DOCSLIB.ORG

Challenges for Scientometric Indicators: Data Demining, Knowledge-Flow Measurements and Diversity Issues

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Challenges for Scientometric Indicators: Data Demining, Knowledge-Flow Measurements and Diversity Issues Vol. 8: 49–60, 2008 ETHICS IN SCIENCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS Printed June, 2008 doi: 10.3354/esep00092 Ethics Sci Environ Polit Published online May 27, 2008 Contribution to the Theme Section ‘The use and misuse of OPENPEN bibliometric indices in evaluating scholarly performance’ ACCESSCCESS Challenges for scientometric indicators: data demining, knowledge-flow measurements and diversity issues Michel Zitt1, 2,*, Elise Bassecoulard1 1Lereco U-1134, SAE2 department, INRA, BP 71627, 44316 Nantes Cedex 03, France 2Observatoire des Sciences et des Techniques (OST), 93 rue de Vaugirard, 75006 Paris, France ABSTRACT: Scientometrics and bibliometrics are being forced to respond to a strong increase in demand (e.g. research assessment practices, economics of science & technology, and innovation) and new forms of supply (e.g. availability of publication sources and statistics, Internet developments and online tools). This situation results in contrasting perspectives: on the one hand, it can favour spectac- ular ‘hit-parades’ and some veneration of numbers; on the other hand, it paves the way for more cau- tious and sophisticated evaluation systems, rooted in a better understanding of the dynamics of sci- ence. This paper describes some of the challenges for bibliometric indicators (data ‘demining’, knowledge-flow measurements and diversity issues) underlying, among other applications, reliable evaluation procedures. Responding to these challenges is necessary to promote a better use of scien- tometrics, although there are no guarantees against misuse in decision-making contexts. A few open issues are outlined on the dynamics of science, challenges of the web age, and interactions between scientometrics and scientific communities. KEY WORDS: Evaluation · Scientometrics · Bibliometrics · Indicators · Scientific networks · Multidisciplinarity Resale or republication not permitted without written consent of the publisher INTRODUCTION their own domain, standing at an intersection of disci- plines, evolved as a heterogeneous field, both in topics The aim of scientometrics is to provide quantitative and practices (Schoepflin & Glänzel 2001) and intellec- characterizations of scientific activity. Because of the par- tual repertoire (Peritz & Bar-Ilan 2002). ticular importance of publication in scientific communi- A certain tension has always existed between acade- ties, it largely overlaps with bibliometrics, which is quan- mic/cognitive scientometrics and political/practical titative analysis of media in any written form. In addition scientometrics, the latter of which has been described to disciplines of measurement (infometrics/ data-mining, as ‘a hybrid of social science and bureaucratic exper- statistics and mathematical modelling), scientometrics tise’ (Wouters 2006, p. 21). Often, these aspects can has strong connections with economics and sociology of hardly be disentangled. Scientometrics has to correctly science as well as science policy. The 1970s saw the represent the multiple facets of scientific activity in development of scientometrics as an operational activ- models of use to science policy makers, using quantita- ity — a response to the pressing demand for the ‘measur- tive tools with sound properties. ing of science’, especially in Russia and the USA. As with all decision-support disciplines, scientomet- Amongst the founding fathers of the discipline were de rics must resist the temptation of ‘l’art pour l’art’. A Solla Price (1963), Garfield (1955) and Narin (1976) in the superfluous sophistication is most likely to generate US, Nalimov & Mulczenko (1969) in Russia and Braun & artefacts and black-box effects, but the fascination of Bujdoso (1975) in Hungary. Applying bibliometric meth- ‘magic numbers’, chimerical syntheses in a unique ods to their own field, scientometricians confirm that index of a complex and multidimensional reality, can *Email: [email protected] © Inter-Research 2008 · www.int-res.com 50 Ethics Sci Environ Polit 8: 49–60, 2008 also be misleading. Even if precautions are taken and eation of scientific fields in the subsection ‘Delineation methodologies explicit, end-users (e.g. managers) tend and mapping of scientific areas’. to apply their own rules to bibliometric indicators as There are 2 incentives for the investigation of net- within any decision-making process — scientometri- works. The first is of an academic/cognitive nature. cians having no more control over this. Born from social and information scientists’ interest in understanding communities’ activity and information circulation, the quantitative tools used by scientometri- CONTEXT cians may in turn feed these disciplines. Scientometrics allows varied ways to describe knowledge circulation The bibliometric component of scientometrics is a networks and also the operationalization of hypotheses mirror of science: it uses the published works of scien- about scientific communities, generated by neighbour- tists to answer the questions of policy makers, stake- ing intellectual universes (sociology, economics or holders, scientists themselves, and social scientists tak- even physics). One example is the rising interest of ing research and science as a research object. knowledge economics in scientometric networks, link- Scientific publication is central to the activity of scien- ing academia to economic and social actors and to tific communities and is moreover made available on a political institutions. Data such as coauthorship, cita- large scale by modern databases — Garfield’s Science tions, hyperlinks, and migrations are assumed to Citation index (now Web of Science [WoS]) in the first describe circulation of information, knowledge and place — and the Internet. academic staff. Each publication is both the result and the imprint of The second incentive is the demand for evaluation. scientific networks, primarily social networks among The quest of the scientometrician is 2-fold: promoting scientists or institutions. As different as they may be in the most robust, reliable and acceptable methods and, their theoretical positions, Merton (1942), Bourdieu whenever possible, translating the strategic questions (1975) and Latour & Woolgar (1979) stressed the inter- of policy makers, stakeholders, and scientists into active character of scientific activity. Coauthorship, meaningful measures. citation, and hyperlinks are quite explicit elements of A lasting issue in evaluation is the apparent compe- networks appearing in bibliographic sources. Others tition of bibliometrics with peer-review, a topic cov- are implicit and can be revealed by analysis of textual ered by a huge literature with examples in this Theme elements, from title to full text, or geographical infor- Section (TS). As our focus here is on other aspects, we mation. All of these networks, with further information will not labour this particular point, and will only stress on dates and journals, offer a wealth of material for that scientometrics is not a deus ex machina, coming many types of analysis of scientific activity and knowl- from heaven or hell. It reflects the peer review process, edge circulation. albeit collectively and implicitly, that leads to the writ- Data on external resources, such as human resources ing of a paper, its acceptance by a journal, and its fur- and funding flows, are necessary to complete the land- ther citation. As shown by Wouters (1997), peers are scape. Thus, counting outputs (papers, cites) is the present at every stage of the research and publication very first stage of scientometrics, but assessment of sci- cycle: getting funds, attracting co-workers and co- entific productivity is extremely difficult. We will working, discussing and submitting manuscripts, and describe this issue in more detail in the next section. getting them read and cited. Peers are the hub of this Webs of all kinds, explicitly or implicitly created by wheel and bibliometrics is a mirror of peer-review. scientists, are observed by quantitative methods bor- Looking at this the other way around: peer-review of rowed from informetrics, statistics, data analysis and articles, or of dossiers of scientists applying for funding data-mining, and network theory. The scientometric or tenure, can hardly ignore bibliometric elements, mirror is sometimes distorting: mathematical resources such as records of publication, impact factor of journals are both powerful and rich in artefacts. This arsenal of (quite partial and dangerous when used alone; Seglen methods may be applied to any of the above- 1997), and real impact, especially when these elements mentioned networks. For example, if we wish to map are easily accessible through Thomson databases, Sco- scientific themes by grouping articles, we can design pus or Google Scholar. (1) a topical map, where proximity of articles is mea- Although some convergence is expected (Rinia et al. sured by the use of the same words, (2) a paradigmatic 1998, Aksnes & Taxt 2004, Harnad 2008 [this TS]), bib- map, where the proximity is measured by the use of liometrics and peer-review have their own strengths the same cited references, expressing the intellectual and weaknesses. Scientometrics dilutes many biases base of the article, or (3) an authorship-based map, present in ad hoc ‘peer-review’, such as individual spe- where proximity is measured by the presence of the cialization, personal interests and various pitfalls of same author(s). We will return to mapping and delin- group behaviour that can jeopardize a jury’s efficiency. Zitt & Bassecoulard:
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Understanding the Value of Arts & Culture | the AHRC Cultural Value
    Understanding the value of arts & culture The AHRC Cultural Value Project Geoffrey Crossick & Patrycja Kaszynska 2 Understanding the value of arts & culture The AHRC Cultural Value Project Geoffrey Crossick & Patrycja Kaszynska THE AHRC CULTURAL VALUE PROJECT CONTENTS Foreword 3 4. The engaged citizen: civic agency 58 & civic engagement Executive summary 6 Preconditions for political engagement 59 Civic space and civic engagement: three case studies 61 Part 1 Introduction Creative challenge: cultural industries, digging 63 and climate change 1. Rethinking the terms of the cultural 12 Culture, conflict and post-conflict: 66 value debate a double-edged sword? The Cultural Value Project 12 Culture and art: a brief intellectual history 14 5. Communities, Regeneration and Space 71 Cultural policy and the many lives of cultural value 16 Place, identity and public art 71 Beyond dichotomies: the view from 19 Urban regeneration 74 Cultural Value Project awards Creative places, creative quarters 77 Prioritising experience and methodological diversity 21 Community arts 81 Coda: arts, culture and rural communities 83 2. Cross-cutting themes 25 Modes of cultural engagement 25 6. Economy: impact, innovation and ecology 86 Arts and culture in an unequal society 29 The economic benefits of what? 87 Digital transformations 34 Ways of counting 89 Wellbeing and capabilities 37 Agglomeration and attractiveness 91 The innovation economy 92 Part 2 Components of Cultural Value Ecologies of culture 95 3. The reflective individual 42 7. Health, ageing and wellbeing 100 Cultural engagement and the self 43 Therapeutic, clinical and environmental 101 Case study: arts, culture and the criminal 47 interventions justice system Community-based arts and health 104 Cultural engagement and the other 49 Longer-term health benefits and subjective 106 Case study: professional and informal carers 51 wellbeing Culture and international influence 54 Ageing and dementia 108 Two cultures? 110 8.
    [Show full text]
  • A Comprehensive Framework to Reinforce Evidence Synthesis Features in Cloud-Based Systematic Review Tools
    applied sciences Article A Comprehensive Framework to Reinforce Evidence Synthesis Features in Cloud-Based Systematic Review Tools Tatiana Person 1,* , Iván Ruiz-Rube 1 , José Miguel Mota 1 , Manuel Jesús Cobo 1 , Alexey Tselykh 2 and Juan Manuel Dodero 1 1 Department of Informatics Engineering, University of Cadiz, 11519 Puerto Real, Spain; [email protected] (I.R.-R.); [email protected] (J.M.M.); [email protected] (M.J.C.); [email protected] (J.M.D.) 2 Department of Information and Analytical Security Systems, Institute of Computer Technologies and Information Security, Southern Federal University, 347922 Taganrog, Russia; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: Systematic reviews are powerful methods used to determine the state-of-the-art in a given field from existing studies and literature. They are critical but time-consuming in research and decision making for various disciplines. When conducting a review, a large volume of data is usually generated from relevant studies. Computer-based tools are often used to manage such data and to support the systematic review process. This paper describes a comprehensive analysis to gather the required features of a systematic review tool, in order to support the complete evidence synthesis process. We propose a framework, elaborated by consulting experts in different knowledge areas, to evaluate significant features and thus reinforce existing tool capabilities. The framework will be used to enhance the currently available functionality of CloudSERA, a cloud-based systematic review Citation: Person, T.; Ruiz-Rube, I.; Mota, J.M.; Cobo, M.J.; Tselykh, A.; tool focused on Computer Science, to implement evidence-based systematic review processes in Dodero, J.M.
    [Show full text]
  • Technical Writing
    Technical Writing Engineers and scientists perform many complex and intricate tasks using the world's most sophisticated equipment. However, their performance as engineers and scientists is almost always related to their use of one of the oldest tools - the pen. In academia, the saying "publish or perish" often describes the process of acquiring tenure as well as credibility. In industry, both large and small organizations communicate everything through memos, reports, and short presentations. Product development decisions are often made by a committee of people far removed from the actual technology. The saying "he who has the most convincing viewgraphs and reports, wins..." can sometimes apply to industry. Therefore, it should be clear that an ability to concisely and efficiently prepare technical reports, research papers, and or viewgraph presentations can have a profound positive impact on an individual's career. Consider the following statement by anonymous Fortune 500 corporate vice president: "... in any large organization, the person who decides whether you get a promotion, or who determines the size of a pay raise, does not know you personally. The only thing they have to go on is what other people write about you and what you write about you ..." It can be seen that if one should write a lot of material to get ahead in one's career, it makes sense to write as objectively and concisely as possible. Objective writing is essential because good technical writing should not be seen as erroneous after new discoveries are made. A good technical report should present a clear milestone of what was done and understood at the time of the writing.
    [Show full text]
  • Fear and Loathing of Technological Progress? Leveraging Science and Innovation for the Implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development1
    Fear and Loathing of Technological Progress? Leveraging Science and Innovation for the Implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development1 Draft for Discussion. Nor for Quotation/Not for Circulation 1- A Brave New World? “The fear has even been expressed by some that technological change would in the near future not only cause increasing unemployment, but that eventually it would eliminate all but a few jobs, with the major portion of what we now call work being performed automatically by machines.”i It may come as a surprise that these words were written in 1966, in the report of the United States Presidential Commission on “Technology, Automation, and Economic Progress.” Established in 1964, the Commission had the following as a key recommendations to deal with the uneven benefits of technological change and with the future impact of automation on jobs: “Technological change and productivity are primary sources of our unprecedented wealth, but many persons have not shared in that abundance. We recommend that economic security be guaranteed by a floor under family income.”ii This recommendation is not that different, in either substance or motivation, from the current interest in establishing a universal basic income, which has been defended by some as a way of dealing with a future in which automation and artificial intelligence will render the need for labor redundant.iii Of course, any discourse on technological change is always ambivalent. There is no questioning that scientific progress and technological innovation have been underlying drivers of the improvements in the standards of living throughout the history of humanity.
    [Show full text]
  • Bibliometric Impact Measures Leveraging Topic Analysis
    Bibliometric Impact Measures Leveraging Topic Analysis Gideon S. Mann, David Mimno, Andrew McCallum Department of Computer Science University of Massachusetts Amherst Amherst MA 01003 {gmann,mimno,mccallum}@cs.umass.edu ABSTRACT tical methods that leverage the availability of large digital Measurements of the impact and history of research liter- document collections can enhance bibliometric analysis. ature provide a useful complement to scientific digital li- Discovering topical affinities between documents is an ac- brary collections. Bibliometric indicators have been exten- tive area of research in bibliometrics and scientometrics. In sively studied, mostly in the context of journals. However, particular, the use of journals as a representation of topics journal-based metrics poorly capture topical distinctions in is problematic for a variety of reasons. Journals generally fast-moving fields, and are increasingly problematic with the represent a variety of sub-areas and publications often com- rise of open-access publishing. Recent developments in la- bine multiple topical facets. Additionally, with the growth tent topic models have produced promising results for au- of open-access publishing, publication venue information is tomatic sub-field discovery. The fine-grained, faceted top- becoming increasingly dispersed and frequently simply un- ics produced by such models provide a clearer view of the available or undefined. topical divisions of a body of research literature and the There has been much work recently in machine learning interactions between those divisions. We demonstrate the on latent topic models, such as Latent Dirichlet Allocation usefulness of topic models in measuring impact by applying (LDA) [2], the Author-Topic model [22], and the Author- a new phrase-based topic discovery model to a collection Recipient-Topic model [19].
    [Show full text]
  • Benchmarking of Control Strategies for Wastewater Treatment Plants Layout, Controllers, Sensors, Performance Criteria and Test Procedures, I.E
    ©2020 The Author(s) This is an Open Access book distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence (CC BY 4.0), which permits copying and redistribution provided the original work is properly cited. (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). This does not affect the rights licensed or assigned from any third party in this book. This title was made available Open Access through a partnership with Knowledge Unlatched. IWA Publishing would like to thank all of the libraries for pledging to support the transition of this title to Open Access through the KU Select 2019 program. Downloaded from https://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book-pdf/650794/wio9781780401171.pdf by guest on 26 February 2020 Wastewater treatment plants are large non-linear systems subject to large 23 No. Report Technical and Scientific perturbations in wastewater flow rate, load and composition. Nevertheless these Scientific and Technical Report No. 23 plants have to be operated continuously, meeting stricter and stricter regulations. Many control strategies have been proposed in the literature for improved and more efficient operation of wastewater treatment plants. Unfortunately, their evaluation and comparison – either practical or based on simulation – are difficult. This is partly due to the variability of the influent, to the complexity of the biological and physico-chemical phenomena and to the large range of time constants (from a few seconds to several weeks). The lack of standard evaluation criteria is also a tremendous disadvantage. To really enhance the acceptance of innovative control strategies, such an evaluation Benchmarking of needs to be based on a rigorous methodology including a simulation model, plant Plants Treatment Strategies for Wastewater Benchmarking of Control layout, controllers, sensors, performance criteria and test procedures, i.e.
    [Show full text]
  • Technical Reports, Working Papers, and Preprints
    LIBRARY OF CONGRESS COLLECTIONS POLICY STATEMENTS Technical Reports, Working Papers, and Preprints Contents I. Scope II. Research Strengths III. Collecting Policy IV.Best Editions and Preferred Formats V. Acquisition Sources I. Scope This statement describes the Library's collection policies for technical reports, working papers, and preprints, in all subjects. These formats for publication are used by researchers or contractors to inform sponsoring agencies, peers, or others of the progress of research. This policy statement covers these formats when issued either by government or non-government publishers, or from both domestic and foreign sources. This statement is further limited to technical reports, working papers, and preprints that are issued in numbered or otherwise clearly identifiable series. Some technical reports, working papers, and preprints may be collected on a case-by-case basis rather than as a series, in which case they will fall under the Library's other Collections Policy Statements by subject rather than this Collections Policy Statement. Although the Library of Congress has a separate custodial Technical Reports collection, all Recommending Officers in appropriate fields are responsible for identifying series of technical reports, working papers, and preprints that are of interest to the Library's legislative, federal, and research clientele. The custodial location of reports acquired by the Library may include the Science, Technology & Business Division’s Automation, Collections Support and Technical Reports Section, the Serial and Government Publications Division, the Collections Management Division or any other appropriate custodial divisions, including Law and custodial area studies divisions. Format characteristics of technical reports, working papers, and preprints: The names given to these publication series vary.
    [Show full text]
  • Technical Report Writing
    Technical Report Writing CHAPTER 1 Introduction A. Course Overview An overview of this course is presented below as Figure 1-1. Take a moment to glance through the topics to be covered and then consider this one central idea. The premise of this course is that good technical reports don't just happen. They are "designed". Their design may be learned and that knowledge can be applied in your everyday work in the same way as you apply your other technical skills. We cannot all be William Shakespeare or Ernest Hemingway, but it is possible to acquire enough writing skill to write simple, declarative sentences and readable reports. Subjects you know about, you can also learn to write about. Figure 1-1 B. Types of Reports The suggestions presented in this course may be employed whether you are writing a single page letter report or a multi-volume research study. That is true because technical reports do, or at least should, have an explicit purpose and an identifiable audience. If you know clearly "why" you are writing and "who" will read your report, you have the basis for the report design. Your audience, and their needs, must remain at the forefront of your thinking as you write. In most organizations, the audience is a multi-layered collection of people. Some of your intended readers may be known to you while others may not. Once you have determined the purpose of your writing, you need to analyze your audience to the best of your ability. This course will suggest some ways to do that in systematic fashion.
    [Show full text]
  • Campus Climate Survey Validation Study Final Technical Report
    Bureau of Justice Statistics Research and Development Series Campus Climate Survey Validation Study Final Technical Report Christopher Krebs, Christine Lindquist, Marcus Berzofsky, Bonnie Shook-Sa, and Kimberly Peterson RTI International 3040 Cornwallis Road, P.O. Box 12194 Research Triangle Park, NC 27709-2194 Michael Planty, Lynn Langton, and Jessica Stroop Bureau of Justice Statistics 810 Seventh Street, NW Washington, DC 20531 R&DP-2015:04 NCJ 249545 January 2016 Research papers have been reviewed by BJS to ensure the accuracy of information presented and adherence to confidentiality and disclosure standards. This paper is released to inform interested parties about research and methodologies sponsored by BJS. Any opinions and conclusions expressed herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent the views of BJS and the U.S. Department of Justice. This report was prepared using federal funds provided by the Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice, under award number 2011-NV-CX-K068. The BJS project managers were Michael Planty, Victimization Unit Chief, and Lynn Langton, Senior Statistician. Campus Climate Survey Validation Study Abstract Presents the results of a nine-school pilot test that was conducted to develop a campus climate survey that collects school-level data on sexual victimization of undergraduate students. The report describes the development of the survey instrument and procedures for data collection, nonresponse bias analysis, weighting, and validity assessment. It presents estimates for each school on the prevalence and incidence of sexual assault, rape, and sexual battery during the 2014–15 academic year, as well as characteristics of the victims and incidents.
    [Show full text]
  • Socioeconomic Driving Forces of Scientific Research
    A B To discover the causes of social, economic and technological change CocciaLab Working Paper Socioeconomic driving forces of 2018 – No. 35/bis scientific research Mario COCCIA CNR -- NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF ITALY & ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY COCCIALAB at CNR -- NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF ITALY Collegio Carlo Alberto, Via Real Collegio, n. 30-10024, Moncalieri (TO), Italy E-mail: [email protected] Socioeconomic driving forces of scientific research Mario Coccia1 CNR -- NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF ITALY & ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY Current Address: COCCIALAB at CNR -- NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF ITALY Collegio Carlo Alberto, Via Real Collegio, n. 30, 10024-Moncalieri (Torino), Italy E-mail: [email protected] Mario Coccia : http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1957-6731 Why do nations produce scientific research? This is a fundamental problem in the field of social studies of science. The paper confronts this question here by showing vital determinants of science to explain the sources of social power and wealth creation by nations. Firstly, this study suggests a new general definition of science and scientific research that synthetizes previous concepts and endeavors to extend them: Science discovers the root causes of phenomena to explain and predict them in a context of adaptation of life to new economic and social bases, whereas scientific research is a systematic process, applying methods of scientific inquiry, to solve consequential problems, to satisfy human wants, to take advantage of important opportunities and/or to cope with environmental threats. In particular, science and scientific research are driven by an organized social effort that inevitably reflect the concerns and interests of nations to achieve advances and discoveries that are spread to the rest of humankind.
    [Show full text]
  • Guidelines for the Production of Scientific and Technical Reports: How to Write and Distribute Grey Literature
    Guidelines for the production of scientific and technical reports: how to write and distribute grey literature Version 1.0 Grey Literature International Steering Committee March 2006 Guidelines for the production of scientific and technical reports: how to write and distribute grey literature Version 1.0 Grey Literature International Steering Committee March 2006 This document was prepared by: Paola De Castro and Sandra Salinetti Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome – Italy and critically revised by: Joachim Schöpfel and Christiane Stock Institut de l’Information Scientifique et Technique (INIST-CNRS), Nancy – France Dominic Farace Grey Literature Network Service (GreyNet), Amsterdam – The Netherlands Catherine Candea and Toby Green Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Paris – France Keith G. Jeffery Council for the Central Laboratory of the Research Councils (CCLRC), Chilton Didcot – UK Acknowledgements to: Marcus A. Banks (Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York – USA) Stefania Biagioni (Istituto di Scienza e Tecnologie dell’Informazione, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, ISTI-CNR, Pisa – Italy) June Crowe (Information International Associates Inc., IIA, Oak Ridge – USA) Markus Weber (Swiss Federal Office of Public Health, SFOPH, Berne – Switzerland) This document is available from: www.glisc.info Any request shall be addressed to [email protected] © Grey Literature International Steering Committee (GLISC) 2006 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Statement of purpose..............................................................................................................................1
    [Show full text]
  • Pisa-Based Test for Schools
    PISA-BASED TEST FOR SCHOOLS TECHNICAL REPORT 2016 PISA-BASED TEST FOR SCHOOLS TECHNICAL REPORT 2016 This work is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. The opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of OECD member countries. This document and any map included herein are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area. The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law. Photo credits: © Khoa Vu/Flickr/Getty Images © Shutterstock/Kzenon © Simon Jarratt/Corbis © Stocklib Image Bank/No. 13883137 © OECD 2017 This work is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 IGO (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO). For specific information regarding the scope and terms of the licence as well as possible commercial use of this work or the use of PISA data please consult Terms and Conditions on www.oecd.org. FOREWORD – 3 Foreword The OECD PISA-based Test for Schools assessment is geared for use by schools and networks of schools around the world to support research, international benchmarking and school improvement efforts. It collects information about 15-year-old students’ applied knowledge and competencies in reading, mathematics and science as well as their attitudes toward learning and school.
    [Show full text]