Chapter 28 The Liberal Consensus: Flaming Out 1960–1968

Teaching Resources first Catholic chief , Kennedy practiced what became known as the “new Chapter Instructional Objectives politics,” an approach that emphasized youthful charisma, style, and personality After you have taught this chapter, your students more than issues and platforms. should be able to answer the following questions: 4. A series of four televised debates between 1. What were the main aspects of President John F. Kennedy and Nixon showed how impor- Kennedy’s domestic and foreign policy agenda? tant television was becoming to political life; voters who listened to the 1960 presi- 2. What were the most important parts of President dential debates on the radio concluded Lyndon B. Johnson’s Great Society program? that Nixon had won, and those who 3. How and why did America enter the war in Viet- watched it on TV felt that Kennedy had nam? won. 5. Kennedy won only the narrowest of elec- 4. What was the relationship between American do- toral victories, receiving 49.7 percent of mestic affairs and the conduct of the the popular vote to Nixon’s 49.5 percent; a War? shift of a few thousand votes in key states 5. Why is 1968 considered a watershed year in mod- would have reversed the outcome. ern American history? B. The Kennedy Administration 1. Kennedy could not mobilize public or 6. Why does the term counterculture describe the be- congressional support for his New havior of many baby boomers during the late Frontier agenda; he managed to push 1960s? through legislation raising the minimum wage and expanding Social Security bene- Chapter Annotated Outline fits, but a conservative coalition of south- ern Democrats and western and midwest- I. John F. Kennedy and the Politics of Expectation ern Republicans effectively stalled most A. The New Politics liberal initiatives. 1. With his New Frontier program, Kennedy 2. The Bay of Pigs incident nearly derailed promised to “get America moving again” the Kennedy administration. In January of through vigorous governmental activism 1961, the two nations began a nuclear at home and abroad. standoff near Cuba that lasted two 2. Kennedy campaigned on the issues of civil months and nearly brought the world into rights legislation, health care for the a third world war. elderly, aid to education, urban renewal, 3. Funding for the National Aeronautics and expanded military and space programs, Space Administration (NASA) and its and containment of abroad. Mercury program won support; on May 5, 3. Poised to become the youngest man ever 1961, Alan Shepard became the first elected to the presidency and the nation’s American in space, and, in 1962, John

423 424 Chapter 28: The Liberal Consensus: Flaming Out, 1960–1968

Glenn manned the first U.S. space mission movement acceptable to white Americans; to orbit the earth. it also marked the high point of the civil 4. After Kennedy’s assassination, the Tax Re- rights movement and confirmed King’s duction Act (the Kennedy-Johnson tax position as the leading speaker for the cut, 1964) marked a milestone in the use black cause. of fiscal policy to encourage economic 10. Some civil rights activists were more radi- growth. cal than King; during the next few years, C. The Civil Rights Movement Stirs there were conflicts among the black ac- 1. One of the most notable failures of the tivists over tactics and goals that were to Kennedy administration was its reluctance transform the movement. to act on civil rights. 11. Southern senators blocked the civil rights 2. After the Woolworth’s lunch counter sit- legislation, and there was an outbreak of in, the Southern Christian Leadership violence by white extremists; four black Conference helped to organize the Student Sunday school students were killed when a Non-Violent Coordinating Committee in Birmingham, Alabama, church was order to facilitate sit-ins by blacks de- bombed. manding an end to segregation. D. Kennedy, Cold Warrior 3. The Congress of Racial Equality organized 1. A resolute cold warrior, Kennedy pro- freedom rides on bus lines in the South to posed a new policy of flexible response call attention to segregation on public measures designed to deter direct attacks transportation; the activists were attacked by the Soviet Union, which resulted in the by white mobs. defense budget reaching its highest level as 4. Attorney General Robert Kennedy sent a percentage of total federal expenditures federal marshals to Alabama to restore in the Cold War era and greatly expanding order; most southern communities quietly the military-industrial complex. acceded to the Interstate Commerce Com- 2. Kennedy adopted a new military doctrine mission’s prohibition of segregated inter- of counterinsurgency; soon the Green state vehicles and facilities. Berets of the U.S. Army’s Special Forces 5. When thousands of black demonstrators, were being trained to repel guerrilla war- organized by Martin Luther King Jr., fare. marched to picket Birmingham, Alabama’s 3. The Peace Corps, the Agency for Interna- department stores, television cameras cap- tional Development, and the Alliance for tured the severe methods used against Progress provided food and other aid to them by Bull Connors. Third World countries, bringing them into 6. President Kennedy responded to the inci- the American orbit and away from Com- dent on June 11, 1963, when he went on munist influence. television to promise major legislation 4. Fidel Castro overthrew Cuban dictator banning discrimination in public accom- Fulgencio Batista in 1959; Cuban relations modations and empowering the Justice with Washington deteriorated after Castro Department to enforce desegregation. nationalized American-owned banks and 7. Black leaders hailed Kennedy’s speech as industries and the United States declared the “Second Emancipation Proclamation,” an embargo on Cuban exports. yet on the evening of the address, Medgar 5. Isolated by the United States, Cuba turned Evers, the president of the Mississippi to the Soviet Union for economic and chapter of the NAACP, was shot and military support. killed. 6. In early 1961, Kennedy attempted to fo- 8. To rouse the conscience of the nation and ment an anti-Castro uprising; the CIA- to marshal support for Kennedy’s bill, civil trained invaders were crushed by Castro’s rights leaders launched a massive civil troops after landing at Cuba’s Bay of Pigs rights march on Washington in 1963, on April 17. which culminated in King’s “I Have a 7. U.S.-Soviet relations further deteriorated Dream” speech. when the Soviets built the Berlin Wall in 9. King’s eloquence and the sight of blacks order to stop the exodus of East Germans; and whites marching together did more the Berlin Wall remained a symbol of the than any thing else to make the civil rights Cold War until 1989. Chapter 28: The Liberal Consensus: Flaming Out, 1960–1968 425

8. The climactic confrontation of the Cold and assassinated—a result evidently not War, the Cuban missile crisis, occurred in anticipated by Kennedy. At that point, October 1962, when American reconnais- there were about 16,000 American “ad- sance planes flying over Cuba photo- visors” in Vietnam. graphed Soviet-built bases for ICBMs, 18. The United States was now engaged in a which could reach U.S. targets as far as global war against communism. Giving up 2,200 miles away. in Vietnam would be weakening America’s 9. In a televised address, Kennedy confronted “credibility” in that struggle. And, under the Soviet Union and announced that the the prevailing “domino theory,” other pro- United States would impose a “quarantine American states would topple after Viet- on all offensive military equipment” in- nam’s loss. tended for Cuba. E. The Kennedy Assassination 10. After a week of tense negotiations, both 1. On November 22, 1963, in Dallas, Texas, Kennedy and Khrushchev made conces- President Kennedy was assassinated by Lee sions: the United States would not invade Harvey Oswald; Lyndon Johnson was Cuba, and the Soviets would dismantle the sworn in as president. missile bases. 2. Kennedy’s youthful image, the trauma of 11. After the Cuban missile crisis, Kennedy his assassination, and the sense that Amer- softened his Cold War rhetoric and began icans had been robbed of a promising to strive for peaceful coexistence; in 1963, leader contributed to a powerful mystique the United States, Great Britain, and the that continues today. Soviet Union agreed to stop testing nu- 3. This romantic aura of “Camelot” over- clear weapons in the atmosphere, in space, shadows Kennedy’s mixed record of ac- and under water; underground testing complishments; he exercised leadership in would continue. foreign affairs, but some remain critical of 12. A new Washington-Moscow telecommu- his belligerent stance toward the Soviet nications “hot line” was established so that Union and lack of attention to domestic leaders could contact each other quickly issues. during potential crises. II. Lyndon B. Johnson and the Great Society 13. Despite efforts at peaceful coexistence, the A. The Momentum for Civil Rights preoccupation with the Soviet military 1. Johnson won the 1964 election in a land- threat to American security remained a slide and used his energy and genius for cornerstone of U.S. policy; the Cold War, compromise to bring to fruition many of and the escalating arms race that accom- Kennedy’s stalled programs as well as panied it, would continue for another many of his own. twenty-five years. 2. Those legislative accomplishments—John- 14. When Kennedy became president, he in- son’s “Great Society”—fulfilled and in herited Eisenhower’s involvement in Viet- many cases surpassed the New Deal liberal nam. Kennedy saw Vietnam in very much agenda of the 1930s. the same Cold War terms. 3. On assuming the presidency, Johnson 15. The Army was training U.S. Special promptly pushed the passage of civil Forces, called Green Berets for their dis- rights to appeal to a broad national audi- tinctive headgear, to engage in unconven- ence and to achieve an impressive legisla- tional, small-group warfare. Kennedy and tive accomplishment, which he hoped his advisors wanted to try out the Green would place his mark on the presidency. Berets in the Vietnamese jungles. 4. The Civil Rights Act passed in June 1964; 16. Despite American aid, the corrupt and re- its keystone, Title VII, outlawed discrimi- pressive Diem regime installed by Eisen- nation in employment on the basis of hower in 1954 in was los- race,religion, national origin, or sex. ing ground to domestic critics and North 5. The Civil Rights Act forced desegregation Vietnamese insurgents. of public facilities throughout the South, 17. Losing patience with Diem, Kennedy let it yet obstacles to black voting remained. be known in Saigon that the United States 6. To meet this challenge, civil rights activists would support a military coup. On mounted a major civil rights campaign in November 1, 1963, Diem was overthrown Mississippi known as “Freedom Summer,” 426 Chapter 28: The Liberal Consensus: Flaming Out, 1960–1968

which established freedom schools, con- 5. The Elementary and Secondary Education ducted a voter registration drive, and or- Act of 1965 authorized $1 billion in fed- ganized the Mississippi Freedom Demo- eral funds to benefit impoverished chil- cratic party. dren; the Higher Education Act provided 7. The reaction of white southerners to Free- the first federal scholarships for college dom Summer was swift and violent; fifteen students. civil rights workers were murdered, and 6. Federal health insurance legislation was only 1,200 black voters were registered. enacted; the result was Medicare for the 8. To protest these murders, King and other elderly and Medicaid for the poor. civil rights activists staged a march from 7. The creation of the National Endowment Selma to Montgomery in March 1965; the for the Arts and the National Endowment marchers were attacked by mounted state for the Humanities in 1965 supported troopers with tear gas and clubs, all of artists and historians in their efforts to which was shown on national television. understand and interpret the nation’s cul- 9. Calling the episode “an American tragedy,” tural and historical heritage. President Johnson redoubled his efforts to 8. Another aspect of public welfare ad- persuade Congress to pass the pending dressed by the Great Society was the en- voting-rights legislation. vironment; Johnson pressed for expansion 10. On August 6, Congress passed the Voting of the national parks system, improve- Rights Act of 1965, which suspended the ment of the nation’s air and water, and literacy tests and other measures most increased land-use planning. southern states used to prevent blacks 9. At the insistence of his wife, Lady Bird, from registering to vote. President Johnson promoted the Highway 11. The Twenty-fourth Amendment’s outlaw- Beautification Act of 1965. ing of the federal poll tax, combined with 10. Liberal Democrats brought about signifi- the Voting Rights Act, allowed millions of cant changes in immigration policy with blacks to register to vote for the first time. the passage of the Immigration Act of 12. In 1960 in the South only 20 percent of 1965, which abandoned the quota system blacks of voting age had been registered to of the 1920s. vote;by 1964 the figure had risen to 39 11. By the end of 1965, the Johnson adminis- percent, and by 1971 it was 62 percent. tration had compiled the most impressive B. Enacting the Liberal Agenda legislative record of liberal reforms since 1. When Johnson defeated Republican sena- the New Deal; it had put issues of poverty, tor Barry Goldwater for the presidency in justice, and access at the center of national 1964, he won in a landslide, providing a political life, and it expanded the federal mandate for his administration. government’s role in protecting citizens’ 2. Johnson used this mandate not only to welfare. promote the civil rights agenda but also to 12. By the end of the decade, many of its pro- bring to fruition what he called the “Great grams were under attack; limits that con- Society.” fronted it were the political necessity of 3. Wherever he acted, Johnson pursued an bowing to pressure from various interest ambitious goal of putting “an end to groups and limited funding for its pro- poverty in our time”; the “War on grams. Poverty” expanded long-established social 13. The results of the War on Poverty were insurance programs, welfare programs that the poor were better off in an ab- (like Aid to Families with Dependent solute sense, but they remained far behind Children and Food Stamps), and public the middle class in a relative sense. works programs. 14. Democratic support for further govern- 4. The Office of Economic Opportunity, es- mental activism was hampered by a grow- tablished by the Economic Opportunity ing conservative backlash against the ex- Act of 1964, created programs such as pansion of civil rights and social welfare Head Start, the Job Corps, Upward programs. Bound, Volunteers in Service to America, 15. After 1965, the siphoned and the Community Action Program. funding away from domestic programs; in Chapter 28: The Liberal Consensus: Flaming Out, 1960–1968 427

1966, the government spent $22 billion on B. Public Opinion on Vietnam the war and only $1.2 billion on the War 1. By the late 1960s, public opinion began to on Poverty. As Martin Luther King put it, turn against the war in Vietnam; television the Great Society was “shot down on the had much to do with these attitudes as battlefields of Vietnam.” Vietnam was the first televised war. III. Into the Quagmire, 1963–1968 2. Despite glowing statements made on tele- A. Escalation vision, by 1967, many administration offi- 1. When Johnson became president, he con- cials privately reached a more pessimistic tinued and accelerated U.S. involvement in conclusion regarding the war. Vietnam to prevent charges of being soft 3. The administration was accused of suffer- on communism. ing from a “credibility gap”; 1966 televised 2. Johnson knew that he needed congres- hearings by the Senate Foreign Relations sional support or a declaration of war to Committee raised further questions about commit U.S. troops to an offensive strat- U.S. policy. egy, so he told the nation that North Viet- 4. Economic developments put Johnson and namese torpedo boats had fired on Ameri- his advisors even more on the defensive; can destroyers in international waters in the costs of the war became evident as the response to South Vietnamese amphibious growing federal deficit nudged the infla- attacks. tion rate upward, beginning the inflation- 3. On August 7, 1964, Congress authorized ary spiral that plagued the U.S. economy the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which al- throughout the 1970s. lowed Johnson to “take all necessary mea- 5. After the escalation in the spring of 1965, sures to repel any armed attack against the various antiwar coalitions organized sev- forces of the United States and to prevent eral mass demonstrations in Washington; further aggression.” participants shared a common skepticism 4. The Johnson administration moved to- about the means and aims of U.S. policy the Americanization of the war with and argued that the war was antithetical Operation Rolling Thunder, a protracted to American ideals. bombing campaign that by 1968 had C. Student Activism dropped a million tons of bombs on 1. Youth were among the key protestors of . the era. 5. Operation Rolling Thunder intensified the 2. In their manifesto, the Port Huron State- North Vietnamese’s will to fight; the flow ment, the Students for a Democratic Soci- of their troops and supplies continued to ety (SDS) expressed their disillusionment the south unabated as the Communists re- with the consumer culture and the gulf built roads and bridges, moved munitions between the prosperous and the poor and underground, and built networks of tun- rejected Cold War ideology and foreign nels and shelters. policy. 6. A week after the launch of Operation 3. The founders of SDS referred to them- Rolling Thunder, the United States sent its selves as the “New Left” to distinguish first ground troops into combat; by 1968, themselves from the “Old Left” of Com- more than 536,000 American soldiers were munists and socialists of the 1930s and stationed in Vietnam. 1940s. 7. Vietnam’s countryside was threatened 4. At the University of California at Berkeley, with destruction; the massive bombard- the Free Speech Movement organized a sit- ment plus a defoliation campaign seri- in in response to administrators’ attempts ously damaged agricultural production to ban political activity on campus. and thus the economy. 5. Many protests centered on the draft, espe- 8. The dramatically increased American cially after the Selective Service system presence in Vietnam failed to turn the tide abolished automatic student deferments of the war; yet, hoping to win a war of at- in January 1966; in public demonstrations trition, the Johnson administration as- of civil disobedience, opponents of the sumed that American superiority in per- war burned their draft cards, closed down sonnel and weaponry would ultimately induction centers, and broke into Selective triumph. Service offices and destroyed records. 428 Chapter 28: The Liberal Consensus: Flaming Out, 1960–1968

6. Much of the universities’ research budget 3. Black rage had expressed itself historically came from Defense Department contracts; in demands for racial separation, espoused students demanded that the Reserve Offi- in the late nineteenth century by the back- cer Training Corps be removed from col- to-Africa movement and in the 1920s by lege campuses. Marcus Garvey. 7. The Johnson administration had to face 4. Black separatism was revived by a reli- the reality of large-scale opposition to the gious group known as the Black Muslims, war with protests like “Stop the Draft an organization that stressed black pride, Week” and the “siege on the Pentagon.” unity, and self-help and was hostile to IV. Coming Apart whites. A. The Counterculture 5. The Black Muslims’ most charismatic fig- 1. The “hippie” symbolized the new counter- ure, Malcolm X, advocated militant protest culture, a youthful movement that glori- and separatism, although he condoned the fied liberation from traditional social use of violence only for self-defense. strictures. 6. Malcolm X eventually broke with the Na- 2. Popular music by Pete Seeger, Joan Baez, tion of Islam and was assassinated by and Bob Dylan expressed political ideal- three Black Muslims while delivering a ism, protest, and loss of patience with the speech in Harlem in 1965. war and was an important part of the 7. A more secular black nationalist move- counterculture. ment calling for black self-reliance and 3. Beatlemania helped to deepen the genera- racial pride emerged in 1966 under the tional divide and paved the way for the banner of “Black Power”; the same year, more rebellious, angrier music of other the Black Panthers organization was British groups, notably the Rolling Stones. founded to protect blacks from police vio- 4. Drugs and sex intertwined with music as a lence. crucial element of the youth culture as 8. Among the most significant legacies of celebrated at the 1969 Woodstock Music black power was the assertion of racial and Art Fair, which attracted 400,000 pride, as exhibited by many blacks insist- young people. ing on the usage of Afro-American rather 5. In 1967, at the “world’s first Human Be- than Negro and the adoption of African In” at San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park, clothing and hairstyles to awaken interest Timothy Leary urged gatherers to “turn in black history, art, and literature. on, tune in, and drop out”; 1967 was also 9. Support for civil rights by white Ameri- the “Summer of Love,” in which city cans began to erode when blacks began neighborhoods swelled with young demanding immediate access to higher- dropouts, drifters, and teenage runaways paying jobs, housing, and education, along dubbed “flower children.” with increased political power, and when a 6. Many young people stayed out of the wave of race riots began in 1964, primarily counterculture and the antiwar move- over the issue of police brutality. ment, yet media coverage made it seem 10. The National Advisory Commission on that all of America’s youth were rejecting Civil Disorders (the Kerner Commission) political, social, and cultural norms. released a 1968 report on the riots and B. Beyond Civil Rights warned that the nation was moving to- 1. Among young blacks, knocking the main- ward two separate and unequal societies: stream meant something else. It meant re- one black, one white. jecting the established, civil rights leader- 11. On April 4, 1968, Martin Luther King was ship, with its faith in the courts and assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee, set- legislative change. ting off an explosion of urban rioting in 2. It meant an eye-for-an-eye, not Martin more than one hundred cities; with his as- Luther King’s non-violence. It meant won- sassination, the civil rights movement lost dering why blacks wanted to be integrated the leader best able to stir the conscience with whites anyway. Above all, it expressed of white America. fury at the poverty of blacks and at white 12. The legacies of the civil rights movement racism that was beyond the reach of civil were that segregation was overturned, fed- rights laws. eral legislation ensured protection of black Chapter 28: The Liberal Consensus: Flaming Out, 1960–1968 429

Americans’ civil rights, southern blacks Vietnam evaporated when the Viet Cong were enfranchised, and black candidates unleashed a massive assault, known as the entered the political arena, yet more en- Tet offensive, on major urban areas in trenched forms of segregation and dis- South Vietnam. crimination persisted. 2. The attack made a mockery of official 13. The black civil rights movement provided pronouncements that the United States an innovative model for other groups was winning the war and swung public seeking to expand their rights. opinion more strongly against the conflict. 14. The situation of Mexican Americans 3. Antiwar Senator Eugene J. McCarthy’s changed when the Mexican American Po- strong showing in the presidential pri- litical Association (MAPA) mobilized sup- maries reflected profound public dissatis- port for Kennedy and worked with other faction with the course of the war and groups to elect Mexican American candi- propelled Senator Robert F. Kennedy into dates to Congress. the race on an antiwar platform. 15. Younger Mexican Americans rejected the 4. On March 31, 1968, Johnson stunned the assimilationist approach of their elders; in nation by announcing that he would not 1969, 1,500 students met in Denver to seek reelection; he vowed to devote his re- hammer out a new nationalist political maining months in office to the search for and cultural agenda. They coined the term peace, and peace talks began in May 1968. “Chicano” and organized a new political 5. 1968 also witnessed the assassination of party, La Raza Unida (The United Race), Martin Luther King and its ensuing riots; to promote Chicano political interests. student occupation of several buildings at 16. Chicano strategists also pursued economic Columbia University; a strike by students objectives; César Chávez organized the and labor that toppled the French govern- United Farm Workers (UFW), the first ment; and the assassination of Robert union to represent migrant workers suc- Kennedy, which shattered the dreams of cessfully. those hoping for social change through 17. More than 800,000 North American Indi- political action. ans suffered the highest levels of unem- 6. The Democratic party never fully recov- ployment and poverty, the most inade- ered from Johnson’s withdrawal and quate housing, and the least access to Robert Kennedy’s assassination. education. 7. At the Democratic Convention, the politi- 18. Some Indian groups became more as- cal divisions generated by the war con- sertive, taking the new label of Native sumed the party; outside the convention Americans,embracing the concept of “Red “yippies” demonstrated, diverting atten- Power,” and organizing protests and tion from the more serious and numerous demonstrations. In 1968, the militant activists who came to Chicago as delegates American Indian Movement (AIM) was or volunteers. organized. 8. The Democratic mayor of Chicago, 19. As a method of protest, Native Americans Richard J. Daley, called out the police to seized and occupied Alcatraz for over a break up the demonstrations. In what was year in 1969. Later, protesters occupied the later described as a “police riot,” patrol- Federal Bureau of Indian Affairs in Wash- men attacked protestors at the convention ington. with mace, tear gas, and clubs as TV view- 20. In February 1973, AIM activists began an ers watched, which only cemented a popu- occupation of Wounded Knee, South lar impression of the Democrats as the Dakota, the site of an army massacre of party of disorder. the Sioux in 1890. The seventy-one-day 9. Democrats dispiritedly nominated Hubert siege, in which the FBI killed one protes- H. Humphrey and Edmund S. Muskie and tor and wounded another, alienated many approved a platform that endorsed con- whites, but it spurred government action tinued fighting in Vietnam while diplo- on tribal issues. matic means to an end were explored. V. 1968: A Year of Shocks B. Backlash A. The Politics of Vietnam 1. The turmoil surrounding the civil rights 1. The Johnson administration’s hopes for and antiwar movements strengthened 430 Chapter 28: The Liberal Consensus: Flaming Out, 1960–1968

support for “law and order”; many Ameri- foreign policy. Students should understand the cans were fed up with protest and dissent. reasons for the missile crisis, the process of deci- 2. George Wallace, a third-party candidate, sion making in the administration, and the danger skillfully combined attacks on liberal in- of a nuclear exchange in this confrontation. Much tellectuals and government elites with de- new information about the crisis has become nunciations of school segregation and available on film and in books since the breakup of forced busing. the Soviet Union. 3. Richard Nixon tapped the increasingly conservative mood of the electorate in an 3. Write a lecture analyzing the assassination of John amazing political comeback, winning the F. Kennedy. Tell students what we do know and 1968 Republican presidential nomination what we definitely do not. Various scenarios can and courting the “silent majority” of law- be presented without coming to a conclusion. abiding Americans. Why do so many people refuse to believe the War- 4. On October 31, 1968, Johnson announced ren Commission report? Why does the assassina- a complete halt to the bombing of North tion of a relatively ineffective president obsess Vietnam; Nixon countered by intimating some segments of the public? Perhaps a word that he had a plan for the end of the war, should be said about the enhancement of the although he did not. “Camelot” mystique after Kennedy’s death. 5. On election day, Nixon received 43.4 per- 4. Compose a lecture to give students a glimpse of cent of the vote to Humphrey’s 42.7 per- the larger-than-life qualities of Lyndon Johnson. A cent, defeating him by only 510,000 votes survey of his political career will help students to out of the 73 million that were cast, and understand the relish with which Johnson took Wallace finished with 13.5 percent of the command after Kennedy’s death. Johnson’s over- popular vote. bearing but effective personal style should be 6. The closeness of the 1968 election sug- noted. The conflicts between his egomania and his gested how polarized American society genuine humanitarianism have to be understood had become. to properly assess this complex politician. 5. The “War on Poverty” provides a perfect lecture Key Term for our students. There is much disagreement fiscal policy The range of decisions involving the fi- among scholars about its historical potential and nances of the federal government. These decisions effectiveness. Although almost everyone agrees include how much to tax, how much to spend, and that it lost out economically to the war in Viet- what level of resulting deficit or surplus is accept- nam, there is still much controversy about its po- able. Such decisions—fiscal policy—have a big ef- tential for eliminating poverty or even reducing it fect on a nation’s allocation of economic re- significantly. To explore this issue, the instructor sources, the distribution of income, and the level must evaluate the programs of the Office of Eco- of economic activity. (864) nomic Opportunity that challenged the tradi- tional federal structure of American politics. For example, never before had funds gone directly Lecture Strategies from the federal government to neighborhood as- 1. The election of 1960 saw the advent of the “new sociations. The poor were to be empowered by the politics,” bringing about several changes in the Community Action Program, a prospect that local way presidential campaigns were managed. Stu- politicians did not look on with favor. dents should be shown the contrast in campaign- 6. Create a lecture explaining how the Cold War pol- ing before and after television became the most icy of containment created the conditions that led important way to reach the public. What impact to the Vietnam War. The Vietnamese struggle for did the television debates between Kennedy and independence against the Japanese and then the Nixon have on that campaign? French provides the backdrop for increasing U.S. 2. Involvement with Cuba became an obsession in involvement in Indochina. The implications of es- Kennedy’s administration. The failure of the Bay tablishing an independent non-Communist South of Pigs invasion disillusioned some cold warriors Vietnam, whose safety would be guaranteed by in the CIA about Kennedy’s promise of an activist American power, need to be pointed out. The fail- foreign policy. The Cuban missile crisis, by con- ures of successive South Vietnamese governments trast, portrayed him as a cool hand at the tiller of to win the allegiance of the people meant that the Chapter 28: The Liberal Consensus: Flaming Out, 1960–1968 431

United States had to supply more force to over- politician who used the national media, particu- come resistance in the countryside. Explore the larly television, to great advantage. reasons that Johnson sharply escalated the war after his election to a full term as president in 2. Why did civil rights become a big issue during the 1964. Kennedy years? 7. Write a lecture that examines how the student •Kennedy was cautious about pushing civil rights, movement emerged in the 1960s out of the “silent but public protest forced him to act by sending in generation.” Note the influence of the civil rights federal troops and marshals to support African movement from which some student leaders American attempts to achieve equality in the emerged. Which developments in the Vietnam southern states. War energized the protest movement on cam- •Kennedy would also become outraged at the vio- puses? Why did a segment of the student move- lence he saw on television and in the print media ment turn to violence in order to achieve its goals? by whites against African American protesters. 8. Students often confuse activist movements of the 3. What were the results of Kennedy’s foreign policy? 1960s with the counterculture that emerged dur- ing this period. Write a lecture that evaluates the • JFK was an ardent cold warrior, and his foreign ethos of the counterculture and show how distinct policy reflected a virulent anti-communist and it was from movements such as the Students for a containment thrust, leading to U.S. military in- Democratic Society. Demonstrate how one move- volvement in Vietnam, the failed Bay of Pigs in- ment embraced political action while the other re- vasion, and the near disaster of the Cuban Mis- jected it outright. sile Crisis. •Kennedy’s fears of the domino theory pushed 9. Draft a lecture analyzing these questions: What the nation closer to nuclear war with the Soviet gave rise to the urban riots of the mid-1960s? Why Union, and also created “hot spots” of U.S. mili- did they occur so soon after the federal govern- tary engagement abroad. ment had passed civil rights and voting rights acts? Note that the major riots were triggered by real or perceived episodes of police brutality. Mention the Lyndon B. Johnson and the Great Society role of civil and military authorities in suppressing (pp. 871–877) the uprisings. What did the Commission on Civil 1. Why, after years of resistance, did Congress pass Disorders conclude about the direction of race re- the great civil rights acts of 1964 and 1965? lations in urban America? Why did the rioters burn down their own neighborhoods? •President Johnson pushed Congress hard for civil rights as a personal and political goal, indi- 10. Why was 1968 a critical year in American history? vidual acts of heroism by African Americans and Students should be led through the decisive events violence during the civil rights movement forced of that year—the Tet offensive, the assassinations Congress to act, and the sweeping mandate John- of Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert Kennedy, the son received during his 1964 election helped to Democratic Convention in Chicago—and shown push Congress to pass civil rights legislation. the impact of these events on domestic and for- eign policy. 2. What were the key components of the Great Society? Reviewing the Text •Key components of an expanded social welfare These questions are from the textbook and follow each agenda included civil rights legislation, improved main section of the narrative. They are provided in the health care legislation, the “war on poverty,” bet- Computerized Test Bank with suggested responses, for ter housing and community development pro- your convenience. grams, an increase in educational programs, acts to clean up the environment, and reductions in John F. Kennedy and the Politics of taxation and restrictive immigration laws. Expectation (pp. 862–871) 3. What factors limited the success of the War on 1. Why was Kennedy an effective politician? Poverty? •Kennedy was a young, Harvard-educated, char- •Problems with the War on Poverty included lim- ismatic, handsome, engaging, activist-orientated ited funding, the difficulty of holding together a 432 Chapter 28: The Liberal Consensus: Flaming Out, 1960–1968

diverse political coalition, conflicting group inter- violence, appreciation for cultural diversity, and ests, the rise of a conservative backlash, the Viet- a belief in socialism and communism as al- nam War, and Democratic Party disillusionment. ternative government systems to exploitative . Into the Quagmire, 1963–1968 (pp. 877–884) 2. How do you account for the Black Power move- 1. What difficulties did the United States face in ment? fighting a war against North Vietnam and the •The Black Power movement arose in response to Vietcong in South Vietnam? feelings of alienation on the part of the youth •Difficulties included fighting in a jungle en- leaders of the civil rights movement. They felt vironment, fighting a determined enemy, dis- that only by asking black people to rely on racial cerning friend from foe within the civil war con- pride and other blacks for help would true text of Vietnamese society, domestic antiwar equality be achieved in America. White assis- sentiment which included draft resistance, low tance was not welcome in this new departure. troop morale, Johnson’s fears of the “credibility •The movement also arose in response to vio- gap,” and the failure of Congress to officially de- lence on the west coast against African American clare a war in Vietnam. youth, prompting the rise of a militant response in the form of armed Black Panthers. 2. Why did President Johnson suffer a “credibility •The movement further rose in response to the gap” over Vietnam? need for black-run organizations to address is- •The credibility gap stemmed from Johnson’s un- sues of poverty in major American cities. willingness to level with the American public re- garding the escalation of violence in Vietnam. 3. How do you explain the spillover of the black civil He did not want to endanger his ambitious do- rights struggle into the Mexican American and mestic agenda. Native American communities? •The absence of firm proof for the Gulf of Tonkin •Both groups shared similar experiences of racial Resolution, the lack of an official war declared by discrimination as African Americans, the visible Congress, and the generation gap between baby and public struggles of blacks gave hope to other boomers in college and their parents who ran the oppressed peoples, and many civil rights leaders nation only widened Johnson’s credibility gap. of the black community reached out across eth- 3. What was the student role in the antiwar move- nic lines to embrace alternative struggles for so- ment? How can we explain students’ willingness to cial justice. Major leaders like César Chavez re- protest the war? ceived inspiration from Martin Luther King Jr., and emulated his tactics. •The antiwar movement fed from the large num- bers of young baby boomers in college and high school during the 1960s who were raised to con- 1968: A Year of Shocks (pp. 888–892) form to conservative American values but re- 1. What were the critical events of 1968 that have led jected that ethos despite privileged class back- historians to describe it as a “watershed year”? grounds. •Students were willing to protest the war because •Major riots in urban cities, violent protests on it was young men who were being drafted. They student campuses, the Chicago Democratic were also influenced by the countercultural convention riot, the election of president movement of the 1960s which emphasized non- Nixon, the Tet offensive in Vietnam, and the as- violence, and many students were inspired by sassinations of Martin Luther King Jr., and the civil rights protests led by African American Bobby Kennedy. people and white supporters. 2. Why did the Democrats lose their grip as the ma- Coming Apart (pp. 844–888) jority party in the late 1960s? •The Democrats lost power in part due to a con- 1. What are the elements in the counterculture of the servative backlash led by blue-collar white work- 1960s? ers, many of whom would leave and join the Re- •Sensory experimentation through music, sex, publican Party, against an enlargement of the and recreational drug use, nonconformity, non- welfare state and an increase in integration in Chapter 28: The Liberal Consensus: Flaming Out, 1960–1968 433

communities across the nation during the civil •A quagmire refers to a situation that gets worse rights movement. These same interest groups re- as one struggles against it. U.S. involvement in jected the countercultural revolution and stu- Vietnam increased over time to the point where dent protest against the Vietnam War. American politicians could not effectively re- move American troops without feeling that they Chapter Writing Assignments had lost the fight against communism. •Conditions for U.S. troops and politicians en- These questions appear at the end of Chapter 28 in the gaged in the war worsened as the North Viet- textbook. They are provided in the Computerized Test namese and Vietcong increased resistance Bank with suggested responses, for your convenience. against the South Vietnamese and American al- liance. Although the number of troops increased 1. How do you explain the preeminence of civil over time, more soldiers failed to bring more rights in the politics of the 1960s? American victories, necessitating more troops, •The participation of African American men in and resulting in more losses and casualties. World War II increased black demands for free- Some politicians complained that the United dom during the postwar era. The rise in pros- States. was not doing enough militarily to win perity among the black middle class created the the war. economic conditions for a protest movement to take place. Class Discussion Starters •The baby boom since 1945 had filled colleges with young and increasingly anti-conformist 1. What were the results of Kennedy’s foreign students who rejected the racist status quo of the policy? United States and joined the civil rights move- Possible answers ment to help America. • Finally, the civil rights movement was part of a a. He was unable to dislodge Fidel Castro, but he general antipoverty campaign embraced by forced the Soviets to remove their missiles from Presidents and Congress during the 1960s to up- Cuba. lift society and achieve re-election to office. b. The military policies of flexible response and Negative publicity stemming from civil rights counterinsurgency that were intended to make protests compelled American politicians to ad- the United States more effective in the Cold dress the civil rights protests of illustrious lead- War would later fail in Vietnam. ers like Martin Luther King Jr. c. The Peace Corps and the Agency for Interna- 2. What are the differences between Kennedy’s New tional Development helped to build goodwill Frontier and Johnson’s Great Society? for the United States in portions of the Third World. • New Frontier: Increased expenditures in science and space exploration, an active government to d. Conflict with Khrushchev over the future of solve social problems at home, containment of Berlin caused the Soviets and East Germans to communism abroad, support for issues of social build the Berlin Wall, heightening tensions in justice such as civil rights, the Peace Corps to get Western Europe. young people involved in shaping America’s fu- e. In the aftermath of the Cuban missile crisis, at ture, and deficit spending to accompany a re- Kennedy’s urging, the United States, Britain, duction in income taxes. and the Soviet Union agreed to ban open-air • Great Society: More ambitious in terms of nuclear tests. broadening the scope of bureaucracy and at- tacking the problem of social injustice, the Great 2. What factors constrained Kennedy’s effectiveness Society also focused on the War on Poverty, civil in domestic policy? rights legislation, an expansion in educational expenditures by the federal government, im- Possible answers provements in health, housing, and human wel- a. His slim margin of victory in 1960 left him fare programs, and an expansion in environ- without a mandate among the general popula- mental protective legislation. tion. 3. Why is the United States’ involvement in the Viet- b. His need for southern Democratic support in nam War so often called a “quagmire”? the 1964 election inhibited him from taking 434 Chapter 28: The Liberal Consensus: Flaming Out, 1960–1968

decisive action on the most important domes- Possible answers tic issue of the 1960s—civil rights. a. The Supreme Court continued to dismantle c. In general, he lacked interest in domestic af- laws supporting racial discrimination. fairs, except for the space race, and he failed to b. White violence forced Presidents Eisenhower formulate persuasive policies. and Kennedy to intervene in support of school d. Conservative southern Democrats and Repub- desegregation. licans were able to defeat most liberal reforms c. Freedom rides led the Justice Department to sent to Congress. enforce the rulings of the Interstate Commerce Commission. 3. What developments in American society helped to make the racial revolution of the 1950s and d. Kennedy proposed a civil rights bill that was 1960s possible? passed after his death. Possible answers e. Congress passed the Twenty-fourth Amend- ment, which outlawed the poll tax in federal a. Internal migration made race relations a na- elections, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, tional rather than a regional issue. which outlawed literacy tests and other measures b. Returning black veterans were determined to that prevented southern blacks from voting. achieve the “Double V.” 6. What changes in American society were achieved c. A series of decisions by the Supreme Court led by the social reform movements of the 1960s and inexorably to Brown v. Board of Education. 1970s? d. America’s attempts to win the support of Third Possible answers World nations in the Cold War required that a. De jure racial segregation ended, and de facto something be done about racial discrimination. segregation was challenged. e. An expanding economy benefited blacks with- b. The inaction of the “silent generation” of col- out depriving whites. lege students gave way to widespread student f. Televised broadcasts of racial violence acceler- activism that changed the rules at colleges and ated calls for change. helped to end American participation in the Vietnam War. 4. Why did nonviolence prove to be a successful c. The counterculture led to new forms of popu- strategy for confronting segregation? lar music, alterations in sexual behavior, and a Possible answers relaxation of clothing styles. a. It allowed the civil rights movement to gain the d. Feminism began to challenge patterns of patri- moral high ground. archy, and women began to play a more impor- tant role in education, business, and politics. b. It deflected whites’ arguments about racial infe- riority. e. Many oppressed groups (Mexican Americans, Native Americans, and homosexuals, for exam- c. It clearly demonstrated that whites needed to ple) became organized in the process of chal- use violence in order to maintain segregation. lenging their status in American society. d. The television pictures of white violence turned 7. What accounts for the emergence of student ac- many viewers against the practice of segrega- tivism in the 1960s? tion. Possible answers e. It forced the federal government to intervene on behalf of citizens being violently abused. a. A feeling of alienation from the federal govern- ment’s Cold War policies. 5. What actions did the federal government under- b. The increasingly bureaucratic nature of the take in support of racial change? large “multiversities” they attended. Chapter 28: The Liberal Consensus: Flaming Out, 1960–1968 435

c. The lack of participatory democracy in manag- Working with Documents ing the affairs of the nation. COMPARING AMERICAN VOICES d. Their growing awareness of the possibility of social change exemplified by the civil rights The Toll of War (p. 880) movement. 1. Why did these four young people end up in Viet- e. Opposition to the draft and the escalation of nam? the Vietnam War. •Drafted by the federal government, sacrificing 8. How did the counterculture manifest itself? abroad for freedom at home, defeat commu- nism, to help soldiers in distress, and escape Possible answers poverty through service in the armed forces. a. Hippies dressed in unconventional styles and let their hair grow. 2. How would you describe their experiences there? b. Traditional folk music developed into psyche- •They saw a lot of violence, wounded soldiers, delic rock. and a vastly different cultural and geographical landscape that forced them to compare U.S. to c. Hallucinogenic drugs were widely used to ex- Vietnamese society. pand people’s consciousness. d. Many in the counterculture “dropped out” of 3. How were they changed by the war? What do their middle-class society by forming rural and reflections suggest about the war’s impact on urban communes. American society? e. A sexual revolution took place in which young •The war increased racial divisions at home and people challenged middle-class morality. abroad, heightened the anger of individual sol- diers toward the Vietnamese and American gov- ernments, and provided intense violence that Classroom Activity rapidly matured young soldiers. •The war politically divided American society, 1. Have the class form two groups to debate the angering many who felt that political concerns morality of U.S. escalation of the conflict in Viet- limited military victory in Vietnam, and com- nam. After students have read the text section pelling others to blame the U.S. government for “Into the Quagmire,” have them write a series of an unjust war in Asia. talking points justifying either U.S. intervention or U.S. pullout from Southeast Asia. During the de- bate you may wish to show a series of film clips V OICES FROM ABROAD and ask students to respond to the images that they see in relation to their debate perspective. Che Guevara: Vietnam and the World Freedom Struggle (p. 883) Oral History Exercise 1. Guevara was a Latin American. He had never been to Southeast Asia. So why was he interested in •Studying late-twentieth-century U.S. history en- Vietnam? ables students to talk to many participants of this era. Ask students to find an older adult who lived •Vietnam represented to Guevara the modern through the era. Then ask them to select a theme class struggle of capitalism against the poor and from the textbook chapter and connect the communism. Vietnam was isolated and needed theme to the life of the person they are interview- assistance in this struggle, compelling Guevara ing. For example, the student could interview a to want to help. participant regarding the Vietnam conflict, the civil rights movement, or the counterculture. 2. How does Guevara define the struggle going on in Have students work their raw data into an ana- Vietnam? How does he describe the two warring lytical paper. sides? Can you see, on the basis of that description, 436 Chapter 28: The Liberal Consensus: Flaming Out, 1960–1968

why he was confident that the United States •In terms of controlling U.S. domestic opinion couldn’t win the Vietnam War? during warfare abroad, it makes much sense to limit the number of visual images of U.S. sol- •He defines the struggle as one between rich ver- diers in combat. The television era made possi- sus poor people. The United States represents ble an expansion of the print media’s ability to the side of rich capitalists attempting to spread cover a war with visual imagery, but photo- exploitation to poor areas of the world by mak- graphs existed before the war as well, though ing poor nations dependent on American goods they were easier for the government to control as and material consumption. a news source. •Based on his explanation, the United States could never win because it was fighting the en- 2. Why are the veterans embracing in front of the tire Third World, a unified Vietnam, and its own memorial? What is the significance of the clothing population awakening to class exploitation by its and items they are wearing? own government abroad. •The veterans are embracing as part of remem- 3. Why would Guevara have bothered to speak about bering fallen comrades and the intense coopera- Johnson’s Great Society program? tion and personal bonds formed during combat. •The clothing and items they wear symbolize •Other critics in and outside of the United States their ongoing support of American troops in were arguing that Johnson was wasting money combat, the sacrifice of U.S. vets during a “for- in fighting in Vietnam—money that could have gotten” war, and the desire to heal the psycho- been used to strengthen the Great Society pro- logical wounds of fighting an unpopular and gram. Fighting a war against poor people abroad brutal conflict abroad. while paying lip service to feeding them at home appeared to be a blatant contradiction to leftist 3. Traditionally, war memorials featured statues of critics like Guevara. combatants or generals in heroic poses; this one has only the names of those killed in combat. Yet 4. Can you explain, based on this document, why the Vietnam memorial is widely seen as being Guevara was an inspirational figure to many stu- emotionally evocative. What does this suggest dent antiwar protesters? about the American view of the Vietnam War? See •Most students are relatively poor like Che, who www.nps.gov/vive for more information about was also a student, and identified with Guevara’s the memorial. support of oppressed people. Most students are •The American view of the war suggested by the younger people who also identify more with memorial includes divisions over the morality of Guevara’s protest-orientated generation than U.S. participation in the conflict, the emotional with President Johnson’s generation. physical loss stemming from more than 50,000 killed and several thousand wounded, and the Reading American Pictures need to remember the deaths of so many killed in a war never declared official by Congress. War and Its Aftermath: Images of the Vietnam Conflict, Electronic Media 1968 and 1982 (p.890) Web Sites 1. Given the political climate of the late 1960s, how do you think this image of carnage (“America’s • The Sixties Project Longest War”) and others like it affected viewers’ http://lists.village.virginia.edu/sixties feelings toward the war? What does “America’s Hosted by the University of Virginia at Longest War”reveal about how the war was fought Charlottesville, this site offers personal narra- and experienced by ordinary soldiers? tives, special exhibits, and a bibliography of arti- cles published in Vietnam Generation. •Images of carnage on the battlefield brought home directly to viewers the horrors of war and • Civil Rights in Mississippi the individual suffering of young soldiers in com- http://www.lib.usm.edu/~spcol/crda/oh/index bat. Americans could identify more personally .html with the war after it was depicted on television; This site is maintained by the University of some even recognized soldiers on television. Southern Mississippi Center for Oral History. It Chapter 28: The Liberal Consensus: Flaming Out, 1960–1968 437

offers 150 oral histories relating to the civil •Map 28.4 Black Voter Registration in the South, rights movement in Mississippi. Audio clips are 1964 and 1975 also included, as are short biographies, photo- •Map 28.5 Presidential Election of 1964 graphs, newsletters, FBI documents, and arrest •Map 28.6 The Vietnam War, 1968 records. •America’s Longest War •The Vietnam Veterans’ Memorial •Map 28.7 Presidential Election of 1968 Films • The Fog of War (2003, 120 min) Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM A fascinating film focusing on Robert S. McNamara and his attempt to recount why he The following maps, figures, and images from Chapter led the United States deeper into Vietnam as sec- 28, as well as a chapter outline, are available on disc in retary of defense. both PowerPoint and jpeg formats: • The History of Rock and Roll (1995, 578 min) •Map 28.1 Decolonization and the Third World, Produced by Warner Home Video, this se- 1943–1990 ries examines the influence of American culture •Map 28.2 The Civil Rights Struggle, 1954–1965 on music between the 1950s and 1980s. •Map 28.3 The United States and Cuba, 1961–1963 •Map 28.4 Black Voter Registration in the South, 1964–1975 Literature •Map 28.5 Presidential Election of 1964 •Map 28.6 The Vietnam War, 1968 • The Autobiography of Malcolm X (New York: Bal- •Map 28.7 Presidential Election of 1968 lantine, 1965) • Figure 28.1 Americans in Poverty, 1959–2000 Co-written with Alex Haley, Malcolm X • Figure 28.2 U.S. Troops in Vietnam, 1960–1973 provides insight into black struggle in this fa- •Peace Demonstrators mous autobiography. •America’s Longest War •Mary Crow Dog,Lakota Woman (New York: •The Vietnam Veterans’ Memorial Harper Perennial, 1991) In this autobiography, Mary Crow Dog re- counts her experiences as a Native American ac- Using the Bedford Series with tivist. America’s History,Sixth Edition •Robert McNamara, In Retrospect (New York: Available online at bedfordstmartins.com/usingseries, Random House, 1995) this guide offers practical suggestions for incorporat- The former secretary of defense offers an in- ing volumes from the Bedford Series in History and sider’s view and belated apologia for escalating Culture into the U.S. History Survey. Relevant titles for the Vietnam conflict under two presidents. Chapter 28 include • César Chavez: A Biography with Documents, Edited with an Introduction by Richard W. Etulian, Uni- Additional Bedford/St. Martin’s versity of New Mexico Resources for Chapter 28 • The Movements of the New Left, 1950–1975: A Brief History with Documents, by Van Gosse, FOR INSTRUCTORS Franklin and Marshall College • Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, and the Civil Transparencies Rights Struggle of the 1950s and 1960s: A Brief His- tory with Documents, by David Howard-Pitney, The following maps and images from Chapter 28 are De Anza College available as full-color acetates: • My Lai: A Brief History with Documents,by James •Peace Demonstrators S. Olson, Sam Houston State University, and •Map 28.1 Decolonization and the Third World, Randy Roberts, Purdue University 1943–1990 • Lyndon B. Johnson and American Liberalism: A •Map 28.2 The Civil Rights Struggle, 1954–1965 Brief Biography with Documents,Second Edition, •Map 28.3 The United States and Cuba, 1961–1963 by Bruce J. Schulman, Boston University 438 Chapter 28: The Liberal Consensus: Flaming Out, 1960–1968

FOR STUDENTS Online Study Guide at bedfordstmartins.com/henretta Documents to Accompany America’s History The Online Study Guide helps students synthesize the The following documents and illustrations are avail- material from the text as well as practice the skills his- able in Chapter 28 of the companion reader by Kevin torians use to make sense of the past. The following J. Fernlund, University of Missouri–St. Louis: map, visual, and documents activities are available for 1. Theodore H. White, The Television Debates (1960) Chapter 28: 2. John F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address (1961) 3. Students for a Democratic Society, The Port Map Activity Huron Statement (1962) 4. Barry Goldwater, Acceptance Speech at the Repub- •Map 28.1 Decolonization and the Third World, lican National Convention (1964) 1943–1990 5. Lyndon B. Johnson, Address at the University of Michigan (1964) Visual Activity 6. The Wilderness Act (1964) 7. The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964) •Reading American Pictures: War and Its After- 8. Lyndon B. Johnson, Peace without Conquest (1965) math: Images of the Vietnam Conflict, 1968 and 9. Philip Caputo, The Splendid Little War (1965) 1982 10. Malcolm X and Yusef Iman, Black (1964) Reading Historical Documents Activities 11. Ines Hernadez, Para Teresa 12. DRUMS Committee of the Menominee, The Con- •Comparing American Voices: The Toll of War sequences of the Termination for the Menominee •Voices From Abroad: Che Guevara: Vietnam and of Wisconsin (1971) the World Freedom Struggle 13. National Organization for Women, Statement of Purpose (1966) Critical Thinking Modules at 14. Edward Abbey, Desert Solitaire: A Season in the bedfordstmartins.com/historymodules Wilderness (1968) 15. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Memorandum on Be- These online modules invite students to interpret nign Neglect (1970) maps and audio, visual, and textual sources centered on events covered in the U.S. History Survey. Relevant modules for Chapter 28 include: •The Rise of the Republican Party in the Sunbelt and the South, 1960–1980 •The My Lai Massacre: Photos from Life Magazine