 5.0 TU for drinking water from groundwater sources not subjected to complete treatment.

3 the more commonly encountered contaminating July 19, 1979) allow some flexibility (Utah substances. The reader is referred to the Department of Health 1979). For instance the basic sources of this information for the state allows the total dissolved solids of less common contaminants (U.S. Environmental drinking water to range up to 2000 mg/l where Protection Agency 1976 and Utah Department of no better water than that containing up to Health 1979). Maximum contaminant level is 1000 mg/l is available. The EPA requirement the maximum permissible level of a given in this category is 500 mg/l. contaminant that may be delivered to a user of a public water system. Unless otherwise noted, these maximum levels are expressed in Minor amendments have been made to the milligrams per liter (mg/l). The primary Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations standards for dr inking water are mandatory (Federal Register, August 27, 1980b), but and cover those contaminants designated as Table 1 still represents the latest criteria directly related to the protect ion of human for quality of drinking water. Utah's health. Attorney General now construes the regulative powers of the state to cover the design and Secondary standards relate more to construction of private water wells where the aesthetic quality of drinking water and contamination of the drinking water of thus are not necessarily grounds for rejec­ individuals is conc;:.erned. Formerly only t ion of a water. The Nat ional Secondary water wells serving the public were regulated Drinking Water Regulations (Federal Register, for public-health considerations.

4 CONTAtvJlNAT ION

General Statement the solution of groundwater contamination problems. Deterioration of groundwater quality can occur in countless ways, originating from Agricultural Contamination both natural phenomena and human act i vi ty. Often contamination results from a combina­ A prime water use is for agriculture. tion of natural and man-made events. Certain The consumptive use of water by crops activities of man may cause contamination in removes nearly pure water and leaves a water one setting but not in another. Water more concentrated in dissolved minerals qual i ty deter ior at ion can happen in rather to seep into the subsoil. Additionally, the innocent or unintentional ways. For example, seeping water leaches out minerals and upstream diversion of high-quality ground­ organics from the soil and may carry chemical water or surface water can leave to a residue fertilizers, pesticides, and other crop of low-quality water downstream. wastes underground. Farm animal wastes are another significant source of shallow ground­ Under natural conditions, groundwater wa ter pollut ion, e spec ially where 1 i ves tock suffers continuous degradation in quality. are confined and concentrated in large Precipitation contains only trace amounts numbers. Practically all agricultural of impur it ies. Then as water moves over land endeavors degrade shallow groundwater and and seeps below the land surface, it absorbs surface water qualities. numerous organic and inorganic constituents through chemical and physical reactions. Irrigation These reactions, notably the solution of minerals, continue to take place as the water The concentration of dissolved salts in percolates through the pores and fractures of shallow groundwater through the processes of earth materials underground. Saline, connate, evapotranspiration and leaching is gradual juvenile, or other highly mineralized waters t imewi se and d i str i buted over large areas. occasionally rise from below and commingle This nonpoint source contamination has been with shallow groundwater to cause rapid viewed with little concern in most farming degradation of quality. areas of Utah. However, an overall salt balance must be maintained if irrigation is Superimposed upon this continuous to be perpetuated. Where groundwater is to process of natural groundwater degradation be repeatedly reused for agricultural or are the effects of human uses of water for other purposes, management procedure~ for innumerable purposes. Practically all uses maintaining the salt balance are essentIal. cause deterioration of water quality. When used water is returned to groundwater reser­ For the purpose of preventing salt voirs, deterioration of water quality is accumulat ion in the root zone, it is common usually intensified. pr act ice for i rr igator s to apply more water to their fields than the crops can use. Another natural source of groundwater Although this practice is essential for contamination, which is peculiar to the crop produc t ion, it tends to deter iorate the Bonnevi lIe Basin subsect ion of Utah, is the quality of shallow groundwater and surface residue of salt water left by the evaporation streams receiving deep-drainage underflow. of Lake Bonneville as it receded to its Groundwater normally deteriorates in quality remnant, the Great Salt Lake. Vast areas of as it percolates through soluble earth the Great Salt Lake Desert, other peripheral materials. Irrigation practices can ac­ lowlands, and now isolated basins retain the celerate this action and compound it by the accumulated salt and brines from several reuse of groundwater. On the other band at thousand years of evaporat ion. Compound ing anyone point in an aquifer, water quality th is proces sis the added concentr at ion 0 f cou ld improve over time as leachable salts salts by the transpiration of phreatophytes are depleted, but this is not a practical and other desert vegetation. remedy in Utah. Excessive withdrawals of groundwater can induce saline waters into an Once a contaminant reaches the subsoil, aquifer to deteriorate water quality. nLlmerou s chemi cal, phys ical, and b iolog ical processes can alter its compos,ition. Fertilizers Each situation of groundwater contamination has its own properties in its own physical Fertilizers used in agriculture are and chemical setting. An understanding of essentially organic and inorganic compounds all the processes and how they are affected containing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potas­ by the geologic framework is necessary for sium. Due to the high solubility and mobility

5 of nitrates, the nitrogen bearing fertilizers intentionally located where surface water and are the most significant sources of ground­ grpundwater pollution would be minimal. Many water contamination. Since most crops use cattle feedlots and other confined animal nitrogen in the nitrate form, nitrogen facilities have begun collecting their wastes fertilizers are selected for their properties to prevent pollution of adjacent streams. of breaking down slowly into nitrates. When Unfortunately, many disposal methods have neither consume-d by crops nor removed from merely swi tched the pollut ion hazards from the soil by denitrifying bacteria, the surface water to shallow groundwater. nitrates are potentially polluting to ground­ water. Because of adsorption, nitrifying Other Agricultural Problems bacteria, oxidation, and related phenomena, the other compounds of nitrogen usually Crop wastes; clean-out waters; spillages represent only insignificant portions of the of chemicals, fuels, and other harmful total nitrogen leached to shallow ground­ substances, and many other threats to shallow water. Ni trates move wi th groundwater as a groundwater contamination also exist in the fully dissolved constituent, but occasionally 'broad realm of agriculture. they may be weakly adsorbed by aquifer particles. Nitrates in drinking water are extremely hazardous to infants when they ex­ Municipal and Domestic Contamination ceed the maximum contaminant level specified by EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Liguid Wastes 1976) • Waste products from homes are often Both organic and inorganic phosphorus allowed to pollute or contaminate shallow fertilizers are readily fixed by clay miner­ groundwater. Sludges and effluents from als in the soil. Therefore, phosphorus sewage treatment plants are being applied to mobility is very restricted underground. the land in ever increasing amounts to Phosphorus normally would occur only in lessen pollution of surface waters. Leachates groundwater where fixation' is saturated from these sites and from municipal dumps and upstream or where clays are lacking in the landf ills, have become paramount threats of soil and subsoil. contamination to shallow groundwater. Lawns, gardens, pets, and other animals around the Potassium is usually applied sparingly home can yield contaminants to shallow to the soi 1 in inorganic forms. These com­ groundwater within towns and cities. Ni­ pounds are readily adsorbed or involved in trates, organics, pathogenic organisms, and ion exchange reactions in the soil. Thus, increased dissolved solids are indicators of n e i the r pot ass i um nor ph 0 s ph 0 r u s fer t i 1- this type of groundwater pollution. izers present great hazards of contamina­ tion to g~oundwater, except under unusual Perhaps the most serious consequence of circumstances. groundwater pollution by sewage wastes is the communication of diseases. This is of Pesticides particular danger in rural areas where septic tanks and domestic water wells are sometimes The general category of pesticides in close proximity. Fortunately, -many includes a wide range of chemicals, many of disease-bearing organisms are not moved far which are toxic to humans and animals as well in fine-grained subsoils. In highly permeable as to agricultural pests. Generally they are s ubsoi Is, however, pathogenic organi sms"""'-can synthetic organics that have low solubility be moved great distances with percolating in water but are relatively mobile and groundwater. Due to their small sizes, persistent underground. Trace amounts of pathogenic vi ruses can be transported much these chemicals may render groundwater unfit longer distances underground than can harmful for human consumption. Their movement and bacteria and protozoa. Because sewage water persistence depend upon the particular contains the needed nutr ients, bacteria and pesticide, the chemical characteristics and other harmful organisms can survive for long biological activity within the particular periods of time underground. soil, and prevalent subsurface geohydrologic conditions. The strategic positioning of drinking water wells at safe distances and directions Livestock from sept ic tanks and other sewage disposal sites may eliminate the immediate hazard of For normal dispersed operations, animal disease where the population density is wastes are of little concern, but more fairly sparse. The degradation of shallow recently in Utah there has been an increase groundwater quality from these sources in concentrated livestock and poultry feeding becomes a more serious problem as long as operations. The solid and liquid wastes from human populations continue to increase. these operations are sources of nitrogen, phosphorus, and other constituents capable of Municipal sewage effluents and sludges polluting sur face water and shallow ground­ contain numerous toxic substances of all water. The pollution problems actually varieties because of the wide range of caused depend on the site se lec ted, and activities in homes and in small industries d i ff icult ies are largely caused by the fact using municipal sewage for disposal of their that very few of these operations have been wastes. Sewage wastes contain unoxidized

6 organic substances, which can cause offensive discharged into surface reservoirs, pits, or odors and colorations of groundwater. lagoons. Leakage from such surface impound­ ments often causes serious groundwater Other municipal or domestic hazards to pollution. Occasionally liquid wastes are shallow groundwater include the use of salt spread on the land surface or used as fer­ for de-icing city streets and for water tilizers and the soil is not able to bio­ softening, leaky sewer 1 ines, leaky fuel or chemically degrade or adsorb enough con­ chemical tanks, cemeteries, insecticides, taminants to protect the underlying shallow fertilizers, accidental spills, backyard groundwater. Sometimes liquid wastes are dumping, and more. The shallow groundwater illegally dumped into abandoned gravel pits beneath towns and cities generally bears a or landfills and thereby pose serious threats load of contamination. of contamination to shallow groundwater. Solid Wastes Leaks in pipelines, storage tanks, and other facilities are a particular hazard to Man's trash, garbage, and other solid groundwater quality. Small leaks often go waste materials generally are deposited on undetected for long per iods of time, e spe­ the land surface in municipal dumps or cially leaks from burJed pipes and tanks. As bur ied in landfills. Formerly these wastes a result, toxic chemicals, fuels, and other were burned. This drastically reduced pollutants have caused serious groundwater the total mass but not the potential con­ pollut ion. Accidental spi lIs, the disposal taminants. Leachates from unlined dumps and of oil-field brines, and mine drainage waters landfills may carry contamination to underly­ are acute problems in some localities of ing shallow groundwaters. Utah. Although the State of Utah requires that Solid Wastes solid wastes be deposited no less than 1.5 m (5 ft) above the water table, several Solid wastes of industry are often active dumps are placing solid wastes closer placed in sanitary landfills on the indus­ than that. Some are even placing solid try's own property or in municipal landfills wastes at or below the water table. The or dumps. Leachates from these can pollute problem is in part because water tables shallow groundwater and are much more potent normally rise seasonally in response to than are solid domestic wastes. Leachates recharge from rainfall and snowmelt and then from mine tailings and stored industrial fall during the dry summers. Unusually wet materials are other significant sources seasons will cause abnormally high water of shallow groundwater pollution locally in tables. This is one of the main reasons Utah. for the 1.5-m (5-ft) limitation on proximity to the water table. A second reason is that Radioactive Wastes some soils have little absorptive properties. To minimize the hazard, 1.5 m (5 ft) is not Radioactive materials may occur natural­ enough. Leachate from groundwater perco­ ly at modest depths below the land surface lating slowly through solid waste can be a and pollute the groundwater. Indeed, ores of major source of shallow groundwater contami­ uranium and other radioactive materials are nation regardless of the age of the dump or commonly concentrated into commercial de­ height above the water table. posits by the action of groundwater. The mining, transport, milling, processing, and Industrial Contamination uses of radioactive materials are all closely regulated by the federal government, The numerous industries of Utah use or but the hazards of shallow groundwater generate a wide variety of substances that pollution have been overlooked to a great are capable of contaminat ing groundwater if extent in the past. Mere trace quantities mishandled. Most industrial causes of can be dangerous. The pr imary threats come groundwater pollution are localized or point from the disposal of radioactive wastes, sources. Many industrial wastes are inten­ leaching of mine tailings, and accidental tionally placed far below ground level. This spills. disposal practice does not always protect the qua 1 i t Y 0 f the non sal i neg r 0 u n,d wate r . Natural Water Quality Deterioration Unintentional spills, leaks from pipes or s tor age fac iIi ties, saline blowdown water s , Of the natural ways in which groundwater and leachates from industrial sources often quality may deteriorate, three are especially contaminate shallow groundwaters. troublesome in Utah. They are the concentra­ t ion of minerals in terminal lakes through Liquid Wastes evaporation, the presence of saline water and minerals in bedrock formations, and the flow Liquid industrial wastes can be extreme­ of saline waters from mineralized or thermal ly toxic organic complexes, acids, salts, springs. In spite of the fact that evapora­ fuels, oils, or even radioactive materials. t ion and spr ings are cons idered to be land­ The most dangerous are often injected into surface phenomena, they are responsible deep saline aquifers through wells, but for a great deal of contaminated shallow leaks or upward seepage can cause contamina­ groundwater in this state. Figure 1 shows t ion of shallow aquifers. Some wastes are known areas of naturally mineralized ground-

7 Groundwater TDS> 500 mg/l

• Mineralized Spring

1_- ______. I ~_Beaver!

I J I Iron

l-- I Cit; I '._-- - I Washington - _-_oj St.Geor~ I Kane ' . Virgin. R. I- .. ---...... _- J. ______

Figure 1. Principal areas of saline groundwater and mineralized springs in Utah (taken from Price and Waddell 1973, Price et a1. 1974, and Milligan et a1. 1966).

8 waters and the sites of the principal miner­ the water temperature, generally the more alized springs in the state. deeply seated the source of the mineraliza­ tion is believed to be. When this rising Saline Lakes water encounters permeable alluvium before it reaches the land surface, a considerable Wa t e r from a sal in e 1 a k e can e as i 1 y portion may disperse laterally into the enter shallow aquifers peripheral to the lake shallow alluvium and cause widespread con­ because of the relatively high specific tamination underground. we ight of the salt water. This more dense water tends to move downward and away from One notable example of mineralized the lake while fresh groundwater may be spring water contaminating the shallow moving from the surrounding areas toward the groundwater of a large area is Midway Hot lake in the same aquifer. As an evaporating Springs located in the western margin of 1 ake diminishes in size, it leaves a res idue Heber Valley. These, and about 35 more of briny groundwater in the subsoil and mineralized springs throughout the state, sometimes encrusts the land surface with are described by Milligan et ale (1966). salty evaporites, which are readily leached Figure 1 indicates the locations of those into the shallow groundwater. Hydrophytes mineralized springs as shown on a figure in and phreatophytes near such lakes accelerate that publication. Two more recent publica­ the cqncentration of salts. tions (Mundorff 1970 and 1971) describe major thermal and nonthermal springs of Utah. The Saline Bedrock great majority of the thermal springs are highly mineralized, whereas the state's There are several areas in Utah where nonthermal springs are rarely mineralized. ancient, marine, sedimentary rocks contain a Mundor ff (1970) reported that most thermal residual of interstitial sea water at moder­ springs yield water especially high in sodium ate to shallow depths below the land surface. chloride, and all spring waters with TDS over Some nonmarine evaporites, pyroclastics, and 3000 mg/l are of the sodium-chloride type. other mineralized rocks contain brackish Nearly all of the thermal and mineralized connate water. Many ancient rock formations springs of the state are associated with contain large amounts of soluble minerals, faults. Underground passageways for water such as gypsum, which will continue to movement often occur where bedrock is dis­ dissolve in percolating groundwater after the rupted by faulting. connate water has been displaced. The Mancos shale of the Colorado Plateaus Province is an example of this type of saline bedrock. Its Toxic Elements permeabili ty is qui te low, and water perco­ lates through it very slowly. All waters Heavy metals and other toxic elements that percolate through it or through alluvium are naturally present in the shallow ground­ derived from it are degraded considerably in water in several locali ties of Utah. Small quality. amounts of any of these substances in drink­ ing water may constitute a health hazard Mineralized Springs (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1976). Most occurrences are the result of natural Mineralized springs usually form streams processes of geologic erosion, transport, and or discharge into nearby streams or lakes. deposition of these toxic substances and Shallow aquifers may be recharged by streams their subsequent solution by percolating or lakes contaminated by such springs. groundwaters. The leaching of ore bod ies is Springs normally rise from appreciable one example of how toxic elements may enter depths in the bedrock formations. The higher shallow groundwater.

9

EXAMPLES

General Statement Wastewater Impoundments

The ensuing examples are presented as a Before presenting the specific examp~es, representative profile covering the cate­ it seems appropriate to review a preVIOUS gories of known or potential shallow ground­ statewide survey of man-made sources of shal­ water contamination hazards existing in Utah. low groundwater contamination. Cleave et al. They do not cover all known problem sites. (1980) deal with the hazards to shallow Furthermore, many actual problem sites are no groundwater quality presented by seepage from doubt undetected. certain ponds, pits, and lagoons located throughout the state. Field invest igat ions Cited publications are used where were not made to substantiate the data available in describing the examples. Addi­ obtained by mail from the various impoundment tional information is drawn from personal owners and from the public files of the observations by the writers supplemented by Utah Department of Natural Resources and Utah oral communications from competent indi­ Department of Health. Extensive field tests viduals monitoring water quality for govern­ would have to be made to verify the presence mental agencies. In respect to the prefer­ of shallow groundwater contaminat ion at any ence of most of them, these oral communicants particular site mentioned in the study. are kept anonymous. Nevertheless, the study is of value in locating high priority problem areas and in In many cases, suspected groundwater providing preliminary information con­ contamination has not been proved conclusive­ cerning them. Voluntary responses were not ly. Often, it would be necessary to collect obtained from all of the wastewater impound­ samples at a number of different sites within ment owners in the state. Consequently, a suspected problem area at a number of many more such sites may pose serious threats different times and analyze them to prove to shallow groundwater quality. water standard violations. Such testing was not within the scope of the project. There­ Cleave et a1. (1980) assessed the over­ fore, a number of the examples are only put all groundwater contamination potential using forth as sites where a contamination hazard several parameters, such as the presence of exists in the judgment of the writers and pond 1 inings, the nature of the under lying which regulatory agencies would be well earth formations, and the proximity to nearby advised to watch closely. water supply wells. Any wastewater impound­ ment with an assessed rating above 19 was The descr ipt ions 0 f these examples are considered to be a potential threat to sequenced in the general order followed in s hallow groundwater qual i ty. Th is arbi tr ary covering the state geographically in the dividing line of 19 may not be the best line appendix of this report. Each example of demarcation. Some ponds, pits, or lagoons is given a reference number following the rated below 20 may be truly hazardous while title 0 fits locat ion. Figure 2 shows the some rated above 19 may not be. A total geographical locat ions of all 32 examples, of 34 sites was found to be potentially identified by their respective reference hazardous to shallow groundwater quality numbers. (Table 2). For this report, the emphasis of the In addition to the groundwater­ ensuing descriptions is upon man-made sources contamination potential, each site was rated of shallow groundwater contamination. for its potential threat to water supply Sites of natural groundwater deterioration sources situated in the anticipated direction are nol: stressed. References are given, and of the underground movement of the wastewater the reader is directed to the published plume. This rating was done according to a literature for further information. Technical method described by Silka and Swearingen Publications of the Utah Department of (1978). In this method down gradient Natural Resources are of particular value and surface water supplies were considered as provide many additional references. The well as water supply wells. This latter reader is directed to the appendix for rating was also referred to as a health a discussion of the regional physiography, hazard rating. In that study, three marginal geology, and geohydrology of Utah, which (a rating of 19) municipal lagoon sites (Nos. is presented for background material. 19, 23, and 30) were located wi th in 1600 m

11 Millard ",,--... < J(Sevier Dry ~' fLake I I \-" Emery .,!

_--LI __.. ___ ._ _ __

: Iron L~~_}~rr Garfield

I '----- I San Juan I Washington "' -- -j St.~e~~ : Kane Virgin R.

I- .. ---..... -- 1- u. - .. _____ M'O •••• _._-.'" ...... ______

Figure 2. Locations of the examples of shallow-groundwater contamination described in this report.

12 Table 2. Potential hazardous wastewater impoundments (after Cleave et al. 1980, p. 29).

Groundwater Potential Site County Location/Owner Usage Type Contamination Health No. a Potential Hazard

1 Duchesne Altamont Municipal, secondary 21 3A 3 Beaver Beaver Municipal, primary 21 4B 10 Daggett Dutch John Municipal, secondary 23 4B 15 Tooele Grantsville Municipal, secondary 24 lC 17 Emery Huntington Municipal 22 6B 19 Summit Kamas Municipal, primary 19 SA 23 Cache Logan Municipal 19 SA 25 Beaver Milford Municipal, secondary 20 3A 29 Iron Parowan Municipal 23 5A 30 Weber Plain City Municipal, secondary 19 7A 38 Beaver Dixie Nat'l Forest Municipal, stabilization 20 4B 39 Beaver Forest Service Municipal, lagoon 20 4B 44 Box Elder Perry Municipal 21 5A 52 Beaver Wasatch Nat'l Forest Municipal 23 2B 5 Davis Woods Cross Industrial 23 6B 7 Salt Lake Salt Lake City Industrial, tertiary 22 4C 9 Davis Woods Cross Industrial 23 6B 10 Davis No. Salt Lake Industrial, secondary 22 5A 22 San Juan Blanding Industrial, mineral 21 2B 24 Emery Huntington Industrial, various 22, 6B 26 Cache Hyrum Industrial, waste 22 3A 37 Davis Woods Cross Industrial 20 3A 39 Salt Lake Salt Lake City Industrial, waste 22 4B 1 Cache Logan Agricultural, secondary 20 SA 3 Sanpete Centerfield Agricultural, waste 24 7A 5 Beaver Minersville Agricultural, waste 20 3A 6 Beaver Minersville Agricultural, waste 23 4B 1 San Juan Union Oil Co. Oil and Gas, waste 21 aD 3 Grand Atlantic Richfield Oil and Gas, waste 25 aD 4 Grand Getty Oil Co. Oil and Gas, waste 25 aD 7 Emery Bolindes Oil and Gas, waste 25 aD 9 Summit American Quasar Oil and Gas, waste 20 aD 10 Summit Champlin Petrol. Oil and Gas, waste 20 aD 17 San Juan Atlantic Richfield Oil and Gas, waste 20 aD 18 Duchesne Friar Oil Oil and Gas, waste 26 3A 19 Duchesne Gulf Oil Corp. Oil and Gas, waste 26 3A 20 Duchesne Oil Dev. of Utah Oil and Gas, waste 24 SA

aRating the potential endangerment to a water supply (Silka and Swearingen 1978).

Case A - Highest Priority: Rate the closest water well within 1600 meters of the site that is in the anticipated direction of waste plume movement. Case B - Second Priority: If there is no well satisfying Case A, rate the closest surface water within 1600 meters of the site that is in the anticipated direction of the waste plume movement. Case C - Third Priority: If no surface water or water well satisfying Case A or B exists, rate the closest water supply well or surface water supply well or surface water supply within 1600 meters of the site that is not in the anticipated direction of waste plume movement. Case D - Lowest Priority: If there are no surface waters or water wells within 1600 meters of the site in any direction, rate the site as "aD." Select the appropriate rating for the given distance and case:

Distance Case A Case B Case C Case D (Meters)

~ 200 9A 8B 7C >200, ~ 400 7A 6B 5C >400, ~ 800 5A 4B 3C >800, ~ 1600 3A 2B lC >1600 aD

13 (1 mi) of an existing water well and also of the Pennsylvanian-Permian Oquirrh Forma­ listed on Table 2. Several other cases tion thrust over a younger Mesozoic sequence. of shallow groundwater contamination are discussed in Chapter 6 of that report Heber Valley has no alignment of hills but are not assessed. to suggest normal faulting. It is postulated that the valley was formed by the ancient Provo River, which carved a deep, broad valley out of relatively soft rock (Baker 1970). Then a subsequent rise in base level, Heber Valley (1) due to uplift in the south, was responsible for the aggradation of alluvium that present­ The initial field investigations for ly fills the valley. In addition to the this project were performed in Heber Valley, alluvium produced by stream erosion, exten­ which is situated in Wasatch County with the sive glacial activity in the Wasatch and Wasatch Range on its west flank, foothills of Uinta mountains supplied large quantities of the Uinta Mountains on the northeast flank, sediment to the valley fill. and foothi Ils of the Rhodes Plateau to the southeast. The valley was studied in some The valley surface is a smooth alluvial detail, and several samples of water were plain, formed by the streams that traverse taken from shallow wells for analysis. Funds it. At the present time eros ion is tak ing did not permit this to be done elsewhere, but place; but, over geologic time aggradation this experience was beneficial when ap­ has been responsible for the present topogra­ praising other areas in the state for shallow phic expression of the land surface. groundwater contamination. Also, appreciation was gained for the intricate task of proving On the western edge of the valley near the existence and extent of groundwater Midway, a group of thermal springs and hot contamination. pots present some unusual geologic and hydrologic features (Baker 1970). Within Bounded on all three sides by foothills an area of about 11.7 km 2 (4.5 mi 2), the and mountains, Heber Valley is roughly thermal springs have deposited up to 21 m (70 triangular in outline. The valley floor has ft) of calcareous tufa. The springs and hot an area of approximately 114 km 2 (44 mi 2) pots have a temperature range from 12° to and an average elevation of about 1707 m 40°C (54° to 104°F) (Baker 1970). It is (5600 ft). Heber City (population about believed that meteoric water descends along ~500) is the county seat and the largest town fractures and solution cavities in the 1 n the valley. Much smaller communi ties in carbonate rocks of the Wasatch Range; it is the valley are Midway to the west of Heber then heated at depth and returns to the City, Charleston to the southwest, Daniels surface through fractures in the bedrock directly south, and Center Creek to the under artes ian pressure. The source of heat southeast. The Provo River enters from the has not been positively identified. An north at an elevation of 1792 m (5880 intrusive igneous body is emplaced beneath ft) and flows southwestward into Deer Creek the thermal area. Mines in the area that Reservoir (elevation 1651 m (5417 ft» at the have penetrated the igneous body record lowest end of the valley. From there the relatively high temperatures and warm water, river flows out of Heber Valley, into the indicating the existence of an abnormally narrow gorge of Provo Canyon, and thence to high geothermal gradient. Utah Lake. Four tributaries of the Provo River enter Heber Valley. Three of these, Groundwater hydrology. The principal Center, Daniels, and Lake Creeks, dr ain the water-bearing----r0rmation of Heber Valley is Rhodes Plateau and enter from the southeast, the unconsolidated alluvium which covers the and the fourth, Snake Creek, enters from the entire valley floor. There is very little Wasatch Range on the west. The principal differentiation within this unconsolidated industries of Heber Valley are livestock and mass. In broad perspective, the valley dairy farming, lumbering, mining, tourism, alluvium is one extensive, homogeneous, and recreation. unconfined aquifer. However, locally there are exceptions to this generalization. Regional geology. The geology of the area surrounding Heber Valley is extremely Geophysical surveys indicate that the complex (Baker 1970). To the west the alluvium may be as much as 244 m (800 ft) valley is bounded by the Wasatch Mountains, thick near the middle of the valley, but the where an incomplete Paleozoic-Mesozoic sec­ maximum thickness encountered in water wells tion is disrupted by faulting and granitic has been only 94 m (310 ft) (Baker 1970). intrusives. On the valley's eastern flanks The groundwater of this valley is percolating Tertiary igneous extrusives, chiefly ande­ slowly westward and southward toward the sit ic pyroclast ics, form low to intermediate lower elevations at Deer Creek Reservoir. hills abutting the southwestern extremity of The Deer Creek Dam is believed to have cut the Uinta Mountains. Limi ted exposures of off virtually all groundwater underflow from the Tr iass ic -Jur ass ic Nugget Sands tone out­ the valley. Accordingly, groundwater con­ crop from beneath the igneous extrusives tamination generated in the valley or in along the valley margin. All along the tr ibutary valleys will remain in temporary southern flank of the valley, the Charleston storage in the alluvium and ultimately enter Thrust Fault has left an extensive exposure Deer Creek Reservoir and be mixed with any

14 surface water contamination. Water from this Water quality. The quality of ground­ reservoir is used for municipal and other water in Heber Valley is generally very good, purposes in the Provo and greater Salt Lake but there are some indications of man-made City areas. and natural contamination. Groundwaters occurring in the area of thermal springs Because of the sparse population and underlain by tufa deposits in the northwest large diluting flows of both surface and part of the valley are degraded to various groundwater, groundwater contamination has degrees by natural means. They are charac­ not been a ser ious problem in Heber Valley. terized by high TDS (ur to 2000 mg/l), However, accelerated population growth is hardness (up to 1270 mg 1 as CaC03), and increasing the hazard for valley residents sulfate-ion (up to 850 mg/l) content (Baker and downstream users as well. It is extremely 1970). The level of quality deterioration important that the groundwater contamination apparently depends upon the amount of dilu­ hazards of the valley be appraised while tion by fresh, shallow groundwaters as mixing there is still time to act before public takes place underground. health problems arise in the valley and downstream. A comprehensive, basin-management Water from five wells in and around plan is urgently needed for Heber Valley. Heber City and water from the city's three groundwater drains were sampled for quality analysis at the Utah Water Research Labora­ An integrated sewage collection and tory on 26 July 1979. Results of these treatment sy stem is now under construct ion analyses are presented in Table 3. A list of for the communities of Midway, Heber City, the constituents analyzed is given in and Charleston. This scheme will reduce the Column 1 and the maximum concentration of bacteriological and nutritive-contamination these allowed by the State of Utah for hazard but may not control chemical degrada­ drinking water is given in Column 2 (Utah tion of the valley's waters. Department of Health 1979). Columns 3, 4, and 5 contain analyses of the groundwaters The Central Utah Project is preparing to sampled at the three principal drain outlets divert large quantities of high-quality water of Heber City. Listed in Column 6 is an from the Colorado River drainage area through analysis of the water from a private well in Heber Valley for Wasatch Front communities. Heber City located at 312 South Main Street. This will alleviate the pollution hazard The qualities found in these four samples to downstream users by dilution but will do are virtually the same and are fairly good. little to solve the groundwater quality The exception is that all three drains are problems of the valley. heavily polluted with fecal coliform bacteria and even the private well has some of them. Numerous bedrock aquifers occur in the hills surrounding Heber Valley. Although The Christensen well data of Column 7 their permeabilities and storage capacities indicate fecal coliform bacteria at pollution are relatively low, a significant amount of levels in a household system located about 3 precipitation infiltrates into them and km (2 mi) southeast of Heber City. This percolates slowly toward the valley floor. system is supplied by a domestic supply This groundwater enters the valley alluvium well only 19 m (63 ft) deep in proximity to underground but emerges as springs in its own septic tank and the septic tanks of a areas where the underground formations are few neighbor ing systems, also using shallow not capable of conducting all of it. Several water wells. In this type of rural situation, fresh water springs occur in the northeast the hazard of contamination of well water is and northwest portions of the valley and a quite high. Numerous single-dwelling systems few small spr ings and seeps are found along dispersed throughout Heber Valley obtain the south flank. Many springs in the north­ water from shallow wells and use septic tanks west portion of the valley yield water of for waste disposal. They now present a poor quality. health hazard only to their users; neverthe­ less, there is a limit to the number of such Static water levels in wells are very systems which can ex ist wi thout creat ing a shallow in the north, east, and west portions general health hazard not only for themselves of the valley. Some wells flow in those but also for downstream groundwater users. areas. In the south-central portion water 1 eve ls are relat i vely deep, but no rever sal Two of the sampled wells (see Columns 8 of gradients is known. The water table in and 9 of Table 3) have relatively high Heber City is so shallow that extensive concentrations of zinc in their waters. They d rains had to be constructed and the sewer are located, respectively about 1.6 and 3 km system had to be lined to prevent an in­ (1 and 2 mi) south of Heber City. These are ordinately high flow of groundwater into the probably natural occurrences as zinc is sewer system. Water table levels throughout normally not used in well or pump construc­ the valley fluctuate several meters on an tion, unless the column pipe is galvanized. annual cycle. Water levels are lowest in Nevertheless, the zinc possibly could be of early winter and are highest in June just man-made origin because both well sites are after the snowmelt. High levels are usually located near garages, where trucks and busses sustained through the summer due to irriga­ are serviced, and wastes may be disposed of tion of farms, gardens, and lawns. improperly on the sites.

15 Table 3. Water quality data for Heber Valley.

Heber City Heber City Heber City Anderson Utah Drinking Drain, Drain, Drain, Well Water Limit 3rd No. & 4th No. & 5th No. & (D-4-5 ) Constituent 6th W.· 4th W. 4th W. 5 bcb (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) I. Metals (mg/l) Arsenic 0 .. 050 <0.0006 <0.0006 <0.0006 <0.0006 Barium 1.000 0.231 0.231 0.255 0.250 Cadmium 0.010 <0.003 <0.003 <0.003 <0.003 Chromium 0.050 <0.020 <0.020 <0.020 <0.020 Copper 1.000 <0.010 <0.010 <0.010 <0.010 Iron 0.300 <0.018 <0.018 <0.018 <0.018 Mercury 0.002 0.0003 <0.00015 0.00052 0.00033 Manganese 0.050 <0.008 <0.008 <0.008 <0.008 Lead 0.050 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 Selenium 0.010 <0.0007 <0.0007 0.0062 <0.0007 Silver 0.050 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 Zinc 5.000 <0.004 <0.004 <0.004 0.243

II. Nonmetals Chloride (mg/l) 250.0 11.0 5.0 13.0 11.0 Cyanide (mg/l) 0.2 0.14 0.16 0.19 0.12 Fluoride (mg/l) 1. 4-2.4 0.06 0.70 0.80 0.04 Nitrate (mg!l as N) 10.0 1.83 1.64 3.00 1.60 Sulfate (mg/l) 250.0 26.0 24.0 27.0 27.0 Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l) 500.0 255.0 257.0 284.0 269.0 Turbidity (NTU) 5.0 0.9 0.6 0.7 0.4 pH 6.5-8.5 7.03 7.01 6.95 6.93 Trihalomethanes (ll g/ 1) <1 <1 <1 <1 Total Coliform 1/100 ml TNTCa/l 00 ml TNTC/100 ml TNTC/100 ml 1/100 ml Fecal Coliform TNTC/100 ml TNTC/100 ml 156/100 ml <1/100 ml

Christensen Golden West Wasatch Halloway Utah Drinking Well Well COl,l.nty Well Well Constitutent Water Limit (D-4-5) (D-4-5) (D-4-5) (D-4-5) 4 ddc 18 add 7 aad 8 bbc (1) (2) (7) (8) (9) (10)

I. Metals (mg/l) Arsenic 0.050 <0.0006 0.00118 <0.0006 <0.0006 Barium 1.000 0.187 0.072 0.246 0.225 Cadmium 0.010 <0.003 <0.003 <0.003 <0.003 Chromium 0.050 <0.020 <0.020 <0.020 <0.020 Copper 1.000 0.011 0.013 0.055 <0.010 Iron 0.300 <0.018 0.111 0.070 <0.018 Mercury 0.002 0.00033 0.0003 0.00065 0.0002 Manganese 0.050 <0.008 0.018 <0.008 <0.008 Lead 0.050 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 Selenium 0.010 <0.0007 0.0008 0.00335 0.00155 Silver 0.050 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 Zinc 5.000 0.026 4.35 13.24 0.046 II. Nonmetals Chloride (mg/l) 250.0 2.0 16.0 5.0 5.0 Cyanide (mg/l) 0.2 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.12 Fluoride (mg/l) 1.4-2.4 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.03 Nitrate (mg/l as N) 10.0 0.36 1. 70 1.31 1.41 Sulfate (mg/l) 250.0 6.0 22.0 10.0 10.0 Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l) 500.0 171.0 263.0 332.0 278.0 Turbidity (NW) 5.0 1.0 1.9 2.2 0.5 pH 6.5-8.5 7.14 7.18 7.41 7.19 Trihalomethanes (llg/l) <1 <1 <1 <1 Total Coliform 1/100ml 73/100 ml <1/100 ml <1/100 ml <1/100 ml Fecal Coliform 19/100 ml <1/100 ml <1/100 ml <1/100 ml

aTNTC = too numerous to count. 16 The well represented by the data of Strawberry Reservoir (2) Column 10 shows no indications of groundwater contamination. It is the supply for a mobile­ Located high in the mountains about 40 home park about 1.6 km (1 mi) south of town km (25 mi) southeast of Heber City in Wasatch having its own septic tank and drainfield. County, Strawberry Reservoir has become a This septic-tank system has failed in the very popular recreational attraction. It is past due to overloading, but the drainfield a man-made reservoir built on the Strawberry wa s then expanded to accommodate the growth River, wh ich flows eastward into the Uni ta of the park. Basin and the Colorado River drainage system. A few recreational communities have developed One motel on the south margin of Heber near the lake shores. The small dwellings City was shut down a few years ago by the and trailer houses there are mainly occupied county health department because its water in the late spring and summer months. supply well was polluted by coliform bacteria Numerous campers and recreational vehicles presumably from its own septic tank system. are present also. Effluents from septic The situation was not corrected until Heber tanks, privies, and sewage dumped on the City extended its water and sewer services to ground by campers pose a threat to shallow the motel. groundwater quality in the area of the reservoir. Furthermore, a gravel pit about One older home in the Center Creek area, 1.6 km (1 mi) north of the lake is being a few miles southeast of Heber City, is using used for garbage and solid waste disposal a shallow water well as a cesspool. Center (Mountainland Association of Governments Creek is served by a private water company 1980). Leachates from this pit could be whose supply is not threatened by this well. contaminating the shallow groundwater in that Nevertheless, such practices pollute shallow vicinity. groundwater. This violation of state law may be more prevalent than might be supposed in Weber River Valley (3) Heber Valley and in other communities that were originally supplied by individual The Weber River and its tributaries domestic wells. If no community sewerage drain the western end of the Uinta Mountains system is available, individuals may be and a large central segment of the Wasatch tempted to use an abandoned domestic well for Range, and u It imate ly d i sch arge into the sewage disposal at the fir st i nd icat ion of Great Salt Lake. Several reservoirs and septic-tank failure. Pioneer water wells many irrigation canals are being used in were hand-dug and were of large diameter. water supply development from this extensive Even some drilled wells can be made into river system. cesspools. All connections are underground, making the detection of these illegal systems The Weber River and its tributaries pass nearly impossible. through one after another of a series of dis­ connected alluviated valleys. The shallow The livestock, dairy, and farming all u v i um 0 f the vall e y sis r e c h a r g e d by activities of Heber Valley are sources of stream flow and percolating irrigation water. nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients in the Toward the lower ends of these alluviated principal streams (Mountainland Association valleys, the streams and reservoirs receive of Governments 1980). Wi th existing inter­ re-emerging groundwater. The main streams connections between surface and groundwaters, act as both water suppl ies and drains. The it is likely that these and other pollutants water may change between surface and ground­ from animal wastes and irrigation return flow water several times as it flows through the are reaching the shallow, unconfined ground­ system. water of this valley. Fish hatcheries near Kamas yield signi­ Another source of shallow groundwater ficant amounts of nutrients and TDS to the contamination exists at the northern end of surface streams. Fortunately, the mountain Heber Valley about 16 km (10 mi) north of streams are of such high-quality water that Heber City. There are several abandoned and the pollutants are diluted to safe levels. act ive mines in that region and nearby into The sparse population and high-quality water Summi t County and the Weber Ri ver drainage are the principal reasons for lack of serious area. Drainage waters from these mines and contamination problems in this area. Never­ leachates from mine tailings dumps are t heless, element s 0 f shallow groundwater believed to be contr i but ing TDS, sulfates, pollution are present and steps to control and trace metals to the shallow groundwaters groundwater and surface water contamination of both basins (Mountainland Association of must be taken in the Weber River system. Governments 1980). In the Park City-Hailstone area, A more detailed study of Heber Valley mine tailings dumps and mine drainage may have yielded more cases of suspected waters could contaminate the shallow ground­ shallow groundwater contamination. The water. Some of the mine drainage waters are s arne s ituat ion probably would occur in most being used for irrigation. De-icing roads in inhabited valleys of the state. the winter with salt, evaporation from the

17 reservoirs, and reuse of irrigation waters lined with clay. The problem was rectified, all contribute to higher TDS in the shallow but not before the shallow groundwater was groundwater. polluted. Generally the oil-field brines of that area are injected into deep disposal Shallow water tables and septic tank wells. However, it is possible that some failures are also a problem in the area. of the injection wells may be faulty and Dairies and feedlots are found in four of the the brines could be reaching the shallow alluviated valleys. There are open dumps at groundwater. the towns of Kamas, Oakley, and Henefer. All of the foregoing conditions are positive Ogden River Valley (6) threats of pollution to shallow groundwater quality in Summit County (Mountain1and The Ogden River drains the mountains Association of Governments 1980). east of Ogden. Huntsville is located near the east shores of the Pineview Reservoir A little further downstream, in Morgan about 16 km (10 mi) east of Ogden. The County, the town of Morgan has a sewage reservoir has been constructed where the treatment system. The terminal sewage three principal forks of the Ogden River lagoons of this system never overflow. come together. The valley is particularly Much of the treated sewage effluent may be wide in that vicinity. The reservoir and seeping into the ground to contaminate many of the canyons of the area are used for the shallow groundwater beneath the lagoons, recreational activities throughout the which are located near the Weber River. year. There are several picnic areas, Evaporation from the lagoons concentrates campgrounds, and private cabins. The town of the dissolved minerals and pollutants and Huntsville and other small communities in the aggravates the subsurface contamination. Ogden Valley use individual septic tanks and drainfields. The Huntsville drainfields In recent years new housing developments are so close to the reservoir as to pose have been started in Weber River Valley about hazards of shallow groundwater contamination 16 km (10 mi) from Ogden. One of these, as well as to the lake itself. Highland Subdivision, had a large number of septic tank failures, which constitutes a The Huntsville City Dump is excavated hazard to the shallow groundwater. Building into the water table. An inspection of the has been stopped there by county health dump in 1974 "revealed that a potential water officials until sewers are built. Total pollution problem existed because of an containment lagoons are planned. extremely high groundwater table, compounded by the fact that it is within 6 m (20 ft) Wasatch Front Canyons (4) of the Ogden Ri vel' South For k streambed" (Weber River Water Quality Planning Council In the Salt Lake area, the Wasatch Front 1977, p. 11-41). In this case it is evident canyons are beginning to di scharge polluted that shallow groundwater contamination caused waters above and below ground. These canyons by the dump is transferred rather quickly to have become heavily used year-round for the streambed nearby and subsequently to recreational purposes and for permanent and Pineview Reservoir. seasonal dwellings. Emigration Canyon, for instance, has about 200 septic tanks and Big Cache Valley (7) Cottonwood Canyon has about 50. The sept ic tanks in these very narrow valleys discharge Cache Valley is a large intermontane into the porous alluvium that supplies the valley located partly in Cache County between many shallow water wells serving the homes northern extensions of the Wasatch Range and and recreat ional f aci Ii ties. The repeated the Bear River ,Range. The valley is closely water reuse in these shallow groundwater related geologically to the basins of the systems poses a growing health hazard as Basin and Range Province in spite of its contaminants accumulate in the limited geographical location. alluvium of these and other valleys of the Wasatch Front. The Utah portion of Cache Valley has a number of population centers and industries The town of Mantua has had many septic related to agriculture which could be signi­ tank failures due to a shallow water table. ficant sources of shallow groundwater con­ This problem was aggravated when the reser­ tamination. Roughly half of Cache Valley voir near the town was filled, and the lies in Idaho. The Bear River re-enters Utah resultant rise in the water table inundated from the nor th through C ache Valley and several septic tanks. A sewage system thence flows westward out of Cache Valley and planned for the town will connect to that of into Box Elder County where it is joined by Brigham City. the Malad River and a few other streams before it enters the Great Salt Lake. Within Pineview Oil Field (5) southern Cache Valley, the Bear River is joined by the Logan River and a few other The oil wells in Summit County present sizable tributaries. the possibility of shallow groundwater con­ tamination from oil field brines and sludges. The cities of Logan, Hyrum, Wellsville, In the Pineview Oil Field one operator had a Lewiston, and Richmond have sewage treatment brine pit which leaked even though it was systems. North Logan has one under construc-

18 t ion, and ot her commun i ties ar e p lann i ng I t is located at Randolph. The water table them. Smithfield is the largest town in is only a few feet below the bottom of this Cache County wi thout such a system. There dump. A small drainage runs directly into have been several septic tank failures in the the open dump area. Dur ing wet per iods, more recently developed areas. North leachate is probably formed in the open dump Logan has s ~mi lar problems, wh ich are to be area from where it can then percolate to the eliminated with the new sewer system. nearby water table and contaminate the shallow groundwater. Hyde Park is a small town located about 6 km (4 mi) north of Logan. It is entirely About 1.6 km (1 m) from the southern served by individual septic tank systems. A shores of Bear Lake, a meat packing company very shallow well was drilled and sampled at has excavated for a waste pond wherein blood the lower end of the town by personnel of the and wash water are placed for disposal. This Utah Water Research Laboratory. The sampled unlined pit was dug an estimated 5 m (15 ft) shallow groundwater was found to contain high into porous subsoil in an area where the concentrations of nitrates, phosphates, mer­ water table is very shallow. The liquid cury, and other contaminating constituents. wastes have ready access to the shallow I t was concluded that "the shallow aquifer groundwater. in the vicinity of Hyde Park is being con­ t ami nated by man-made wastes" (Clyde et a1- In the area between Sage Creek Junction 1981b). The mercury could be entirely from and Woodruff, the water table is too high for natural sources. The shallow groundwater septic tank drain fields to function proper­ that underlies other small towns and villages ly. Some shallow groundwater contaminat ion of Cache Valley is likely to be polluted by has taken place and, accordingly, the septic tank discharges. county health department has denied some septic tank permi ts (Bear River Associat ion Towns with sewerage systems may have of Governments 1979). polluted groundwater resulting from leakage in those systems. The sewerage systems of A similar situation exists on the west Logan and Hyrum also function as groundwater shores of Bear Lake, especially between dr ains. As the Logan system was installed, Garden City and Pickleville, where high water pipe joints were left unsealed and the sewage tables and tight soils prevent the proper pipes beneath many basement floors of private function of septic tank drain fields (Bear homes were perforated so that shallow ground­ River Association of Governments 1979). Some water would enter the sewage system rather total-containment septic tanks on the west than flood the basements of those homes' shore are known to be leaking septic ef­ during wet periods. Such combination fluents. A sewerage system is planned, drainage and sewage collect ion systems are but it may not service the entire area where certain to contaminate shallow groundwater. groundwater protection is needed. A sub­ In dry seasons sewage water enters the division on the east side of the lake also shallow groundwater when the hydraulic has a high water table. A groundwater gradients are reversed. As the contaminated quality problem could arise there in the water percolates slowly away from its source, future. The hazard to shallow gr oundwater only a fract ion of it can be expected to be quality is expected to increase as more recovered by subsequently flowing back into recreational properties are developed around the combination system. Bear Lake. Bear Lake Area (8) As Rich County has good prospects for oil and gas product ion, groundwater quali ty Bear Lake is located in Rich County in a hazards could be created by that industry in broad valley shared partly with the State of the future. In February of 1979 at South Idaho. In this sparsely populated area, one Eden Canyon, about 5 km (3 mi) southeast of would expect to find little, if any, shallow Bear Lake, an oi I-well reserve pit gave way groundwater contamination. Some elements of and discharged drilling fluid, chemicals, and contamination are present, nevertheless. liquid wastes down the canyon towards the lake. The flow never reached the lake, but There are three active open dumps in it spread along the canyon bottom and the Rich County, all of which may be potent ial residue on the surface was left to seep into hazards to the groundwater quality near where the shallow groundwater or be taken into the they are located. At Woodruff a ditch is lake by subsequent surface flow. This be ing filled by solid wastes, but not close incident was investigated by the Utah to any known shallow groundwater. This site Division of Oil, Gas, and Mining. should not be a hazard if the dump is proper­ ly covered to prevent rain water from leach­ Colorado Plateaus, Uinta Basin Section ing the solid waste materials. Another possibly hazardous dump site is located about Oil-field Wastes 3 km (2 mi) from Bear Lake near Meadowville where the water table is shallow and thus The oil fields of the Unita Basin closer to the waste material. present some of the most serious man-made threats to the quality of the shallow ground­ The third dump site is definitely a water in that region. The same problem hazard to the quality of shallow groundwater. exists in the Four Corners area and in other

19 parts of Utah where oil and gas are produced. Duchesne. After their shallow domestic wells The problem is essentially that of improper went bad, the residents of those houses could disposal of oil-field brines, sludges, not collect damages because the previous and other liquid and solid wastes of the owner s had failed to establish water rights pet r ole um in d u s try. M0 s t 0 f the sew a s t e on the wells. Although these people were materials are being injected in deep brine unabl~ to collect damages because of this disposal wells or are being hauled by tank technicality, the polluted groundwater trucks to licensed dumps. However, some of remains the property of the State of Utah at these wastes are being illegally deposited on the site. The offense was actually against the land surface and constitute a very the state and probably should have been serious threat to shallow groundwater quality pursued further by the authorities. A recent in oil producing areas of the state. vis i t to the's i te revealed that no current dumping is taking place but the involved Some brines are spread on unpaved residents are still unable to use their wells oil-field roads for dust control purposes. for domestic purposes because of continued Much of this is destined to contaminate the pollution of the groundwater. shallow groundwater. In some areas of the Uinta Basin the oil-field waters are not Cleave et a1. (1980, p. 34) descr i be an highly saline, and they are used for ir­ incident near Roosevelt, but in Uintah rigation to a limited extent. Oil, sludge, County, where the residents were awarded and other wastes are still a hazard in those damages because the shallow groundwater of areas, however. In a few petroleum produc­ their wells was polluted by illegal dumping t ion areas the shallow groundwater is natu­ of oil-field wastes. The trucking company rally contaminated by minerals and connate then constructed a lined disposal pit about 8 waters of the bedrock formations. ~m (5 mi) northeast of Roosevelt. It is reported that the pit now leaks and is There are numerous reports of isolated polluting the shallow groundwater. illegal dumps or spills in the oil producing areas of the state. Not long ago, the U. S. Fortunately, there are few cases where Bureau of Land Management reported a salt domestic water supplies have been damaged by water spill near Roosevelt which is now being illegal dumping of liquid wastes, but this investigated by the Utah Division of Oil, does not mean that the practice and its Gas, and Mining. Recently the Uintah Basin impact are negligible. Detection is very District Health Department in Roosevelt difficult, and the resultant contaminated received a complaint that five tank truck groundwater is often not discovered until loads of oil-field sludge were dumped il­ some years after the offenders have gone. legally on the ground in Manila, Daggett County. This incident is also now under Altamont Area (10) investigation. This site is actually in the Middle Rocky Mt. Province, not in the Uinta Oil-field wastes. There are many known Basin. I t was reported that the source of sites of oil-field liquid waste dumping cur­ the illegal wastes was an oil field outside rently active within 10 km (6 mi) of Altamont of Utah. Health author it ies normally do not in central Duchesne County. With a repre­ investigate infractions of pollution regula­ sentative of the Unitah Basin Associa­ tions unless a complaint is registered. tion of Governments some of these sites were visited on the afternoon of 2 July 1980. When new oil and gas wells are drilled, Illegal dumping was wi tnessed on two of the an unlined pit is usually constructed near sites and the other two appeared to have them to receive solid and liquid wastes from received liquid wastes recently. the drilling and completion operations. These pits are subsequently used during production The first dump site was found approxi­ testing, clean-out, well maintenance, and mately 2.1 km (1.3 mi) due east of Altamont occasionally, redrilling operations. Some­ on the south side of the road to Bluebell. times they overflow and contaminate shallow It is a shallow pi t wi th a very porous, groundwater or sur face streams. Leachates unlined bottom about 1/3 hectare (3/4 acre) from these pits remain a continuing hazard to in size. Its bottom had a few puddles of shallow groundwater quality unless the pits water and a hea~y coating of petroleum are properly constructed, maintained, and, sludge, which extended 0.6 to 1 m (2 to 3 when the time comes, abandoned. ft) up the sides of the pit, to which height it evidently had been filled in the recent Duchesne Area (9) past. The Utah Division of Health has taken steps to stop the dumping at this site. There are numerous documented cases of oil-field brines, sludges, and other The second site is located 8 km (5 petroleum wastes having been illegally dumped mi) north of Altamont on a dirt road within a on the ground and in unlined pits in the large farm. A tank truck was observed Uinta Basin region. One notorious case was dumping a load of liquid waste on the ground. that of "Pinders Pits," described by Cleave The appearance of dying vegetation on the et ale (1980, p. 33), wherein oil-field same hillside suggests at least two illegal wastes were dumped for many months into a dump sites on that farm. These sites are small drainage channel upstream from a few wit hi n 1. 6 km (1 mi) u ph i 11 from a I a r g e houses in Duchesne County just west of spring on an adjoining farm to the south

20 where the spring water is used for domestic assure proper disposal of their wastes by and i rr igat ion purposes. The owner of that these trucking contractors. farm reported that he personally witnessed at least 70 tank truck loads of wastes being Municipal and domestic wastes. Some dumped in one day at those sites in the homes in or near the town of Altamont spring of 19~O when he happened to be working have had contaminat ion problems from sept ic in one of his fields past which the tank tank bacteria entering shallow domestic water trucks drove. wells. The Utah Division of Environmental Health is deeply concerned about this hazard The third site was found about 3.4 km at Neola, Bluebell, and other small towns in (2.1 mi) due west of Altamont on the south this area because of the shallow wells and side of the road as it reaches higher high water levels in the thin alluvium. ground immediately west of Lake Fork Creek Valley. The dump site is an unused portion Altamont's sewage treatment lagoons may of a sand and gravel mining operation which be polluting the shallow groundwater in the is now heavi ly coated wi th petroleum waste. town. According to the 208 Study of the Water is seeping from the hillside below Uinta Basin (Horrocks and Carollo Engineers the dump site where the vegetation is dead. 1977, p. IV-5), the Altamont lagoons are leaking considerable amounts of treated The fourth site is about 8.9 km (5.5 effluents into the groundwater below them. mi) west of Altamont on the south side of the Thes e lagoons are receiving more than three same main road. A truck was observed dumping times the amount of water that they were water down the hillside and into a small designed to eliminate by evaporation. All of drainage channel. A whole tank load was this surplus water must be going underground disgorged on the ground, requiring several as there is no surface discharge. Occa­ minutes. s ionally raw sewage has been run into these lagoons. The percolating water is carry­ About 8 km (5 mi) southeast of Altamont ing pollution in the form of nutrients, one oi 1 operator dumps br ines and petroleum pathogenic organisms, dissolved solids, and sludge into a "T" ... shaped slit trench about 61 other hazardous domestic wastes. m (200 ft) in length. This illegal dump site is about 122 m (400 ft) off the road to Upalco and just across the Lake Fork River. Vernal Region (11) The shallow groundwater as well as the river are in danger of pollution. Another operator Industrial hazards. Oil-shale mining has been dumping brine and sludge into a and processing operations may be a threat to series of ponds between Mt. Emmons and future shallow groundwater quality in the Altamont in an area of permeable subsoil. Uinta Basin (Horrocks and Carollo Engineers These two sites are under investigation by 1977). Most of the pilot projects in opera­ state and county health offices. tion today for the production of oil derived from shale of the Green River Formation yield An illegal dump site was found about 8 deleterious wastes which must be disposed of km (5 mi) south of Bluebell near a reservoir. properly. Processing expands the shale to Evidently the dumping of oil-field brines and about 120 percent of its original volume in heavy crude-oil sludges has been continued processes in which the spent shale is highly there for many years. Small amounts of other pulverized. Disposal of this increased solid wastes have been dumped there also. volume of saline material can become a The Utah Department of Health has recently serious hazard to shallow groundwater quality issued a cease and desist order to the because of the large amounts of salts which offender. are leached from the finely ground material. Some oil companies are also polluting A few oil-shale mining operations are the shallow groundwater by disposal of brines presently underway south of Vernal. The into unlined evaporation ponds at numerous shallow groundwater at these sites is proba­ tank farms. Often more of the waste water bly of poor quality naturally. Groundwater goes underground than evaporates. One such from the Green River Formation wherein shale tank farm disposal pond was observed about oil is found tends to be saline. The Uinta 3.7 km (2.3 mi) east of Altamont on July 2. Formation, however, yields water of fairly good quality. The region is characterized by Deep, waste-injection wells can only be vast areas of bedrock outcrops wi th narrow, used for disposal of clear brine water alluviated valleys. Soluble minerals (mainly because they wi 11 otherwise become plugged sulfates) of the shaley bedrock formations and cease to function. All other wastes must and the alluvium derived from them degrade be trucked away from the points where they the shallow groundwater quality considerably. are generated. The oil producing companies contract with common carriers to dispose of Every oil-shale mining site has to be their wastes in pits legally authorized to studied separately. The shallow groundwater receive oil-field brines and sludges. quality is so poor in much of the oil-shale I t appears that tank truck contractors are region that protection may not be needed. At largely to blame for the infract ions 6f the other sites, it is worth protecting. law which pollute shallow grou·ndwaters. The federal government rigorously controls Of course, the oil companies could do more to all aspects of pollution from the oil-shale

21 projects by requiring satisfaction before about 3 km (2 mi) south of Roosevelt on the granting licenses to operate. north side of the very narrow valley of Dry Gulch Creek close to the flowing stream. Phosphate mining operations north of Although it is officially closed, some Vernal are another possible hazard to shallow dumping continues. Much of the old dump is groundwater. There is a phosphate waste pond not covered, and recent dumping and burning a t Rush Creek containing very salty water. give it the appearance of an open dump. It Any leakage from this pond could contaminate extends almost 3/4 km (1/2 mi) along the shallow groundwater. north side of the stream and is adjoined on its north s ide by abandoned lagoons of the There are some oil-fields in Uintah Roosevelt sewage disposal system. Leachates County. These constitute a hazard to the from the abandoned lagoons could also be a shallow groundwater quality of that region if hazard to groundwater and surface water the wastes are being handled there as ir­ quality. responsibly as they are in other parts of the Uinta Basin. Some of the oil-field waste Ballard is a suburb on the east side of waters are used for irrigation in the Vernal Roosevelt that is not connected to Roose­ a rea, but other br ines and wastes from the velt's sewerage system. There have been oil fields may be hazardous. several septic tank failures in that vicinity because of the clay soils. This is a current Uintah County has deposits of coal, tar problem for the community. sands, and gilsonite. The mining and pro­ cess ing of these materials on a large scale One cattle feedlot on the southwest side may lead to groundwater qual i ty hazards in of Roosevelt was moved away from the small the future. Present mining operations stream that it was polluting to a point on are small. the same property next to the city cemetery. The hazard to the surface water is now In Ashley Valley, in the Roosevelt area, considerably reduced, but this action has and in other areas of the Uinta Basin, increased the pollution hazard to shallow irrigation return flows increase the salinity gr.oundwater quality in a location that al­ of streams and shallow groundwater. The ready may have been polluted by the cemetery. Mancos shale and saline soils are responsible for much of this salinity. An inspection of the Duchesne County Dump near Myton was made on 2 July 1980. Sanitary landfills. Uintah County has This dump is on a hillside at the edge of two sanitary landfills. One is just south of the alluvial floodplain of the· Duchesne Gusher about 32 km (20 mi) southwest of River. Although the solid wastes are covered Vernal. It is occasionally burned. The Ute regularly, small drainage channels cut Tribe has another dump next to it. Leachates directly through the dump from adjacent from these dumps could be a threat to the badland hills. When surface water flows from shallow groundwater quality of that vicinity. these channels into the dump site, water can seep into the fresh fill surface of the The second county dump is located about dump and leach the solid wastes into the 8 km (5 mi) northeast of Vernal. Oil-field shallow groundwater. If surface flow is brines and sludges are being dumped into the great enough, erosion could expose the solid southwest part of that dump. Although the wastes to direct infi ltrat ion and leach ing. dump is in a bedrock area, leachates from the Unless these drainage channels are permanent­ dump and the oil-field brines and sludges ly diverted from crossing the dump, the could be seeping down a short distance into hazard to the groundwater quality will Ashley Valley to contaminate the shallow continue. groundwater there. Due to the scarcity of I icensed dumps in the Uinta Basin, illegal Colorado Plateaus, Canyonlands Section dumping is a general threat to shallow groundwater quality. Canyonlands Region Septic tank failures. There have been Waste dumps. Several active and aban­ many septic tank failures in Ashley Valley doned solid waste dumps in the southeast around Vernal. These have been caused by region of Utah have been classified by the high water tables seasonally raised to the Utah Department of Health as causing hazards land sur face by irrigat ion waters. This has to shallow groundwater and surface water been a particular health problem in the quali ty. Pract ically all of these disposal Maeser area of Ashley Valley. Nineteen homes sites burn their trash, except hazardous in the Maeser area have their septic systems wastes and dead animals, and do not adequate­ built below the water table (Horrocks and ly cover the fi lIed port ions of the sites. Carollo Engineers 1976, p. A-I). The Utah Division of Environmental Health, Solid Waste Group, is appraising more than Roosevelt Area (12) 200 dump sites starting in 1981. The protec­ tion of shallow groundwater in this and other In eas tern Duchesne County the old city regions will be studied. dump of Roosevelt continues to be a threat to the quality of shallow groundwater and sur­ Cattle feedlots. There are large cattle face water in its vicinity. It is located feedlots in the Green River City area, but

22 their main threat is to surface water. derived from the bedrock formations. The If these are moved away from the river or new town of Emery had to drill deep wells to ones establi shed away from the river, then obtain good water. they could be a problem in the future for groundwater quality. Spanish Valley (15) Natural salinity. The shallow ground­ A very serious threat to the quality of water quality in much of the Colorado River shallow groundwater exists in Spanish Valley drainage area is threatened by soluble near Moab. The rapid development of new minerals leached from the Mancos shale and homes in this valley has caused concern by other similar bedrock formations of the the Utah Di vi s ion of Environmental Health. Colorado Plateau's geologic sequence. There are more than 100 shallow wells provid­ Although this is a natural phenomenon, ing domestic water for the valley residents addi tional waters moving through the shale (Sumsion 1971). All of the valley's homes because of irrigation of crops, leaking have septic tanks for sewage disposal. canals, and other activities of man have Furthermore, the use of evaporative-type intensified mineralization of the shallow coolers in this area increases salts return­ groundwater. ing to the shallow groundwater. The valley is underlain with unconsolidated alluvium. Numerous saline or brackish-water Shallow groundwater can be contaminated springs in the southeast portion of Utah are readily under these conditions by septic tank not shown on Figure 1. Some have large effluents and agricultural leachates. The amounts of carbon dioxide dissolved in the hazard to groundwater quality caused by reuse water. These mineralized waters proba­ of these waters is very high. The town of bly arise from deeper aquifers and are a Moab obtains a portion of its municipal water natur al source of contami nat ion to shallow supply from wells in this valley; thus its groundwater of the region. One example is groundwater supply is in some danger if the migration upward of salty water from the present trends continue. Moreover, the sewer Carmel Formation causing groundwater con­ system of Moab leaks badly. It acts as a tamination in the Navajo Formation in the San drain to intercept groundwater when water Rafael Swell area. Another example is that levels are high and leaks pollutants to the spr ing waters from the Ferron Sandstone are shallow groundwater when water levels are generally above 2000 mg/l in TDS, whereas the low. quality is much better close to the recharge areas. La Sal Region (16) Book Cliffs Area (13) Uranium, vanadium, copper, and other minerals are mined in San Juan, Grand, and Coal mining is prevalent in Carbon and Emery Counties. The exploration for and the Emery Counties. The mines do not normally mining, milling, and handling of ores in this contaminate shallow groundwater, but their region presents a continuing hazard to the mine drainage and other wastewaters can be a shallow groundwater. Improperly plugged threat to shallow groundwater quality. This exploratory holes can allow deep groundwaters is not a major problem thus far, except pos­ to rise and contaminate shallow groundwater. sibly in the Book Cliffs area of Carbon and This is a particular problem between La Sal Emery Counties where the bedrock associated and La Sal Junction and a general problem with the mines has deleterious soluble throughout the area. At countless sites in minerals. Mine wastewaters of this area the region, tailings dump, ore stockpile, and have contained concentrations exceeding the mill waste leachates pollute the shallow Utah 1 imi ts of selenium, arsenic, sulfate, groundwater with radioactive and other fluorides, manganese, total dissolved solids, deleterious mineral species. Many abandoned and total suspended solids. Most of this sites pose a long-term threat to water mine wastewater goes directly into surface quality. streams, but some is used for agricultural, municipal, and other purposes downstream In Lisbon Valley near La Sal, drainage where it degrades shallow groundwater water from a uranium mine and wastewater from q uali ty. Str ip mining of coal can present a mi 11 exceeded 4000 mg/l in TDS. Shallow unique hazards to the quality of shallow monitoring wells around the unlined disposal groundwater. pits show evidence of shallow groundwater contamination uphill from the La Sal com­ Castle Valley (14) munity water wells. The shallow alluvial and bedrock aquifers have low quality water. In Carbon and Emery Count ies, there is Even though the pits may not discharge into some danger of shallow groundwater contamina­ the groundwater aquifer supplying the wells, tion from septic tanks in the areas of Price, they are a threat to nearby aquifers and Castle Dale, Ferron, and the farming areas of possibly to the community wells. Castle Valley, where shallow alluvium and fractured bedrock formations receive septic Four Corners Area (17) tank effluents as well as agricultural and other wastes. There are very few shallow Oil and gas are produced in the Four water wells in this area because the ground­ Corners area of the state and in many scat­ water is already high in dissolved minerals tered areas north and west of that sector.

23 Shallow groundwater quality is generally the nutrients, nitrogen- and phosphorus (Clyde poor, but some areas have high quali ty that et a1. 1981a). must be protected as a drinking water source. The population of the region is so sparse Mercur ic pollut ion. I n the invest iga­ that very few complaints have been made tion, the trace metal, mercury, was found in about the disposal of oil-field brines or excessive concentrations throughout the study sludges. area in surface waters as well as shallow groundwaters. Average concentrations were One can surmise that some groundwater 0.00255 mg/1 during the study period (Clyde pollution hazards similar to those in the et ale 1981a) or about 25 percent above the Uinta Basin exist. It is reported that maximum limit for drinking water specified by north of Green River injection wells leak the state. The contamination of shallow salty water to shallow aquifers and that this groundwater by mercury in Pleasant Valley is salty water emerges at the land surface some believed to be of natural origin. distance away. Waste oil-field brine and sludge are being discharged direct lyon the Coal mining. The impact of the coal ground and then into an old gravel pit at a mining operatlons on groundwater quality was small tank farm about 3 km (2 mO northeast not assessed but believed to be minimal. of Mexican Hat. A few abandoned oil wells There are a few, small, sulfurous springs were broken open by vandals and salty water issuing from bedrock formations in the flowed onto the ground for an unknown length valley; thus some mine drainage waters may be of time until discovered. mineralized from natural sources. At the present time the main threat of pollution is ~olorado Plateaus, High Plateaus Section from sewage and other wastes generated by a heavy influx of miners and the people Pleasant Valley (18) providing services to them. Practically all of the pollution generated in this valley Pleasant Valley is a long, narrow, must eventually pass through Scofield Reser­ thinly alluviated valley in the High Plateaus voir. Downstream users of this water for section of the Colorado Plateaus Physio­ agricultural, industrial, and municipal graphic Province. It is situated at ele­ purposes will degrade the water further and vations above 2316 m (7600 ft) in the return a portion of it to the shallow ground­ Carbon County sector of the Wasatch Plateau. water of the lower Price River Valley. The surrounding mountains and the very thin alluvium of the valley floor are underlain by Joes Valley (19) Cretaceous sandstones and shales containing several commercial coal beds. After a long Several surface water reservoirs in the quiescent period, coal mining again has high plateaus along the west margins of Emery become the principal industry of the valley. and Carbon Counties are subject to some Recreation and livestock grazing are second­ contamination by surface waters and shallow ary and seasonal industries. groundwater. Water from these lakes is subsequently used for irrigation and munici­ Pleasant Valley Creek and its tribu­ pal purposes. Many of the contaminants and taries drain the valley into Scofield Reser­ nutrients reaching these lakes are being voir, and from there the Price River emerges. supplied by shallow groundwater. The Scofield Reservoir has been the most popular shallow groundwater is being contaminated lake in the state for fishing in the past few by human wastes, recreational activities, years. More than 120,000 visitor-days were agricultural sources, mining, and other recorded in 1979 by users of the State Park means. Joes Valley Reservoir has a definite f ac i 1. i ties alone. The area is very popular problem with recreational and septic tank for hunting in the fall. There are a few wastes, which affect the shallow groundwater permanent and seasonal recreat ional hous ing and surface water quality, but the problem is and camping subdivisions near the lake not as severe as the one at Pleasant Valley shores. The small town of Scofield is because of Joes Valley's more remote location located on Pleasant Valley Creek about 3 km from large population centers. (2 mi) south of the lake. Sanpete Valley (20) Recreational and domestic pollution. C lyd e--et-'al-:-"""{T-g"STa) recent ly completed a Septic and solid wastes. Most of the detailed investigation of shallow groundwater very old homes in the pioneer areas of Utah quality in Pleasant Valley. Groundwater u sed hand-dug water we lls. After munic ipal samples were taken for quality analysis from water became available some residents began test wells constructed at the larger recre­ using their old wells as cesspools. This ational subdivisions and in the town of practice still persists in some areas such as Scof i e Id. Sept ic tanks, ce sspoo1s, and pi t Fairview, Manti, and Fountain Green. It privies are used for sewage disposal. Septic occurred in Mt. Pleasant to a limited extent tank failures occur seasonally due to the before that city got a sewerage system very shallow water table. Shallow groundwater operating in early 1980. pollution was detected at the two major recreational subdivisions and at the town Many old towns in central Utah had dumps of Scofield due to sewage effluents. The in which the wastes were burned. Water most significant indicators of pollution were passing through residue materials creates

24 leachates that may be hazardous to the pollute the shallow groundwater with their shallow groundwater. Most of these old dumps leachates. have been abandoned without any effort to protect the groundwater. There are mineralized springs in the region and areas of naturally saline ground­ Manti Canyon fan. The Manti Canyon wa~er (see Figure 1). Some waters are of alluvial fan is located at the town of Manti poor quality because they have percolated in Sanpete County. The town has been built through salt-bearing rocks. In several areas upon the higher elevations of the fan. The of the middle and upper Sevier River Valley, lower areas are devoted to agriculture. groundwaters contain fluorides in concentra­ Water samples were taken and analyzed from a tions ranging from 3 to 6 mg/l. This is few existing shallow wells on the f~n during natural contamination believed to be derived a current water quali ty study conducted by from the volcanic rocks. the Utah Water Research Laboratory (Clyde et a1. 1981b). Most of these groundwaters One coal mine in Salina Canyon is contained nitrates and phosphates in signifi­ suspected of contaminating the shallow cant amounts. This was taken to be evidence groundwater downstream. Ranchers below the of a mild degree of shallow groundwater mine have complained to the county health contamination on the fan, resulting from both department about contamination they have septic tank effluents in Manti and agricul­ found in their water supplies. tural contamination in the surrounding farming and grazing areas. Manti has no Shallow water tables are a problem in sewerage system. many sectors of the Sevier Valley. The town of Panguitch has a shallow water table and no A&ricultural wastes. Agriculture is a municipal sewerage system. There were many prime Industry in central Utah. Irrigation septic tank failures this last spring. return flow (containing salt concentrated by Brian Head, in the mountains of Iron County irrigation consumptive use, fertilizers, and west of Panguitch, recently had some septic pesticides) is a hazard to the shallow tank failures, and some total containment groundwaters of the area. sept ic tank s over flowed due to r ising water tables. There are several cattle feedlots, dairies, and poultry farms in central Utah. Basin and Range Province Each one must be assessed separately to determine any groundwater contamination Washington County (22) hazard. Most of them are on streams and have discharge permi ts. Nevertheless, many The major problem of shallow groundwater of them have manure, fodder, and waste piles contamination in the southwest corner of the which yield leachates and liquid wastes. state stems from shallow water tables af­ These pollutants can seep into the ground fecting septic tank disposal systems. There at some distance from the streams, thus are several areas in Washington County where present ing a hazard to shallow groundwater septic tanks and their drainfields had quality. serious failures recently due to shallow groundwater. The south and east portions of Recreational lands. In recent years, St. George and the Middleton area have water thousands of acres of land have been sold in tables that are locally within a few meters very small units for recreational cabin of the land surface. Two mobile home parks sites. There are hundreds of these sites in recently had their septic tanks fail, and raw northern Sanpete Valley between Fairview and sewage appeared on the land surface. LaVerkin Spring City as well as in other areas of has a water table almost at the land surface central Utah. Many problems of septic tank in the center of the town wi th such severe effluents endangering shallow water wells septic tank system failures that new con­ have arisen. County health authorities struction has been prohibited. stopped issuing bu i Id ing permi ts in some of these areas where shallow groundwater pollu­ The small village of Ivins recently had t ion is a health hazard until an acceptable septic tank failures that flooded basements. overall plan can be formulated. In Pine Valley, many new homes and summer cabins are being built in an area where the water table is only a few meters below the Q£per Sevier River Valley (21) land surface. If the present rate of de­ velopment continues, there is a hazard to the Because of the sparse population of this quality of the shallow groundwater between long valley, domestic contamination is small. these new developments and the Santa Clara The pr incipal source of man-made contamina­ River. The town of Enterprise had many tion of shallow groundwater in this valley is septic tank failures and flooded basements agricullure, and this stems mainly from the during the spring of 1980. concentration of salts by reuse of the water. There are soils in the area derived from the A moratorium has been placed upon new saline Arapien shale which contribute large septic tank construction at Veyo because the amounts of dissolved minerals to leachates town is underlain by fractured volcanic and i rr igat ion return flows. Locally cattle rocks. The bedrock aquifers below the feedlots, dairies, and turkey farms may volcanic rocks are in danger of pollution by

25 effluents from the septic tanks presently in Beaver County (24) operation. The vertical permeability of the volcanic rocks is very high due to a In Beaver County the town of Minersville well-developed set of vertical fractures. (population about 500) has no sewerage sys­ tem. All homes and buildings have individual The old Wa~hington County dump has never septic tanks with drainfields. At least half been covered. Leachates from this dump could of them have had recent failures due to tight be a hazard to the shallow groundwater soil and shallow water tables. quality in the vicinity. The new county landfill is believed not to be a hazard, but Several municipal dumps in Beaver County it has been scheduled for examination in need improved methods of operation. Anyone an inventory early in 1981 by the Utah of these dumps could be allowing leachates Division of Environmental Health. to percolate into the shallow groundwater. Milford, Greenville, Adamsville, Manderfield, Most of Washington County has bedrock Minersville, and Beaver dumps should be exposed at the land surface. Much of the investigated for this hazard to shallow shallow groundwater of the region is contain­ groundwater. The latter two are near streams ed in the bedrock formations. Groundwaters where leachates could be reaching the streams of the Chinle and Moenkopi formations also. The Beaver City sewage lagoons are are most likely to contain more than 3000 possibly a threat to shallow groundwater mg/l of TDS (Cordova et al. 1972). according to the Utah Surface Water Impound­ ment Assessment Report (Cleave et ale 1980). Iron County (23) Several cattle feedlots and dairies are located along the Beaver River and its Water quality problems exist in the tributaries. None of these, except possibly Beryl-Enterprise area where heavy pumpage for one, are large enough to be a threat to the irrigation has reversed some groundwater shallow groundwater q uali ty, but they could gradients. Consequently, deep-percolation be a threat to the streams. irrigation water is being recirculated in some wells and dissolved salt content is Leaching of old tailings piles and rising in the shallow and the deep ground­ mining waste dumps in the desert west of waters. Evidently there are no impermeable Milford could be a hazard to shallow ground­ strata in the valley fill of that area to water quality locally. Sulfur mining and prevent deep seepage. reclaiming is done in Beaver County. Some hazard may arise if the sulfur and the wastes The Cedar City dump and the Iron County are not handled properly. landfill are on the list of sites to be investigated by the Utah Division of Environ­ A geothermal power industry is being mental Health on a high priority rating early developed in Beaver County, and other indus­ in 1981. There may be some hazard to shallow tries (such as gasohol) that can use its groundwater quality at those sites. waste heat are being planned in the area. The proposed Intermountain Power Project At the north edge of Cedar City there is coal slurry line will pass just north of a serious problem of nitrates in the ground­ Milford. There may be washing facilities. water. Subdivision developers have had to go All of these constitute potential hazards to elsewhere for drinking water supplies as the the shallow groundwater unless adequate nitrates exceed the Utah limit. A detailed precautions are taken. study of this groundwater quality problem is under way by local health authori ties. At Natural occurrences of arsenic occur in this point, it appears that the nitrate is of the shallow groundwater in the Meadows area natural origin. If this water is used west of Beaver. Fluor ides are found in some and passed through septic tank systems, the shallow aquifers extending from Greenville to existing water-quality hazard would be made Milford. In the North Creek area, north and worse by domestic nitrate wastes. east of Beaver, uranium is found in some shallow aquifers. These are all believed to Cedar City and Parowan valleys are be natural occurrences. intensely farmed by irrigation with both surface and groundwaters. These valleys are Shallow groundwater quality has deterio­ essentially closed basins. Very little water rated over time in the Mi lford area due to escapes except by evapotranspiration. Con­ the reuse of groundwater for irrigation sequently, there has been an accumulation and by phreatophytes (Mower and Cordova of saline minerals and possibly other agri­ 1974). cultural contaminants in the shallow ground­ water through the years. A few, saline, Del~a R~gion (25) playa-lake beds in these valleys become hazards to the shallow groundwater quali ty In Millard County, a few improperly during the irrigation season when groundwater abandoned irrigation wells have not been is pumped heavily (Bjorklund et al. 1978). sealed. Irrigation return water is going

26 down the inside of these wells and possibly UtC!h _Valley (26) polluting the shallow groundwater. This situation could be a hazard to groundwater Utah Valley is very heavi ly populated. quality anywhere in the state. The shallow groundwater of the valley is being contaminated by agricultural, septic, Millard County has some recreational and industrial wastes. Infiltration of urban subdivisions. One of them is Sherwood Shores runoff, leaking sewerage systems, salting of subdivision by the Gunnison Bend Reservoir. streets, and accidental spills are the main The 50 dwellings in the subdivision have sources in the towns. Outside of the popula­ septic tank disposal systems and are situated tion centers the principal threats to in an area having a very shallow water table. shallow groundwater quality are septic There are 600 lots planned altogether. ef fluents, infi ltr at ion of i rr igat ion water, County health authorities have put a stop to and leachates from animal wastes and solid new construction there until water supply and waste disposal sites. Also some threat to sanitation problems can be resolved. shallow groundwater quality exists in the Tintic-Goshen area from mining activities The proposed Intermountain Power Project there. in the Sevier Desert may have an appreciable impact on the shallow groundwater quality Most streams and ditches in the valley near the main plants. There may be problems have high concentrations of BOD (biochemical of water and sludge disposal, spillages, oxygen demand), coliform bacteria, TDS, leakage, and similar water quality impacts. nitrogen, and phosphorus due to municipal, agricultural, and industrial pollution In the Mona district of Juab County, two (Mountainland Association of Governments or three domestic wells have high bacteria 1980). This condition is a threat to shallow counts, discoloration, and bad-tasting water groundwater quality throughout the valley. in the springtime. This is caused by con­ taminated shallow groundwater, which leaks Septic hazards. Numerous septic tank down the outside of the wells into the drainfields in the unincorporated communities producing aquifers because of faulty con­ of Highland, Manila, and Cedar Hills pose struction or structural breakdown, in the a threat to shallow groundwater quality in time of year when water is most plentiful. those areas (Mountainland Association of Governments 1980). Utah County requires that A few old dumps in the general region drainfields be a minimum of only 30 cm (1 ft) may be contributing leachates to shallow above the water table. This is certainly groundwater. One is located a few miles inadequate for the prevention of shallow southeast of Mona near the apex of an al­ groundwater pollution. In all of the luvial fan. topographically low areas along the north, east, and southeast shores of Utah Lake, The towns of Hinckley and Deseret have there are very shallow water tables. Septic municipal and domestic wells, which yield tank failures and shallow groundwater pol­ waters containing arsenic in average concen­ lut ion are common in all of these lowlands. trations of about 0.2 mg/l. These concentra­ tions are about four times the maximum The Geneva Steel Mill has a detention allowable level specified by the State of pond or lagoon near Utah Lake. Some contro­ Utah, yet no adverse health effects could be versy has arisen concerning the effectiveness confirmed by the Utah Division of Environ­ of the pond's lining. Contaminants possibly mental Health (Southwick et al. 1980). may be leaking to the shallow groundwater. Nevertheless, the waters are polluted and domestic disposal of this water through Waste dump~ The North Utah County septic tank systems may concentrate this landfill site in the lowlands northwest of pollutant in the shallow groundwater. One Orem has been excavated below the water arsenic-bearing aquifer used for supplying table. As water passes through the landfill, these towns is about 76 m (250 ft) deep. leachates from the solid wastes are a hazard Another is deeper. to shallow-groundwater quality. The Provo City and Spanish Fork landfills are above the Due to soluble sulfate and chloride water table, but they may be close enough to minerals in the Arapien Shale Formation and be infiltrated during prolonged wet periods. the alluvium derived from it, the shallow groundwater has become slightly saline in Feedlots. Several dairies and cattle some localities in southern Juab Valley feedlots in the Springville-Payson area are a (Bjorklund 1967). hazard to sur face water and shallow ground­ water quality. In a few other scattered The town of Eureka in northern Juab parts of the valley, feedlots are also a County has arsenic and cadmium in its do­ threat. mestic water supply. A few other areas of the western desert region also report natural Mining wastes. Tailings from an aban­ occurrences of arsenic and trace metals in doned mine have polluted Current Creek near shallow and deep aquifers. Eureka is reported the town of Goshen (Mountainland Association to have been discharging untreated sewage of Governments 1980). This poses a threat to into a small drainage channel near the shallow groundwater quality as well as to town. that of surface water. The Tintic mine drain

27 just west of there is another source of con­ the remaining tailings. This radioactive gas t aminat ion derived from mining operations. is water soluble. The county fire station The town of Elberta in that same vicinity had to be abandoned because of the radio­ had to abandon its community water well activity hazard. because of gradual deterioration in quality presumably caus~d by mining pollutants coming The shallow groundwater may be polluted from mine drainage ponds above them (Cleave beneath this site because of leaching by rain et ale 1980). and other waters applied to the land surface through the years. There is no hazard to the Jordan Valley (27) deep aquifers as groundwater is generally rising in them in that area. Before the Jordan Valley is the most heavily radioactivity hazard was known, many of these popUlated valley in the state. Pollution of tailings were moved to other sites throughout shallow groundwater from urban sources is the county to be used as fill material. very great and especially heavy in Salt Lake All of these fill sites must be located now City. to as ses s the pub 1 ic hea 1 th h az ard fr om radioactivity and the extent of shallow The streams and groundwater underflow groundwater contamination that may have taken from the canyons of the Wasatch Front have place. generally brought high quality water into the east bench region of Jordan Valley. These Industrial wastes. The Fi ltrol indus­ streams recharge the shallow groundwater of trial site in Salt Lake County at about 1200 that area, but then receive shallow ground­ South and 4000 West used settling ponds for water into their channels as they approach many years. In the past there was leakage the Jordan River. The qual i ty of this shal­ through the dikes and out of the bottoms of low groundwater deteriorates as it percolates the ponds. A few years ago, the dikes were northwestward due partly to natural causes 1 ined, and much of the pond area was taken but largely to man-made causes. Among the out of service. Nevertheless, it is believed man-made causes are leaky sewers, infiltra­ that the shallow groundwater was contaminated tion of agricultural leachates and urban in the past and that the bottoms of the runoff, salt washed from those used to present total containment ponds still leak to de-ice streets and highways, liquid spills, the shallow groundwater. and numerous other sources found in an area of relatively dense population. As the result of an accidental spill of ammonium nitrate near Bacchus, the shallow Irrigation. The Jordan River connects groundwater there was polluted with nitrates Utah Lake to the Great Salt Lake. Practically in concentrations as high as 900 mg/l (Rely all of the river's flow is diverted in the et a1. 1971). upper Jordan Valley (at 9400 South Street) for irrigation and other purposes. Quali ty Refinery wastes. The Rose Park refinery of the Jordan River water is poor. Total sludg€!4fump was investigated by the Utah dissolved solids in the river water are Geological and Mineral Survey in 1977 at the almost always above 1100 mg/l (Rely et a1. request of Salt Lake City. It is located at 1971). The river functions mainly as a drain t he extreme north end 0 f Sa 1 t Lake City for the" vall e y . I t r e c e i v e sir rig at ion adjoining Rose Park. The conclusions of this return flow, municipal wastewaters, shallow investigation (McMillan 1978) were essential­ groundwater seepage, and waters from many ly that the dump was a source of gaseous sources. Water quality and volume of flow hyd rocarbons to the atmosphere as well as a would be considerably higher were it not for source of oil and grease pollutants to the the enormous evaporation losses of Utah Lake shallow groundwater beneath it. The polluted (around 37,000 hectare-meters or 300,000 groundwater moves south and west from the acre-feet annually) and the consumptive use dump site. Another observation made in the of water by man. Considerably more than half conclusions of this report was, "There of the water entering Utah Lake is lost to appears to be oil and grease contamination of evaporation (Cordova 1970). Pollutants groundwater moving southward beneath the oil generated in Utah Valley are concentrated in refineries at North Salt Lake and Woods Utah Lake and further concentrated as the Cross, whereas water moving westward from the water is used for irrigation in Jordan Wasatch Fault zone and higher ground to the Valley. These infiltrating irrigation waters east is relatively free of contamination." then cause deterioration of shallow ground­ water quality. An inspection of the Rose Park dump site in July 1980 revealed that it was no longer ~!!~i ~i!~!i~i!Y . Pro b a b 1 Y the m0 s t being used for the dumping of refiner,y serious hazird of pollution to shallow wastes. Rather, it recently had been re­ groundwater in the area occurs at an old ceiving waste sand, gravel, and other industrial site at approximately 3500 South relatively inert materials, but a great deal and 700 West in Salt Lake County. The Vitro of broken asphalt road material is included. Company was processing radioactive materials Ponded rainwater was observed on the surface a t that site unt i 1 the late 1960s. A large of the dump thus indicating that, with the t ail ings pile was left there, upon which a porous sur face of this dump yet uncovered, county fire station subsequently was built. leachate from the dump is still a hazard to Recently, radon was discovered emanating from shallow groundwater quality.

28 The petroleum facility nearest to the south of it, leachate from the old dump dump site is an Amoco tank farm located less continues to be a hazard to the shallow than 800 m (1/2 mi) to the northwest. At groundwater quality. In this case, however, this tank farm, petroleum wastes were ob­ the quality of the groundwater was naturally served on the ground both within and outside very poor due to proximity to the Great Salt of the fire-~afety embankments. This type of Lake. petroleum spillage could contribute signi­ ficantly to the shallow groundwater contami­ There are three other abandoned, solid nation detected locally by the Utah Geologi­ waste landfills or dumps in the Magna-Hunter cal and Mineral Survey in 1977. area. They all continue to be hazardous in an area of shallow water table. These dumps Amoco has an unlined sludge pond or were excavated near or into the water table s ettl ing bas in in th i s vicini ty which also and were not all covered adequately. There­ could be contributing contaminants to the fore, leachate resulting from precipitation shallow groundwater of that area in the form or rising water table can contaminate the of petroleum sludges. Chevron USA, Inc., has shallow groundwater beneath and down-gradient three unlined tertiary treatment lagoons in from them. this area of Salt Lake City. These are a hazard to groundwater quality (Cleave et ale The new county landfill is also exca­ 1980). vated into the water table. It is scheduled to be abandoned soon in favor of another one Ga sol i n e s pill s . An 0 the rex amp 1 e 0 f planned to be located about 1.6 km (1 mi) petroleum-related pollution of shallow east. The new one will be lined on the groundwater took place at the Rose Park Golf bottom. These sites are in a wetland Course and resulted in an explosion on 6 area of artesian flow where there are seeps March 1975. Rose Park Golf Course lies and springs and surface flow to the Great immediately to the west of Rose Park and the Salt Lake. ref inery sludge dump. The explos ion was caused by the leakage of an estimated 150,000 Although the shallow groundwater is of to 190,000 1 (40,000 to 50,000 gal.) of poor quality near the Great Salt Lake, the gasoline from a nearby pipeline Into the state is now planning a body-contact, water­ shallow groundwater and thence into a recreation development on the south shore. storm sewer by the golf course (Kaliser 1976, Salt Lake City is planning to annex land in p. 64). A series of trenches was dug 0.6 to that general area. The project is generating 0.9 m (2 to 3 ft) below the water table, increased concern about the shallow ground­ which was 1.5 to 1.8 m (5 to 6 ft) below the water quality of an area which had hitherto land surface, and an estimated 30,000 1 (8000 been neglected and abused. gal.) of gasoline were recovered from them and from the storm sewer. The balance of the The Trans-Jordan landfill near Bingham lost gasoline remained to pollute the shallow Creek about 3 km (2 mi) east of Copper ton has groundwater. been instructed by Salt Lake County to close. They are dumping in very porous subsoil, and The same report quotes an official of leachate from rainfall is a hazard to the the Salt Lake City Fire Department as stating shallow groundwater quality. An old, aban­ that three to five major gasoline spills doned dump in the same general area presents occur each year in the city. The report yet another hazard. describes five documented gasoline spills in Salt Lake City and three more in Salt Lake Several other very old, abandoned dumps County where shallow groundwater was polluted scattered through Jordan Valley are likewise in 1976. The report also lists 23 documented potential hazards to shallow groundwater hydrocarbon spills in Davis County in the two quality. These old dumps were usually burned to three years preceding the report, but to reduce their volume of waste materials. their relationship to shallow groundwater was None of them were lined, and few have been not mentioned. covered to prevent the formation of leachates from the infiltration of precipitation. Sewage effluents. The Salt Lake City sewage treatment plant at the extreme north Mining. The Kennecott Company's mining end of the ci ty near the Amoco tank farm has activities are quite extensive in the Oquirrh unlined treatment lagoons. They contain Mountains on the west side of Jordan Valley. waste sludges and probably leak contaminants There they operate the world's largest to the shallow groundwater. When constructed, open-pit copper mine and many auxiliary they were excavated to the water table. Some facilities. These mining operations date toxic substances being dumped into the Salt back long before groundwater quality data Lake City sewerage system can be quite began to be collected. Even now, Kennecot t harmful. does not reveal data pertaining to shallow groundwater contamination. Solid-waste hazards. The old Salt Lake County Dump, located in the lowlands beyond Most of their activities are in the the municipal airport, was excavated into the mountains, and Kennecott has been leaching water table, and solid wastes were dumped some of their tailings dumps in the hills there for many years. Although this dump was near Copperton. They are planning to begin closed in 1980 after a new one was opened leaching tailings at lower elevations in an

29 area pre-lined for higher efficiency of Oquirrh Mountains. Kennecott takes water reclamation. Exceptional care will have to from the Tooele side of the mountains for be taken to avoid shallow-groundwater con­ domestic purposes and returns wastewater tamination by the highly acidic leachates. through Elton Tunnel to Middle Canyon. ,Some wells in Middle Canyon have arsenic in the In the Copper ton area the water of wa ter. It is not known whether or not the B i ngh am Cr eek is heavi ly cont ami nated by arsenic and sulfates are of man-made origin. leachates from the Kennecott tailings dumps. Out in the valley, some wells in the Marshall This water contains up to 31,800 mg/l of district yield water high in total dissolved sulfate ions and has a pH as low as 2.8 solids, chlorides, and arsenic. (Hely et al. 1971). Nearby, mine drainage water flows into Butterfield Creek. Further Rush Valley lies immediately south of downstream, much of the water from both Tooele Valley and would be tributary to it streams infiltrates into the shallow ground­ except for some Quaternary lake deposits water of the valley. which form a low topographic divide. In the Oquirrh Mountains above the southeast In this same general area south of portion of the valley, extensive mine tail­ Copperton and extend ing eastward toward the ings remaining in the old Mercur ghost town Jordan River, much of the groundwater has area. The contaminants these tailings been contaminated by minerals associated with contain are washed down into Rush Valley mining activities. Past disposal of liquid every spring and occasionally at other times. wastes in evaporation ponds 8.5 km (5 mi) Upon reaching Rush Valley the contaminated e as t of Copperton has contaminated shallow surface waters infiltrate the porous valley groundwater over an area of several square alluvium and contaminate the shallow ground­ kilometer s. Al though these ponds have been water. abandoned, leachates continue to pollute the groundwater (Hely et al. 1971). Great Salt Lake Desert At Magna, Kennecott ,has an enormous West of Tooele Valley is a vast arid tail ings pond wh ich is known 1.0 he leaking region of practically uninhabited basins and contaminated water into the shallow ground­ ranges. Several large military reservations, wa ter. Ac id was tes fr om thei r treatment which are closed to the public, are located plant discharge into the pond. It is believed there. Some are bombing ranges. There are a these wastes contain heavy metals and arsenic few livestock ranches. Except for possible and are a threat to the shallow groundwater pollution by the military activities, there quality of the area. Shallow groundwater in has been insignificant man-made contamina­ the Magna area nearby is known to be high in t ion. The MX Missile System is expected to total dissolved solids and arsenic. How much be built partly in this region and partly in of this contamination is man-made and how the State of Nevada. This system could be much is na tur al r ema i ns uncert a in. The the first significant man-made threat to groundwaters near south shores of the Great shallow-groundwater quality in the history of Salt Lake are naturally contaminated by the region. The project is certain to be residual salts and brines left by the re­ designed for minimal contamination to the ceding Lake Bonneville. groundwater environment. Tooele and Rush Valleys (28) Shallow groundwaters of the region are generally of very poor quality (see Figure 2) Tooele Valley lies west of the Oquirrh except around the peripheries of the mountain Mountains and south of the Great Salt Lake. ranges where recharge takes place. A few The valley is tributary to the Great Salt of the basins have groundwater of higher Lake but has no perennial stream. quality, mainly because they are further removed from the lowlands of the ancient Lake In the lower part of the valley north of Bonneville. The principal causes of saline Highway 138 between Grantsville and Erda, groundwater in the region today are evapo­ there have been many septic tank failures due transpiration of shallow groundwater and to shallow groundwater and subsoils of low mineralization left as a residue from the per mea b iIi t Y• Dom est i c well s the rea r e evaporation of Lake Bonneville. somewhat deeper. Some abandoned wells have corroded casings and are receiving con­ East Shore Area (29) t aminated shallow groundwater, thus en­ dangering domestic water supplies. The heavily populated East Shore area is an irregular strip of land that extends from Further north the shallow groundwater the Salt Lake County line north to Willard becomes very saline due to evapotranspiration Bay. I t includes the cit ies of Bount i ful, of water which rises from deeper aquifers. Ogden, and several smaller towns which lie There are phreatophytes in that area and a between the east shore of the Great Salt Lake few springs of poor quality water. and the Wasatch Range. Near Pine Canyon the groundwater has Shallow groundwater quality is generally high concentrations of sulfate (Razem and good even close to the Great Salt Lake. Some Steiger 1980). This is probably a result of fresh water aquifers even extend westward the ore body and mining operations in the beneath the lake. However, in a few areas,

30 the shallow groundwater is mildly to strongly particularly bad west of F~rmington where the saline. The main aquifers are alluvial-fan, water table is only a few feet below ground floodplain, deltaic, and lacustrine deposits, level. Practically all of the septic tanks wh ich generally become finer grained to the there were submerged by the rising water west. Recharge is mainly from surface runoff table, which caused severe local shallow of the Wasa~ch Range, where water quality groundwater contamination. There were also is fairly high. numerous septic tank failures in the lowlands of western Weber County. Nat~_~C!l salinity. There is an area extending a few kilometers northwest from In the Uinta district of southeast Ogden where dissolved solids of the ground­ Ogden, there have been many septic tank water exceed 2000 mg/l, and there is a failures in tight soils causing some concern slightly larger area where they exceed 1000 for the shallow groundwater quality. About mg/l. The area wherein dissolved solids 6 years ago, a spring used for domestic water exceed 1000 mg/l extends past Plain City was polluted as a result of new homes being toward Wi lIard Bay. There are a few other, built upgradient at approximately 6000 small, isolated areas along the shore of the South and 2000 East. Great Salt Lake where dissolved solids exceed 1000 mg/l (BoIke and \\Taddell 1972). These Industrial hazards. About 5 or 6 years are believed to be natural occurrences of ago, the Phillips Petroleum Refinery had a mildly saline groundwater, probably saline serious leak in a fuel-oil line just west of residues of Lake Bonneville. Bountiful. Some of the oil emerged into a nearby storm drain after moving underground Solid waste dumps. Throughout Weber and from the leak. It took 2 or 3 years for Davis Counties, many old dump sites were the seepage of oil to finally stop. abandoned in past decades. Most of them date from the days when burning was permitted. Up until 1975 the Syro Steel Company Leachate from these abandoned dumps is a discharged wastewater from their galvanizing continuing threat to shallow groundwater facility near Centerville into an unlined quality nearby. pond. The water table is less than 1.2 m (4 ft) from the land surface in that area. The Plain City Dump was excavated below Chemical analyses were made of groundwater the water table, and solid wastes were placed samples taken from shallow wells located in contact with shallow groundwater. Its below the plant. High concentrations location by Weber River presents some hazard of iron and zinc were found (Weber River to the river also. The dump still operates, Water Quality Planning Council 1977). but it is under orders to close. Long Although the discharge of pollutants was afterwards, the hazard to shallow groundwater s topped in 1975, the shallow groundwater in quality will remain. that vicinity remains polluted. In the Little Mountain area west of Agricultural wastes. There are numerous Ogden, Weber County has a contractor oper­ feedlots, dairies, and other sites where ating their solid-waste disposal site and a animals are kept in concentrated numbers in dead animal burial site. The water table Weber and Davis Counties. These are shown as often rises in the spring to reach the potential, nonpoint, pollution sources on wastes in these sites. This hazard will maps in the 208 Study of those counties remain for many years due to leachates of (Weber River Water Quality Planning Council both shallow groundwater and rainwater 1977). In Davis County 17 of these sites are origin. identified as having experienced water quality problems. Weber County has 15 sites The Bay Area Refuse Disposal Landfill in wi th observed water quali ty problems and 20 Davis County has been monitored by the use of sites with possible problems. \\Thile most of shallow wells and no positive proof of these nonpoint agricultural pollutant sources shallow groundwater contamination has been are di scharging directly into sur face water found. At this site, they dig several meters bodies, many of them are also hazardous to below the water table and there must be some the shallow groundwater as liquid wastes and leaching of the wastes. leachates seep into the ground. In Ogden at approximately 900 South and West of Ogden at approximately 9000 West 5500 West, there has been illegal dumping in and 2100 South, a small feedlot is often an oxbow pond. The city is now having to partly inundated in the springtime when excavate and remove this waste material. runoff is high. It is probable that leachate Also at about 1900 West and 1200 South, from this flooding is a hazard to shallow a deserted gravel pit was used for illegal groundwater quality. dumping. Many such places throughout the area slowly add leachates to the shallow Willa~Q_Creek Fan (30) groundwater. The town of Willard in Box Elder County Septic hazards. Roughly two-thirds of was built upon the Willard Creek Alluvial the septic tanks in western Davis County had Fan. A study of shallow groundwater quality failures due to the rise of the water table was made there by the Utah Water Research in the spring of 1980. This problem was Laboratory (Clyde et al. 1981b). The greatest

31 threat to shallow groundwater quality at Fielding are emerging from a large spr ing a Willard is from the approximately 500 septic few hundred meters southwest of town. The tanks operating within the town. Analyses shallow groundwater below the town is pol­ were made of water from shallow wells con­ luted. Furthermore, water of the spring structed on the topographically low side of is a threat to shallow groundwater quality town. The study concluded that nutrients downstream from the spring. Samples of the from the septic tanks are entering the spring water were analyzed (Clyde et a1. shallow groundwater. Coliform bacteria were 1981b) and found high in nitrates (4.7 mg/1 not found in the shallow groundwater, how­ as N), ammonia (0.38 mg/1), nitrites (0.047 ever. No tests were made for the presence of mg/ 1), phosphates, arsenic (0.03 mg/1) and viruses in the water. mercury (0.006 mg/1). Fecal co1iforms in the water samples were about 2600/100 m1. Lower Bear River Basin (31) Animal wastes. There are many cattle This subbasin of the Bear River system feedlots and dairies in the lower Bear River is located in north-central Utah and extends Valley. Most of these are on the streams or northward from the Bear River Bay of the in areas with shallow water tables. Several Great Salt Lake into the State of Idaho. It have manure pits at the water table and is bounded on the east by the Wasatch liquid wastes could be infiltrating into the Range and on the west by the Blue Spring shallow groundwater. Hills. Solid wastes. There are numerous places Natural salinity. Water quality is along the Bear River and the Malad River usually excellent in the mountains and the where illegal dumping has taken place. alluvium adjacent to them. In the valley Leachates from these dumps are threats to floor the shallow groundwater is generally shallow groundwater and surface water fresh. However, there is considerable saline quality. The Box Elder County Landfill, groundwater at intermediate and deeper levels located about 1.6 km (1 mi) west of Brigham in the older alluvium and valley-fill sedi­ City, has been excavated to the water ments. Additionally, thermal springs toward table. The dump is periodically covered, but the south yield highly mineralized waters the shallow groundwater could be contaminated unfit for most purposes. Groundwaters of readily. Occasionally animals are dumped poor quality are located mainly in the there. A number of old abandoned dumps and southern half of the valley, and a few one or two small active dumps could also be mineralized hot springs occur in the northern threats to shallow groundwater quality. half (Bjorklund and McGreevy 1974). Industrial wastes. Some contamination Sept ic hazards. Br igham City has a of shallow groundwater from industrial sewer system, but the newer areas of the town sources may occur in the future. Oil and are not yet connected. Sept ic tanks in the gas exploration occur in and near the recently developed areas of town and possible Great Salt Lake. Other industries are leaks in the old system could be hazardous to planned in the Tremonton region, such as the the shallow groundwater quality. new steel mill being constructed north of Tremonton near the Malad River. The indus­ Some small towns without sewage systems tries of this area should be investigated in the lowlands of the Bear River Valley have further. problems with shallow water tables, poor soils for drainage, and resultant septic tank Gasoline leakage. A documented case of fa i lures. There is great hazard to shallow gasoline pollution of shallow groundwater groundwater quality in Fielding, Riverside, happened at a farm about 6 km (4 mi) west of Deweyville, Honeyville, and possibly Elwood. Brigham City a few years ago (Ka1iser 1976). A particularly bad area exists in the vi­ This is in an area where the water table is cinity of Tremonton, especially to the west, only 0.6 to 0.9 m (2 to 3 ft) below the land where there are many septic tanks and shallow surface. Gasoline had been leaking from a water wells in close proximity. Some domestic farm storage tank and had migrated in the wells are producing shallow groundwater which shallow groundwater to the drainage ditch may be polluted by septic-tank effluents. where it caused two small exp10s ions at an Domestic wells cannot be drilled very deep in e 1 e c t ric p um p • I tis 1 ike 1 y t hat 0 the r that area because the deeper aquifers contain private fuel tanks are leaking and polluting brackish waters. the shallow groundwater at other locations in the state. There are many shallow domestic wells close to the Malad River below the Tremonton Northwestern Utah (32) sewage disposal plant. There is a chance that this wastewater could be recharging the Northwestern Utah is a huge area of the shallow groundwater adjacent to the river and Basin and Range Province comprising that could possibly be induced into some shallow port ion of the state wh ich 1 ies both north domestic wells by pumpage. and west of the Great Salt Lake including the north portion of the Great Salt Lake Desert. Fielding is a small town located about It consists of several arid to semiarid 13 km (8 mi) northeast of Tremonton. It is basins separated by mountain ranges which evident that septic tank effluents of generally drain into the Great Salt Lake.

32 Highlands of a few of these valleys extend Mountains area. Dissolved solids of the into the State of Idaho. shallow groundwaters obtained from wells and springs within this belt are in excess of The mountain ranges are composed of very 1000 mg/l and range as high as 6000 mg/l old, we 11 indurated, sed imentary and meta­ (Bolke and Price 1972). In the southern part sedimentary rocks. Valley-fill deposits of the valley, a few shallow wells and Blue usually corisist of consolidated to un­ Creek itself discharge the poores t qual i ty consolidated Tertiary and Quarternary water in the valley. It is believed that sediments and volcanics overlain by un­ natural salinity is surcharged by contami­ consolidated lake deposi ts. These in turn nating constituents from infiltration of may be overlain by a thin veneer of surficial animal and other agricultural wastes and alluvium. small amounts of treated sewage effluent. Natural salinity. Groundwater quality Thiokol Chemical Corporation employs is usually very good around the mountain more than 4000 people at two plants in the ranges where recharge occurs. In the lowlands southern part of Blue Creek Valley. Their nearer the Great Salt Lake, the shallow sewage is treated before it enters the shal­ groundwaters are saline. Sodium chloride is low groundwater, but it is possible that the predominant contaminating constituent of deleterious chemicals, through accidental the groundwaters in this region. The high spills, could be accompanying the sewage salinity of the area represents a residue of ef fluent. the evaporation of Lake Bonneville and of recent evapotranspiration of shallow ground­ Curlew Valley extends from the Great water. Upper areas of some of the valleys Salt Lake northward into the State of Idaho. contain groundwater of high quality. Slightly less than half of the drainage basin lies in Utah. The valley is surrounded There are numerous springs in this by mountains, except on the south· where it region. Most of them occur close to the drains into the Great Salt Lake. That mountain fronts and yield water of good portion of the valley which lies in Utah (the quality. Several mineralized springs are Utah subbasin) is bounded on the east mainly found, usually in the lower reaches of the by the Hansel Mountains and on th~ west by valleys. Some of them are of higher than the Raft Ri ver Mountains. In plan view the n~rmal temperature. shape of the Utah subbasin is roughly an equilateral triangle with one apex at the Man-made contamination. Blue Creek Great Salt Lake, towards wh ich groundwater Valley is located directly north of the Great converges to be wasted in marshy lowlands. Salt Lake and the Promontory Mountains. It extends northward to the Idaho boundary, In the western portion of the valley where a low topographic divide separates it floor the groundwater remains fresh as it from the Pocatello Valley. It is bounded on percolates southward until it reaches an the west by the North Promontory Mountains irrigated area a few kilometers north of and on the east by the Blue Spring Hills and Kelton. Contamination of shallow ground­ the West Hills. wa ters in the i rr igated area is probably a result of the irrigation, but precise sources A belt of inferior quality groundwaters are not known (Baker 1974). Contamination by about 3 to 5 km (2 to 3 mi) wide extends agricultural leachates is significant, but southward from a point about 8 km (5 mi) some of the contamination is the result of south of the Idaho boundary and follows along the coning upward of saline groundwaters in the course of Blue Creek into the Promontory response to pumpage in that vicinity.

33

EVALUATION

Conclusions of existing conditions, there was no need for Neglect of Shallow replicate examples of shallow groundwater Groundwater Quality contamination in every sector of the state. , National and state programs to protect Table 4 summarizes the identified the integrity of the nation's water have not shallow groundwater contamination problems by given much attention to shallow groundwater source and contaminant types. The sources quality. In fact, priority programs to and most common contaminants are listed in prevent the unsightly and ecologically the left-hand column. To the right the destructive contamination of surface waters numbered column headings represent the 32 and to protect the deeper aquifers more geographic areas described in this study. A widely used for municipal water supply number and a letter have been placed in each have to some degree diverted contamination line of every column where that hazard to shallow groundwater where it is less exists or that contaminant is believed to be conspicuous and less likely to pose an present. The numbers indicate how widespread immediate threat to public health. the hazard or contaminant is in the locality. These numbers are meant to be crude indi­ cators rather than precise inventory values. This weakness in practice is not a The intention is to give more weight where failure of the law. Shallow groundwaters are mUltiple cases of shallow groundwater con­ often so interconnected physically with both tamination or hazards to shallow groundwater surface waters and deeper aquifers that the quality are given. pollution of one leads to pollution of the others, and water quality regulations make no Each number is accompanied by one of the distinction. letters H, M, or L. These represent, respec­ tively, a relatively higb, medium, or low The practical need is for programs that level of shallow groundwater contamination can monitor shallow groundwater pollution hazard. This intensity level was estimated effectively and respond with effective to represent the level for an average of the programs for preventing future incidents and indicated number of cases. For comparison correcting the harm caused by past ones. The purposes the letter "H" arbitrarily has been inventory developed in this report provides given the value of 3, the letter "M" the information on the kinds of incidents which value of 2, and "L" the value of 1. Although need to be prevented and corrected as a this system of weighting is highly subjective start ing point for developing the programs and is based upon an incomplete profile of needed in Utah. the state, it gives a fair estimate of how widespread and how severe the problem sources This coverage of Utah's shallow ground­ and contaminants are over Utah. water pollution problems scopes what is needed in the pending EPA effort to develop a Frequency of Occurrence Utah Groundwater Protection Strategy. The groundwater strategy needs to be integrated By summing the columns, the total with programs for air quality, solid waste number or relat i ve magni tude of occurrences disposal, wastewater treatment, and drinking of contamination categories may be obtained water protection. Groundwater quality for each area. The sums have been entered in protection also needs to be coordinated with Table 4 on the line titled "Total Cate­ programs related to urban development, gories." The same thing has been done for mining, and regulation of recreational areas. the individual contaminants and those sums All of these need to be considered so have been entOered on the line titled "Total that none are neglected. Contaminants." These sums give some relative measure of where the most serious threats to Types of Contamination shallow groundwater quality exist in the state. The more heavily populated areas Since the incidence of groundwater generally have higher incidence rates of contamination generally increases with contamination, but some of the sparsely population, Utah probably has less shallow populated areas have high rates as well. gr oundwater cont ami nat ion than the more Further investigation is more urgent in areas heavilY populated states. Nevertheless, the with larger sums. results of this investigation reveal that Utah may have more groundwater quality In order to compare problem severity problems than heretofore supposed. Inasmuch among contamination categories the weighting as this survey was intended to be a profile factors for H, M, and L were used. For each

35 entry the number indicating the widespread­ through the disposal of human and animal ness of the problem was multiplied by its wastes, but they are readily fixed in the accompanying intensity factor, and these were subsoil. summed across every line. The cumulated sums were entered in the right-hand column of -----Other Considerations Table 4 which presents a weighted frequency of occurrence of the various types of When assessing the environmental impacts shallow groundwater contamination in the brought about by the various types of ground­ state. water contamination, background levels, geographical location, intensity, distri­ It is evident that septic effluents are bution, and many other criteria must be the most frequently encountered source of taken into account, selected according to the contamination to shallow groundwater. possible future uses intended for the water Leachates from solid-waste dumps are second. at a given site. If we use the drinking Irrigation leachates show third, but it is water standards, then radioactive leachates difficult to fairly represent irrigation and spills of gasoline, pesticides, and other leachates for their volume is high while toxic chemicals are the most serious pol­ their contamination effects are mild. lutants, even in small quantities. Dry Contamination from mining wastes is probably f armi ng and gr az ing are probably the least more widespread than has been generally polluting due to the adsorptive nature of r ecogn ized. soils. Between these extremes a wide variety of hazards to shallow groundwater A g~neral increase in total dissolved quality are found in Utah. solids 1S the most common contaminating effect caused by both the use of water by Ranking of Hazards man and by natural means. The addition of nitrates, phosphates, and pathogenic There are so many personal judgments and organisms to shallow groundwater is prevalent qualitative considerations that unbiased

Table 4. Indices of shallow-groundwater contamination in Utah by kind of source, contaminant, and geographical area.

Numbers of Examples Described in this Report by Geographical Area ------wt. b a l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 2021 2223 24 25 26 27 2829 30 31 32 Occ. Contamination Categories Irrigation leachates lL c 2L 2L lL lL lL lL lL lL 2L 2L lL 2M 1M 2L 2L 2M 2L lL 2L 2L 37 Animal wastes 2L 2L lL lL lL lL lL lL 2L lL lL lL 14 Septic effluents 3L lL 3L 3L lL 4L 3L 4L 2L lL lL 1M 3L lL 3L 2L 4L 1M 2L 4M 2H lL 2M 1M 4L lL 69 Waste ponds 1M 1M 1H 3M lL lL lL 4M IH 27 Solid-waste dumps lL 3L lL 2L 2L 2L 2L lL lL 2L lL 2M 6M 4M 42 Spills and leaks lL 5H 4H lL 29 Oil-field wastes 1M lL 2H 6H 1M lL 3M 36 Mining wastes 2L lL 2L lL 1M lL lL lL 2L 4H 1M 27 Recreation wastes lL 2L lL lL 3L lL 2L lL 12 Evapotranspiration lL 2M lL IH lL 2L 12 Mineralized springs 2M lL 2M 2L lL 12 Saline formations IH IH 1M 2L lL 2H lL 2M lL 23 Total categories 11 3 12 5 2 3 7 10 2 14 9 7 2 3 2 1 3 9 2 10 9 8 5 7 7 13 27 315 2 12 7

Contaminants TDS 5M lL 4L 3L 1M lL 5L 4L 2H 9M 4L 3L 2H 2M 2M 1M 3M 3L 5L 3L 3M 3L 3L 6M 9H 2L 6M 5L 3L Chlorides 2L 1M 5L 4L 2H 7M 4L 3L 1M 3M 3L 5L 3L 3M 5M 9H 2L 6M 5L 3L Sulfates 3M 2H 1M 2L 2M 5H lL 2L Nitrates 4L lL 2L lL 4L 3L 4L 2L lL lL lL 2L lL 2L 2L 3L lL lL 2L 4L 2H lL 3L lL 4L lL Phosphates 4L lL 2L lL 4L 3L 4L 2L lL lL 2L lL 2L 2L 3L lL 2L 4L 1M lL 3L lL 4L lL Toxic elements 2M lL lL 2L lL 2M lL 2M 4H 1M lL lL Radioactivity 1M IH Coliform bacteria 3L lL 3L 3L lL 4L 3L 4L 2L lL lL lL 3L lL 3L 2L 4L lL 2L 4L 2M lL 2L 4L Total contaminants 23 4 12 6 2 423 17 4 28 16 9 5 5 5 3 6 9 3 13 18 16 7 7 11 25 33 9 21 2 23 10

aConvenient reference can be made to the Table of Contents for the locality name associated with each col­ umn number. bWeighted frequency of occurrence of types of shallow-groundwater contamination. cL, M, or H represent a low, medium, or high level of contamination hazard, respectively.

36 ranking of the serious contamination hazards Recommendations is nearly impossible. It appears more reasonable for setting priorities for more More attention should be focused upon detailed studies to evaluate the groundwater preservation of the quality of the shallow contamination situation by groups of sources. and deep groundwaters of the state. The basic legal and procedural frameworks already From this standpoint, the combination of exist in the Utah Water Pollution Control hazards which can be called urban wastes, is Act of 1~53 as amended in 1967 (Utah Code probably the most serious threat to shallow Annotated, Ti tIe 73, Chapter 14) and subse­ groundwater in the state. The shallow quent legislation. Specific additional groundwaters beneath all cities and towns regulations must be established and enforced. are contaminated to various degrees from a For example, the EPA-State of Utah Project number of causes, such as sept ic effluents, Priority System, the Stream-segment Classifi­ acci dental spi lIs, illegal di sposal of tox ic cation System, and the Discharge Perm~t substances, leachates from solid wastes, Program need to be expanded to cover shallow animal wastes, de-icing salts, lawn and groundwater considerations. State and garden wastes, and cemeteries. county monitoring and surveillance programs need to be expanded to better cover the Second in importance, but not in magni­ realm of shallow groundwater. Stronger tude, is the combination of hazards attri­ enforcement procedures should be developed at butable to agricultural wastes. These are a the same time. The EPA has published a r esul t of sept ic effluents, spi lIs of fuels manual to aid public agencies in the formula­ and agricultural chemicals, evapotranspira­ tion of groundwater pollution laws and tion of crops, deep percolation of irrigation regulations (National Water Well Association waters, animal wastes, poultry wastes, crop 1976). wastes, and other sources. In total mass agricultural contaminants greatly exceed the For success, the legal framework needs urban contaminants, but they are much more to be backed with improved technical capab­ dilute and widespread. For this reason they ility for monitoring water quality, for are considered to be less serious. reducing the spread of contaminants already in the groundwater, and for correcting The other aggregated sources are of existing problems. Research is sorely needed smaller magnitude than the first two and to develop more effective low cost monitoring are confined to much smaller areas of in­ systems and develop better ways for dealing fluence. At the present time, third ranking with contamination that has already occurred. h as to go to the improper disposal of oi 1- Existing systems cannot get the job done. field brines and petroleum wastes in the oi I-producing and refining areas of the Furthermore, state and local agencies state. These contaminants produce an ex­ charged with water pollution control should ceptionally heavy adverse impact upon shallow recruit more personnel experienced in ground­ groundwater quality. Their removal is nearly water contamination. Properly trained impossible, especially the odors, tastes, and personnel need to use the best available discolorations. technology to see that shallow groundwater is being protected throughout the state, and In fourth place is the large number of the program administration needs to be sure improperly situated and poorly operated that the efforts of all the various agencies solid-waste dumps. scattered throughout the involved are coordinated effectively. state. This category includes old aban­ doned dumps and the present illegal dumping. The Committee on Water Pollution in the Leachates from mining operations, recreation­ Utah Division of Health presently has a 1 was tes, and leakage from was te ponds and the necessary authority to take the lead in lagoons are also important sources of shallow this effort but lacks adequate funding. A groundwater contamination. few addi t ional s tate per sonnel are probably all that are required. They would need to Contamination in Watercourses assume central responsibility and utilize the cooperation of all others concerned at the This study also found continuing concen­ federal, state, and local levels. The State tration of contaminants by repeated reuse of of Utah Board of Oil, Gas, and Mining water in long river valleys. The Weber and has authority over pollution caused by Sevier Rivers are good examples. The more oil-field operations, and the U.S. Geological cycles of reuse and of groundwater becoming Survey has responsibility on Indian and surface water and then groundwater again, the federal lands. more the concentrations of contaminants build up in the groundwater. The longer the river Pub lic educat ion and under stand ing are valley and the lower the flow rates, the also necessary. Without strong public greater is this effect. Although each cycle support, anti-pollution efforts break down. may represent only a small rise in the I t is not practical to force an unconcerned level of contamination, the cumulative or unwilling public into compliance. Much effects can be disastrous to shallow ground­ shallow groundwater contamination is gener­ water quality. ated through lack of public understand ing.

37 Public education on shallow groundwater contaminated already. Extreme caut ion must contamination needs to be expanded. be used in such schemes, since deep aquifers are often recharged by waters of shallow Compromises have to be made. The con­ aquifers. cept of zero contamination is as impractical as zero use of water by mankind. Leak-proof More liquid and solid waste disposal sewerage systems, farming without concen­ sites must be approved and properly operated trating salts, and living without producing throughout the state. Groundwater quality wastes are not attainable goals. There are monitoring of waste disposal sites in the optimal levels to which these goals can be state will become mandatory in 1981 as achieved, and the determination of these required by the Resource Conservation and levels is an important part of responsible Recovery Act of 1976. Interim requirements management action. Analysis will show that of this act have been summarized in the little effort can be justified to correct Federal Register of May 19, 1980 (Federal some less serious problems whereas other Register 1980a), but the final regulations sources of shallow groundwater contamination, have not yet been published. Deep brine­ such as improper dumping of oil-field brines disposal wells with oil-reclaiming facilities and other liquid and solid wastes, can be may largely solve the oil-field-brine and eliminated almost entirely. sludge-disposal problem. The state has the legal authority to see that all accidental spills are cleaned up, but how effectively Sound basin management guidelines must this can be done depends upon available be adopted to effectively administer the funding. The foregoing as well as similar groundwater quality requirements of the steps should be coordinated and supervised by state. Where some level of contamination is the state and sufficient funds specifically inevitable, practical measures should be used provided for the protection of shallow to keep it at a minimum. The dedication of groundwater quality in the state. Federal certain shallow aquifers as liquid waste assistance in funding may become avail­ dumps may be an advantageous alternative in able as has been done for surface water some localities where the aquifers may be improvements.

38 REFERENCES

Baker, C. H., Jr. 1970. Water resources of Cordova, R. M. 1970. Ground-water conditions the Heber-Kamas-Park City area north­ in southern Utah Valley and Goshen central Utah. Utah Dept. Nat. Resources Valley, Utah. Utah Dept. Nat. Resources Tech. Pub. 27. Tech. Pub. 28. Baker, C. H., Jr. 1974. Water resources of Cordova, R. M., G. W. Sandberg, and W. the Curlew Valley drainage basin, Utah McConk ie. 1972. Ground-water cond i t ions and Idaho. Utah Dept. Nat. Resources in the central Virgin River basin, Utah. Tech. Pub. 45. Utah Dept. Nat. Resources Tech. Pub. 40. Bear River Association of Governments. 1979. Bear River District water quality Federal Register. 1979. National sec::ondary management plan. Bear River Association drinking water regulations. Vol. 44, No. of Governments, Logan, Utah. 140, Book 1. Superintendent of Docu­ ments, U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Bjorklund, L. J. 1967. Ground-water re­ Washington, D.C. p.42195-42202. July sources of northern Juab Valley, 19. Utah. Utah Dept. Nat. Resources Tech. Pub. 17. Federal Register. 1980a. Environmental Bjorklund, L. J., and L. J. McGreevy. 1974. Protection Agency hazardous waste Ground-water resources of the lower Bear management system and consolidated River Drainage Basin, Box Elder County, permit program. Parts II through XI. Utah. Utah Dept. Nat. Resources Tech. Vol. 45, No. 98. Superintendent of Pub. 44. Documents, U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D.C. May 19, 1980. Bjorklund, L. J., C. T. Sumsion, and G. W. Sandberg. 1978. Groundwater resources Federal Register. 1980b. Interim primary of the Parowan-Cedar City drainage drinking water regulations; amendments. basin, Iron County, Utah. Utah Dept. Vol. 45, No. 168. Superintendent of Nat. Resources Tech. Pub. 60. Documents, U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D.C. p. 57332-57357. BoIke, E. L., and Don Price. 1972. Hydrologic August 27, 1980. reconnaissance of the Blue Creek Valley area, Box Elder County, Utah. Utah Dept. Nat. Resources Tech. Pub. 37. Fenneman, N. M. 1931. Physiography of BoIke, E. L., and K. M. Waddell. 1972. western United States. McGraw-Hill Book Ground-water conditions in the East Co., New York. 534 p. Shore area, Box Elder, Davis, and Weber Counties, Utah, 1960-69. Utah Dept. Hely, A. G., R. W. Mower, and C. A. Harr. Natural Resources Tech. Pub. 35. 1971. Water resources of Salt Lake County, Utah. Utah Dept. Nat. Resources Cleave, M.L., V.D. Adams, and D.B. Porcella. Tech. Pub. 31. 1980. Utah sur face wastewater impound­ ment assessment report. Utah Water Horrocks and Carollo Engineers. 1976. Research Laboratory, Utah State Univer­ Identification of point and non-point sity. Publication pending. sources of pollution within the Uintah Basin 208 Planning Area, interim output Clyde, C. G., D. B. George, K. M. Lee, P. report no. 1. Uintah Basin Association Pucel, and W. H. Hay. 1981a. Water of Governments, Roosevelt, Utah. quality in Pleasant Valley, Utah. Utah Water Research Laboratory, Utah State University. Publication pending. Horrocks and Carollo Engineers. 1977. Uintah Basin areawide water quality management Clyde, C. G., R. Q. Oaks, P. T. Kolesar, and plan. Uintah Basin Association of E. P. Fisk. 1981b. Groundwater con­ Governments, Roosevelt, Utah. tamination along basin margins of the arid west: Alluvial fans and lake Kaliser, B. N. 1976. Final report to the features. Utah Water Research Labora­ U.S.G.S. Earthquake hazard and reduction tory, Utah State University. Publication program. Utah Geol. and Mineral Survey pending. Rept. of Invest. 108.

39 LaPray, B. A. 1975. Bibliography of U.S. Southwick, J. W., A. E. Western, M. M. Beck, Geological Survey water-resources T. Whitley, R. Isaacs, J. Petajan, and reports for Utah. Utah Dept. Nat. C. D. Hansen. 1980. Community health Resources Information Bulletin 23. hazards associated with arsenic in drinking water in Millard County, Utah. Lippmann, M., and R. B. Schlesinger. 1979. Bealth Effects Research Laboratory, Chemical contamination in the human Office of Research and Development, envi ronment. Oxford Uni vers i ty Press, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, New York, London. Cincinnati, Ohio. McNillan, D. T. 1978. Rose Park refinery Sumsion, C. T. 1971. Geology and water sludge dump. Utah Geol. and Mineral resources of the Spanish Valley area, Survey Rept. of Invest. 128. Grand and San Juan Counties, Utah. Utah Dept. Nat. Resources Tech. Pub. 32. Milligan, J. H., R. E. Marsell, and J. M. Bagley. 1966. Mineralized springs in Thomas, H. E. 1952. Ground-water regions Utah and their effect on manageable of the United States--their storage water supplies. Report WG23-6, Utah facilities. In: The Physical and Water Research Laboratory, Utah State Economic Foundation of Natural Re­ University. sources, Vol. 3, House Interior and Insular Affairs Comm., U.S. Congress, Mountainland Association of Governments. Washington, D.C. 1980. 208 water quality management study. Mountainland Association of U. S. Envi ronmental Protect ion Agency. 1976. Governments, Provo, Utah. National interim primary drinking water regulations. U.S. Environmental Protec­ Mower, R. W., and R. M. Cordova. 1974. tion Agency, Office of Water Supply, Water resources of the Milford area, Washington, D.C. EPA-570/9-76-003. Utah, with emphasis on ground water. Utah Dept. Nat. Resources Tech. Pub. U . S. Envi ronmental Protect ion Agency. 1979. 43. A guide to the underground injection control program. U.S. Environmental Mundorff, J. C. 1970. Major thermal springs Protection Agency, Office of Drinking of Utah. Utah Geol. and Mineral Survey Water, Washington, D.C. Water-Resources Bulletin 13. Mundorff, J. C. 1971. Nonthermal springs of U.S. Water Resources Council. 1971a. Great Utah. Utah Geol. and Mineral Survey Basin Region comprehensive framework Water-Resources Bulletin 16. study. Appendix XV, Water quality pollution control, and health factors. ' National Water Well Association. 1976. A manual of laws, regulations, and insti­ U.S. Water Resources Council. 1971b. Upper tutions for control of ground water Colorado Region comprehensive framework pollut ion. U. S. Envi ronmental Protec­ study. Appendix XV, Water quality tion Agency, EPA-440/9-76-006. pollution control, and health factors. ' Price, Don, T. E. Eakin, and others. 1974. Water in the Great Basin Region; Idaho, Utah Code Annotated. 1980. Pollution of Nevada, Utah, and Wyoming. U. S. Geol. waters. Ti tIe 73, Chapter 14, Replace­ Survey Hydrologic Invest igat ions Atlas ment Volume 7C. The Allen Smith Com­ HA-487. pany, Indianapolis, Indiana.

Price, Don, and K. M. Waddell. 1973. Utah Department of Health. 1979. State of Selected hydrologic data in the Upper Utah public drinking water regulations. Colorado River Basin. U.S. Geol. Survey State of Utah, Department of Health, Hydrologic Investigations Atlas HA-477. Division of Environmental Health, Bureau of Public Water Supplies, Salt Lake City, Utah. Razem, A. C., and J. I. Steiger. 1980. Ground-water conditions in Tooele Vesilind, P. A. 1975. Environmental pol­ Valley, Utah, 1976-1978. U.s. Geol. lution and control. Ann Arbor Science, Survey Open-File Report 80-439. Ann Arbor, Michigan. Silka, L. R., and T. L. Swearingen. 1978. A Weber River Water Quality Planning Council. manual for evaluating contamination 1977. The Weber River 208 Area Wide potent ial of sur face impoundments. EPA Water Quality Management Plan for Weber, 570/9-78-003. Ground Water Protection Davis, and Morgan Counties. Weber River Branch, Office of Drinking Water, U.S. Water Quality Planning Council, EPA, Washington, D.C. 84 p. Farmington, Utah.

40 APPENDIX

Physiography broad, flat valleys within these mountain ranges. General Statement Four important stream systems flow from Portions of three major physiographic the mountain ranges and discharge into the provi nces are pr esent in Utah (Fenneman Basin and Range Province. They are the Bear 1931). Figure 3 shows these physiographic River, the Ogden River, the Weber River, and provinces on a base map showing other impor­ the Provo River systems. The trunk streams tant geographical features of the state. The have alluviated, intermontane valleys along Middle Rocky Mountain Province is part of the most of their reaches. To the east and Rocky Mountain System. The other two physio­ south, the Wasatch and Uinta mountains give graphic provinces, the Colorado Plateaus way to dissected plateaus of the Colorado Province and the Basin and Range Province, Plateaus Province. are parts of the Intermontane Plateaus System. Each of these three physiographic provinces has topographic, geologic, and hydrologic characteristics which distinguish one province from another. Colorado Plateaus Province Middle Rocky Mountain Province The Colorado Plateaus Province occupies roughly half of Utah's area. In Utah the The Middle Rocky Mountain Province in province is divided into the Uinta Basin Utah is of relatively small area in compari­ section to the north, the High Plateaus son to the other provinces. It lies in sect ion to the west, and the Canyonlands the northeast portion of the state and is section to the southeast. It is characterized pract ically all mountainous. Th is province by a high elevation ranging between 1500 m is composed of the Uinta Mountains, the (5000 m) and 3350 m (11,000 ft), by the Wasatch Range, the Bear River Range, and nearly horizontal attitude of the layered intervening valleys. rocks of which it is mainly composed, and by the innumerable steep-walled canyons The Uinta Mountains are a broad, elon­ occurring mostly in the Canyonlands section. ga ted up 1 i ft, and one of the largest east­ A few broad, alluviated valleys are found in west ranges in the United States. They are the Uinta Basin sector whereas only a few approximately 240 km (150 mi) long and 50 to small, narrow ones are found in the other 65 km (30 to 40 m) wide with peaks reaching sectors. Due to the arid climate, there are above 3660 m (12,000 ft) in elevation. The extensive areas of bare rock, sparse vegeta­ topogr aphy 0 f the Uint as is related to its tion, and few population centers. Dif­ anticlinal geologic structure, which has a ferential erosion of the rock strata has broad, central, glaciated area with numerous produced a succession of topographic benches peak sand ridges along the s tructur al ax is. separated by steep slopes or cliffs. Many streams have formed deep canyons that The southern margin of the Uinta Basin extend both northward and southward from the section and the eastern margin of the High structural axis. One notable exception is Plateaus section consist of several rows of the Green River, which flows across the east closely-spaced erosional escarpments that end of the range from north to south and border the relatively lower elevations of forms a canyon with a maximum depth of 900 m the Canyonlands sect ion. The High Plateaus (3000 ft). section is cut into three longitudinal strips by two deep trenches. Each strip consists of The Wasatch and Bear River ranges extend long, narrow tablelands bounded by graben southward from the Utah-Idaho boundary nearly valleys or escarpments. 300 km (200 mi) and form the western portions of the Middle Rocky Mountain Province. The Almost all sectors of the Colorado west margin of the province is delineated by Plateaus Province drain into the Colorado the spectacular Wasatch Front, which is River System. The Green River and the San attributed to normal faulting of enormous Juan River are the principal tributaries of magnitude. This rugged escarpment rises the Colorado River in Utah. There are abruptly from a relatively flat valley many minor tributaries of these three rivers. floor at less than 1500 m (5000 ft) elevation The Sevier River and its tributaries drain to peaks that exceed 3350 m (11,000 ft). much of the High Plateaus section away from Cache Valley in the north and Heber Valley the Colorado River System and into the Basin near the center are among the very few, and Range Province.

41 Tooele

Millard

1_-_-_ ------1

I Beaver I ~------I

: Iron Garfield \ L-----I ~~;ar San Juan I ~- I Washington

S1. Geor~r--_---L Kane • • Virgin R. I

Figure 3. Physiographic provinces and general geogr~phy of Utah.

42 Basin and Range Province The steeply dipping formations of the mono­ cline form ridges parallel to the axis of The Basin and Range Province covers the ant ic Ii ne. The eas i ly eroded edges of roughly the western one-third of the State the softer Mesozoic sediments have been cut of Utah. This province in Utah is charac­ away and covered in large part by horizontal terized by ~bout 50 long, narrow mountain Ter~iary deposits to the south. ranges widely separated by broad, desert plains. These ranges trend generally north­ The north-south or iented Wasatch and south, average about 65 km (40 mi) in length, Bear River ranges have much more complex and vary in width from about 8 to 25 km (5 to geology. In contrast to the Uintas, the 15 mi). They rise abruptly from the desert topog.raphy of these ranges is controlled more floor and have relatively straight-lined by folding and faulting than by differential flanks. eros ion of hard and soft format ions. These two ranges are composed of exceedingly com­ The desert plains extend from about plex associations of folded, faulted, and 1280 m (4200 ft) to about 1770 m (5800 intruded rock formations. Rocks of prac­ ft) in elevation. They are among the most tically all types and ages are represented as arid lands in the United States. Several are well as a wide variety of unconsolidated topographically closed, and some contain deposits. playas or dry-lake beds. No significant perennial streams originate in the Basin The Bear River Range is composed pre­ and Range Province of Utah. Those along the dominantly of Paleozoic limestones, dolo­ east marg i n der i ve the i r water from the mi tes, and some quartz i tes. However, there Wasatch and other associated ranges and are significant amounts of Precambrian plateaus. There is some runoff within the metamorphics and Cenozoic conglomerates, province from melting snow and rain in the sandstones, mudstones, limestones, and some spring and occasionally from thundershowers unconsolidated glacial and alluvial deposits. in other seasons. Springs on some of the Cache Valley is a graben separating the Bear mountain flanks are sustained by infiltration River Range and the northwest extension of of melted snow on the mountain highlands. the Wasatch Range. The same Paleozoic and Precambrian rocks underlie Cache Valley at Only one subdivision of the Basin and Range Province exists in Utah. This is the great depths. The valley is filled primarily Great Basin Section, which also comprises with Tertiary sediments overlain by a few about half of the entire province and covers hundred meters of Quarternary fluvial and practically all of Nevada. The eastern lacustrine deposits that blanket the main subsection of the Great Basin, called the valley floor. Bonnevi lIe Basin, encompasses almost all of western Utah. Alluvial and lacustrine flats The Wasatch Range is composed largely are extensive in the Bonneville Basin. The of limestones, quartzites, dolomites, sand­ lowest levels in the subsection are near stones, and shales, with lesser amounts of the shores of the Great Salt Lake at an igneous intrusive and extrusive rocks as well elevation of about 1280 m (4200 m). as unconsolidated fluvial, glacial, and alluvial deposits. These extend in age from The majority of the state's population Precambrian to Recent. Several small alluvial lives along the east margin of the Basin and valleys are found at higher elevations within Range Province. This long, narrow strip of this range. land was first settled and later heavily developed because of the availability of Colorado Plateaus Province abundant water supplies derived from runoff and underground seepage from the contiguous Most of the Colorado Plateaus Province highlands of the Middle Rocky Mountain and consists of nearly horizontal sedimentary Colorado Plateaus Provinces. rocks. These strata tilt very gently toward the northeast, where the province contacts Geology the Rocky Mountain system. As a consequence of this structure, Tertiary rocks crop out in Middle Rocky Mour:t_tai!1nJ'rovince basins on the north and east sides of the plateau and Mesozoic and Paleozoic rocks crop The Uinta Range is a flat-topped anti­ out along the elevated southwest rim, which clinal structure with an east-west axis. It rises above the Basin and Range Province. may be better described as a nearly hori­ Mesozoic formations predominate in the zontal plateau whose north flank is an abrupt vast interior of the Colorado Plateaus monocline. Erosion of the structure has Province. revealed a Precambrian quartzitic-sandstone core. Paleozoi~ and Mesozoic sedimentary The Uinta Bas in sect ion is essent i ally rock s and some younger depos i ts are exposed an east-west oriented, asymmetrical syncline along the flanks of the structure. These which adjoins the southern flank of the Uinta formations consist primarily of calcareous to Mountain uplift. The monoclinal limb shared quartzitic sandstones, cherty to dolomitic by these two large structures is complicated 1 imestones, sandy to carbonaceous to phos­ by faulting. Early Tertiary sedimentary phatic shales, calcareous siltstones and rocks predominate on the land surface. mudstones, and well cemented conglomerates. They consist mainly of cont inental shales,

43 siltstones, and fine- to medium-grained tures having relatively low dips. However, sandstones with small amounts of limestone, several areas have abrupt upwarps due to claystone, conglomerate, and tuff. Certain igneous intrusions, such as the Henry, La lacustrine shales of the southern part of the Sal, Abajo, and Navajo mountains. A few basin contain rich reserves of oil shale. The other uplifts are not necessarily related to Tertiary formations in the central and igneous intrusions. The Cretaceous Mancos southern Uinta Basin form broad, hilly Shale crops out in large areas of the benches that slope gently northward from northern part of the sect ion. I t is noted south-facing escarpments. Cretaceous forma­ for its soluble minerals and their adverse tions rise southward from under the Tertiary effects upon water quality. Although Mesozoic strata and form the impressive Book Cliffs, sandstones and shales predominate in the an escarpment 600 m (2000 ft) high that Canyonlands section, Paleozoic rocks are extends about 160 km (100 mi) along the associated with the uplifted areas and the southern edge of the basin. series of erosional cliffs to the south. Alluvium covers a small portion of the Alluviated valleys are extremely scarce Uinta Basin. Much of what does occur is very in this region. Trivial thicknesses of fine grained because of the predominance of alluvium are found along the valleys of the shales in the bedrock of the area. With two major streams. Only in a very few small notable exceptions, the alluvium is confined areas is the alluvium of appreciable thick­ to very narrow valleys along the principal ness. Spanish Valley near Moab is probably streams of the basin. These exceptions are the most important alluviated valley, yet it Ashley Valley and the lower Uinta River comprises only about 47 km2 (18 mi 2). The Valley with its neighboring Roosevelt Valley. Castle Valley not far east of Moab, Upper Also there are many small areas where the Fremont Valley at the middle of the western Tertiary sediments are covered by a thin margin of the Canyonlands sect ion, and the layer of terrace gravels and glaciofluvial Kanab d istr ict on the Ar izona boundary are deposits. None of these Quarternary deposits, the only other important alluvial valleys in including the valley alluvium, average much the entire area, and none of them is signi­ more than 15 m (50 ft) in thickness. ficantly larger than Spanish Valley.

The High Plateaus Section of the Basin and ~ange Province Colorado Plateaus Province is more compli­ cated geologically than the other two sec­ The geology of the Basin and Range t ions. Not only has it been elevated above Province is exceedingly complex spatially, the surrounding regions, but it also has been but its patterns are generally repetitive. block faulted and folded. The major faults The mountain ranges are composed of innumera­ and fold axes trend generally south in ble varieties of rocks and are the result of continuation of the trend of the Wasatch extensive late Tertiary and Quaternary Range and then curve southwestward toward the faulting, which has formed numerous horsts southwest corner of the state. The west and graben in the basement rocks. Rocks flank of this section is marked by a series comprising the ranges are complexly folded of ranges and plateaus, such as the Pavant and faulted. They are mainly Precambrian and Range and the Markagunt Plateau. The Sevier Paleozoic, igneous, sedimentary, and meta­ and San Pitch River valleys parallel these sedimentary rocks, which include a predomi­ frontal ranges on their east flanks. nance of limestones, with lesser amounts of Further to the east, two or three series of quartz i tes, sands tones, and shales. There broader, higher plateaus follow "the same are minor amounts of Tertiary intrusives and trend and reach elevations between 2750 and extrusives present in some areas. 3350 m (9,000 and 11,000 ft). All of this section is underlain by Mesozoic and These same bedrock materials are be­ Tert iary sediments and extrusives that have lieved to be underlying the basin areas, been complexly folded and faulted in a which have been filled to considerable succession of crustal movements that began in thicknesses chiefly by nonmarine, consoli­ early Cretaceous time and extended throughout dated to unconsolidated, Tertiary and Tertiary time into the Pleistocene Epoch. Quarternary sed iment s inc Iud ing lake depos­ Thes e format ions cons ist pr imar i ly of sand­ its, alluvium, and other clastic materials. stones, shales, conglomerates, and silt­ In a few areas the valley-fill deposits are stones with lesser amounts of limestones, intercalated with Tertiary or Quaternary evaporites, lavas, and pyroclastics. In the volcanic rocks and pyroclastics. In many valleys of this section, these formations are cases the margins of the basins sloping away overlain by modest thicknesses of Quaternary from the ranges are composed of large alluvium composed of stream and floodplain numbers of coalesc ing alluvial fans. These deposits and in some areas by alluvial fans fans are of braided-stream flow and of mixed and glacial moraines. mudflow and braided-streamflow origin. Separated from the Uinta Basin and High At various times during the Pleistocene Plateaus sections by an imposing series of Epoch lakes were present, wi th the largest cliffs, the Canyonlands section generally being the vast forerunner of the Great Salt lies at lower elevations and has much simpler Lake, called Lake Bonneville. Accordingly, geology. The strata are nearly horizontal considerable thicknesses of lacustrine sedi­ and they are gently warped into broad struc- ments blanket some basins of this province.

44 Hali te and other lacustr ine evapo~ ites are months is largely in the form of snow. found in some areas, especially in the region Therefore, recharge occurs chiefly during the west of the Great Salt Lake to the Nevada months of spring thaw and high runoff. In boundary in the Great Salt Lake Desert. Lake dry seasons shallow groundwater will dis­ Bonnevi lIe covered about 51,800 km 2 (20,000 charge into streams and sustain flowing mi2) at its largest extent and was almost springs. Infiltration of recharge into 305 m (1000 -ft) deep at its deepest point. shallow aquifers is greater for the more Continual evaporation for thousands of years permeable and more porous formations. has left an enormous amount of salts and saline waters to contaminate the shallow Consolidated rocks are generally the groundwater in large areas of the province. poorest aquifers, and unconsolidated alluvium is the best. Sometimes the reverse is true, however. Fractures and joints of consolidated Geohydrology rocks and interconnecting pores of coarse­ grained unconsolidated materials provide Utah was divided into three groundwater the best passages and storage space for regions by Thomas (1952). These groundwater percolating groundwater in those respec­ regions almost exactly coincide with the tive underground environments. three physiographic provinces of Fenneman (1931). The names are slightly different. All of the mountain ranges of the state The three groundwater regions, called the are composed of consolidated rocks. These Western Mountain Ranges, the Colorado Pla­ ranges receive most of the state's precipita­ teau, and the Arid Basins groundwater tion, yet they have relatively little capaci­ regions, correspond respectively to the ty to store and retain infiltrated water Middle Rocky Mountain, the Colorado Plateaus, underground for long periods of time. As a and the Basin and Range physiographic prov­ r esul t the mountains generally funct ion as inces. These groundwater regions have water collectors, which provide runoff and distinguishing hydrologic characteristics recharge to the surrounding lowlands. The resulting from their individual physiographic reduced capacity that the mountains have to and geologic natures. store and transmit water is responsible for the sustained flow of springs and the base­ Climate affects the occurrence of flow of streams following periods of high groundwater in any specific area. Utah as a runoff. Patches of alluvium, glacial de­ whole is semiarid. However, its climate posits, and other unconsolidated materials ranges from arid, hot desert in the southwest found high in the mountains contribute corner to humid, cool alpine in the northern measurably to the capacity of the mountains mountains of the state. The valleys of to detain water. Bonneville Basin receive about 15 cm (6 in) or less in average annual precipitation, Runoff and seepage from the mountains 'while a few of the mountain peaks receive are the principal sources of recharge to the slightly more than 50 cm (20 in). Because high intermontane valleys as well as to the of the orographic effect, certain highlands lower valleys and basins. The high valleys, of the Uinta Mountains, the Wasatch Range, such as those of the upper Weber and Provo and the High Plateaus Section receive between Rivers, have relatively thin alluvium. 75 and 100 cm (30 and 40 in) of precipita­ Vi rt ually all of them, therefore, have only t ion annually (Price et al. 1974). The shallow alluvial aquifers. The lower valleys, Colorado Plateaus Province generally receives such as Cache Valley, and the desert basins between 25 and 50 cm (10 and 20 in) of have shallow as well as deep aqui fers. The precipitation annually depending largely upon shallow aquifers are practically always a elevation. part of the main valley alluvium or basin­ margin deposits such as alluvial fans, Recharge to shallow aquifers is mainly moraines, and lacustrine deposits. The the result of infiltration of streamflow, deeper aquifers may consist of older allu­ irrigation, or of water detained on permeable vi urn, lake beds, semi-consolidated to con­ earth materials. Precipitation in the winter solidated bedrock formations, or volcanics.

45