INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT AND NEIGHBOURING RIGHTS

VOLUME I

INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT AND NEIGHBOURING RIGHTS

The Berne Convention and Beyond second edition

Sam Ricketson and Jane C Ginsburg

VOLUME I

1 3 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford ox2 6dp Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © Sam Ricketson and Jane C Ginsburg 2005 The moral rights of the authors have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) Crown copyright material is reproduced under Class Licence Number C01P0000148 with the permission of OPSI and the Queen’s Printer for Scotland First published 1987 Second edition 2006 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Data available Typeset by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by Antony Rowe Ltd.

ISBN 0–19–825946–8 978–0–19–825946–6

13579108642 FOREWORD

The first edition of Sam Ricketson’s history of the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works was written for the centenary of that Convention. It was a work of very considerable scholarship and it rapidly estab- lished itself as a major source for information and analysis of the Convention’s content. With Jane Ginsburg joining Sam for this second edition, the two authors have produced what is well-nigh a new book, given the range of devel- opments that have affected authors’ copyright at the international level in the intervening eighteen years. It shows the same careful attention to the sources reviewed and the same sensible appreciation of the political pressures which have been at work in those developments. In rather greater measure than before, it seeks also to predict the future of the rights involved—rights that are now enveloped in swirls of ideological and practical uncertainty. 1986 is difficult accurately to recall, for it was an analogue age ago. The centenary of Berne did not fall at a time of much hope for copyright’s future, threatened as it then was by copying technologies now almost forgotten and subject to considerable suspicion from developing countries. The Convention had last been revised in 1967 in Stockholm under the magisterial guidance of Professor Eugen Ulmer. But even that New Deal required four years before the concerns of newly emergent nations could be met in the Paris arrangements. That was just a beginning of friction. By the 1980s it was doubtful whether further revision could even be contemplated, and indeed so it has proved to be in a direct sense. What was still scarcely foreseeable in 1986 was the allure of freer global trading under a revised GATT. It proved strong enough for the round of nego- tiations that would create the WTO and require its member states, developing as well as developed, to accept the TRIPs Agreement as part of the parcel. So it was that ‘Berne-plus’ conditions became obligations across most of the world— obligations backed by dispute-settlement mechanisms between governments and ultimately the deployment of retaliatory trade measures. Before that Berne may have been little more that a code of polite behaviour. Suddenly it acquired the voice of positive command. That this should have happened exactly in time with the greatest revolution in information and entertainment since the invention of printing is perhaps no coincidence, though the legal developments designed to impose copyright order on an anarchic Internet came only

v Foreword afterwards—with the self-advertising ‘WIPO’ Treaties and then a spate of regional and national enactments under grandiloquent titles. The technologies of information and the commerce they breed have become so much more complex that their legal organization appears to have acquired a wholly new dimension. The new media hold a vital place in spreading access around the world to knowledge, entertainment, and many perquisites of the good life and the bad. The international dimension of copyright is accordingly of far greater significance than seemed to be the case even in 1986. Accordingly this new edition could not be more timely. It will be seized upon by all who take the subject seriously, whether their background is in a civil law or a common law system. The authors will be not allowed to keep their silence for the next eighteen years before providing a third edition. William R Cornish Faculty of Law University of Cambridge April 2005

vi PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION

It is almost eighteen years since the first edition of this work appeared, and it seems that a revolution, both technological and legal, has occurred in this time. The technological revolution comes first, and is usefully illustrated by the experiences of the authors in writing this work. When Sam Ricketson began research on the first edition in 1984, it was still a hard-copy world: electronic typewriters were still commonly used and the most significant office advance was the dedicated word processor that allowed draft manuscripts to be more readily corrected and manipulated. The personal computer was only becoming an everyday reality towards the end of 1986, at least in the UK where the bulk of this work was done, and footnoting capabilities really only became user-friendly in the following year. When Sam returned to Australia at the end of 1986, he was fortunate enough to have electronic files of all the draft chapters that he had completed, but there was no ready means of transmitting these files back to publishers on the other side of the world. The most helpful technology available at the time was the facsimile machine, then still in its infancy, and the transmis- sion of hundreds of pages of hard-copy text was a time consuming and daunting process (although relatively instantaneous in comparison to airmail, still the most common form of swift communication at that time, the latter in itself being a vast improvement over the sending of packages by ship and overland carrier). The present edition, by contrast, has been done with all the advantages of modern computing and Internet communications, and between two authors, Sam Ricketson and Jane Ginsburg, who, for the most part, have been situated on two different continents with a publisher located on a third. Such has been the blessing of new technology that it has almost seemed that we have been sitting in adjoining offices, or at least just down the passage from each other! The technological revolution has had another dimension with respect to the carrying out of research and the gathering of materials. When Sam began his research in 1984, access to many of the original documents meant trips to the WIPO library in Geneva or the Max Planck Institute library in Munich. Hold- ings in London were dispersed and often difficult to track down; photocopying of original documents was often impossible because of conservation concerns and long hours of tedious transcription were often required. Since 1984, access

vii Preface to the New Edition to many of these materials has become much easier, beginning with the publica- tion by WIPO in 1986 of most of the original Berne Conference documents in its centenary celebration volume. Since the mid-1990s, WIPO documentation has become available online and research into current developments in the international conventions can be done at the click of a mouse (with the neces- sary Internet access). These developments have certainly made the writing of the second edition easier, but with some regrets for the rigours (and delights) of earlier times when dusty volumes and documents had to be tracked down and studied in places far from the normal comforts and conveniences of one’s desk and office (one should not overstate here the difficulties involved in being ‘required’ to spend time in such places as Geneva and Munich in the pursuit of scholarship!). The technological revolution feeds into the legal revolution that has also occurred in this area. In 1986, in its centenary year, Berne appeared to be a static institution; to be sure, it had an interesting and illuminating past, but its future prospects were less than exciting. It was a good time to write a history of this important convention, with a reasonable expectation that updating would not really be necessary, at least for a long time. But fact is always stranger than fiction, and, almost as the first edition was published, a series of events began that have made this second edition almost indecently overdue. These events are discussed at some length in Chapter 4, but three, in particular (and not in any order of importance) can be given here: first, the beginning of the Uruguay Round of GATT and the implementation of the negotiations on trade-related intellectual property rights based on the standards of Berne gave the latter a much greater prominence than had hitherto been the case; secondly, the entry of the United States into Berne in 1989, followed soon thereafter by China and the Russian Federation, gave the membership of Berne a universality that it had previously lacked; and thirdly, the technological and communications revolu- tions discussed above gave the impetus to the creation of new international instruments related to Berne. While all these developments—and a number of others—took place outside Berne in the strict sense, they took Berne as their starting or reference point. Hence, the second edition is concerned as much with these ‘beyond Berne’ developments as it is with a reappraisal of the ancient texts in the light of these new developments. In terms of substance, some of the original text, particularly that dealing with the history of the Convention (Chapters 1–3), has been retained, but much of the original text has also been reworked or repositioned, with a fresh arrange- ment of topics and chapters (from Chapters 4–13). Some material, such as that in Chapters 14 (developing countries) and 18 (the Universal Copyright Con- vention) no longer retains the currency of interest that it had in 1987, but has been retained as containing useful insights into matters that have been of

viii Preface to the New Edition particular importance in the development of the present Berne Convention. Considerable amendments were required to the material dealing with the administrative, financial, and final clauses of the Berne Convention (Chapters 16 and 17), although this may be of only limited interest to some readers. Treatment of new international obligations with respect to technological protec- tion measures and copyright management information is given in Chapter 15; there is an enlarged discussion of related rights in Chapter 19 (taking particular account of the adoption of the WPPT in 1996); and private international law issues are dealt with in Chapter 20. Finally, throughout the text, we have sought to deal sequentially, first, with Berne and, then ‘beyond Berne’, the latter head- ing encompassing the relevant requirements of the TRIPs Agreement and the WCT/WPPT. In this way, we hope that the historical emphasis of the first edition is blended appropriately with our discussion of the present texts and possible future developments. It is trite, perhaps, to remark again that the world has changed greatly since 1986, the year of Berne’s centenary. But while Berne itself has remained unrevised (apart from some minor administrative amendments), its stature and importance have changed beyond recognition. In 1986, it was still a Eurocentric instrument, with a number of hangers-on (including Australia). In 2005, it is now a truly universal instrument that, in reach and effect, must far outstrip the expectations of those early pioneers of the Association Littéraire et Artistique Internationale (ALAI) who set about drafting a modest instrument for multi- lateral adoption in 1883, beginning with an informal lunch meeting in a Roman trattoria at the Rome Congress of ALAI in 1882 (see Chapter 2). Other challenges, of course, remain, but it is still worth celebrating the centrepiece position that Berne now occupies as the foundation stone of the contemporary international copyright system. Authorial responsibility for the whole edition is both joint and several, but primary responsibility for individual chapters has been as follows: Sam Ricketson—Chapters 1–5, 13–14, and 16–19; Jane Ginsburg—Chapters 6–12, 15, and 20.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In the first edition, many people were thanked whose contributions added greatly to the achievement of the final work. These thanks must be expressed again because the intellectual debt owed continues: particular mention must be made here of Adi Dietz, Jim Lahore, Bill Cornish, the late Stephen Stewart, and Mihaly Ficsor. Work on the new edition began nearly a decade ago when Sam Ricketson posed the idea to Jane Ginsburg and was delighted that she was happy to undertake the task. Since this time, the project has been pursued fitfully by both of us, as other responsibilities have intervened and drawn our attention else- where. Nonetheless, the work has always been resumed with enthusiasm, involv- ing virtual and actual meetings in and across most parts of the globe, from New York to Melbourne and even in an orchard in a monastery outside Montreal. Many students and colleagues have provided advice and research support over the years of the writing of the new edition. We thank in particular, at the University of Melbourne, Associate Professor Richard Garnett, Dr David Brennan, David Lindsay, and Kim Weatherall; at the University of Cambridge, Professors William R Cornish and Lionel Bently; and at Columbia University School of Law, June Besek, Executive Director of the Kernochan Center for Law, Media and the Arts. Columbia Law School students enrolled in the Seminar on International and Comparative Intellectual Property Law offered research assistance and thoughtful criticism; in particular we thank Toby Head- don, Florian Schuhmacher, Yu Cao, Sébastien Evrard, and Maria Gonzalez Ordoñez, all LL M Class of 2003. Emma Barrett Prete and Tom Paskowitz, both Columbia JD Class of 2005, and Vigdis Bronder, Columbia JD Class of 2007, supplied much appreciated help with cite-checking. Many thanks as well for administrative support to Gabriel Soto, of Columbia Law School, and to Sarah Ross, of the University of Cambridge Law Faculty, for assistance in assembling the final manuscript. Sam Ricketson dedicates the book to his wife Rosemary Ayton, and to his children Philip, Jon, and Elizabeth, and notes with pleasure the way in which the culinary and cultural experiences of the Ricketson family have been immeasurably enhanced by the regular visitations of his co-author to this sunny land! With gratitude for the quality-of-life compliments, and acknowledging

xi Acknowledgements her co-author’s climatic advantages, Jane Ginsburg observes that the gastro- nomic and intellectual esteem are amply returned. She dedicates the book to her husband George Spera, and to her children Paul, and especially to Clara, who will no longer be able to justify her own tardy completion of tasks by reference to her mother’s. Sam Ricketson Melbourne Jane Ginsburg Cambridge 19 April 2005

xii CONTENTS—SUMMARY

VOLUME I Foreword v Preface to the New Edition vii Acknowledgements xi Note on Sources xlvii Note on Terminology li Note as to Translations lv Foreword to the First Edition lvii Preface to the First Edition lix Acknowledgements in the First Edition lxiii Table of Cases lxv Table of National Legislation lxix List of Abbreviations lxxxi List of Abbreviations of Works to which Reference is Commonly Made in this Book lxxxv

I THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT AND NEIGHBOURING RIGHTS CONVENTIONS 1. The Development of International Copyright Relations 3 2. Origins of the Berne Convention 41 3. The Subsequent Development of the Berne Convention, 1886–1971 84 4. Copyright and Neighbouring Rights Come of Age: Digitization and International Trade 134

II PRELIMINARY MATTERS: BERNE AND RELATED AGREEMENTS IN THE FRAMEWORK OF PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW 5. Treaty Interpretation and the Concept of Union 179

III THE BERNE CONVENTION AND BEYOND 6. Fundamentals of Protection (articles 3–6 and 18–20) 235

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7. Authorship and Ownership 357 8. Works Protected by the Convention (Berne Convention, articles 2 and 2bis; TRIPs Agreement, article 10; WCT, articles 4 and 5) 399 9. Duration of Protection (Berne Convention, articles 7 and 7bis; TRIPs Agreement, article 12; WCT, article 9) 526 9A. General Introduction to Chapters 10–12: Rights Protected 578 10. The Rights Protected by the Convention: Moral Rights (article 6bis) 585 11. The Rights of Reproduction, Adaptation, and Distribution (Berne Convention, articles 8, 9, 12, 14, 14bis (1), 14ter, and 16; TRIPs Agreement, articles 11 and 14; WCT, articles 6 and 7) 621 12. Rights of Communication to the Public (Berne Convention, articles 11, 11bis, 11ter, 14, 14bis; WIPO Copyright Treaty, article 8) 702 13. Restrictions on the Exercise of Rights: Limitations and Exceptions 755

VOLUME II 14. Developing Countries 879 15. New International Obligations: Technological Protection Measures (WCT, articles 11 and 12), Rights Management Information, and Enforcement 964 16. Administrative and Financial Provisions 994 17. Membership, Territory, and Application of the Berne Convention and Later Agreements (the Final Clauses) 1057

IV OTHER CONVENTIONS ON COPYRIGHT AND NEIGHBOURING RIGHTS 18. The Berne Convention and other Related International Conventions on Copyright 1169 19. The Berne Convention and Neighbouring Rights 1204

V PRIVATE INTERNATIONAL LAW ASPECTS OF INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT AND NEIGHBOURING RIGHTS PROTECTION 20. Private International Law Matters: Jurisdiction and Applicable Law 1291

Appendices 1329

Select Bibliography 1477 Index 1513

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VOLUME I Foreword v Preface to the New Edition vii Acknowledgements xi Note on Sources xlvii Note on Terminology li Note as to Translations lv Foreword to the First Edition lvii Preface to the First Edition lix Acknowledgements in the First Edition lxiii Table of Cases lxv Table of National Legislation lxix List of Abbreviations lxxxi List of Abbreviations of Works to which Reference is Commonly Made in this Book lxxv

I THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT AND NEIGHBOURING RIGHTS CONVENTIONS

1. The Development of International Copyright Relations

A. National Copyright Laws Prior to the Berne Convention 1.01 (1) The system of privileges and early copyright laws 1.01 (2) The development of national copyright laws 1.04 (3) The principal provisions of national copyright laws 1.07 (a) Works protected 1.08 (b) Duration of protection 1.10 (c) Rights recognized 1.11 (d) Restrictions on exercise of rights 1.16 (e) Formalities 1.19 B. The Problem of International Piracy of Works 1.20 C. The Protection of Foreign Works by National Laws 1.25 (1) Protection on condition of reciprocity 1.27

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(a) Material reciprocity 1.27 (b) Formal reciprocity 1.27 D. Bilateral Agreements Concerning Copyright 1.29 (1) The early agreements 1.29 (2) The spread of bilateral agreements on copyright 1.30 (3) Contents of bilateral agreements 1.32 (a) Persons protected 1.33 (b) Works protected 1.34 (c) The principle of national treatment 1.35 (d) Translation rights 1.36 (e) Restrictions on reproduction rights 1.37 (f) Duration of protection 1.38 (g) Internal policing powers 1.39 (h) Formalities 1.40 (i) General comments 1.41 2. Origins of the Berne Convention A. Introduction 2.01 B. The Proper Basis for International Copyright Protection 2.02 (1) A universal law of copyright 2.02 (2) The pragmatic view 2.03 C. The 1858 Brussels Congress on Literary and Artistic Property 2.05 D. The Foundation of the International Literary Association and the First Moves Towards the Berne Convention 2.07 E. The 1883 ALAI Conference at Berne 2.10 (1) Background to the Conference 2.10 (2) The work of the Conference 2.12 (3) The draft convention 2.13 (a) Persons and works protected 2.13 (b) Translation rights 2.14 (c) Infringement proceedings 2.15 (d) Other provisions 2.16 (e) Appraisal of the draft convention 2.17 (4) Developments following the 1883 Conference 2.18 F. The Diplomatic Conference of 1884 2.19 (1) The background to the Conference 2.19 (2) The Federal Council programme 2.20 (3) The work of the Conference 2.21 (a) Countries represented 2.21 (b) The delegates 2.22 (4) The preliminary character of the Conference 2.23 (5) The German initiative 2.24 (a) The resolution 2.24

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(b) The questionnaire 2.25 (c) Responses to the questionnaire 2.26 (d) The work of the commission 2.27 (6) The draft convention (and additional article) 2.28 (a) Persons and works protected 2.28 (b) Translation rights 2.29 (c) Restrictions on reproduction rights 2.30 (d) Arrangements and performance 2.32 (e) Enforcement of rights under the Convention 2.33 (f) Final provisions 2.34 (7) The Closing Protocol 2.35 (8) Principles recommended for an ulterior unification and the procès-verbal final 2.36 (9) Evaluation of the work of the 1884 Conference 2.37 G. The Diplomatic Conference of 1885 2.38 (1) Preparations for the Conference 2.38 (2) The delegates 2.39 (3) The work of the Conference 2.40 (4) The draft convention 2.42 (a) General comments 2.42 (b) National treatment 2.43 (c) Translation rights 2.44 (d) Restrictions on reproduction rights 2.45 (e) Adaptations 2.46 (f) Other changes 2.47 (5) Evaluation of the 1885 draft 2.49 H. The Diplomatic Conference of 1886 2.50

3. The Subsequent Development of the Berne Convention, 1886–1971 A. Introduction 3.01 B. The 1896 Paris Revision Conference 3.02 (1) Background to the Conference 3.02 (2) States represented at the Conference 3.03 (3) The work of the Conference 3.04 (a) The form of the 1896 Revision 3.06 (b) Resolutions of the Conference 3.07 C. The 1908 Berlin Revision Conference 3.08 (1) Preparations for the Conference 3.08 (a) States represented at the Conference 3.09 (2) Work of the Conference 3.10 (a) Works protected 3.11

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(b) Persons protected; independence of protection and absence of formalities 3.12 (c) Duration of protection 3.13 (d) Translation rights 3.14 (e) Newspaper and periodical articles 3.15 (f) Public performance rights 3.16 (g) Indirect appropriations and mechanical reproduction rights 3.17 (h) Cinematographic works 3.18 (i) Other changes 3.19 (3) Assessment of the Berlin Revision 3.20 D. The Berne Additional Protocol 1914 3.21 E. The 1928 Rome Conference 3.22 (1) Preparations for the Conference 3.22 (a) The problem of reservations 3.23 (b) States represented at the Conference 3.24 (2) The work of the Conference 3.25 (a) Reservations 3.26 (b) Inclusion of oral works 3.27 (c) Moral rights 3.28 (d) Radiodiffusion rights 3.29 (e) Other changes 3.30 (f) Resolutions of the Conference 3.31 (3) Assessment of the Rome Revision 3.32 F. The 1948 Brussels Revision Conference 3.33 (1) Preparations for the Conference 3.33 (a) Membership of the Union 3.34 (b) States represented at the Conference 3.35 (2) The work of the Conference 3.36 (a) Works protected 3.38 (b) Persons protected 3.39 (c) Moral rights 3.40 (d) Duration 3.41 (e) Lawful uses of copyright works 3.42 (f) Public performance, radiodiffusion, and public recitations 3.43 (g) Indirect appropriations, mechanical reproductions, and cinematographic adaptations 3.44 (h) Droit de suite 3.45 (i) Other changes 3.46 (j) Resolutions and votes of the Conference 3.47 (3) Assessment of the Brussels Revision 3.48 G. The 1967 Stockholm Revision Conference 3.49 (1) Preparations for the Stockholm Conference 3.49 (a) The Swedish Government/BIRPI programme 3.51 (b) Parties represented at the Conference 3.54

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(2) The work of the Conference 3.55 (a) Eligibility criteria and country of origin 3.57 (b) Right of reproduction and exceptions 3.58 (c) Works protected 3.59 (d) Moral rights 3.60 (e) Duration of protection 3.61 (f) Cinematographic works 3.62 (g) Other changes 3.63 (h) The Protocol Regarding Developing Countries 3.64 (i) Reforms to the administrative and final clauses 3.65 (3) Consequences of the Stockholm Revision: the 1971 Paris Conference 3.66 H. A Perspective on the Growth of the Berne Union, 1886–1971 3.68

4. Copyright and Neighbouring Rights Come of Age: Digitization and International Trade A. Introduction 4.01 B. Revising Berne Again 4.04 (1) The period 1971–86: a period of reflection and regrouping 4.04 (a) Enforcement and compliance 4.08 (b) Gaps in substantive protection: the continuing debate 4.09 (c) A conference of revision in the near or medium future 4.12 (d) The ‘guided development’ of international practice with a view to its ultimate confirmation by a revision conference 4.13 (2) ‘Guided development’: activities leading up to the Berne Protocol process, 1991 4.14 (3) Beginning the process of revision: 1991 and beyond 4.15 (a) Initial proposals for a ‘Berne Protocol’ 4.15 (b) A note about Additional Acts and/or special protocols and agreements 4.16 (c) Beginning the process of revision 4.17 (d) The shift to the ‘digital agenda’ 4.19 C. The WIPO Copyright Treaty 4.20 (1) The diplomatic conference 4.20 (a) Relationship to Berne 4.21 (b) Points of clarification 4.22 (c) ‘Agreed statements’ 4.23 (d) New exclusive rights in relation to physical copies 4.24 (e) Right of communication to the public 4.25 (f) Exceptions and limitations 4.26 (g) Collateral protections 4.27 (h) Other matters 4.28 D. The WIPO Performance and Phonograms Treaty, Geneva 1996 4.30

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E. Uruguay Round of the GATT and the Influence of Trade Concerns 4.31 (1) In general 4.31 (2) The background to the TRIPs Agreement 4.32 (a) The pre-Uruguay Round position 4.33 (b) The principal features of the TRIPs Agreement 4.34 (c) The requirements of national treatment and most favoured nation treatment 4.35 (d) Specific obligations as to substantive norms of protection 4.36 (e) Obligations with respect to enforcement 4.37 (f) Dispute settlement 4.38 (g) Institutions and ongoing review 4.39 (h) Relationship with WIPO 4.40 F. Unilateral Trade Measures, Regionalism, and the Return to Bilateralism 4.41 (1) The case of the United States of America 4.43 (a) The history of US relations with the Berne Union 4.44 (b) The implications of US adherence to Berne 4.47 (c) More effective international protection of copyright 4.48 (d) The substantive development of the Convention 4.49 (e) Effect of other non-Union countries 4.50 (f) Implementation of Convention obligations 4.51 (g) The USA, Berne, and beyond 4.52

II PRELIMINARY MATTERS: BERNE AND RELATED AGREEMENTS IN THE FRAMEWORK OF PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW 5. Treaty Interpretation and the Concept of Union

I. TERMINOLOGY 5.02 II. TREATY STRUCTURE: THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF PROVISIONS 5.04 III.THE INTERPRETATION OF TREATIES 5.08 A. The Obligations Imposed 5.08 B. The Interpretation of Treaty Provisions 5.12 (1) Languages used 5.12 (2) The rules in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 5.15 (a) The search for the ‘ordinary meaning’ 5.16 (b) The text of the treaty 5.18 (c) Agreements and understandings between the parties 5.19 (d) Any subsequent agreement between the parties 5.21

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(e) The subsequent practice of the parties in relation to their treaty obligations 5.22 (f) Any relevant rules of international law applicable in the relations between the parties 5.25 (3) ‘Object and purpose’ 5.26 (4) Extrinsic aids to interpretation 5.28 (a) ‘Preparatory work’ 5.29 (b) Circumstances of the treaty’s conclusion 5.30 (c) Other extrinsic aids to interpretation 5.31 (d) ‘Authentic sources of interpretation’ 5.32 (e) ‘Sources of considerable persuasive weight’ 5.36 (f) ‘Other sources’ 5.40 (g) Interpretative declarations by states 5.41 (h) Other rules of interpretation 5.42 (i) Relationships between different texts of the Berne Convention and between the Berne Convention and later treaties 5.43 (5) The relationship of the Berne Convention to later treaties 5.44 (a) Express provisions of the later text 5.45 (b) The provisions of the earlier text 5.49 (c) Later ‘clarifications’ of earlier texts: the constitutive/ declarative debate 5.53

IV. THE CONCEPT OF ‘UNION’ 5.60 A. International Unions in General 5.60 (1) Introduction 5.60 (2) Characteristics of international unions 5.61 (3) The Berne Union 5.63 (a) Other meanings of ‘union’ 5.64 (b) History of usage of ‘union’ in relation to the Berne Union 5.65 (c) The literature 5.67 B. The Meaning of ‘Union’ under the Present Text of the Berne Convention 5.68 (1) As an international legal person 5.69 (2) As a territorial concept 5.74 (3) As a symbol for future development 5.75 (4) ‘The countries to which the Convention applies . . .’ 5.76 (5) ‘A Union for the protection of the rights of authors in their literary and artistic works’ 5.79

III THE BERNE CONVENTION AND BEYOND 6. Fundamentals of Protection (articles 3–6 and 18–20) A. Introduction 6.01

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I. ADMISSION TO PROTECTION UNDER THE CONVENTION 6.03

A. Points of Attachment for Application of the Convention 6.04 (1) Nationality or habitual residence of the author 6.04 (a) Union authors 6.04 (b) ‘Habitual residence’ 6.05 (c) Time at which the habitual residence criterion becomes applicable 6.07 (d) Several places of habitual residence 6.09 (e) Works protected 6.10 (f) Historical background 6.11 (2) Non-Union authors: country of first publication 6.13 (a) History of the protection of non-Union authors based on the country of first publication 6.14 (b) The development of the present position 6.15 (3) Supplemental criteria of attachment for cinematographic and architectural works whose authors are not Union nationals or residents 6.16 (a) Cinematographic works 6.16 (b) Architectural works 6.17 (c) Successors in title 6.18 (4) Restriction of protection for non-Union authors 6.19 (a) Precondition for retaliation 6.20 (b) Appraisal of article 6 6.21

B. The Meaning of ‘Published Works’ 6.22 (1) History of the definition 6.23 (a) The Berne Conferences 6.23 (b) The Paris Revision 6.24 (c) The Berlin and Paris Revisions 6.25 (d) The Brussels Revision 6.26 (2) The elements of the present definition of ‘published works’ 6.27 (a) Its scope of application 6.27 (b) The need for the author’s consent 6.28 (c) Copies 6.29 (d) Meaning of ‘publication’ (‘edition’) 6.31 (e) Acts constituting an ‘edition’ 6.32 (f) ‘Quantum necessary’ 6.33 (g) ‘Reasonable requirements of the public’ 6.36 (h) Place of manufacture of copies and place of publication 6.38 (i) The meaning of ‘the public’ 6.39 (j) Need for intention 6.40 (k) Time of publication 6.41 (l) ‘Simultaneous publication’ 6.42

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(3) Acts not constituting publication: the negative aspect of the definition 6.43 (a) Performance, recitation, communication by wire and broadcasting 6.44 (b) Exhibition of works of art and construction of works of architecture 6.45 (4) Defects in the definition of ‘published works’ 6.46 (a) Digital communications as ‘publication’ 6.52 C. Attributing Nationality to a Work: Country of Origin 6.53 (1) Consequences of determining a work’s country of origin under article 5(4) 6.53 (2) Identifying the country of origin 6.54 (a) Operation of rules concerning country of origin 6.56 (b) Situations not covered by the rules concerning the country of origin of works 6.57 (c) Country of origin and habitual residence 6.58 (3) Problem Cases: digital publication and country of origin; changes in the country of origin of a work 6.59 (a) Changes in the country of origin of a work 6.65 (b) Changes in the author’s nationality 6.66 (c) Dual nationality 6.68 (d) Publication in a non-Union country which later accedes to the Union 6.69 (e) Position of author whose country of nationality leaves the Union 6.70

II. REGIME OF PROTECTION 6.71 A. General Considerations 6.71 (1) A question of choice of laws 6.72 B. Basic Rule: National Treatment 6.74 (1) The development of the principle of national treatment 6.74 (a) The Paris and Berlin Revisions 6.76 (b) Simultaneous publication under the Berlin Act 6.77 (c) The later revisions 6.78 (d) Implications of the lack of material reciprocity 6.79 (2) Development of the corresponding principle of minimum protection 6.80 (a) The early Acts 6.81 (b) The later Acts 6.82 (3) Development of principles of independence of protection and absence of formalities 6.83 (a) The Berne Act 6.84 (b) The Paris Declaration 6.85 (c) Evidentiary presumptions 6.86

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(d) The Berlin Revision 6.87 (4) National treatment under the Stockholm, Paris Acts 6.88 (a) In general 6.88 (b) The application of the principle of national treatment 6.89 (c) The relationship between national treatment and ‘rights specially granted’ 6.90 (5) Independence of protection and absence of formalities under the Stockholm, Paris Acts 6.91 (a) Formalities 6.92 C. The Scope of the Principle of National Treatment 6.93 (1) Breadth of coverage of the rule of national treatment 6.93 (a) Comparison of the scope of minimum rights with the scope of national treatment 6.97 (2) Exceptions to the rule of national treatment 6.98 (a) Matters other than existence and scope of protection and remedies 6.99 (b) Disjunction between the country where protection is claimed, and the country for which protection is claimed 6.100 D. Substantive Minima 6.101 (1) Absence of formalities 6.101 (a) Policy underlying the prohibition 6.101 (b) Meaning of ‘formality’ 6.102 (c) Formalities as to the exercise of rights 6.104 (d) Requirements outside the scope of prohibited formalities 6.105 (e) Reconciling the prohibition on formalities with the goals of public notification and identification of right holders 6.107 (2) Other substantive minima 6.109 (3) Limitations or restrictions on protection under the Convention: a principle of ‘maximum protection’? 6.110 E. Retroactive Application of the Convention upon New Member State Accessions 6.112 (1) The problem 6.112 (2) Development of Berne Convention retroactivity rules 6.113 (a) Retroactivity under early bilateral copyright agreements 6.113 (b) Retroactivity under the Berne Convention: the Berne Act 6.114 (c) The Paris Revision 6.115 (d) The later revisions 6.116 (3) The interpretation of the present article 18 6.117 (a) The general principle (paragraph (1)): beneficiaries of protection 6.117 (b) Works excepted from the obligation to extend or restore copyright 6.118 (c) No renewal of protection (paragraph (2)) 6.121

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(d) The application of the principle (paragraph (3)) 6.122 (e) New accessions and other cases (paragraph (4)) 6.124

III. SUBSEQUENT AGREEMENTS BETWEEN UNION COUNTRIES 6.126 A. Background 6.126 (1) The effect on existing bilateral agreements 6.127 B. Interpretation of the Present Article 20 6.128 (1) ‘More extensive rights’ 6.128 (2) Agreements containing ‘other stipulations’ 6.128 C. Agreements Inconsistent with Article 20 6.129 (1) Agreements to modify or suspend provisions of the Convention 6.130 (a) The effect of the UCC 6.131 D. The Relationship Between Articles 19 and 20 6.132 E. Beyond the Berne Convention: Interplay of the New TRIPs Agreement and WCT Protections and Berne Convention, articles 5(1), 19, and 20 6.134 (1) Consistency of the TRIPs Agreement with Berne Convention, article 20 6.136 (2) Transitional provisions: TRIPs Agreement, article 65; WCT, article 13 6.138

7. Authorship and Ownership A. Introduction 7.01 B. Who is an Author? 7.02 (1) The meaning of ‘author’ 7.02 (2) Works by multiple authors 7.06 (3) Multiple creators: the special case of cinematographic works 7.07 (4) The phenomenon of ‘deemed authorship’ 7.10 (5) Consistency of ‘deemed authorship’ with the Berne Convention 7.12 (6) Proving authorship: presumptions 7.16 (a) Presumptions as to authorship in infringement proceedings 7.16 (b) Presumptions as to the maker of a cinematographic work 7.17 (c) Presumption as to the creator of a work of folklore 7.18 (7) Proving authorship and ownership: applicable law 7.19 (a) How authorship and ownership are to be determined in particular cases 7.19 C. Ownership of Rights 7.22 (1) Ownership and exploitation of rights 7.22 (a) Effective protection under the Convention: minimum requirements 7.22

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(b) Effective protection under the Convention: adoption of common rules of applicable law 7.22 (2) Transfers of ownership: ‘successors in title’ 7.23 (3) Ownership of rights in cinematographic works 7.24 (a) Background to the problem 7.24 (b) The early investigations 7.25 (c) The preparations for the Stockholm Revision 7.26 (d) The final proposals for Stockholm 7.29 (e) The discussions at Stockholm 7.30 (f) Interpretation and critique of article 14bis (2) and (3) 7.31 D. Beyond the Berne Convention 7.42

8. Works Protected by the Convention (Berne Convention, articles 2 and 2bis; TRIPs Agreement, article 10; WCT, articles 4 and 5) 8.01 A. Introduction 8.01 (1) The meaning of ‘literary and artistic works’: the general definition 8.01 (2) ‘Every production in the literary, scientific and artistic domain’ 8.02 (3) ‘Production’ 8.03 (4) Merit and purpose of work 8.04 (5) Originality 8.05 (a) ‘Literary, scientific and artistic’ 8.06 (b) ‘Whatever may be the mode or form of its expression’ 8.07 B. The Enumeration in Article 2(1) and its Effect 8.08 (1) The works specifically addressed by the Convention 8.13 (a) The enumeration of protected works 8.13 (2) Works excluded or left to national determination 8.14 C. Specific Categories of Works 8.15 (1) Books, pamphlets, and other writings 8.15 (2) Lectures, addresses, sermons, and other works of the same nature (oral works) 8.16 (a) History of their protection 8.16 (b) The Paris Act 8.18 (3) Dramatic or dramatico-musical works 8.22 (4) Choreographic works and entertainments in dumb show 8.24 (a) History of their protection 8.24 (b) The Paris Act 8.27 (5) Musical compositions, with or without words 8.28 (a) History of their protection 8.28 (b) The Paris Act 8.29 (6) Cinematographic works to which are assimilated works expressed by a process analogous to cinematography 8.31 (a) History of their protection 8.31 (b) The Paris Act 8.38

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(7) Various categories of artistic works 8.42 (a) Works of drawing, painting, architecture, sculpture, engraving and lithography 8.42 (b) Photographic works to which are assimilated works expressed by a process analogous to photography 8.48 (c) Works of applied art 8.59 (d) Illustrations, maps, plans, sketches and plastic works relative to geography, topography, architecture or science 8.70 (8) Other categories of work required to be protected under the Convention 8.74 D. Derivative Works: Translations, Adaptations, Musical Arrangements and Other Transformations of a Literary or Artistic Work 8.75 (1) Meaning of ‘derivative work’ 8.75 (a) History of article 2(3) 8.76 (b) The scope of the present provision: translations 8.78 (c) Arrangements of music and adaptations 8.79 (d) An historical digression 8.80 (e) Adaptations and other alterations 8.81 (2) ‘Without prejudice to the copyright in the original work’ 8.82 (3) Works of compilation 8.84 (a) History of article 2(5) 8.85 (b) The interpretation of article 2(5) 8.86 (c) ‘Intellectual creations’ 8.87 E. Exclusions from the Protection of the Convention 8.104 (1) Mandatory exclusion: news of the day and miscellaneous facts 8.104 (2) Optional exclusions: official texts 8.107 (a) The meaning of ‘official texts of a legislative, administrative and legal nature’ 8.108 (b) Official translations 8.108 F. Other Works not Expressly Mentioned in the Convention 8.109 (1) Broadcasts, sound recordings, and the interpretations of performing artists 8.110 (a) Sound and television broadcasts 8.111 (b) Sound recordings 8.112 (c) Interpretations of performers 8.113 (2) Other categories of works not protected 8.115 (a) Titles, slogans, and other insubstantial works 8.115 (b) Proposals to protect titles at the Brussels Conference 8.116 (c) Works of folklore 8.117 G. Beyond the Berne Convention 8.120 (1) Computer programs 8.121 (a) The TRIPs Agreement and computer programs 8.121 (b) WIPO Copyright Treaty and computer programs 8.126

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(2) Databases 8.128 (a) The TRIPs Agreement and databases 8.128 (b) WIPO Copyright Treaty and databases 8.132 H. Comparative Table of Works Protected 8.134

9. Duration of Protection (Berne Convention, articles 7 and 7bis; TRIPs Agreement, article 12; WCT, article 9) A. Introduction 9.01 B. General Considerations 9.02 (1) Reasons for limiting duration of copyright protection 9.02 (2) Length of protection 9.07 (a) The dual aspect of copyright 9.13 C. Historical Background 9.14 (1) The general term of protection 9.14 (a) Rome proposals 9.22 (b) The Brussels Revision 9.24 (c) Under the Stockholm, Paris Acts 9.25 (d) Proposals for longer terms 9.26 (2) Special terms of protection 9.27 (a) Photographic works 9.28 (b) Cinematographic works 9.30 (c) Works of applied art 9.32 (d) Anonymous and pseudonymous works 9.33 (e) Works of joint authorship 9.34 (3) Categories of work addressed in earlier texts of the Convention 9.37 (a) Posthumous works 9.38 (b) Works of corporate persons 9.40 (c) Other special terms 9.43 D. The Present Position 9.44 (1) In general 9.44 (2) Special classes of works under article 7(2), (3), and (4) 9.46 (a) Photographic works 9.46 (b) Cinematographic works 9.47 (c) The disjunction between ‘made available to the public’ and the definition of ‘published works’ 9.48 (d) Works of applied art 9.49 (e) Anonymous and pseudonymous works 9.50 (f) Works of folklore 9.51 (g) Works of joint authorship 9.52 (3) Calculation of term when some member states’ terms are shorter or longer than others 9.53 (a) Accommodation of countries with shorter terms 9.53 (4) Countries with longer terms of protection 9.54

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(5) Comparison of terms 9.55 (a) Date for computation of term 9.56 (6) Paying public domain 9.57 E. Beyond the Berne Convention 9.60 (1) The TRIPs Agreement: article 4 9.61 (2) The TRIPs Agreement: article 12 9.62 (3) WIPO Copyright Treaty and the duration of photographs 9.64 (4) Proposals for a longer term in general 9.65

9A. General Introduction to Chapters 10–12: Rights Protected A. Background: The Articulation of Rights in National Legislation 9A.02 B. The Articulation of Rights under the Berne Convention 9A.06 (1) Reproduction rights 9A.06 (2) Adaptation rights 9A.06 (3) Rights pertaining to physical copies 9A.06 (4) Rights of communication to the public 9A.06 C. The Articulation of Rights under Later Instruments 9A.07 (1) Rights pertaining to physical copies 9A.08 (2) Rights of communication to the public 9A.09

10. The Rights Protected by the Convention: Moral Rights (article 6bis) A. History of Moral Rights and the Berne Convention 10.02 (1) Proposals at the Rome Conference 10.07 (2) The Brussels Revision 10.11 (3) The Stockholm Revision 10.12 (4) Moral rights and cinematographic works at the Stockholm Revision 10.13 B. Interpretation of the Present Article 6bis 10.15 (1) Independence of moral rights 10.16 (2) Exercise after transmission of economic rights 10.17 (3) Transfer of moral rights 10.18 (4) The right to claim authorship 10.19 (5) The right to protect the integrity of the work 10.20 (a) ‘Any distortion, mutilation or other modification of, or other derogatory action in relation to . . .’ 10.21 (b) Destruction of the work 10.26 (c) Prejudice to the honour or reputation of the author 10.27 (6) Duration of moral rights 10.33 (a) Duration of moral rights in cinematographic and photographic works and works of applied art 10.35 (7) Mode of protection of moral rights 10.36 (8) Right of disclosure 10.37

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C. Beyond the Berne Convention 10.38 (1) The TRIPs Agreement 10.39 (a) Genesis of the exclusion of moral rights from TRIPs Agreement, article 9(1) 10.40 (b) Justification for the exclusion of moral rights 10.41 (c) Analysis of article 9 10.42 (d) ‘[R]ights conferred under article 6bis of that Convention or the rights derived therefrom’ 10.43 (2) Moral rights in the WIPO Treaties 10.47 D. Comparative Table of Moral Rights Provisions 10.48

11. The Rights of Reproduction, Adaptation, and Distribution (Berne Convention, articles 8, 9, 12, 14, 14bis (1), 14ter, and 16; TRIPs Agreement, articles 11 and 14(4); WCT, articles 6 and 7) A. The Exclusive Right of Reproduction and its Derivatives 11.01 (1) Introduction 11.01 B. Reproduction 11.03 (1) Development of the right in the Berne Convention 11.03 (a) The basic right 11.03 (b) Reproduction in other forms: mechanical, cinematographic, and translations 11.07 (2) The 1967–71 Stockholm, Paris Acts 11.19 (a) The basic right 11.19 (b) Reproduction in other forms: mechanical, cinematographic, and translations 11.21 (c) The scope of the present reproduction right 11.26 C. Adaptations 11.28 (1) The development of a general principle of adaptation rights 11.28 (a) Background to article 12 11.29 (2) The general right of adaptation in the Stockholm, Paris Acts 11.34 (a) Scope of the present article 12 11.34 (b) Ambiguities concerning the respective scope of the reproduction and adaptation rights 11.35 D. Rights Pertaining to Physical Copies 11.38 (1) Author’s right of access to a physical copy 11.39 (2) Rights of distribution and subsequent disposal 11.40 (3) Distribution rights under the Berne Convention 11.45 (a) Right of seizure 11.46 (b) Method of seizure 11.47 (c) Importation right with respect to mechanical reproductions 11.48 (d) Distribution right with respect to cinematographic adaptations and reproductions 11.49

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(e) Proposals for a general right of distribution 11.51 (4) The droit de suite 11.53 (a) The provenance of the droit de suite 11.54 (b) Justifications for the droit de suite 11.55 (c) Droit de suite under the Berne Convention 11.59 (d) Interpretation of article 14ter 11.62 E. Beyond the Berne Convention 11.68 (1) The scope of the reproduction right in the WCT 11.69 (2) Rights pertaining to physical copies 11.76 (a) Importation rights in the TRIPs Agreement 11.77 (b) Rental rights in the TRIPs Agreement and the WCT 11.81 (c) General distribution rights in the WCT 11.88 F. Comparative Table of Reproduction, Adaptation, and Distribution Rights 11.95

12. Rights of Communication to the Public (Berne Convention, articles 11, 11bis, 11ter, 14, 14bis; WIPO Copyright Treaty, article 8) I. INTRODUCTION 12.01 A. Communication to the Public: Direct (Public Performance) and by Transmission 12.01 (1) Meaning of ‘public’ 12.02 II. THE RIGHT OF PUBLIC PERFORMANCE 12.03 A. Relevant Texts 12.03 (1) Meaning of ‘performance’ 12.04 B. History 12.07 (1) History of article 11 12.07 (2) Recognition of performing rights in the case of cinematographic adaptations and reproductions, and sound recordings 12.08 (3) Adoption of a general right of public performance 12.09 (4) Right of public recitation 12.12 C. Present Scope of the Public Performance Rights 12.13 (1) Present scope of the public performance rights in article 11 12.13 (2) Right of public recitation (article 11ter (1), (2)) 12.14 (3) Public performance of cinematographic adaptations and reproductions of works and cinematographic works (articles 14(1)(ii), 14bis (1)) 12.15 D. Beyond the Berne Convention 12.16 III.RIGHTS OF COMMUNICATION TO THE PUBLIC BY TRANSMISSION 12.17 A. Relevant Texts of the Berne Convention and Later Instruments 12.17

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B. History 12.18 (1) General background 12.18 (2) History of broadcasting and cable distribution rights under the Berne Convention 12.22 (3) Cable and other retransmissions 12.24 (4) History of satellite transmission rights under the Berne Convention 12.28 C. Present Scope of the Berne Convention Rights of Communication to the Public by Transmission 12.31 (1) ‘Any communication to the public’ under articles 11 and 11ter 12.31 (2) Communication to the public by wire of cinematographic works 12.32 (3) The scope of the present article 11bis 12.33 (4) Broadcasting 12.34 (5) Satellites 12.35 (6) Rebroadcasting 12.36 (7) Distribution of broadcasts by cable and other means of wired transmissions 12.37 (a) Cable distribution of FSS transmissions 12.39 (b) Webcasting and other digital secondary transmissions 12.39 (c) Other public communications of broadcasts 12.41 (d) Interpretation of article 11bis 12.42 D. Gaps and Ambiguities in Coverage 12.43 (1) Works of visual art (other than cinematographic works) 12.44 (2) Rights of public exhibition of artistic works through national treatment 12.45 (3) Text of literary, musical, dramatic, and dramatico-musical works 12.46 (4) Communications not clearly covered 12.47 (5) On-demand digital transmissions 12.48 (6) On-demand transmissions ‘to the public’ 12.50 (7) Pay per view 12.52 E. Beyond the Berne Convention 12.53 (1) The TRIPs Agreement 12.53 (2) WIPO Copyright Treaty 12.54 (a) Communication to the public 12.54 (b) ‘Making available to the public’ 12.57 (c) Modes of ‘making available’ 12.59 (d) Direct and indirect ‘making available’ 12.60 (3) Exclusive rights and compulsory licences 12.62 F. Comparative Table of Performance and Communication Rights 12.63

13. Restrictions on the Exercise of Rights: Limitations and Exceptions A. Introduction 13.01

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B. Permissible Restrictions under the Berne Convention 13.03 (1) Development of a general exception concerning reproduction rights (article 9(2)) 13.03 (a) Interpretation of article 9(2) 13.10 (b) Instances of uses covered by article 9(2) 13.31 (2) Specific exceptions to reproduction and other rights 13.38 (a) Quotation rights 13.38 (b) Utilization for teaching purposes 13.43 (c) Protection of the right of paternity in respect of lawful quotations and utilizations for teaching purposes 13.46 (d) Exceptions made for the benefit of the press 13.47 (e) Reporting of lectures, addresses, and other similar works 13.56 (f) Reservations and conditions with respect of the recording of musical works 13.59 (g) Contributions to the making of a cinematographic work 13.66 (h) Conditions on the exercise of broadcasting and other rights 13.67 (i) Ephemeral recordings of broadcast works 13.72 (3) Implied exceptions under the Convention 13.78 (a) ‘Minor reservations’ 13.79 (b) General comments on the scope of ‘minor reservations’ 13.82 (c) Implied exceptions with respect to translation rights 13.83 (4) Other limitations on authors’ rights imposed in the public interest 13.88 (a) The police power under article 17 13.88 (b) Limitations in respect of abuses of monopoly 13.91 (5) Illustrative table of limitations and exceptions under Berne 13.93 C. Beyond 13.94 (1) Limitations and exceptions under the TRIPs Agreement 13.94 (a) TRIPs Agreement provisions referencing the Berne Convention (articles 9(1) and 3(1)) 13.94 (b) As a specific TRIPs obligation under article 13 of the TRIPs Agreement 13.97 (c) The exclusive reproduction right and article 9(2) of Berne 13.104 (d) Other exclusive rights and exceptions 13.105 (e) Rights under the TRIPs Agreement 13.106 (f) Rights and exceptions under Berne (other than article 9(2)) 13.107 (g) Illustrative table of the relationship between article 13 of the TRIPs Agreement and Berne 13.115 (2) Limitations and exceptions under the WIPO Copyright Treaty 13.116 (a) WCT provisions referencing Berne 13.117 (b) Article 10 13.125 (c) Illustrative table setting out relationship of article 10 of the WCT to the Berne Convention 13.128 (3) Technological protection measures and exceptions 13.129 (a) The case of quotation rights 13.132

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VOLUME II 14. Developing Countries A. Introduction 14.01 B. The Position of Developing Countries Under the Earlier Acts of the Convention 14.03 (1) The Stockholm Protocol and its origins 14.05 (2) The effect of the Universal Copyright Convention 14.06 (3) The first signs of interest in the problems of developing countries 14.07 (4) The Brazzaville meeting 14.08 (5) The 1964 Study Group report 14.10 (6) The 1965 Committee of Governmental Experts 14.12 (a) The countries eligible to apply reservations 14.12 (b) The basis for a claim to eligibility 14.12 (c) The time for making of reservations 14.12 (d) Duration of reservations 14.12 (e) The nature of the reservations 14.12 (f) Special arrangements in derogation of article 20 14.12 (7) The programme for the Stockholm Revision 14.13 (8) The prospects of UCC revision 14.15 C. The Stockholm Revision Conference 14.16 (1) The parties’ positions 14.16 (2) The contents of the Stockholm Protocol 14.18 (a) The definition of a developing country 14.18 (3) Reservations permitted 14.19 (a) Duration 14.20 (b) Translations 14.21 (c) Reproduction licences 14.23 (d) Broadcasting 14.24 (e) Educational uses 14.25 (4) Length of reservations 14.26 (a) Dependent territories 14.27 (5) Countries ceasing to be developing 14.28 (6) Provisions to hasten the application of the Protocol 14.29 (7) Status of the Protocol 14.30 (8) Reservations with respect to translation rights 14.31 (9) Proposals for an authors’ fund 14.32 (10) The adoption of the Protocol 14.33 D. The Events Following the Adoption of the Stockholm Protocol 14.34 (1) The immediate reactions 14.34 (2) The steps in the revision of the Stockholm Protocol 14.35 (a) The meeting of the Permanent Committee of the Berne Union (thirteenth session, Geneva, 12–15 December 1967) 14.36

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(b) The extraordinary sessions of the Permanent Committee of the Berne Union and the Intergovernmental Committee of the UCC (Paris, 3–7 February 1969) 14.37 (c) The extraordinary session of the Permanent Committee of the Berne Union (Geneva, 20–1 June 1969) 14.40 (d) The meeting of the sub-committee of the Intergovernmental Committee (Paris, 23–7 June 1969) 14.41 (e) The International Copyright Joint Study Group, first session (Washington, 29 September–3 October 1969) 14.42 (f) The Washington Recommendation 14.43 (g) Preparations for the Paris Revision Conference 14.45 (3) The programmes for the Paris Revision Conference 14.46 (a) The Berne Convention 14.47 (b) The UCC 14.48 E. The Paris Act and Appendix 14.49 (1) Incorporation of the Appendix into the Paris Act 14.50 (2) Definition of a developing country 14.51 (a) Declaration to be made 14.53 (b) Duration of declarations 14.54 (3) Countries which cease to be developing 14.55 (a) Stock in hand after declaration ends 14.56 (b) Application of Appendix to territories 14.57 (c) No requirement of material reciprocity 14.58 (4) Translation licences 14.60 (a) Works covered by the licence 14.61 (b) Licences to be non-exclusive and non-transferable 14.62 (c) Who may apply 14.63 (d) Circumstances in which an application for a licence may be made 14.64 (e) ‘Language in general use’ 14.65 (f) Further time limits to be observed in the granting of licences 14.66 (g) Limitation of purpose of licence 14.68 (h) Termination of licences 14.69 (i) Works consisting mainly of illustrations 14.70 (j) Withdrawal of copies by author 14.71 (k) Translations for broadcasting purposes 14.72 (l) Use of translations by other broadcasting organizations 14.74 (m) Limited aspect of translation licences for broadcasting 14.75 (n) Translations of texts incorporated in an audio-visual fixation 14.76 (o) Application of remaining provisions of article II to licences granted under paragraph (9) 14.77 (5) Reproduction licences 14.78 (a) Works covered by the licence 14.79 (b) Licences to be non-exclusive and non-transferable 14.80 (c) Who may apply 14.81

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(d) Circumstances in which a licence may be applied for 14.82 (e) ‘Particular edition’ 14.83 (f) Periods of grace for right owners 14.84 (g) Restrictions on reproduction of translations 14.85 (h) Limitation of purpose of licence 14.86 (i) Condition as to price of licensed copies 14.87 (j) Termination of licence 14.88 (k) Reproductions in audio-visual form 14.89 (l) Translation of texts incorporated in audio-visual fixations 14.90 (6) Procedures for applications for licences 14.92 (a) Preconditions for the grant of licences 14.93 (b) Acknowledgement of author 14.94 (c) Export of copies made under licence 14.95 (d) Limited exception to the prohibition on exports 14.96 (e) Notice on copies 14.97 (f) Payment of compensation 14.98 (g) Accuracy of licensed translations or reproductions 14.99 (h) The meaning of ‘competent authority’ 14.100 (7) Substitution of reservations in respect of translations for licences under article II 14.101 (a) Accelerated application of Appendix 14.102 (8) Assessment of the Paris Appendix 14.103 (a) The immediate responses 14.104 (b) Legal consequences 14.105 (c) The practical consequences 14.106 F. Beyond the Berne Convention 14.107 (1) The TRIPs Agreement 14.107 (2) The WCT 14.109

15. New International Obligations: Technological Protection Measures (WCT, articles 11 and 12), Rights Management Information, and Enforcement A. Introduction 15.01 B. Technological Protection Measures 15.02 (1) The development of WCT, article 11 15.04 (a) The object of the Basic Proposal’s prohibition 15.06 (b) The scope of the Basic Proposal’s prohibition 15.07 (c) Remedies 15.08 (d) From the Basic Proposal to the final text 15.09 (2) Analysis of WCT, article 11 15.10 (a) Subject matter protected: ‘effective technological measures’ 15.11 (b) ‘Used by authors...’ 15.12 (c) . . . in connection with the exercise of their rights under this Treaty or the Berne Convention’ 15.13

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(d) Coverage of access controls 15.14 (e) Acts prohibited 15.17 (f) ‘Effective legal remedies’ 15.21 (3) Assessment of article 11 15.22 C. Rights Management Information 15.26 (1) Basic Proposal 15.27 (2) Amendments made at the Diplomatic Conference 15.29 (3) The text of article 12 and its agreed statement 15.30 (a) Subject matter covered: definition of electronic rights management information 15.31 (b) Conduct prohibited 15.34 (c) Knowledge requirements 15.35 (d) Scope of ‘induce . . . infringement’ 15.36 (e) Remedies 15.38 (f) Relationship to formalities 15.39 (g) Other elements of the agreed statement 15.40 D. Enforcement 15.41

16. Administrative and Financial Provisions A. Introduction 16.01 B. The Administration of the Berne Union 16.02 (1) Conferences of revision 16.02 (a) Background 16.02 (b) The obligation to revise the Convention 16.03 (c) Time and place of conference 16.04 (d) The rule of unanimity 16.05 (e) Indirect methods of changing the Convention 16.06 (f) Procedure at conferences 16.07 (2) The Assembly 16.08 (a) Functions 16.10 (b) Advice of the Coordination Committee 16.11 (c) Voting and procedures of the Assembly 16.12 (d) Transitional provisions 16.13 (e) Conference of Representatives 16.14 (3) The Executive Committee 16.15 (a) The Permanent Committee 16.15 (b) The Executive Committee 16.16 (c) Size of the Committee 16.17 (d) Mode of selection of members 16.18 (e) Term and re-election of members 16.19 (f) Functions 16.21 (g) Advice of the Coordination Committee 16.22 (h) Meetings 16.23 (i) Voting 16.24

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(j) Observers 16.25 (k) Procedures 16.26 (l) Transitional 16.27 (m) Proposals to abolish the Executive Committee 16.28 (4) The International Bureau 16.29 (a) Background 16.29 (b) The International Bureau under the Stockholm and Paris Act 16.32 (c) The Director General 16.33 (d) Functions of the International Bureau 16.35 (e) Relations with other international organizations and states 16.36 C. Finances of the Berne Union 16.37 (1) Background 16.37 (2) The present financial provisions 16.38 (a) The budget of the Union 16.38 (b) Income of the Union 16.39 (c) Level and share of contributions 16.40 (d) Time for payment of contributions 16.42 (e) Arrears in payment of contributions 16.43 (f) Failure to adopt the budget 16.44 (g) Fees and charges for services rendered by the Union 16.45 (h) Working capital fund 16.46 (i) Advances by the Swiss Government 16.47 (j) Auditing of accounts 16.48 D. Special Method of Amendment for Berne Administrative Provisions 16.49 E. Beyond the Berne Convention 16.50 (1) The TRIPs Agreement 16.50 (2) The WCT 16.51 (a) In general 16.51 (b) The WCT Assembly 16.52 (c) International Bureau 16.56 (d) Financial provisions (or the lack thereof) 16.57 (3) The WPPT 16.58

17. Membership, Territory, and Application of the Berne Convention and Later Agreements (the Final Clauses) A. Introduction 17.01 B. The Berne Convention 17.02 (1) Membership and territory of the Union 17.02 (2) Ratification and accession 17.03 (a) In general 17.03 (b) The early Acts 17.04

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(c) Adherence to the Stockholm and Paris Acts by Union countries 17.05 (d) Entry into force 17.06 (e) Adherence to the Paris Act by non-Union countries 17.07 (f) The status of earlier Acts 17.08 (g) Ratification of, or accession to, the Stockholm Act 17.15 (h) Accession to the Brussels Act in certain circumstances 17.16 (3) The validity of ratifications and accessions 17.17 (a) Failure to give effect to the Convention 17.17 (4) Reservations to ratifications or accessions 17.22 (a) In general 17.22 (b) The Berne and Paris Additional Acts 17.23 (c) The Berlin Act 17.24 (d) The Rome Act 17.25 (e) The Brussels Act 17.26 (f) The Stockholm, Paris Acts 17.27 (5) The current state of reservations under the Convention 17.28 (a) Countries still bound by the Berlin Act 17.29 (b) Countries still bound by the Rome Act 17.30 (c) Countries still bound by the Brussels Act 17.31 (d) The Paris Act 17.32 (6) Denunciation of the Convention 17.34 (7) Succession of states in Union membership and application of the Convention 17.35 (a) Increases and decreases in territory 17.36 (b) The extinction and re-establishment of states 17.37 (c) The creation of new states 17.39 (d) Creation following dismemberment 17.41 (e) Creation following dissolution of a union or federation 17.42 (f) Separation or secession from an existing state 17.43 (g) Formation of a union or federation 17.44 (h) Grants of independence to former dependant territories 17.45 (i) The Berne Act 17.49 (j) The Paris Additional Act 17.50 (k) The Berlin Act 17.51 (l) The Rome Act 17.52 (m) The Brussels Act 17.53 (n) Paris Act 17.54 (o) Application of Convention following independence 17.55 (p) The role of the International Office 17.61 (q) The effect of state practice 17.63 (r) The applicable legal principles 17.64 (s) Conclusions 17.66 (t) Divided states 17.67 (8) Relations between Union members 17.69

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(a) The application of the different Acts of the Convention 17.69 (b) ‘Adaptation’ of protection to the level of the Paris Act 17.75 (c) Application in part or whole 17.76 (d) Application of the Appendix Concerning Developing Countries 17.77 (e) Application of reservations on an inter se basis 17.78 (f) Continuance of prior reservations where abandoned upon becoming bound by a new Act 17.79 (9) The obligations of Union membership: implementation of the Convention 17.80 (a) Generally 17.80 (b) The context in which problems of non-compliance arise 17.83 (c) Revision conferences and the Assembly 17.84 (d) Settlement of disputes by the International Court of Justice 17.85 (e) The applicable rules of customary international law 17.89 (f) Refusal to invite certain states to meetings of Union organs 17.91 (10) The effect of war 17.92 C. Beyond the Berne Convention 17.93 (1) The TRIPs Agreement 17.93 (2) The WCT and WPPT 17.94 (a) In general 17.94 (b) Eligibility (WCT, article 17 and WPPT, article 26) 17.95 (c) Rights and obligations 17.100 (d) Signature and entry into force 17.102 (e) Effective date of becoming a party 17.103 (f) Reservations and denunciation 17.104 (g) Languages 17.105

IV OTHER CONVENTIONS ON COPYRIGHT AND NEIGHBOURING RIGHTS 18. The Berne Convention and other Related International Conventions on Copyright A. Introduction 18.01 B. The Universal Copyright Convention 18.02 (1) Origins 18.02 (a) The Montevideo Convention 18.03 (b) Subsequent conventions on the American continent 18.04 (c) The Caracas Convention 18.05 (d) The Central American conventions 18.06 (e) The Pan-American Convention of 1902 18.07 (f) The Pan-American Convention of 1906 18.08 (g) The Pan-American Convention of 1910 18.09 (h) The Pan-American Convention of 1928 18.10

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(i) The position by 1928 with respect to the American states 18.11 (2) Moves to merge the Berne Union and the Pan-American Conventions 18.12 (a) The pre-1939 proposals 18.13 (b) Amendment of the Berne Convention 18.14 (c) A new convention to replace the Berne and Pan-American Conventions 18.15 (d) A ‘bridge’ convention 18.16 (e) A third convention 18.17 (3) Progress after World War II 18.18 (4) The adoption of the UCC 18.20 (a) Works protected 18.21 (b) The principle of national treatment 18.22 (c) Formalities 18.23 (d) Duration of protection 18.24 (e) Rights protected 18.25 (f) Other provisions 18.26 (5) The Berne Safeguard Clause 18.27 (a) No effect on the Berne Convention 18.28 (b) Sanction for withdrawal 18.29 (c) Countries which may be the subject of sanction 18.30 (d) Works affected 18.31 (e) Countries applying the sanction 18.32 (f) Meaning of ‘withdrawn’ 18.33 (g) Application of the Berne Convention in relations between Berne Union/UCC countries 18.34 (h) The 1971 Revision of the UCC 18.37 (6) The Present Relationship between the Berne Convention and the UCC 18.39 (a) The period 1971–86 18.39 (b) The period 1986–2005 18.40

19. The Berne Convention and Neighbouring Rights A. Introduction 19.01 B. The Rome Convention 19.05 (1) Origins 19.05 (2) Provisions of the Convention 19.07 (3) Performers 19.08 (4) Producers of phonograms 19.09 (5) Broadcasting organizations 19.10 (6) Exceptions 19.11 (a) Private use (article 15(1)(a)) 19.12 (b) Use of short excerpts in connection with the reporting of current events: article 15(1)(b) 19.13

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(c) Ephemeral fixation by a broadcasting organization by means of its own facilities and for its own broadcasts: article 15(1)(c) 19.14 (d) Use solely for the purposes of teaching or scientific research: article 15(1)(d) 19.15 (e) Limitations contained in domestic laws: article 15(2) 19.16 (7) Reservations 19.17 (8) Other provisions 19.18 (9) Relationship between the Rome and Berne Conventions 19.19 C. The Phonograms Convention 19.22 (1) Background 19.22 (2) The provisions of the Convention 19.23 D. The Satellites Convention 19.24 (1) Provisions of the Convention 19.25 (2) Relationship to the Berne Convention 19.26 E. The TRIPs Agreement 19.27 (1) In general 19.27 (2) Performers (article 14(1)) 19.28 (3) Producers of phonograms (article 14(2)) 19.29 (4) Broadcasting organizations (article 14(3)) 19.30 (5) Rental rights (article 14(4)) 19.31 (6) Terms of protection (article 14(5)) 19.32 (7) Exceptions and limitations (article 14(6)) 19.33 (a) Article 3(1) 19.33 (b) Article 14(6) 19.33 F. The WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty 19.34 (1) Preliminary matters 19.35 (a) Origins 19.35 (b) Title and preamble 19.36 (c) Relation to other conventions 19.37 (2) General provisions 19.38 (a) Definitions 19.39 (b) ‘Performers’ 19.40 (c) ‘Fixation’ 19.42 (d) ‘Phonogram’ 19.43 (e) ‘Producer of a phonogram’ 19.44 (f) ‘Publication’ 19.45 (g) ‘Broadcasting’ 19.46 (h) ‘Communication to the public’ 19.47 (3) Eligibility for protection 19.48 (4) National treatment 19.49 (a) Limits 19.50 (b) Moral rights 19.50 (c) Extent of the requirement 19.50

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(d) Application to a contracting party’s own nationals 19.50 (e) Rights of remuneration under national laws 19.50 (f) Remuneration right in relation to broadcasting and public communication 19.50 (g) Limited material reciprocity 19.50 (5) Rights of performers 19.51 (a) Moral rights 19.52 (b) Economic rights 19.54 (6) Rights of producers of phonograms 19.61 (a) Right of reproduction (article 11) 19.62 (b) Right of distribution (article 12) 19.63 (c) Right of commercial rental (article 13) 19.64 (d) Right of making available of phonograms (article 14) 19.66 (7) Common provisions 19.67 (a) Right to remuneration (article 15) 19.68 (b) Limitations and exceptions (article 16) 19.69 (c) Term of protection (article 17) 19.70 (8) Obligations concerning technological measures (article 18) 19.71 (9) Obligations concerning rights management information (article 19) 19.72 (10) Formalities (article 20) 19.73 (11) Reservations (article 21) 19.74 (12) Application in time (article 22) 19.75 (13) Enforcement of rights (article 23) 19.76 (14) Administrative and final clauses (articles 24–33) 19.77 G. Other Relevant Agreements: Past, Present, and Proposed 19.78 (1) The Madrid Convention for the Avoidance of Double Taxation of Copyright Royalties 19.79 (2) The 1960 Hague Act of the Hague Agreement Concerning the International Deposit of Industrial Designs 19.80 (3) The Vienna Agreement for the Protection of Typefaces and their International Deposit and the Film Register Treaty 19.81 (4) Audio-visual performers 19.82 (5) Databases 19.85 (6) Broadcasting organizations 19.87 H. Concluding Comments 19.90 I. Comparative Table of Neighbouring Rights 19.91

V PRIVATE INTERNATIONAL LAW ASPECTS OF INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT AND NEIGHBOURING RIGHTS PROTECTION 20. Private International Law Matters: Jurisdiction and Applicable Law

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A. Introduction B. Jurisdiction to Adjudicate 20.02 (1) Judicial power over foreign defendants 20.04 (2) Scope of claims adjudicable against foreign defendants 20.05 (3) Justiciability of foreign copyright claims 20.07 C. Applicable Law 20.08 (1) Introduction: national treatment and choice of law 20.08 (a) Berne Convention, article 5(1) and (2): a choice of law rule? 20.08 (b) Inferences to draw from article 14bis(2)(a) 20.12 (2) Existence and scope of protection 20.14 (a) Territoriality and the problem of a multiplicity of possible laws 20.15 (b) Alternatives to territoriality: law of the country of the initiating act 20.17 (c) The US ‘root copy’ approach 20.18 (d) Objections to the ‘root copy’ doctrine 20.21 (e) Communication to the public: the European Union’s ‘initiating act’ approach 20.22 (f) Inferences to draw from WCT, article 8 (‘making available to the public’) 20.25 (g) Alternative points of attachment: author’s residence 20.26 (h) Multiple points of attachment 20.29 (i) Territoriality bis: presumption that lex fori applies 20.32 (3) Copyright Ownership 20.34 (a) Authorship and ownership under the Berne Convention in general 20.34 (b) Private international law choice of law rules 20.38 (c) Initial ownership of copyright 20.41 (d) Transfers of ownership: basic principle: lex contractus 20.45 (e) Derogations from the lex contractus 20.48 (f) Transferability characterized as matter of substantive copyright law, rather than contract law 20.49 (g) Public-policy exceptions 20.51

Appendix 1: Latest text of Berne Convention (1971 Paris Act plus Appendix) 1331 Appendix 2: Miscellaneous Documents relating to the Origins of the Berne Convention and its development 1353 Appendix 3: Universal Copyright Convention, 1971 text 1369 Appendix 4: Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations 1961 1381

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Appendix 5: Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms Against Unauthorized Duplication of their Phonograms 1389 Appendix 6: Convention Relating to the Distibution of Programme- Carrying Signals Transmitted by Satellite (Brussels Satellite Convention 1974) 1393 Appendix 7: WIPO Copyright Treaty 1996 1396 Appendix 8: WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty 1996 1402 Appendix 9: Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (‘TRIPS’) 1994 (relevant extracts) 1411 Appendix 10: Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes (Annexe 2 to the WTO Agreement) 1425 Appendix 11: Agreement between WIPO and WTO 1994 1444 Appendix 12: Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (Vienna, 23 May 1969) 1447 Appendix 13: Draft Treaty on Databases (Geneva Conference, 1996) Document CRNR/DC/6 (30 August 1996) 1466 Appendix 14: Proposal for Instrument on the Protection of Audiovisual Performances (WIPO Document IAVP/DC/3, 1 August 2000) 1470

All of the Appendices are available as documents to download from the companion website for the book. The following documents (listed in italics) are only available on the companion website of the book, which is freely available to readers at: http://www.oup.com/uk/booksites/content/9780198259466/ Appendix 15: Berne Convention, 1886: Convention Concerning the Creation of An International Union for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Appendix 16: Paris Additional Act and Interpretative Declaration, 1896: Additional Act Amending Articles 2,3,5,7,12, and 20, of the Convention of September 9, 1886, and Numbers 1 and 4 of the Final Protocol Annexed Thereto. Declaration Interpreting Certain Provisions of the Berne Convention of September 9, 1886, and the Additional Act Signed in Paris on May 4, 1896 Appendix 17: Berlin Act, 1908: Revised Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Appendix 18: Berne Additional Protocol, 1914: Additional Protocol to the Revised Berne Convention of November 13, 1908 Appendix 19: Rome Act, 1928: Revised International Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works

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Appendix 20: Brussels Act, 1948:Revised International Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Appendix 21: Stockholm Act, 1967: Revised International Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Appendix 22: Records of the International Conference for the Protection of Authors Rights: Convened in Berne, September 8 to 19, 1884 Appendix 23: Records of the Second International Conference for the Protection of Authors Rights: Convened in Berne, September 7 to 18, 1885 Appendix 24: Records of the Third International Conference for the Protection of Authors Rights: Convened in Berne, September 6 to 9, 1886 Appendix 25: Records of the Diplomatic Conference: Convened in Paris, April 15 to May 4, 1896 Appendix 26: Records of the Diplomatic Conference: Convened in Berlin, October 14 to November 14, 1908 Appendix 27: Records of the Diplomatic Conference: Convened in Rome, May 7 to June 2, 1928 Appendix 28: Records of the Diplomatic Conference: Convened in Brussels, June 5 to 26, 1948 Appendix 29: Records of the Intellectual Property Conference of Stockholm: June 11 to July 14, 1967 Volume II Appendix 30: Records of the Diplomatic Conference for the Revision of the Berne Convention: Paris, July 5 to 24, 1971

Select Bibliography 1477 Index 1513

xlvi NOTE ON SOURCES

A note on sources used for the book is also relevant at this stage. Throughout its lifetime, the Berne Convention has generated an ever-increasing body of records, both from its periodic conferences of revision and from its continuing administration. Although there is little problem for most readers to gain access to the records of the last thirty years, those of earlier years are more difficult to locate, particularly outside continental Europe. Yet these records, from the original conferences of 1884–6 onwards, throw important light on the back- ground and meaning of many of the articles of the present Convention, and provide at least partial explanations for the compromises and concessions that lie behind them. Such records are by no means complete accounts of these matters, but they nonetheless constitute an indispensable first tool for any com- prehensive study of the Convention. We have therefore sought to deal with them as fully as possible throughout the book, in the hope that this will be of assistance to readers who lack the time and the resources to locate and read the originals. A further vital source for a study of the Convention is to be found in the monthly record of its operations which was published, from its inception, by the International Office of the Convention which is now administered by the World Intellectual Property Organization (‘WIPO’) in Geneva. This record, Le Droit d’Auteur/Copyright, which was only discontinued in 1998, contains all the official information relating to the Convention (accessions, ratifications, denunciations, and the like), as well as reports of national legislation and juris- prudence relevant to the Convention, and accounts of the activities of national and international bodies concerned with copyright matters. It has also carried, from its first year, scholarly commentaries on the Convention, and these form a most important corpus of learning on its interpretation and scope. As with the early records of the Convention, the early volumes of Le Droit d’Auteur are not easy to obtain, but WIPO has recently made them available in microfiche. There is, of course, a wide range of other, modern periodical literature dealing with various aspects of the Convention, but this is all readily available to any investigator (for further details, see the Bibliography). It should also be stressed, at the outset, that the first edition of the present book was by no means the first study of the Berne Convention; nor was it the first in the English language. At each stage of its existence, the Convention has

xlvii Note on Sources attracted a considerable body of sustained, critical writing. As with the early records and issues of Le Droit d’Auteur, some of these commentaries are no longer readily available, but it is worthwhile making brief mention here of the more important of them. A number of short commentaries were written during and immediately after the original Berne Conferences of 1884–6, including those of the French scholars Clunet1 and Rivière,2 and the Swiss writers Soldan3 and Droz.4 How- ever, the first major work dealing with the background and events leading up to the foundation of the Convention was that of Darras which was published just as the Convention was coming into force.5 Another excellent study was pub- lished by Bastide in 1890,6 and in 1906 the first account in English by Briggs7 was published. This was followed in the next year by an extremely thorough commentary in German by Ernst Röthlisberger8 who later became Director of the International Office of the Berne Union. After the revision of the Con- vention in Berlin in 1908, several shorter studies were published by the Belgian writer Wauwermans9 and the French writer Potu.10 Following the revision in Rome in 1928, further important commentaries were written by Raestad (a Norwegian),11 Ruffini (an Italian),12 and Hoffmann (a German).13 However, the most significant work was that written by the distinguished American lawyer,

1 E Clunet, Étude sur la Convention d’Union internationale pour la protection des oeuvres littéraires et artistiques (1887). 2 L Rivière, La Protection Internationale des Oeuvres Littéraires et Artistiques: Étude de législation comparé (1897). 3 C Soldan, L’Union internationale pour la protection des oeuvres littéraires et artistiques: Commentaire de la Convention de Berne du 9 Septembre 1886 (1888). 4 N Droz, articles in Journal du droit international privé et de la jurisprudence comparée (Clunet), (1884) vol 11, 441, (1885) vol 12, 163 and 481. 5 A Darras, Du Droit des auteurs et des artistes dans les rapports internationaux (1887). 6 L Bastide, L’Union de Berne de 1886, et la Protection internationale des droits des auteurs et des artistes (1890). 7 W Briggs, The Law of International Copyright (1906). 8 E Röthlisberger, Die Berner-Uebereinkunft zum Schutze von Werken der Literatur und Kunst und die Zusatzabkommen: Geschichtlich und rechtlich beleuchtet und kommentiert (1906). 9 P Wauwermans, La Convention de Berne (Revisée à Berlin) pour la Protection des Oeuvres Littéraires (1910). 10 E Potu, La Convention de Berne pour la protection des oeuvres littéraires et artistiques ... (1914). This appears to have been prepared on the basis of studies which had earlier appeared in Le Droit d’Auteur. See also A Petit, Étude sur la Conférence de Berlin . . . (1911). 11 A Raestad, La Convention de Berne révisée à Rome . . . (1931). 12 F Ruffini, De la protection internationale des droits sur les oeuvres littéraires et artistiques (1927). 13 W Hoffmann, Die Berner Uebereinkunft zum Schutze von Werken der Literatur und Kunst vom 9. September 1886 revidiert in Berlin am 13 November 1908 und in rom am 2 June 1928 (1935). See also W Goldbaum, Berner Übereinkunft zum Schutze von Werken der Literatur und Kunst, vom 2 juni 1928 (1928); B Marwitz, Die Berner Uebereinkunft und die Römische Konferenz (1928).

xlviii Note on Sources

Stephen P Ladas in 1938.14 In its account of the origins and development of the Convention up to this time, this last work was previously the most comprehen- sive text, but as it was printed in a relatively limited edition, it is now very difficult to obtain. Another useful book, which appeared several years before that of Ladas was a concise and well-written memoir of the first half-century of the Convention published by the International Office,15 and this was sup- plemented fifty years later by the WIPO publication of a collection of commen- tary and primary documents on the centenary of the Convention.16 Several other commentaries (in German) were published following the Brussels Revision Conference,17 and the decade preceding the publication of the first edition of this book saw the appearance of three authoritative works. The first, published by WIPO, was written by the late Claude Masouyé;18 the others were a study in French by Desbois, Françon, and Kéréver,19 and another in German by Nordemann, Vinck, and Hertin.20 These last two books also dealt with the other multilateral conventions concerning copyright and neighbouring rights. With respect to the important new international instruments that have emerged in the ‘beyond Berne’ period since the first publication of this book in 1986, there are now a number of English-language commentaries. While it may be invidious to single out only a few of the most significant of these commentaries, mention should be made of the work of Daniel Gervais;21 Jörg Reinbothe and Silke von Lewinski;22 and Mihály Ficsor.23 The above list only takes account of the major works written in the French, English, and German languages; there have, of course, been further studies written in these and other languages. Furthermore, the vast majority of texts on

14 S P Ladas, The International Protection of Literary and Artistic Property (1938). 15 L’Union internationale pour la protection des oeuvres littéraires et artistiques: Sa fondation et son développement, 1886–1936, Mémoire. 16 WIPO, 1886–Berne Convention Centenary–1986 (1986). 17 A Baum, The Brussels Conference for the Revision of the Berne Convention (1949) (translated by the US Copyright Office, published originally in [1949] GRUR 1); W Bappert and E Wagner, Internationales Urheberrecht: Kontmentar (1956); W Goldbaum, Verfall und Auflösung der sogen- annten Berner Union und Uebereinkunft zum Schutz von Werken der Literatur und Kunst (1959). 18 C Masouyé, Guide to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (1978) (also published in French and Spanish). 19 H Desbois, A Françon, and A Kéréver, Les Conventions internationales du droit d’auteur et des droits voisins (1976). 20 W Nordemann, K Vinck, and P W Hertin, Internationales Urheberrecht und Leistungsschut- zrecht der deutschsprachigen Länder unter Berücksichtigung auch der Staaten der Europäischen Gemeinschaft, Kommentar, Werner, Düsseldorf (1977). Also published in French under the title of Droit d’auteur international et droits voisins: Commentaire (1983) and in English in 1990. 21 D Gervais, The TRIPS Agreement: Drafting History and Analysis, 2nd edn (2004). 22 J Reinbothe and S von Lewinski, The WIPO Treaties 1996 (2002). 23 M Ficsor, The Law of Copyright and the Internet (2001).

xlix Note on Sources national copyright laws deal inevitably, at lesser or greater length, with the Berne Convention and related copyright and neighbouring rights agreements, at least insofar as they affect these laws. The problem, then, for any student of this area is not the paucity of material, but the sheer bulk of it. Our hope therefore is that this book, being concerned solely with the conventions themselves, will draw this material together and present it in a coherent way.

l NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY

A problem of terminology arises before we begin, namely is copyright the cor- rect name by which to describe the rights covered by the Convention? In its literal sense, which was that accorded it in the early cases under the first British copyright statute, it is far more limited than the equivalent expression ‘author’s right’ which is used in France, Germany, Italy, and Spain (‘droit d’auteur’, ‘Urheberrecht’, ‘diritto di autore’, and ‘derecho de autor’). Nonetheless, in its general legal usage in English-speaking countries today, ‘copyright’ compre- hends all those rights (apart, perhaps, from moral rights) included within the continental concept of ‘author’s rights’. Indeed, in some respects, it goes further than this, being used to describe legal rights conferred on corporate persons, which are usually only covered in European jurisdictions under the rubric of ‘neighbouring rights’ (‘droits voisins’, ‘Leistungsschutzrecht’, etc). Although the latter are not at the centre of the present study (they do receive separate treatment in Chapter 19), there can be nothing misleading in using the word ‘copyright’ as an equivalent for the expression ‘author’s rights’ as long as this usage is clearly understood. While the term ‘literary and artistic property’ might be more appropriate to describe these rights, its use was rejected in the present context at the very beginning of the Convention’s existence.1 From this time on, ‘copyright’, ‘droit d’auteur’, and ‘Urheberrecht’ have been used interchangeably as the terms denoting the subject matter dealt with by the Berne Convention. Another terminological problem concerns the use of the term ‘performing right’ or ‘performance’ in relation to dramatic and musical works. In French, the word ‘représentation’ is usually adopted in relation to the first (including drama- tico-musical works), while the word ‘éxécution’ is used in relation to musical works. While these terms can be directly, and appositely, translated into ‘repre- sentation’ and ‘execution’ in English, for the sake of brevity it seems easier to use the term ‘performance’ to cover both kinds of act. This is in accordance with long-established English practice, and imports no difference from the sense in which the words ‘representation’ and ‘execution’ are used in French.

1 Actes 1885, 20 (mainly due to objections from the German delegation).

li Note on Terminology

A further point of explanation, mainly for English-speaking readers, concerns the word ‘Act’ which is used throughout the book to refer to the different texts of the Convention which have been adopted by successive conferences of revi- sion. Thus, the expression ‘Berne Act’ is used to refer to the text adopted by the original conferences held at Berne in 1884–6, ‘Berlin Act’ to refer to the text settled at the revision conference held at Berlin in 1908, and so on.2 To English- speaking lawyers, this usage may appear unusual, as the term ‘Act’ generally refers to the highest form of instrument enacted by a sovereign legislative body. In French, however, the term ‘acte’ has a broader meaning. referring to any kind of formal deed or instrument, and it has been used in this sense to refer to the final text which has been agreed to by the member nations of the Berne Union at each successive conference at which the Convention has been revised. We have therefore followed this usage in the present text, substituting the English word ‘Act’ for ‘acte’. It should also be noted that there is another sense in which acte is used, and this is to refer to records of proceedings. We have therefore adopted the abbreviation ‘Actes 1884–6’ to refer to the records of the 1884 to 1886 Conferences at Berne, ‘Actes 1908’ to refer to the records of the Berlin Revision Conference of 1908, and so on. Where later conferences’ proceedings were published in English, they are referred to as ‘Records’. Another terminological problem is how to refer to the different kinds of legal systems that are to be found in the various countries of the Berne Union. Broad descriptive labels, though useful as a form of shorthand, are often inaccurate and misleading unless their meaning and scope are made clear in advance. Where appropriate, we have used geographical or regional adjectives to designate particular groups of countries, for instance ‘Western European’, ‘Eastern European’, ‘Asian’, ‘African’, and so on. In a more general sense, we have used the expressions ‘civil law’ and ‘common law’ to refer to the main categories of legal system that are found in most countries of the world. The first term is very loose, and covers all countries of continental Europe, with the exception of the UK and Ireland, and those countries whose legal systems are derived from those of continental Europe, such as Japan, the South American states and African

2 The full fist of expressions used are as follows: Berne Act—text adopted by Berne Conference 1886; Paris Additional Act—text adopted by Paris Conference 1896; Berlin Act—text adopted by Berlin Conference 1908; Rome Act—text adopted by Rome Conference 1928; Brussels Act—text adopted by Brussels Conference 1948; Stockholm Act—text adopted by Stockholm Conference 1967; Stockholm Protocol—Protocol adopted by Stockholm Conference; Paris Act—text adopted by Paris Conference 1971; Paris Appendix—Appendix adopted by Paris Conference 1971; Stockholm, Paris Acts—this composite phrase refers to the substantive articles (arts 1–20) of both the Stockholm and Paris Acts, which are identical. Note, however, that as the Paris Act is an entirely separate Act, it would be wrong to refer to the two Acts as the Stockholm–Paris Act. See further para 14.37 below.

lii Note on Terminology states that were formerly French colonies. The expression ‘common law’, on the other hand, refers to those countries whose legal systems are derived from British law, including the United States of America. The adjective ‘Anglo-Saxon’ is used by some authors for this purpose, but this hardly seems appropriate in view of the fact that most of the peoples of these countries are not Anglo-Saxon in origin; indeed, the UK itself has component parts that are Celtic in origin rather than Anglo-Saxon. Similar objections could be made to the use of the term ‘Anglo-American’, while the adjective ‘Commonwealth’ would leave out the USA as well as several other important Berne member countries that are no longer part of the British Commonwealth. ‘Common law’ therefore seems the most appropriate description to cover all these diverse nations whose legal sys- tems ultimately derive from that of the UK. A third category, no longer relevant for this edition, was that of ‘socialist countries’, which was used in the first edition to refer to the USSR and the socialist regimes of Eastern Europe. A final category which cuts across each of those already mentioned is that of ‘develop- ing countries’. This term involves some difficulties of interpretation, and these are discussed further in Chapter 14 (para 14.51ff ). The last matter of terminology concerns the use of the expression ‘Inter- national Office’ to refer to the body which undertook the administrative tasks of the Berne Union prior to the Stockholm Act. This is in accordance with the usage adopted by WIPO in its English translations of the earlier Acts of the Convention. In these, the French title ‘Bureau del’Union internationale pour la protection des oeuvres littéraires et artistiques’ was rendered as ‘Office of the Inter- national Union for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works’, and the abbreviated titles ‘Bureau international’ and ‘International Office’ were used. However, these were not ‘official’ translations of the authentic French text,3 and, in new translations published by WIPO as part of the centenary celebra- tions of the Berne Convention in September 1986,4 the expression ‘Bureau’ is used instead of ‘Office’. As these texts are not binding, we have maintained the earlier translation, and therefore refer only to the ‘International Office’ when discussing the body that administered the Berne Union prior to the Stockholm Act.5 This has the slight advantage that it serves to distinguish this body more clearly from the ‘International Bureau’ of WIPO which now administers the

3 In this regard, however, it should be noted that in art 31 of the Brussels Act, English was established for the first time as an ‘equivalent text’, and this was done by a committee of English- speaking delegates who adopted the word ‘Office’: Documents de la Conférence réunie à Bruxelles du 5 au 26 juin 1948, 89, 531. 4 WIPO, The Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works from 1886 to 1986 (1986), 228–36. 5 The terms ‘Berne Office’, ‘Berne Bureau’, ‘Office of Union’ and the ‘Secretariat’ are also to be found in various writings.

liii Note on Terminology

Union. In this regard, it should also be noted that, from its inception, the International Office was combined with the ‘International Bureau for the Union for the Protection of Industrial Property’, and these were later known, unofficially, as the ‘Bureaux Internationaux Reunie pour la Protection de la Propri- ete Intellectuelle’ or ‘BIRPI’.6 As for the terms ‘Berne Union’ and ‘Union’, the meaning of these is discussed in detail in Chapter 5.

6 See further Chapter 16 below.

liv NOTE AS TO TRANSLATIONS

As the original language used in the records of conferences and publications concerning the Berne Convention was French, we have supplied English trans- lations of any quotation that has been used in the text. Except where the contrary is indicated, these translations are our own and, where it seems neces- sary, we have included the French original in the accompanying text or in a footnote. In the case of proper and place names, we have used English transla- tions throughout, except in the case of several well-known and generally used abbreviations of the original French names, such as ALAI and BIRPI. All titles of books, monographs, and periodical articles appear in the language of the original text.

lv

FOREWORD TO THE FIRST EDITION

It is a pleasure to welcome this magisterial work by Mr Sam Ricketson, of the Melbourne Law School, on the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works. We were privileged to have Sam Ricketson with us for over two years as the Herchel Smith Senior Fellow in Intellectual Property Law, and his new work is the product of his prodigious labours during that period. It is the most comprehensive work to have been published on the Berne Convention, the centenary of which was celebrated last year. The author’s treatment of this complex subject is both wide and penetrating, a skilful blend of history, policy discussion, examination of relevant issues of treaty law and a rigorous analysis of the text of the Convention and its effect on national laws. Those who have a serious interest in copyright will find this handsome volume an indispensable guide through this important and complex branch of intellectual property law. R M Goode Centre for Commercial Law Studies Queen Mary College April 1987

lvii

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

Background to the present study

In September 1986, the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works was a century old. From an original membership of nine nations, chiefly concentrated in Europe, it now covers all continents, and, as of January 1986, had seventy-six member states. These include nations at all stages of economic and social development, and embrace all kinds of political ideologies. At the same time, significant imbalances and gaps remain in the membership of the Convention, or the Berne Union (as it is often called). It is still largely Eurocentric in character, and three of the most important countries in the world have not yet become members—the USA, the USSR, and the Peoples’ Republic of China. Indeed, the area to which the Convention now applies in 1986 is not much larger than was the case in 1886, when it was extended to the vast colonial empires of several of its original members. In this period, the problems to which the Convention was originally directed have also radically changed. From an initial, and laudable, concern with the rights of authors and the encouragement and reward of intellectual creativity, the present century has witnessed major technological developments which have had the contradictory effects of undermining and extending those rights. Furthermore, the pressure from users of copyright material, always strong, has intensified, with demands for readier access to this material from developing nations. An international convention, conceived at a time when Western European culture and civilization were in their most dominant and crusading phase, has had to adapt to changing times and circumstances, and, despite its periodic revisions, this process of adjustment has not always been an easy or even adequate one. Problems of relevance have become more pronounced, and, as with other major multilateral international agreements the differences between member states have become more marked. Moreover, it no longer remains the only major world copyright convention: since 1952, the Universal Copyright Convention (the UCC) has come to embrace a wider membership than the Berne Convention, and includes both the USA and the USSR. In recent years, there have come into existence several other important conventions dealing with subject matter and rights that are closely related to those dealt with in the Berne Convention (often referred to as ‘neighbouring rights’): these include the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations 1961 (the ‘Rome Convention’)

lix Preface to the First Edition and the Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms against Unauthorized Duplication of their Phonograms, 1971 (the ‘Phonograms Convention’). None of the above comments should be taken as meaning that the Berne Convention is presently in crisis. The opposite is the case: the Convention embodies an impressive and uncompromising level of protection for authors and their works, and its geographical reach is still very considerable. In addition, the UCC and the neighbouring rights conventions are complementary, and not in contradiction, to the Berne Convention system, and have their origins in it. Nevertheless, it is true to say that the development of the Convention has now reached a plateau, and the questions of where to proceed and how to do this appear more intractable than in the past. In the light of what has been said, it will be clear that there is a need to take stock of this century of development, to evaluate what it means, and to consider what the future may hold in store for the Berne Convention.1 In the belief that the past informs both the present and future, I have attempted to undertake these tasks in this study, which falls into the following parts. The first examines the history and development of the Convention to the present time. This leads naturally to the second part, which is a consideration of the present scope and operation of the Convention. The concluding part seeks, albeit tentatively and briefly, to give a tour d’horizon of the future problems and challenges facing the Convention. By its very nature, Part II is the largest section of the book. Unlike some earlier commentaries I have not attempted to provide a chronological account of the separate articles of the Convention, but have arranged the study under subject headings, such as the conditions necessary for protection, the works protected, the rights protected, and so on. The focus throughout is on the provisions of the Convention itself, and no systematic effort is made to examine the way in which a member country gives effect to its Convention obligations. In view of the large size of the present membership of the Berne Union, such an undertaking would require a study far longer than this one. Accordingly, where readers require detailed information on the laws of particular countries, they are referred, in the first instance, to the relevant publications of WIPO and UNESCO, and then to any of the specialist texts dealing with these countries. To assist readers in this task, a suitable bibliography is provided at the end of this text. Where national laws are referred to in the present study, this is done only by way of background explanation or illustration, and nothing more. On the

1 Note that the description of the structure of the first edition that follows is significantly different from that which has now been adopted in the new edition.

lx Preface to the First Edition other hand, in order to ensure that my treatment of the substantive provisions of the Convention is as full as possible, I have treated each in a historical way, beginning with a consideration of the origins of each provision and examining the changes which have been made to it in each successive revision of the Convention. To a limited extent, this approach means that there is an overlap with the broader historical survey in Part I. However, I would justify this overlap on the following grounds. First, Part I is intended to set the overall context against which the Convention has developed; it therefore contains a great deal of subject matter that is not directly related to particular provisions of the Convention. Secondly, it is only possible to understand the meaning and scope to be accorded to many of the present provisions of the Convention by detailed reference to what has preceded them. Thirdly, many Union countries are still bound by earlier versions of the Convention, and an understanding of these earlier texts therefore remains of immediate practical importance.

lxi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS IN THE FIRST EDITION

Although I accept full responsibility for everything that appears in this book, I must give my thanks to all those who helped me with its writing and final production. At the institutional level, I must express my gratitude to the University of Melbourne for the extended leave which I was granted for this purpose. In the same way, I must thank the Centre for Commercial Law Studies of Queen Mary College, London, for providing me with the necessary facilities and support. On a personal level, my debts are far greater. I am particularly grateful to the following persons: Cohn Howard, the former Dean of the Law School at the University of Melbourne, for his assistance in arranging my leave; Roy Goode, the Director of the Centre for Commercial Law Studies, who unflinchingly took on the burden of publication; and Jim Lahore, the former Herchel Smith Pro- fessor of Intellectual Property Law in the University of London, who was a constant source of advice and support throughout. Above all, I must give my warmest thanks to Dr Herchel Smith for funding my position, and thus enabling me to undertake and complete this project without interruption. I must also thank the following persons for the time that they have taken to read draft chapters and to discuss knotty problems of substance and style: Stephen Stewart, Jeremy Phillips, Bill Cornish, Denis Galligan, Alan Boyle, and Paul Katzenberger. Mihály Ficsor of WIPO gave me great help in relation to the administrative and financial provisions of the Convention, providing me with a great deal of necessary information, while Hamish Sandison of Washington performed a similar service in keeping me informed of developments in the USA concerning the movement in that country in favour of accession to the Berne Convention. In particular, I must thank Adolf Dietz of the Max-Planck Institute in Munich for the time and guidance which he so generously afforded me. I benefited greatly from my discussions with him, and these did much to clarify my overall perspective of the subject of authors’ rights. On a more practical level, I must also express my appreciation to Hilaire Omokolo and the library staff at WIPO for their unflagging and courteous assistance during my visits to Geneva, and to the administrative and secretarial staff at the Centre for Commercial Law Studies here in London for all the help they have given. In particular, I must mention Suzanne Emmery, Nicola Jones,

lxiii Acknowledgements in the First Edition

Michelle Balgobin, and Janet Bush. Louise Herron, a postgraduate student at the Centre, rendered a most important (and necessary) service in verifying my translations, and Toks Williams and John Herbert undertook the onerous task of editing and preparing the final text for printing. The index was skilfully compiled by Robert Spicer and the bibliography by Rosemary and John Ayton. I must also pay tribute to the work of Hilary Norman in the design of the book, in particular the cover. In the same way, I must thank Alan Hawkins of The Eastern Press for his advice and assistance throughout the production process. Finally, my warmest thanks are due to my wife, Rosemary, and my brother- in-law, John, for their help and support throughout the writing of the book. Living with an author while he is in the throes of writing is never easy, and I am sure they will be as pleased as I am that the task is finally completed! Sam Ricketson London December 1986

lxiv TABLE OF CASES

A&M Records Inc v Napster Inc 239 F 3d 1004 (2001) (9th Cir (US)) ...... 13.33n Acuff-Rose Music Inc v Campbell 510 US 569 (1994) (Sup Ct (US)) ...... 8.83n Allarcom Pay TV Ltd v General Instrument Corp 69 F 3d 381, 387 (9th Cir 1995) .. . . 20.18n American Geophysical Union v Texaco Inc 60 F 3d 913 (2d Cir 1994) ...... 13.17n Amundsen v Juven, Civil Tribunal, Seine, 28 November 1907 ...... 8.54n Apple Computer Inc v Franklin Computer Corp 714 F 2d 1240 (3rd Cir 1983) ...... 8.121n, 8.124n Association Generale des Journalistes Professionnels de Belgique v SCRL Central Station [1998] ECC 40 RB (Brussels) ...... 20.46n Atkinson Footwear Ltd v Hodgskin International Services Ltd (1994) IPR 186 (NZ HC) ...... 20.07n ‘August Fourteenth’ case [1976] IIC 134; [1975] CRUR Int 361 (FRG) ...... 6.38n, 6.39

Basset v Societe des Auteurs Compositeurs et Editeurs de Musique (SACEM) (C402/85)[1987] ECR 1747; [1987] 3 CMLR 173; [1987] FSR 572 (ECJ) ...... 9.09n Beggars Banquet Records Ltd v Carlton Television Ltd [1993] EMLR 349 (Ch D) ...... 7.09n Blanchet v Ingram (1873) 3 TLR 687 ...... 6.24 Blank v Footman Pretty & Co (1888) LR 39 Ch D 678 ...... 6.24 Bodley Head Ltd v Alec Flegon (t/a Flegon Press) [1972] 1 WLR 680; [1972] FSR 21; [1972] RPC 587; (1971) 115 SJ 909 (Ch D) ...... 6.38n Boucciault v Chatterton (1876) 8 Ch D 267 ...... 6.24 Boucciault v Delafield (1863) Hem and Miller 577 ...... 6.24 Bragance v de Grece (1989) 142 RIDA 301 (CA (Paris)) ...... 20.51n British Leyland Motor Corp Ltd v Armstrong Patents Co Ltd [1986] AC 577; [1986] 2 WLR 400; [1986] 1 All ER 850; [1986] ECC 534; [1986] FSR 221; [1986] RPC 279;(1986) 5 Tr LR 97; (1986) 83 LSG 974; (1986) 83 LSG 1971; (1986) 136 NLJ 211; (1986) 130 SJ 203 (HL) ...... 8.43n British South Africa Co v Companhia de Mocambique [1893] AC 602; [1891–94] All ER Rep 640 (HL) ...... 11.52n, 20.07n

Capac v CTV Television Network [1968] SCR 676 (Sup Ct (Can)) ...... 12.28n CCNV v Reid 846 F 2d 1489, 1498 (DC Cir 1988) ...... 20.40n Century Communications Ltd v Mayfair Entertainment UK Ltd [1993] EMLR 335 (Ch D) ...... 7.09n Cescinsky v George Routledge & Sons Ltd [1916] 2 KB 325 ...... 20.40n Christensen v Henriksen and Andersen, Sup Ct of Copenhagen, 17 September, 1906 .. . . 8.47n Collins (Phil) v Imtrat Handelsgesellschaft mbH (C92/92) [1993] ECR I-5145; [1993] 3 CMLR 773; [1994] EMLR 108; [1994] FSR 166 (ECJ) ...... 11.65n Computer Edge Pty Ltd v Apple Computer Inc [1986] FSR 537; (1986) 6 IPR 1 (HC (Aus)) ...... 8.93n Constant v Ste Warner Bros – 30 May 1984 (Trib Grde Instance de Paris) ...... 20.51n Corcovado Music Publishing v Hollis Music Inc 981 F 2d 679 (2d Cir 1993) ...... 20.48n Creation Records Ltd v News Group Newspapers Ltd [1997] EMLR 444; (1997) 16 Tr LR 544; (1997) 20(7) IPD 20070; (1997) 94(21) LSG 32; (1997) 141 SJLB 107 (Ch D) ...... 7.09n

lxv Table of Cases

Creative Technology v Aztech Systems 61 F 3d 696 (9th Cir 1996) ...... 20.21n

Dastar Corp v Twentieth Century Fox Film Corp 123 S Ct 2041 (2003) (Sup Ct (US)) ...... 4.54n, 7.45n David v Showtime/The Movie Channel Inc 697 F Supp 752 (SDNY 1988) ...... 20.18n Defize v Guillemin, Civil Tribunal, Liege, 7 June 1902 ...... 8.47n Demetriades v Kaufman 680 F Supp 658 (SDNY 1988) ...... 8.47n Dobrecourt v Laegart, Civil Tribunal, Brussels, 28 November 1906 ...... 8.49n Duke of Queensberry v Shebbeare (1758) 2 Eden 329; 28 ER 924 ...... 10.06n

Eldred v Ashcroft 537 US 186 (2003) (Sup Ct (US)) ...... 9.11n Enoch et Cie v Societe des phonographs (Unreported – 1 February 1905) (CA (Paris)) .. . . 6.29 Estate of Martin Luther King Jr Inc v CBS Inc 194 F 3d 1211 (11th Cir 1999) ...... 6.49n European Union v India (Unreported – 24 August 1998) (WTO) ...... 4.40n

Famous Music Corp v Seeco Records Inc 201 F Supp 560 (SDNY 1961) ...... 20.18n Fraser v Edwardes [1905–10] Mac G Cop Cas 10 (KB) ...... 10.06n Fun-Damental Too Ltd v Gemmy Indus Corp 41 USPQ 2d 1427 (SDNY 1966) ...... 20.18n

GA Cramp & Sons Ltd v Frank Smythson Ltd [1944] AC 329 (HL) ...... 7.04n, 8.08n Gaste v Kaiserman 683 F Supp 63, 65 (SDNY), affd 863 F 2d 1061 (2d Cir 1988) ...... 20.18n Gee v Pritchard (1818) 2 Swans 402; 36 ER 670 ...... 10.06n ‘Gold Rush’ case 19 May 1972 [1973] 4 IIC 245 (FRG) ...... 6.38 Greenwich Films SA v Societe des Auteurs, Compositeurs et Editeurs de Musique (SACEM) (C22/79) [1979] ECR 3275 (ECJ) ...... 9.09n Griggs Group Ltd v Evans (No.2) [2004] EWHC 1088; [2005] Ch 153; [2005] 2 WLR 513; [2005] ECDR 12; [2004] FSR 48; (2004) 27(9) IPD 27095 (Ch D) ...... 11.52n Group Jose Reinsurance Co SA v Universal General Insurance Co (C412/98) [2000] ECR 1–5925 (ECJ) ...... 20.07n

Hanfstaengl v Empire Palace [1894] 3 Ch 109 (CA) 1.14n Hawkes & Son (London) Ltd v Paramount Film Service Ltd [1934] 1 Ch 593 (CA) .. . . 13.54n Heg, Mulder and Stam v De Volkskrant (24 September 1997) (Amsterdam DC) ...... 20.46n Huston v Turner Entertainment [1992] ECC 334 Cass (Fr) ...... 20.51n Hyperion Records Ltd v Sawkins [2005] EWCA CIV 565 ...... 8.30n

India (Patent Protection for Pharmaceutical and Agricultural Chemical Products) (Unreported – 19 December 1997) (WTO) ...... 4.40n Interlego AG v Croner Trading Pty Ltd (1993) 25 IPR 65 (Sup Ct (Aus)) ...... 8.43n Interlego AG v Tyco Industries Inc [1989] AC 217; [1988] 3 WLR 678; [1988] 3 All ER 949; 1 BLR 271; [1988] 2 FTLR 133; [1988] RPC 343; (1988) 132 SJ 698 (PC (HK)) ...... 8.43n Itar-Tass Russian News Agency v Russian Kurier Inc 153 F 3d 82 (2d Cir 1988) ...... 20.43n

Jelles v Municipality of Zwolle (Unreported – 6 February 2004) (HR (NL)) ...... 10.25n

Kalem Co v Harper Bros 222 US 55 (1911) (Sup Ct (US)) 8.31

LA News Service v Reuters Television 149 F 3d 987 (9th Cir 1998) ...... 20.18n Ladbroke (Football) Ltd v William Hill (Football) Ltd [1964] 1 WLR 273; [1964] 1 All ER 465; 108 SJ 135 (HL) ...... 7.04n, 8.05n Lauri v Renad [1892] 3 Ch 402 (CA) ...... 20.40n

lxvi Table of Cases

Law Society of Upper Canada v CCH Canadian Ltd (2004) 60 IPR 650; [2004] FSR 44 (Sup Ct (Can)) ...... 7.04n, 8.05n Lewis Galoob Toys Inc v Nintendo of America Inc (1991) 780 F Supp 1283 ...... 11.75n Lexmark International Inc v Static Control Components Inc 387 F 3d 522 (6th Cir 2004) ...... 11.83n, 15.11n London Film Productions v Intercontinental Communications Inc 580 F Supp. 47 (SDNY 1964) ...... 20.07n Lucazeau v Societe des Auteurs, Compositeurs et Editeurs de Musique (SACEM) (C110/88C241/88 and C242/88) [1989] ECR 2811 (ECJ) ...... 9.09n Luck’s Music Library Inc v Gonzales 407 F 3d (DC Cir 2005) ...... 6.138n

Macklin v Richardson (1770) Amb 694; 27 ER 451 ...... 10.06n MAI Systems Corp v Peak Computer Inc (1993) 991 F 2d 511 (9th Cir) ...... 11.71n Mattel Inc v Walking Mountain Productions 353 F 3d 792 (2003) (9th Cir (US)) ...... 8.83n Megalhaes et Moniz c Muroz Escamoz (Trib de Comm de la Seine 13 November 1913) [1914] DA 38, 39 ...... 6.92n Merchandising Corp of America Inc v Harpbond [1983] FSR 32 (CA (Civ Div)) ...... 8.43n Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios Inc v Grokster Ltd 234 F Supp 2d 1073; 125 S Ct 2764 (2005) ...... 20.23n Millar v Taylor (1796) 4 Burr 2303; 93 ER 201 (KB) ...... 2.03n Ministere Public v Tournier & Verney (C395/87) [1989] ECR 2521; [1991] 4 CMLR 248; [1991] FSR 465 (ECJ) ...... 9.09n Moore v Edwardes [1901–4] MacG Cop Cas 44 ...... 10.06n

National Football League v Prime Time 24 211 F 3d 10 (2d Cir 2000) ...... 20.18n National Football League v TV Radio Now Corp d/b/a iCraveTV, No 00–120 (WD Pa, filed 20 January 2000) ...... 20.18n Nichols v Universal Pictures Corp 45 F 2d 119, 120 (2d Cir 1930) ...... 15.23n Norowzian v Arks Ltd (No.2) [2000] ECDR 205; [2000] EMLR 67; [2000] FSR 363; (2000) 23(3) IPD 23026; (1999) 96(45) LSG 31; (1999) 143 SJLB 279 (CA (Civ Div)) ...... 7.09n

Opera ‘Tosca’, Re (I ZR 50/83) [1987] ECC 455 BGH (Germany) ...... 6.70n ‘Oscar’ trade mark [1980] FSR 429 (Ch D) ...... 6.39 Owusu v Jackson (t/a Villa Holidays Bal Inn Villas) (C281/02) [2005] QB 801; [2005] 2 WLR 942; [2005] 1 Lloyd’s Rep 452; [2005] 1 CLC 246; [2005] IL Pr 25 (ECJ); 2005/C 106/02 OJ of 30.04.2005 ...... 20.07n

P & D International v Halsey Publishing Co 672 F Supp 1429 (SD Fla 1987) ...... 20.18n Pearce v Ove Arup Partnership Ltd (Jurisdiction) [2000] Ch 403; [2000] 3 WLR 332; [1999] 1 All ER 769; [1999] IL Pr 442; [1999] FSR 525; (1999) 22(4) IPD 22041; (1999) 96(9) LSG 31; [1999] NPC 7 (CA (Civ Div)) ...... 20.07n, 20.32n Phillips v Eyre (1870–71) LR 6 QB 1 ...... 11.80n Platinum Records Co v Lucasfilm Ltd 566 F Supp 216 (DNJ 1983) ...... 20.49n Playboy Enterprises Inc v Chuckleberry 939 F Supp 1032 (SDNY 1996) ...... 20.21n, 20.25n Playboy Enterprises Inc v Frena 839 F Supp 1552 (MD Fla 1993) ...... 20.23n Playboy Enterprises Inc v Russ Hardenburgh Inc 982 F Supp 503 (ND Ohio 1997) .. . . 11.94n Playboy Enterprises Inc v Webbworld Inc 991 F Supp 543 (ND Tex 1997) ...... 11.94n Pope v Curl (1741) 2 Atk 341; 25 ER 608 ...... 10.06n Potter v Broken Hill Proprietary Co (1906) 3 CLR 479 ...... 11.52n, 20.02n, 20.07n Powell v Head (1879) LR 12 Ch D 686 ...... 20.40n Prince Albert v Strange (1849) 1 H & Tw 1; 47 ER 1302; 1 Mac & G 25; (1849) 18 LJ Ch 120 ...... 10.06n Psihoyos v Liberation Inc 42 USPQ 2d 1947 (SDNY 1997) ...... 11.52n

lxvii Table of Cases

Quality King Distributors v L’Anza International Inc (1998) 118 S Ct 1125 ...... 11.48n

R Griggs Group Ltd v Evans (No.2) [2004] EWHC 1088; [2005] Ch 153; [2005] 2 WLR 513; [2005] ECDR 12; [2004] FSR 48; (2004) 27(9) IPD 27095 (Ch D) ...... 20.02n Religious Technology Centre v Netcom On-Line Communications 907 F Supp 1361 (ND Cal 1995) ...... 20.23n Reparations case (United Nations) [1949] ICJ 174 (ICJ) ...... 5.69, 6.61 Robert Stigwood Group Ltd v O’Reilly 530 F 2d 1096, 1100 (2d Cir 1976) ...... 20.18n Rooney v Columbia Pictures Inc 538 F Supp 211 (SDNY), affd 714 F 2d 117 (2d Cir 1982) ...... 20.49n

Schott Musik International Gmbh & Co v Colossal Records of Australia Pty Ltd (1997) 36 IPR 267 (Fed Ct (Aus) (Full Ct)) ...... 10.22n Sheldon v Metro-Goldwyn Pictures Corp 106 F 2d 45 (2d Cir 1939) ...... 20.18n Shelley Films Ltd v Rex Features Ltd [1994] EMLR 134 (Ch D) ...... 7.09n Shevill v Presse Alliance SA (C68/93) [1995] 2 AC 18; [1995] 2 WLR 499; [1995] All ER (EC) 289; [1995] ECR I-415; [1995] IL Pr 267; [1995] EMLR 543 (ECJ) ...... 20.04n Silberman v Innovation Luggage Inc 67 USPQ 2d (BNA) 1489 (SDNY 2003) ...... 20.43n Society d’Information RDG Inc v Dynabec Ltee CS 1189, affd 6 CPR (3D) 322 (Canada) ...... 8.93n Sony Computer Entertainment Kabushiki Kaisha v Stevens [2002] FCA 906; [2003] FCAFC 157 (Fed Ct (Aus)) ...... 16.17n Sony Corp of America v Universal City Studios Inc 464 US 417 (1984) (Sup Ct (US)) ...... 2.03n, 13.33n Spedidame case (Unreported 15 March 1977) (C Cass (Fr)) ...... 19.04n Sun Trust Bank v Houghton Mifflin 268 F 3d 1257 (11th Cir 2001 (US)) ...... 8.83n

Telstra Corp Ltd v Desktop Marketing Systems Pty Ltd (2001) 51 IPR 257; [2002] FCAFC 112 (Fed Ct (Aus) Full Ct) ...... 7.04n, 8.05n, 19.86n Thomson v Larson 147 F 3d 199 (2d Cir 1998) ...... 20.40n Tritech Technology Proprietary Ltd v Gordon (2000) 48 IPR 52 ...... 20.07n Twentieth Century Fox Film Corp v iCraveTV, No 00–121 (WD Pa, filed 20 January 2000) ...... 20.18n Tyburn Productions Ltd v Conan Doyle [1991] Ch 75; [1990] 3 WLR 167; [1990] 1 All ER 909; [1990] RPC 185 (Ch D) ...... 11.52n, 20.02n, 20.07n

Union Syndicale des Journalistes Francais CFDT v SA SDV Plurimedia – 3 February 1998 (Trib Gde Inst (Fr)) ...... 20.46n Universal Music Australia Pty Ltd v Cooper [2005] FCA 972 ...... 12.60n, 20.23n Universal Music Australia Pty Ltd v Sharman License Holdings Ltd – The Kazaa Case [2004] FCA 183 (Fed Ct (Aus) (Full Ct)) ...... 20.23n Update Art Inc v Modiin Publishing Ltd 843 F 2d 67 (2d Cir 1988) ...... 20.18n

Veeck v Southern Building Code Congress International Inc 293 3d 791 (5th Cir 2002) ...... 8.108n

Walter v Lane [1900] AC 539 (HL) ...... 7.04n Warne & Co v Seebohm (1888) LR 39 Ch D 73 ...... 3.05n, 11.31n

‘Zola translation’ case 20 September 1930 [1932] GRUR 283 (Germany) ...... 6.38

lxviii TABLE OF NATIONAL LEGISLATION

Argentina s 98(2) ...... 7.35 Law No 11723 on Copyright of 28 s 116A ...... 15.16n September 1933 s 116A(2)–(7) ...... 13.131n art 34 ...... 9.29n s 116D(1) ...... 15.38n s 152A ...... 13.63n s 177 ...... 8.108n Australia s 182A ...... 8.107n Constitution s 51(xviii) ...... 17.99n s 195AZA(1)(e) ...... 15.38n Copyright Act 1912 ...... 8.65n Copyright Amendment Act s 3 ...... 9.18 1984 ...... 8.121 schedule ...... 9.18 s 3(g) ...... 11.27n Copyright Amendment Act Public Lending Right Act 1985 ...... 6.94n 1933 ...... 12.09n Copyright Amendment (Moral Copyright Act 1968 ...... 4.55, 5.10 Rights) Act 2000 Part VB ...... 13.37n s 195AF(2) ...... 9.13n s 10(1) ...... 8.47n, 9.34n, 11.27n s 195AM ...... 10.34n s 10(1)(c)(i) ...... 11.36n s 196AC ...... 10.19n s 22 ...... 8.16n Copyright Legislation Amendment s 22(4)(a) ...... 7.09n Act 2004 ...... 4.54 s 31 ...... 8.04n, 8.47n US Free Trade Agreement s 31(1)(a) ...... 9A.04 Implementation Act 2004 ...... 4.54 s 31(1)(a)(i) ...... 11.26n, 11.40n s 31(1)(a)(ii) ...... 10.37n s 31(1)(a)(v) ...... 12.38n Austria s 31(1)(a)(vi) ...... 11.26n Federal Act of Vienna of 8 June s 31(1)(a)(vii) ...... 11.36n 1815 ...... 1.05 s 31(1)(b)(ii) ...... 11.40n Law of 19 October 1846 ...... 1.05n s 31(1)(vii) ...... 11.35n art 3 ...... 1.14n, 1.15n s 31(3) ...... 11.34n art 4 ...... 1.12 s 32 ...... 8.16n art 4(b) ...... 1.08n s 33(4)(b) ...... 7.03n art 5 ...... 1.12, 1.12n s 35(6) ...... 7.10n art 5(b) ...... 1.16n s 36(1) ...... 15.35n art 6 ...... 1.15n ss 37–38 ...... 11.40n art 13 ...... 1.10n s 47(5) ...... 13.76n art 22 ...... 1.10n ss 48–52 ...... 13.37n art 36 ...... 1.26n s 49(5)(b) ...... 13.132n art 38 ...... 1.27n s 55(2) ...... 10.22n art 42 ...... 1.19n s 58 ...... 13.63n art 43 ...... 1.19n ss 74–77 ...... 8.69 art 44 ...... 1.19n ss 74–79 ...... 9.49 Law of 13 July 1920 s 84 ...... 7.09 art 40 ...... 9.40 s 90 ...... 7.09n art 43 ...... 9.18n ss 97–99 ...... 7.03n art 47(1) ...... 9.18n

lxix Table of National Legislation

Federal Law on Copyright and Criminal Code Works of Literature and Art and art 261 ...... 1.10n on Related Rights 1936 Law No 9610 of 19 February 1998 art 21 ...... 10.10n art 38 ...... 11.56n art 38 ...... 7.35 art 53 ...... 13.61n Bulgaria Law of 9 April 1936 ...... 13.54 Law of 11 July 1921 art 16(1) ...... 11.40n art 11(1) ...... 9.18n art 38 ...... 7.24 art 11(3) ...... 9.40 art 60 ...... 9.24 art 18 ...... 9.18n art 33 ...... 9.43n Belgium art 34 ...... 9.43n Law of 22 March 1886 ...... 1.05n, Law of 15 February 1922 1.08n, 1.24n art 20 ...... 10.04n art 1 ...... 1.12n, 1.14n, 6.81 Law on Copyright of 16 November 1951 art 2 ...... 1.10n, 9.14, 9.18 art 18 ...... 9.32 art 4 ...... 1.19n art 11 ...... 1.19n, 9.40 Burkina Faso art 12 ...... 1.12n Ordinance affording Protection to art 13 ...... 1.16n Copyright of 29 September 1983 art 17 ...... 1.15n art 87 ...... 9.58n art 21 ...... 1.14n Law of 29 February 1984 ...... 14.106n art 38 ...... 1.25, 1.25n, 6.81 Law of 25 June 1921 ...... 6.79, 11.54 Cameroon Law of 23 September 1921 ...... 6.79 Law No 2000/011 of 19 December 2000 on Copyright and Belize Neighbouring Rights Copyright Act 2000 art 14(4) ...... 10.33n art 3(1) ...... 7.06, 20.40n Canada Benelux countries Copyright Act 1921 Uniform Benelux Designs Law 1975 s 5 ...... 9.18 art 21(1) ...... 8.69 ss 13–14 ...... 3.21 art 21(2) ...... 8.69 ss 13–15 ...... 6.21n s 27 ...... 3.21, 6.21n Benin Copyright Amendment Act 1931 .. . 12.09n s 10 ...... 6.104 Law of 15 March 1984 ...... 14.106n Copyright Act 1985 art 3(a) ...... 10.17n s 2 ...... 7.06n, 9.34n, 20.40n art 13 ...... 13.38n s 3(1) ...... 9A.04n s 5(1) ...... 8.04n Bolivia s 14.2(1) ...... 10.34n Decree of 13 August 1879 ...... 1.05n s 77(1)(2) ...... 6.108 art 7 ...... 1.10n s 77(3) ...... 6.108 art 10 ...... 1.10n Law of 15 August 1879 Central African Republic art 8 ...... 1.12n Law of 5 January 1985 art 2(a) ...... 10.17n Brazil Civil Code 1916/1917 Chile art 649 ...... 9.18n Law of 24 July 1834 ...... 1.05n art 662 ...... 9.40 art 1 ...... 1.10n

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Law of 24 July 1834 (cont.): Amending Law of 24 May 1879 .. . . . 1.05n art 2 ...... 1.10n art 1 ...... 1.12n art 6 ...... 1.26n Law of 23 February 1886 ...... 1.10n Amending Law of 12 April 1889 .. . . . 1.05n Colombia Law of 1 April 1912 Law of 26 October 1879 ...... 1.05n art 3 ...... 9.40 Law of 26 October 1886 art 21 ...... 9.18 art 39 ...... 1.12n Act No 157 on Rights in Law of 29 October 1886 Photographic Pictures of art 10 ...... 1.10n 21 March 1961 Law No 23 of 28 January 1982 on Copyright art 15 ...... 9.29n art 21 ...... 9.55n Law of 26 June 1975 ...... 11.41n Copyright Act 1995 Congo s 2(3)(ii) ...... 12.44n Law on Copyright and Neighbouring s 38 ...... 11.54n Rights of 7 July 1982 art 28 ...... 11.26n Estonia Law of 20 March 1911 Czech Republic art 10 ...... 9.18, 9.43n Law No 86 of 14 March 1996 Copyright Act of 11 November 1992 art 4(2) ...... 7.44n art 31(2) ...... 7.44n s 15 ...... 11.54n Czechoslovakia Copyright Act of 15 February 2000 ...... 7.44n, 11.54n Law of 16 November 1926 art 38 ...... 9.18 art 39 ...... 9.18 Finland Law of 24 November 1926 Law of 15 March 1880 ...... 1.05n art 16 ...... 10.04n art 9 ...... 1.16n art 35 ...... 11.54 art 12 ...... 1.15n Law of 1 March 1927 art 16 ...... 1.14n art 35 ...... 6.79 art 17 ...... 1.09n Law No 35 of 25 March 1965 on art 18(3) ...... 1.14n Literary, Scientific and Artistic art 32 ...... 1.26n, 1.27n Works ...... 7.44n Law of 3 June 1927 art 33 ...... 9.53 art 25 ...... 9.18 art 34 ...... 9.29n arts 29–34 ...... 10.04n Law No 404 of 8 July 1961 on Denmark Copyright 1741 Ordinance ...... 1.03 arts 11–21 ...... 13.03n Law of 29 December 1857 .. . . 1.05n, 1.10n art 18 ...... 13.37n art 12 ...... 1.18n art 26i ...... 11.54n art 13(5) ...... 1.16n Law No 365 of 25 April 1997 ...... 11.54n art 23 ...... 1.27n Law of 31 March 1864 ...... 1.05n France art 4 ...... 1.09n Civil Code art 6 ...... 1.14n art 1382 ...... 10.03, 19.04n art 9 ...... 1.27n Declaration of the Rights of Man ...... 1.04 Law of 24 March 1865 Revolutionary Laws of 13–19 art 1 ...... 1.09n January 1791 ...... 1.04, 1.05n, 10.03 Amending Law of 10 April 1865 .. . . . 1.05n Revolutionary Laws of 19 July–6 Amending Law of 23 February 1866 . . 1.05n August 1792 ...... 1.05n Amending Law of 21 February 1868 . . 1.05n Revolutionary Law of 30 August art 1 ...... 1.10n 1792 ...... 1.05n

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Revolutionary Law of 19 July Law 85–600 of 3 July 1985 1793 ...... 1.04, 1.05n, 6.104 art 1(v) ...... 8.93n Revolutionary Law of 19–24 July Intellectual Property Code 1992 1793 ...... 10.04, 11.14 art L111–1 ...... 9A.03 art 1 ...... 8.15n art L111–1(3) ...... 7.03 Revolutionary Law of 1 September art L111–3 ...... 7.04n 1793 ...... 1.05n art L112–1 ...... 8.04n, 8.16n Revolutionary Law of 13 June art L112–2 ...... 8.16n, 8.72n 1795 ...... 1.05n art L113–2 ...... 7.44n, 8.86n, 9.42n Decree of 22 March 1805 ...... 1.05n art L113–2(1) ...... 7.06n Decree of 29 March 1805 ...... 1.05n art L113–2(2) ...... 20.40n Decree of 8 June 1806 ...... 1.05n, 8.58 art L113–2(3) ...... 20.40n Decree of 20 February 1809 ...... 1.05n art L113–3(2) ...... 20.40n Decree of 6 July 1810 ...... 1.05n art L113–3(3) ...... 7.06n, 9.34n Penal Code 1810 ...... 1.05n art L113–3(6) ...... 8.41n Ordinance of 6 June 1814 ...... 1.05n art L113–5 ...... 7.10n, 7.44n Law of 6 May 1841 ...... 1.05n art L113–7 ...... 7.08n, 9.52n Ordinance of 13 December 1842 .. . . 1.05n art L121–1 ...... 10.17n, 10.18n, 10.33n Law of 3 August 1844 ...... 1.05n art L121–1(3) ...... 20.51 Decree-Law of 28 March art L122–1 ...... 11.28n 1852 ...... 1.05n, 1.06n, art L122–3 ...... 9A.03, 11.28n 1.24, 1.30 art L122–4 ...... 11.28n Law of 8–18 April 1854 ...... 1.05n art L122–5(3)(d) ...... 13.37n Decree of 9 December 1857 ...... 1.05n art L122–8 ...... 11.63n, 11.66n Decree of 6 January 1864 ...... 1.05n art L123–1 ...... 9A.03 Law of 10 March 1866 ...... 2.35n, art L123–4 ...... 9.39n 3.02, 11.07n art L131–2 ...... 7.34n, 7.35n Law of 16 May 1866 ...... 1.05n art L131–4 ...... 11.52n Decree of 14 July 1866 ...... 1.06n, 9.14 arts L132–1–132–17 .. . . . 7.22n, 11.52n Law of 14 July 1866 ...... 1.05n arts L132–18–132–22 ...... 7.22n art 1 ...... 1.10, 6.87 arts L132–23–132–30 ...... 7.22n Law of 16 July 1866 ...... 9.18 art L132–24 ...... 7.35n, 7.37n Law of 29 July 1881 ...... 1.05n arts L132–32–132–33 ...... 7.22n art 3 ...... 1.19n art 4 ...... 1.19n Germany Law of 10 March 1886 ...... 1.13 Law of 11 June 1870 ...... 1.05, 1.05n, Law of 29 October 1887 ...... 1.05n 1.08n, 10.03 Law of 11 March 1902 ...... 8.61n art 3 ...... 1.09n Law of 20 May 1920 ...... 6.79, 11.54 art 5 ...... 1.12n Decree of 17 December 1920 ...... 6.79 art 6 ...... 1.12n, 1.19n Law of 11 October 1946 ...... 9.59n art 7(a) ...... 1.16n Decree No 56–1215 of 29 November art 7(b) ...... 1.17n 1956 ...... 9.59n art 8 ...... 1.10n, 9.14n Law No 57–298 on Literary and art 46 ...... 1.15n Artistic Property of 11 March 1957 art 50(2) ...... 12.07n art 3 ...... 8.05n art 61 ...... 1.26 art 17 ...... 7.17n, 7.24, 7.26n, 7.34n Law of 9 January 1876 ...... 1.05, art 19 ...... 13.71n 1.05n, 1.08n art 23 ...... 9.39n art 3 ...... 1.09n art 32 ...... 13.71n art 6(2) ...... 1.14n art 41 ...... 13.03n, 13.38n art 9 ...... 1.19n Law No 64–689 of 8 July 1964 ...... 6.48 art 20 ...... 1.26 Finance Law of 1976 (No 75–1278) Law of 10 January 1876 .. . 2.28, 8.48, 10.03 art 22 ...... 9.59n art 6 ...... 1.09n

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Law of 19 January 1876 ...... 1.05, 1.08n art 27(3) ...... 6.105n Law on Literary and Musical Works art 29(1) ...... 10.18n of 19 June 1901 ...... 11.52n art 31(4) ...... 20.49, 20.51 art 9 ...... 10.03 art 31(5) ...... 20.46n art 22 ...... 13.59n art 42 ...... 13.71n art 22a ...... 13.62n art 46 ...... 13.71n art 25 ...... 9.18 art 51 ...... 13.38n art 29 ...... 6.87 art 52 ...... 12.02n Law on Artistic and Photographic art 54h ...... 6.106n Works of 9 January 1907 art 55 ...... 13.76n art 13 ...... 10.03 art 55(1) ...... 13.76n art 25 ...... 9.18 art 58 ...... 13.37n Law of 22 May 1910 ...... 13.59 art 61 ...... 13.63n art 1 ...... 8.25n art 64(1) ...... 6.55, 6.56 art 22 ...... 11.10n, 19.04n art 68 ...... 9.29n arts 22–22c ...... 3.37 art 72 ...... 8.57n Law of 13 December 1932 Relating art 72(3) ...... 8.57n to the Prolongation of the art 89 ...... 9.52n Periods of Protection of s 32 ...... 20.42n Authors’ Rights s 32(a) ...... 20.42n art 1 ...... 9.18n, 9.24 s 32(b) ...... 20.42n Law of 4 July 1933 on Performing Rights ...... 12.09n Greece Law of 30 April 1936 ...... 13.54 Penal Code 1833 Law of 24 June 1985 ...... 8.57n art 432 ...... 1.10 Law of 23 June 1995 ...... 8.57n art 433 ...... 1.26n, 1.27n Law of 22 July 1997 ...... 11.28 Law No 2378 of 16 July 1920 Law of March 2002 on art 2 ...... 9.18n Strengthening the Contractual art 6 ...... 9.43n Position of Authors and Law No 2121/1993 on Copyright, Performers ...... 7.22n Related Rights and Cultural Matters art 5 ...... 11.54n Germany, Federal Republic Law No 2435 of 2 August 1996 .. . . . 11.54n Law of 9 September 1965 on Guatemala Copyright ...... 7.22, 9.03 Decree on Literary Property of 29 art 1 ...... 8.93n October 1879 ...... 1.05n art 2 ...... 8.16n art 5 ...... 1.10 art 2(1) ...... 8.69 art 21 ...... 1.18n art 2(2) ...... 7.04n, 8.05n art 2(7) ...... 8.72n Haiti art 3 ...... 11.26n art 4 ...... 8.90n Law of 8 October 1885 ...... 1.05n art 5 ...... 8.107n art 5 ...... 9.14n, 1.12n, 9.18 art 7 ...... 7.03n art 6 ...... 9.14n, 9.18 art 8 ...... 20.40n art 8(1) ...... 7.06n, 9.34n, 20.40n Hungary art 12 ...... 13.71n Law of 26 April–4 May 1884 . . 1.05n, 1.08n art 17(1) ...... 11.40n art 2 ...... 1.17n art 18 ...... 12.44n art 6(1) ...... 1.14n art 23 ...... 11.26n, 11.28, 11.35 art 7 ...... 1.12n art 25(5) ...... 6.105n art 9(1) ...... 1.16n art 26 ...... 11.66n art 9(b) ...... 1.17n art 27 ...... 11.41n art 11 ...... 1.10n

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Law of 26 April–4 May 1884 (cont.): Law 633 of 22 April 1941 on Copyright art 66 ...... 1.09n art 2(4) ...... 8.65 art 70 ...... 1.09n, 1.12n art 5 ...... 8.107n art 79 ...... 1.26n art 7 ...... 7.44n Law of 31 December 1921 art 11 ...... 7.04, 7.06n, 8.05n, art 11 ...... 9.18n 9.34n, 20.40n art 12(1) ...... 9.43n art 17 ...... 11.40n art 14 ...... 9.43n art 38 ...... 7.04 art 15 ...... 9.40 art 45 ...... 7.11, 7.24 art 19 ...... 9.18n arts 45–46 ...... 7.37n art 69 ...... 9.29n art 46 ...... 7.38 art 47 ...... 10.13n India art 55 ...... 13.73n, 13.76n art 71 ...... 12.02n Copyright Act 1957 art 72 ...... 19.04 s 2(d) ...... 17.33 art 79 ...... 19.04 s 2(i) ...... 8.72n art 80(2) ...... 19.04n s 2(o) ...... 8.90n art 88 ...... 7.04 s 13(1)(b) ...... 7.09n arts 118–135 ...... 11.52n s 14 ...... 9A.04n arts 144–155 ...... 11.54 s 22 ...... 6.56 art 152 ...... 11.56n s 52 ...... 13.03n art 175 ...... 9.57 art 179 ...... 9.57, 9.58n Ireland Copyright and Related Rights Act Ivory Coast 2000 ...... 9A.04n Law No 78–634 of 28 July 1978 on s 22(1) ...... 7.06n, 9.34n, 20.40n the Protection of Intellectual Works s 23(1)(a) ...... 7.10n art 3 ...... 9.58n ss 107–119 ...... 9.13n Japan Italy Act on Copyright of 3 March 1899 Law of 10 August 1875 ...... 1.05n art 3 ...... 9.18 Law of 18 May 1882 ...... 1.05n art 7 ...... 9.43n art 1(a) ...... 1.09, 8.24 Copyright Law, No 48 of 6 May 1970 art 12(1) ...... 1.14n art 3(1) ...... 9.42n art 26 ...... 1.17n art 10(1)(ix) ...... 8.121 art 28 ...... 1.19n art 12 ...... 8.90n art 46 ...... 1.27n art 13 ...... 8.107n Decree of 19 September 1882 ...... 1.05n art 15 ...... 7.10n art 2 ...... 9.20 art 38 ...... 12.02n art 9 ...... 1.10, 9.14n, 9.57 art 10 ...... 1.10 Latvia art 12 ...... 1.12n Copyright Act of 6 April 2000 art 20 ...... 1.18n art 17 ...... 11.54n arts 21–31 ...... 1.19n art 42 ...... 1.26n Lebanon Law No 1950 of 7 November 1925 art 14 ...... 10.05 Decree of 17 January 1924 art 15 ...... 10.04, 10.05n art 143 ...... 9.18n art 16 ...... 10.04n, 10.05 art 26 ...... 9.18n Liberia art 28 ...... 9.34n Law of 22 December 1911 art 34 ...... 9.57n art 3 ...... 9.18

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Lithuania art 40 ...... 9.30n Law No VIII-1185 of 18 May 1999 s 6 ...... 13.44n on Copyright and Related Rights Law on Copyright of 28 June art 17 ...... 11.54n 1881 ...... 1.05n, 1.08n Law No VIII-1866 of 20 July 2000 . . 11.54n art 1 ...... 1.08, 1.09n art 5 ...... 1.12n Luxembourg art 7 ...... 1.17n arts 10–11 ...... 1.19n Law of 25 January 1817 ...... 1.05n art 12 ...... 1.15 Law of 10 May 1898 ...... 6.82 art 13 ...... 1.10 art 2 ...... 9.18 art 14 ...... 1.10 art 15(1) ...... 1.10 Malta art 15(2) ...... 1.10 Copyright Act 1967 art 17 ...... 1.17n s 7 ...... 13.03n art 27 ...... 1.26n s 9 ...... 13.03n s 10 ...... 13.03n New Zealand Copyright Act 1962 Mexico s 3(2)(d)(i) ...... 6.30n Civil Code 1871 ...... 1.05n Copyright Act 1994 ...... 6.30n, 9A.04n art 1249 ...... 1.08n Part 4 art 106 ...... 10.34n art 1253 ...... 1.10 s 22 ...... 6.56n art 1306 ...... 1.09n ss 94–110 ...... 9.13n art 1322(17) ...... 1.14n art 1381 ...... 1.18n Norway art 1383 ...... 1.26n Law of 8 June 1876 ...... 1.05n art 1386 ...... 1.27n art 2 ...... 1.12n Federal Law of Copyright of 4 art 7 ...... 1.10n November 1963 art 15 ...... 1.15n, 1.26n art 1 ...... 9.58n art 19 ...... 1.18n art 118(iii) ...... 9.58n art 46 ...... 1.27n Federal Law on Copyright 1996 art 451 ...... 1.26n art 14(VIII) ...... 8.107n Law of 8 November 1876 ...... 1.05 art 29(1) ...... 9.55n Special Law Concerning the art 85 ...... 12.44n Protection of Photographic Works of 12 May 1877 Monaco art 1 ...... 8.50 Ordinance of 27 February 1889 art 8 ...... 1.27n art 1 ...... 1.10n art 11 ...... 1.14n art 4 ...... 1.12n art 11b ...... 1.14n art 8 ...... 1.10n art 16 ...... 1.27n art 8(2) ...... 9.18 art 16b ...... 1.16n Law of 20 June 1882 ...... 1.05n Morocco arts 1–12 ...... 1.19n Law of 23 June 1916 ...... 6.82 Law of 4 July 1893 art 21 ...... 9.18n art 10 ...... 9.18 Law of 6 June 1930 Netherlands art 13 ...... 10.10n Copyright Act 1912 arts 6–7 ...... 7.10n Paraguay arts 6–8 ...... 7.03n Law No 1328/98 on Copyright and arts 7–8 ...... 7.04n Related Rights art 39 ...... 9.18n, 9.43n art 17 ...... 10.33n

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Peru Russia Law of 3 November 1849 ...... 1.05n Regulations of 1857 relating to art 3 ...... 1.10n Censorship of the Press .. . . 1.05n, 1.09 Copyright Law (Legislative Decree art 7 ...... 1.10n No 822) of 1996 art 10 ...... 1.19n art 21 ...... 10.33n art 16 ...... 1.16n art 17 ...... 1.16n Poland art 43 ...... 1.14n art 44 ...... 1.19n Law of 26 March 1926 art 52 ...... 1.19n arts 28–30 ...... 10.04n art 53 ...... 1.09n Law of 29 March 1926 art 20 ...... 9.18n Law of 22 March 1935 ...... 11.54 Rwanda Law No 234 on Copyright of Law of 15 November 1983 ...... 14.106n 10 July 1952 art 26 ...... 9.53 Senegal art 27 ...... 9.29n Copyright Act 1973 Law of 4 February 1994 on art 3(a) ...... 10.17n Copyright and Neighbouring art 41(b) ...... 9.49n Rights art 19 ...... 11.54n South Africa Patents, Designs, Trade Marks and Portugal Copyright Act 1916 Civil Code of 1 July 1867 ...... 1.05, 1.05n s 43 ...... 9.18 art 576 ...... 1.10n, 1.26n Copyright Act 1978 art 577 ...... 1.12n s 1(1)(iv) ...... 11.34n art 578 ...... 1.27n art 579 ...... 1.10n, 9.18n Spain art 587 ...... 1.18n Decree of 4 January 1834 ...... 1.05 arts 603–606 ...... 1.19n Decree of 5 May 1837 ...... 1.05 Penal Code 1886 ...... 1.05n Law of 10 January 1879 ...... 1.08n, 1.40n Law of 27 May 1927 art 1 ...... 8.48n art 15(1) ...... 9.02, 9.18n art 6 ...... 1.10n, 9.18 art 36 ...... 9.02, 9.18n Law of 19 January 1879 ...... 1.05n Code of Copyright and Related art 1 ...... 1.09n, 1.12n Rights of 17 September 1985 .. . 7.06n art 2 ...... 1.12n arts 31–39 ...... 9.02 art 3(1) ...... 1.17n art 56(2) ...... 10.33n art 3(3) ...... 1.14n art 61(1) ...... 20.40n art 3(4) ...... 1.14n ch III(1) ...... 7.22n art 6 ...... 9.14n Law 114/9 of 3 September 1991 art 7 ...... 1.15n art 16(1) ...... 7.06n art 10 ...... 1.12n art 12 ...... 1.12n Romania art 13 ...... 1.12n Law of 28 June 1932 art 14 ...... 1.12n art 1 ...... 9.18n art 15 ...... 1.12n art 4 ...... 9.18n art 33 ...... 1.19n art 13 ...... 10.04n art 34 ...... 1.19n Decree No 321 of 18 June 1956 art 38 ...... 1.19n Relating to Copyright art 39 ...... 1.19n art 6 ...... 9.53 art 40 ...... 1.18n art 7 ...... 9.29n art 50 ...... 1.26n, 1.27n

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Consolidated Text of the Law on art 11 ...... 1.13, 2.35n, 11.07n Intellectual Property (Royal art 11(1) ...... 1.16n Legislative Decree 1/1996 of 12 April art 11(4) ...... 1.17n 1996) ...... 7.06n, 20.40n art 15 ...... 10.26n art 24 ...... 11.54n Federal Law of 7 December Relating Law 5/1998 of 6 March 1998 to the International Offices ...... 11.54n, 20.40n of Posts and Telegraphs 1885 s 7(1) ...... 7.06n art 3 ...... 16.30 Law of 7 December 1922 Sri Lanka arts 17–21 ...... 13.60n Code of Intellectual Property Law art 18 ...... 11.10n Act 1979 art 21 ...... 13.61n s 7 ...... 8.04n art 36 ...... 6.55 s 19(5) ...... 9.49n art 37 ...... 9.18 art 41 ...... 9.18 Sweden art 43 ...... 10.04n Law of 3 May 1867 ...... 1.05, 1.05n Syria Law of 8 May 1867 art 8 ...... 1.26n, 1.27n Decree of 17 January 1924 Law of 10 May 1877 art 143 ...... 9.18n art 19 ...... 1.26n Law of 10 August 1877 ...... 1.05n Thailand art 1 ...... 1.09n Copyright Act 1994 art 2 ...... 1.12n Ch 3 ...... 14.106n art 7 ...... 1.10n art 13 ...... 1.10n Tunisia art 14 ...... 1.10n Law of 15 June 1889 Law of 10 August 1879 art 2 ...... 9.14n, 9.18 art 13 ...... 1.10n art 4 ...... 1.12n art 14 ...... 1.10n Model Law s 8 ...... 13.76n art 19 ...... 1.27n Law of 10 January 1883 ...... 1.05n Law of 29 April 1904 Turkey art 14 ...... 9.43n Law on Artistic and Intellectual Law of 30 May 1911 concerning Works of 10 December 1951 Works of the Figurative Arts art 8 ...... 7.10n art 1 ...... 8.47n art 23 ...... 11.40n Law on Artistic Works of 30 May 1919 art 29 ...... 9.29n art 13 ...... 9.18 art 20 ...... 9.18 United Kingdom Act on Copyright in Literary and Act of Anne 1709 ...... 1.02, 1.02n, Artistic Works 1960 1.03, 11.01n art 2(3) ...... 11.40n s 1 ...... 8.15 art 26j ...... 11.54n Engraving Copyright Act 1735 ...... 8.45 Prints and Engravings Act 1766 Switzerland s 7 ...... 1.10 Law of 23 April 1883 ...... 1.05n, 1.29 Designing and Printing of Linens Act art 2 ...... 1.09n, 1.12n, 9.14n 1787 ...... 8.58 art 6 ...... 1.09n Designing and Printing of Linens Act art 7 ...... 1.15n, 12.07 1794 ...... 8.58 art 9 ...... 8.48n Union with Ireland Act 1800 ...... 1.21 art 9(b) ...... 1.09n Sculpture Copyright Act 1814 ...... 1.05n art 10 ...... 1.26n, 1.27, 2.20 s 1 ...... 1.10, 1.19n

lxxvii Table of National Legislation

Dramatic Copyright Act 1833 ...... 11.01n Design Rules 1932 s 1 ...... 9.43n, 12.07 r 92 ...... 8.58 Lecture Copyright Act 1835 ...... 1.05n Copyright Act 1956 ...... 5.10, 16.06n Designs Copyright Act 1839 ...... 8.58 s 1(1) ...... 9A.04 Literary Copyright Act 1842 ...... 9.10 s 1(5) ...... 7.09n s 3 ...... 1.10, 9.14n, 9.43n, 12.07 s 3(1) ...... 8.54n s 5 ...... 1.10, 1.18n s 8 ...... 13.63n s 9 ...... 1.10, 1.26n s 9 ...... 13.38n ss 11–14 ...... 1.19n s 12 ...... 19.04 s 20 ...... 11.01n, 12.07 s 13 ...... 7.09n, 7.24n, 7.26n International Copyright Act 1852 s 14 ...... 8.39, 19.04 s 1 ...... 1.12n s 23 ...... 13.91 s 2 ...... 1.12n, 1.27n s 24 ...... 13.91 s 3 ...... 1.12n s 49(1) ...... 11.19 s 4 ...... 1.12n s 49(2)(a) ...... 6.30n s 5 ...... 1.12n Copyright (International s 57 ...... 1.17n Conventions) Order 1957 (SI Fine Arts Copyright Act 1862 ...... 1.05n, 1957/1523) ...... 17.72n 8.45 Dramatic and Musical Performers’ s 1 ...... 1.09n, 1.10, 8.48 Protection Act 1958 ...... 19.04n s 4 ...... 1.19n Performers’ Protection Act 1963 .. . . 19.04n s 7 ...... 10.06 Performers’ Protection Act 1972 .. . . 19.04n Copyright (Musical Compositions) Public Lending Right Act 1979 ...... 6.94n Act 1882 s 1 ...... 11.42n s 1 ...... 1.15, 2.32n, 12.07n Copyright (Computer Software) Patents, Trade Marks and Registered Amendment Act 1985 ...... 8.93n Designs Act 1883 ...... 1.14 s 1(a) ...... 8.04n International Copyright Act 1886 s 1(b) ...... 7.09n s 6 ...... 6.116 s 3(1) ...... 8.90n Copyright Act 1911 ...... 8.65, 9.43 s 3(1)(a) ...... 8.129n art 3 ...... 9.18n s 3(2) ...... 8.16n s 1 ...... 8.46n s 4(1)(a) ...... 8.57n s 1(1) ...... 8.47n s 4(2) ...... 8.72n s 1(2) ...... 12.12n s 9(2) ...... 7.03n s 1(3) ...... 6.29 s 9(2)(a) ...... 7.04n s 3 ...... 9.19 s 9(2)(2)(a) ...... 7.09n s 3(1) ...... 9.18 s 10(1) ...... 7.06n, 9.34n, 20.40n s 4 ...... 9.19 s 11(2) ...... 7.04n, 7.10n s 16(1) ...... 9.34 s 16(1) ...... 9A.04 s 19 ...... 6.82, 11.10n s 16(1)(a) ...... 11.28, 11.35 s 19(1) ...... 9.43n, 19.04 s 16(1)(b) ...... 10.37n s 21 ...... 9.43n s 20 ...... 12.38n s 22(1) ...... 8.58 s 86 ...... 10.34n s 23 ...... 6.21n Copyright, Designs and Patents s 35(1) ...... 8.47n, 8.54, 8.58 Act 1988 s 35(3) ...... 6.77 s 1 ...... 7.09n, 8.57n Trading with the Enemy (Copyright) s 3 ...... 7.09n Act 1916 ...... 17.92 s 4 ...... 7.09n Termination of the Present War s 6 ...... 12.38n (Definition) Act 1918 ...... 17.92 s 5A ...... 19.09 Copyright Act 1921 s 6 ...... 12.38n s 29 ...... 6.21n s 16(1)(e) ...... 11.26n, 11.28, 11.35 Dramatic and Musical Performers’ s 16(2) ...... 15.35n Protection Act 1925 ...... 19.04n s 17(3) ...... 11.34n

lxxviii Table of National Legislation

Copyright, Designs and Patents s 106(1) ...... 9A.04n, 11.26n, 11.35 Act 1988 (cont.): s 106(2) ...... 11.28 s 21(1) ...... 11.36n s 106(3) ...... 11.40, 11.40n s 21(3)(a)(i) ...... 11.26n s 106(5) ...... 12.44n s 21(3)(a)(iii) ...... 11.34n s 106A ...... 9.13n s 22 ...... 11.46n s 106A(a)(1)(b) ...... 10.19n s 22(3)(a)(i) ...... 11.36n s 106A(a)(3)(B) ...... 10.26n ss 37ff ...... 13.37n s 106A(d) ...... 9.13n, 10.34n s 77(1) ...... 6.104 s 108 ...... 13.37n ss 77–89 ...... 9.13n s 109(a) ...... 11.40n s 85(5)–(6) ...... 10.19n s 109(b) ...... 11.82n ss 163–166 ...... 8.107n s 109(b)(1)(B) ...... 11.83n s 173(2) ...... 20.40n s 109(b)(1)(B)(ii) ...... 11.83n s 175(4) ...... 6.30n s 109(c) ...... 12.44n s 110(5) ...... 12.41n, 13.101n Uruguay s 111(a)(2) ...... 12.38n s 112(a) ...... 13.76n Law No 9739 of 15–17 December s 115 ...... 20.45n 1937 on Literary and Artistic s 115(a)(2) ...... 10.22n Copyright s 115(c) ...... 13.63n art 9 ...... 11.54 s 117 ...... 11.71n art 62 ...... 9.58n s 121 ...... 13.37n s 173 ...... 9.49 USA s 201(b) ...... 7.03n, 7.10, 9.42n Constitution art 1 s 8 cl 8 ...... 17.99n s 204(a) ...... 6.105n Act of 31 May 1790 ...... 11.01n s 205(c)(2) ...... 4.46n s 1 ...... 11.38n s 205(d) ...... 4.46n Act of 18 August 1856 ...... 11.01n s 301(f)(2)(C) ...... 10.34n Copyright Act 1870 ...... 1.05n s 302(a) ...... 9.49n ss 4948ff ...... 1.19n s 302(c) ...... 9.42n s 4952 ...... 1.09n, 1.26n s 304(a) ...... 4.45 s 4953 ...... 1.10, 1.12n s 401 ...... 4.45 s 4954 ...... 1.10 s 402 ...... 4.45 s 4971 ...... 1.26n s 405(a) ...... 4.46n Law of 18 June 1874 ...... 1.05n s 405(b) ...... 4.46n Act of 6 January 1897 ...... 11.01n s 407 ...... 4.46n Copyright Act 1909 ...... 3.21, 13.59 s 408 ...... 4.46n s 1(c) ...... 13.59 s 408(b) ...... 4.46n s 16 ...... 6.11 s 409 ...... 15.39n Trade Act 1974 s 410(a) ...... 4.46n s 235(e)(1) ...... 4.55 s 410(c) ...... 6.108n Copyright Act 1976 (17 USC) ...... 4.51, s 411 ...... 4.46n, 15.39n 9A.04, 13.10 s 412 ...... 6.53n, 6.108n s 4(2) ...... 11.40n s 601 ...... 6.11 s 97 ...... 4.45 s 602 ...... 11.40n, 11.48n s 101 ...... 6.37n, 7.03n, 7.06n, s 602(a) ...... 11.46n 8.14n, 8.69, 8.93n, 9.49, s 602(b) ...... 11.46n 11.71n, 12.02n, 20.40n s 1002(c) ...... 15.02n s 102(a) ...... 8.16n s 1201(a)(1)(A) ...... 15.11n s 102(a)(7) ...... 19.09 s 1201(b)(1)(A) ...... 15.11n s 104 ...... 9.55n s 1201(b)(2)(B) ...... 15.11n s 104(a) ...... 6.56n s 1201(c) ...... 15.21 s 104A(b) ...... 20.43n s 1201(d) ...... 13.131n s 104A(d)(3) ...... 6.112n s 1201(d)–(j) ...... 15.21n

lxxix Table of National Legislation

Copyright Act 1976 (17 USC) (cont.): Visual Artists Rights Act 1990 ...... 8.46n s 1201(e) ...... 13.131n Audio Home Recording Act 1992 .. . . 15.02 s 1201(f) ...... 13.131n Digital Millennium Copyright Act s 1201(g) ...... 13.131n 1998 ...... 13.131n, 20.23n s 1202(c) ...... 15.33n Copyright Act 2000 Record Rental Amendments Act s 110(5) ...... 5.20n, 5.33 1984 ...... 11.82n Trade Act 2002 Architectural Works Copyright s 2104(e) ...... 4.55 Protection Act 1990 s 101 ...... 8.46n, 9.34n Venezuela s 102(a)(8) ...... 8.46n Law of 12 May 1887 s 120 ...... 8.46n art 6 ...... 1.10n Computer Software Rental Law on Copyright of 14 August 1993 Amendments Act 1990 11.82n, 11.83n art 25 ...... 9.55n

lxxx LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ALAI Association Littéraire et Artistique Internationale ABU Asian Broadcasting Union ACC Authors’ Consultative Committee AID International Alliance for Diffusion by Wire AIPO African Intellectual Property Organization AJIL American Journal of International Law Am Jo Int Law American Journal of International Law ASBU Arab States Broadcasting Union ASCAP American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers AUFFT Archiv fur Urheber-, Film-, Funk- und Theaterrecht BBC British Broadcasting Corporation Berkeley Tech Berkeley Technology Law Journal LJ BFSP British and Foreign State Papers 1812/13–1939 BIRPI Bureaux Internationaux Reunie pour la Protection de la Propriete Intel- lectuelle (unofficial name for the International Office (the body which undertook the administrative tasks of the Berne Union prior to the Stockholm Act) and the International Bureau for the Union for the Protection of Industrial Property, with which from its inception it was combined Bull Cop Bulletin of the Copyright Society of the USA Soc USA BUPC Berne Union Permanent Committee Burr Burrow’s King’s Bench Reports 1757–1771 BYIL British Year Book of International Law Cardozo Arts Cardozo Arts and Entertainment Law Journal & Ent LJ Cd Command Paper CISAC International Conference of Authors and Composers CGE Committee of Governmental Experts CO country of origin Colum L Rev Columbia Law Review Colum-VLA Columbia-VLA Journal of Law and the Arts J L & Arts COMECON Council for Mutual Economic Assistance Copyright Copyright: Monthly Review of the World Intellectual Property Organization

lxxxi List of Abbreviations

DA Le Droit d’Auteur DBS Direct Broadcast Satellites de Paul L de Paul Law Review Rev DMCA Digital Millennium Copyright Act 1998 (USA) DSB Dispute Settlement Body EBU European Broadcasting Union EC European Commission ECJ Court of Justice of the European Communities EEC European Economic Community EIPR European Intellectual Property Review ER English reports ESC European Convention Relating to Questions on Copyright Law and Neighbouring Rights in the Framework of Transfrontier Broadcasting by Satellite (May 1994) EU European Union EYB Europa Year Book FIAD International Federation of Film Distributors’ Association FIAPF International Federation of Film Producers’ Associations FIEJ International Federation of Newspaper Publishers FIM International Federation of Musicians FRG Federal Republic of Germany (1949–90) FSS Fixed Satellite Service FTA Free trade agreement GATS General Agreement on Trade in Services GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GDR German Democratic Republic GRUR Deutsche Vereinigung fur Gewerblichen Rechtsschutz und Urheberrecht Harv L Rev Harvard Law Review Hastings Hastings Communication and Entertainment Law Journal Comm & Ent LJ ICJ International Court of Justice ICLQ International and Comparative Law Quarterly IFA International Federation of Actors IFPI International Federation of the Phonographic Industry IGC Intergovernmental Committee IIC International Institute for Intellectual Co-operation ILO International Labour Organization INTEGRU International Copyright Society IPA International Publishers’ Association IPRs intellectual property rights ITU International Telecommunications Union JBL Journal of Business Law

lxxxii List of Abbreviations

J Copyr Soc Journal of the Copyright Society of the USA (Formerly Bulletin) USA JDIPJC Journal du droit international prive et de la jurisprudence compare (Clunet) (Clunet) JPOS Journal of the Patent Office Society LQR Law Quarterly Review Mich J Int’l L Michigan Journal of International Law NGOs Non-governmental organizations OED Oxford English Dictionary OJ Official Journal of the European Communities PCT Patent Cooperation Treaty PRC Peoples’ Republic of China RIDA Revue internationale du droit d’auteur Rome Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Convention Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations 1961 SACEM Societe des Auteurs, Compositeurs et Editeurs de Musique SCCR Standing Committee on Copyright and Related Rights So Cal LR Southern California Law Review SOED Shorter Oxford English Dictionary TRIPs Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement 1994 UCC Universal Copyright Convention UCLA Law University of California Los Angeles Law Review Rev UK United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland UN United Nations UNESCO United Nations Educational and Scientific Organization UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization UNIDROIT International Institute for the Unification of Private Law URTNA Union of National Radio and Television Organizations of Africa USC United States Code Va J Int’l L Virginia Journal of International Law Vienna Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969 Convention WCT WIPO Copyright Treaty WG Advisory Notes on the implementation of the System of Translation Guidelines and Reproduction Licences for Developing Countries under the Copyright Convention (1982) WHO World Health Organization WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization WPPT WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty WTO World Trade Organization Yale LJ Yale Law Journal

lxxxiii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS OF WORKS TO WHICH REFERENCE IS COMMONLY MADE IN THIS BOOK Actes (1884) Actes de la Conference internationale pour la protection des droits d’auteur reunie a Berne du 8 au 19 septembre 1884 Actes (1885) Actes de la 2me Conference internationale pour la protection des oeuvres litteraires et artistiques reunie a Berne du 7 au 9 septembre 1885 Actes (1886) Actes de la 3me Conference internationale pour la protection des oeuvres litteraires et artistiques reunie a Berne du 6 au 9 septembre 1886 Actes (1896) Actes de la Conference de Paris de 1896 Actes (1908) Actes de la Conference de Berlin 1908 Actes (1928) Actes de la Conference reunie a Rome du 7 mai au 2 juin 1928 Annales (1858) Annales de la Propriété Industrielle, Artistique et Littéraire (1858) Bastide (1890) L Bastide, L’Union de Berne de 1886 et la Protection internationale des droits des auteurs et des artistes (1890) Baum (1949) A Baum, The Brussels Conference for the Revision of the Berne Convention (1949) BFSP British and Foreign State Papers Bogsch (1986) A Bogsch, ‘The First Hundred Years of the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works’ [1986] Copyright 330 Bowett (1982) D W Bowett, The Law of International Institutions, 4th edn (1982) Briggs (1906) W Briggs, The Law of International Copyright (1906) Correspondence (1908) Correspondence Respecting the Revised Convention of Berne for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, signed at Berlin, November 13, 1908 Correspondence No 1 (1886) Switzerland No 1 (1886), Correspondence Respecting the Formation of an International Copyright Union, C-4606 (1886), Papers presented to Parliament in Jan 1886 Correspondence No 2 (1886) Switzerland No 2 (1886), Further Correspondence Respecting the Formation of an International Copyright Union, Papers presented to Parliament in Aug 1886 Correspondence No 3 (1886) Switzerland No 3 (1886), Further Correspondence Respecting the Formation of an International Copyright Union, Papers presented to Parliament in Sept 1886

lxxxv List of Abbreviations of Works to which Reference is Commonly made in this Book

Darras (1887) A Darras, Du Droit des auteurs et des artistes dans les rapports internationaux (1887) J Delalain (1866) J Delalain, Recueil des Conventions conclues par la France pour la Reconnaissance de la Properiété Littéraire et Artis- tique (1866) Desbois (1978) H Desbois, Le Droit D’Auteur en France, 3rd edn (1978) Desbois et al (1976) H Desbois, A Françon, and A Kéréver, Les Conventions internationales du droit d’auteur et des droits voisins (1976) Dietz (1978) A Dietz, Copyright Law in the European Community (1978) Dock (1963) M-C Dock, Étude sur le droit d’auteur (1963) Documents 1948 (1951) Documents de la Conférence réunie à Bruxelles du 5 au 26 juin 1948 (1951) Duchemin (1948) J-L Duchemin, Le Droit de Suite des Artistes (1948) Ficsor (2003) Mihály Ficsor, The Law of Copyright and the Internet: The 1996 WIPO Treaties, Their Interpretation and Implementation (2003) Gervais (2003) D Gervais, The TRIPS Agreement: Drafting History and Analysis, 2nd edn (2003) Histoire (1889) Association Littéraire et Artistique Internationale: Son Histoire, Ses Travaux (1878–1889) (1879) Holdsworth (1939) W Holdsworth, A History of English Law, 2nd edn, vol VI (1939, reprinted 1966) Johnson (1970) C F Johnson, ‘The Origins of the Stockholm Protocol’ (1970) 18 Bull Cop Soc USA 91 Ladas (1938) S P Ladas, The International Protection of Literary and Artistic Property (1938) Laddie et al (2000) Hugh Laddie, Peter Prescott, and Mary Vitoria, The Modern Law of Copyright and Designs, 3rd edn (2000) Lavollée (1887) R Lavollée, Propriété Littéraire et la Convention de Berne (1887) LCD (1889) C Lyon-Caen and P Delalain, Lois françaises et étrangères sur la Propriété littéraire et artistique . . . (1889) McNair (1961) Lord McNair, The Law of Treaties (1961) Maillard (1928) G Maillard, ‘Conférence de Rome’, ALAI Bulletin, Oct 1928 Masouyé (1978) C Masouyé, Guide to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (1978) Mémoire (1936) L’Union internationale pour la protection des oeuvres littéraires et artistiques: son fondation et son développe- ment—Mémoire 1886–1936 (1936) Nordemann et al (1977) W Nordemann, K Vinck, and P W Hertin, Interna- tionales Urheberrecht und Leistungsschutzrecht der deut-

lxxxvi List of Abbreviations of Works to which Reference is Commonly made in this Book

schsprachigen Länder unter Berücksichtigung auch der Staaten der Europäischen Gemeinschaft, Kommentar (1977) Nordemann et al (1990) W Nordemann, K Vinck, P W Hertin, and G Meyer, International Copyright and Neighbouring Rights Law (1990) Pataille and Huget (1855) Pataille and Huget, Code internationale, 1st edn (1855) Plaisant and Pichot (1934) M Plaisant and O Pichot, La Conférence de Rome: Commentaire pratique de la nouvelle Convention pour la protection internationale de la propriété littéraire et artis- tique (1934) Records (1967) Records of the Intellectual Property Conference of Stockholm, June 11 to July 14, 1967 Recueil (1904) International Copyright Office, Recueil des conventions et traités concernant la propriété littéraire et artistique, publiés en français et dans les langues des pays contractants avec une introduction et des notices (1904) Reinbothe and von J Reinbothe and S von Lewinski, The WIPO Lewinski (2002) Treaties 1996 (2002) Rivière (1897) L Rivière, La Protection Internationale des Oeuvres Littéraires et Artistiques: Étude de législation comparé (1897) Schrader (1970) D M Schrader, ‘Analysis of the Protocol Regarding Developing Countries’ (1970) 17 Bull Cop Soc USA 166 Spoor et al (1980) J H Spoor, W R Cornish, and P F Nolan, Copies in Copyright (1980) Stewart (1989) S Stewart, International Copyright and Neighbouring Rights, 2nd edn (1989) Wildhaber (1971) L Wildhaber, Treaty-Making Power and Constitution: An International and Comparative Study (1971)

lxxxvii